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THE 

CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION. 


THE 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION: 


A 


DICTIONARY   OF   INFORMATION 


Knit   Til  i:    USE   OK 


TEACHERS,  SCHOOL  OFFICERS,  PARENTS,  AND  OTHERS. 


EDITED  BY 


HENRY  KIDDLE, 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  New  York  City, 

AND 

ALEXANDER  J.  SCHEM, 

Assistant  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  New  York  City. 


Third  Edition. 


WITH       Ari'KNDIX. 


*        a  .»     ©        *   ■ 


. 


NEW  YORK.:    K  STEIGER  &  CO. 

LONDON:   SAMPSON  LOW  &  CO. 

1883, 

f*f*   OP  THE 

[UKIVER3IT7] 


Ccpyright,  1870,  By  E.  Steioer. 


I'rc-is  of 
E.  Stkiubu.  N.  Y. 


- 

4/;  J 


P  R  T.  F  A  0  E. 


The  work  here  offered  to  the  public  is  the  first  cyclopaedia  of  education  in  the  English 
language,  although  the  need  of  such  a  work  has  long  been  felt.  Cyclopaedias,  both  general  and 
special,  are  rapidly  increasing  in  number,  not  only  in  countries  in  which  the  English  language  is 
spoken,  but  wherever,  under  the  influence  of  advancing  civilization,  literature  flourishes,  and  the 
cultivation  of  science  and  art  has  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  human  knowledge.  Information 
scattered  through  a  multitude  of  volumes  is  usually  inaccessible  to  those  by  whom  it  is  most 
needed  :  and.  consequently,  the  most  important  results  of  study  and  research  are  often  of  no  avail 
to  those  whose  special  office  it  is  to  apply  them  to  a  practical  purpose.  Hence,  the  need  of  works 
that  present  in  a  condensed  form,  and  so  as  readily  to  be  referred  to,  all  the  important  facts  in  the 
various  departments  of  human  knowledge;  and,  consequently,  we  find  that  it  is  fast  becoming  the 
habit  of  the  educated  classes  every-where  to  consult  such  works.  Tn  view  of  the  large  number  of 
special  cyclopedias  in  other  departments  of  knowledge,  and  more  especially  of  the  excellent  cyclo- 
paedias of  education  which  Germany  has  possessed  for  many  years,  it  is  quite  surprising  that  a  branch 
of  knowledge  so  extensively  valued  and  studied  as  education,  should  have  continued,  in  this  country 
and  in  England,  for  so  long  a  time  without  its  special  cyclopaedia.  Accordingly,  the  first  announce- 
ment of  this  work  was,  on  all  sides,  greeted  with  the  most  earnest  expressions  of  approbation  and 
welcome. 

The  value  of  a  work  of  this  kind  mast,  of  course,  depend  on  the  plan  which  forms  its  ground- 
work, and  the  accuracy  and  fullness  with  which  the  plan  is  carried  out.  To  both  of  these  points 
the  editors  have  given  their  undeviating  attention,  striving  to  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  in 
either  respect. 

The  plan  of  the  work  has  been  constructed  after  a  careful  examination,  not  only  of  all  the 
cyclopedias  and  general  histories  of  education  which  have  thus  far  appeared,  but  of  the  principal 
cyclopaedias,  both  general  and  special,  which  have  been  published  in  English  or  in  other 
languages.  Of  course,  the  editors  did  not  contemplate,  for  a  moment,  the  task  of  undertaking  a 
work  of  the  magnitude  of  Schmid's  great  German  encyclopaedia  of  education,  which  was  com- 
menced in  1S5T,  and  of  which  the  last  (11th)  volume  is  not  yet  completed,  although  a  revised  and 
enlarged  edition  has  already  been  issued  of  the  first  volume.  Their  design  was  to  prepare 
a  work  which,  while  comprehensive  and  complete  within  its  scope,  would  be  of  moderate 
size,  and  would  be  completed  within  a  reasonable  time — a  work  which,  while  useful  to  all.  would, 
like  the  dictionary,  be  upon  every  teacher's  desk,  to  be  consulted  whenever  occasion  might  require, 
thus  affording  information  and  practical  aid  at  every  exigency  of  his  daily  labors.  Such  a  work, 
it  was  thought,  would  not  only  supply  valuable  information,  but  would  stimulate  the  study  of 
pedagogy, still  very  widely  neglected  because  of  the  want  of  a  brief  but  comprehensive  embodiment 
of  the  whole  subject. 

In  accordance  with  these  views,  the  editors  now  present,  a  little  more  than  two  years  after  the 
first  announcement  of  the  work,  a  single  volume  of  nearly  900  pages,  in  which  they  have  endeavored 
to  treat,  in  alphabetical  order,  of  all  the  subjects,  which  they  have  deemed  to  come  within  the 
limits  of  their  plan,  embracing  the  following  general  topics  :  (1)  Theory  of  Education  and  In- 
struction (pedagogy  and  didactics),  including  a  consideration  of  the  principles  of  education,  in  each  of 
its  departments,  with  practical  suggestions  as  to  the  best  methods  of  applying  them,  both  in  training 
and  instruction.  In  this  connection,  it  will  be  found  that  every  subject  ordinarily  embraced  in  the 
school  or  college  curriculum  has  been  carefully  treated  in  its  relation  to  practical  education, 
special  attention  having  been  given  to  tli"  department  of  language,  both  the  classical  and  the  im- 
portant modern  languages  being  separately  considered.      (2)  Sckool  Economy,  including  the  organ- 


II 

ization  and  management  of  schools,  also  discipline  and  class  teaching.  (3)  The  Administration  of 
Schools  and  School  Systems  —  embracing  supervision,  examinations,  school  hygiene,  school  architect- 
ure, co-education  of  the  sexes,  etc.  (4)  Governmental  Policy  in  regard  to  Education  —  including 
such  subjects  as  state  education,  compulsory  attendance  laws,  the  secular  and  denominational 
systems,  etc.  (5)  The  History  of  Education,  giving  an  account  of  the  most  noted  plans  and 
methods  of  instruction  and  school  organization  that  have  been  proposed,  or  that  are  now  in  vogue, 
as  well  as  the  history  of  the  school  system  of  every  state  and  territory  in  the  Union,  and  of  every 
important  country  in  the  world.  Much  of  the  matter  under  this  section  is  entirely  new,  and  will 
be  found  to  be  of  great  interest.  (6)  Biographical  Sketches  of  distinguished  educationists, 
educators,  and  others  who  have  been  celebrated  for  their  efforts  as  promoters  or  benefactors  of 
educational  progress  or  enterprise.  (7)  Statistical  and  other  information  in  regard  to  (a)  schools 
and  other  institutions  of  learning  of  different  countries,  states,  cities  (in  the  United  States,  of  those 
having  a  population  of  100,000  and  upward),  and  religious  denominations  (the  latter  treated  with 
considerable  fullness)  ;  (b)  different  kinds  of  schools,  as  public  schools,  private  schools,  parochial 
schools,  academies  and  high  schools,  kindergartens,  colleges  and  universities.  Every  important 
college  or  university  in  the  United  States  has  been  described  in  a  separate  article ;  and  special 
articles  also  inserted  on  the  great  universities  in  England,  the  latter  articles  having  been  written 
in  that  country.  Considerable  care  has  also  been  taken  to  show  what  has  been  done,  during  the 
last  few  years,  for  female  education,  and  more  particularly  for  the  higher  education  of  women 
(especially  in  this  country  and  in  Great  Britain).  (8)  Educational  Literature,  which  is  constantly 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  reader  in  connection  with  the  various  articles.  As  the  immense  mass 
of  material  to  be  condensed  within  the  compass  of  a  single  volume  has  necessitated  the  greatest 
possible  brevity,  references  are  made  throughout  to  standard  works  on  educational  science,  as  well 
as  to  statistical  works  affording  more  detailed  information.  It  is  believed  that  this  will  prove  one 
of  the  most  valuable  features  of  the  work.  (9)  The  main  work  is  followed  by  an  Analytical 
Index,  in  which  reference  is  made  to  the  principal  topics  of  all  the  longer  articles,  as  well  as  to 
the  pages  on  which  the  more  important  subjects  are  treated  incidentally. 

Of  course,  the  editors  of  a  cyclopaedia  cannot  be  expected  to  carry  out  their  plan  without 
the  support  of  an  adequate  corps  of  able  contributors.  However  extensive  their  own  information 
may  be  in  relation  to  the  general  subject,  there  must  always  be  many  topics  to  the  details  of  which 
specialists  have  devoted  a  much  more  minute  study,  and  of  which,  therefore,  their  knowlege  must 
be  more  comprehensive  and  exact.  The  list  of  special  contributors  which  follows  this  preface  will 
show  to  what  extent  the  editors  have  succeeded  in  securing  the  co-operation  of  distinguished 
educators  and  writers  in  the  preparation  of  this  work.  Most  of  the  names  presented  will  be  at 
once  recognized  as  those  of  persons  of  well-established  reputation  for  successful  experience  in 
their  respective  spheres  of  effort.  The  editors  deem  themselves  singularly  fortunate  in  securing  to 
so  large  an  extent  the  aid  and  co-operation  of  the  state  and  city  superintendents  throughout  this 
country,  the  articles  on  the  school  systems  having  been  prepared  by  them  or  under  their  direction, 
or  compiled  from  the  latest  and  most  accurate  information  officially  supplied  by  them.  The 
articles  on  the  different  classes  of  professional,  scientific,  and  denominational  schools  and  colleges 
have,  in  the  main,  been  written  by  persons  professionally  conversant  with  those  institutions, 
and  thus  afford  an  amount  and  kind  of  information  very  difficult  to  obtain,  but  often  of  great 
value  to  students  and  educators. 

It  is  proper  to  say  that  the  announcement  of  this  work  has  met  with  a  most  earnest  and 
encouraging  response  from  educators  in  Great  Britain,  and  that  the  editors  have  received  most 
prompt  and  valuable  assistance,  as  well  as  cordial  co-operation,  from  that  source,  so  as  to  enable 
them  to  carry  out  their  intention  to  make  the  usefulness  of  the  Cycto/xrtlia  co-extensive  with  the 
English-speaking  race.  It  is.  however,  a  cause  of  deep  regret  to  the  editors  that  a  long  illness, 
terminating  ill  death,  deprived  them  of  the  co-operation  of  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  highly 
esteemed  English  educators,  the  late  Joseph  Payne,  who  not  only  was  among  the  first  to  afford 
encouragement  to  this  work  when  proposed,  but  promptly  engaged  to  contribute  a  number  oi 

important  articles. 

As  a  work  of  reference  for  information  in  regard  to  American  institutions  for  higher 
education,    the    Cyclopaedia    will,    it     is    hoped,   prove  eminently    satisfactory.      Great    pains   has 

been  taken  to  secure  the  fullest   and  most    accurate   information  respecting  the  colleges  and 


Ill 

universities  of  this  country;  for  which  purpose,  every  article  of  this  description  has  been  sub- 
mit ted,  in  proof,  to  the  president  of  the  institution  described,  and,  with  but  very  few  exceptions, 
has  received  the  benefit  of  his  revision. 

The  editors  also  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  for  the  very  full  information,  in  regard  to 
the  educational  work  of  the  various  religious  denominations  of  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  which  they  have  received  from  distinguished  members  of  those  denominations.  Very 
much  of  this  information  could  have  been  obtained  by  no  other  means  than  by  a  long  official 
connection  with  the  educational  boards  of  the  churches,  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  is  now 
supplied  exclusively  by  this  work. 

To  all  the  contributors  the  thanks  of  the  editors  are  due  for  a  support  without  which  the 
work  could  not  have  been  completed  —  at  any  rate,  could  not  have  possessed  the  value  which  may, 
with  considerable  confidence,  be  attributed  to  it;  and  certainly  could  not  have  earned  the  approval 
which  it  may  justly  be  expected  to  receive.  The  editors,  also,  take  occasion  to  express  their 
obligations  to  the  many  friends  who,  though  not  special  contributors,  have  afforded  valuable  aid 
in  the  revision  of  special  articles,  in  giving  important  advice,  or  in  affording  needed  information. 

In  these  few  remarks,  the  editors  have  briefly  stated  the  object  they  have  striven  to  attain, 
and  some  of  the  instrumentalities  of  which  they  have  availed  themselves;  but  they  are  by  no 
means  so  presumptuous  as  to  suppose  they  have  produced  a  work  without  fault  or  blemish.  The 
Cyclopaedia,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  is  but  a  pioneer,  opening  out,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  a  wide 
path  for  further  literary  and  professional  effort  in  the  same  direction.  It  will,  doubtless,  share 
the  fate  of  all  books  of  its  class,  in  which  the  habitual  reader,  as  well  as  the  scrutinizing  critic,  by 
the  side  of  that  which  elicits  his  approval,  meets  with  statements  that  are  capable  of  improvement 
or  that  require  correction.  In  every  future  edition  of  the  work,  pains  will  be  taken  to  correct  what 
is  faulty  and  to  improve  what  is  imperfect;  and  any  assistance  which  those  who  appreciate  the 
aim  of  the  work  may  be  able  to  render  to  that  end,  will  be  gratefully  acknowledged. 

New  York,  March  17,  1877. 


NOTICE  OF  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 

In  issuing  the  Third  Edition  of  the  Cychpcedia,  the  publishers  would  express  their  grateful 
acknowledgments  to  the  educational  public  for  the  favorable  reception  hitherto  accorded  to  it, 
and  the  many  appreciative,  commendatory  notices  it  has  received  from  scholars  and  educators  of 
the  highest  culture  and  the  ripest  experience.  For  the  present  edition  of  the  work,  the  articles 
have  been  carefully  revised  for  the  correction  of  inaccuracies,  but  no  essential  change  has  been 
made  in  any  of  them.  In  order,  however,  to  bring  the  work  down  to  the  present  time,  a  brief 
Supplement  has  been  added,  containing  a  summary  of  the  latest  educational  statistics  of  this 
country,  as  far  as  they  have  been  received  in  reply  to  inquiries.  It  has  been  considered  best  thus 
to  limit  the  information  given,  and  to  refer  for  further  particulars  to  the  official  reports  and 
catalogues.  .     ~ 

E.  Steiger  &  Co. 

New  \  ore,  Feb.  1,  1883. 


A  LIST  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL 

CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION. 


Prof.  E.  B.  Andrews,  I^ancaster,  O. 

Ohio. 

Hon.  Ellis   A.  Apgar,  Supt.   Public  Instruc- 
tion, New  Jersey. 
New  Jersej . 
Prof.  Th.  Appel,  Franklin    and   Marshall  Col- 
lege, Lancaster,   I 'a. 

Reformed  Churches  (in  part). 
Rev.  John  G.  Baird,  Asst.  Sec.  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, Connecticut. 
Connecticut. 
Wm.  Uland  Bourne,  New  York. 
Seton,  Samuel  W. 

Prof.  B.  P.  Bownk.  Boston  Oniversity. 

College  (in  part). 

Hegel,—  ami  other  biographical  articles. 
Rev.  Dr.  R.  L.  Breck,  Chancellor  Central  Uni- 
versity, Richmond,  Ky. 
Presbyterians  (in  part). 
Eon.  Dan.  B.  Briggs,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Michigan. 

.Michigan. 

Henry   B.  Buckham,  A.  M..    Principal    State 
Normal  School.  Buffalo,  N.  V. 
Buffalo. 
Norman  A.  Calkins,  Asst.  Supt.  Schools,  New 
York. 

Color, 
N  umber, 
Numeral  Frame. 
M.  P.  Oavert,  A.  M..  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y. 

New  York  (State). 

Henry  Chettle,  M.  A.  Cxon.,  Headmaster  of 
Tottenham  Grammar  School,  England. 

<  Oxford  l '  Diversity. 

Jinn.  Ki>\\  \i:n  Conant,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Vermont. 

Vermont. 

Hon.  J.  C.  Corbin,  late  Supt,  Public  Instruc- 
tion,  Arkansas. 

a  rkansas. 
Rev.  I>r.  B.  T.  CORWTN,  Millstone.  N.  J. 
Reformed  Churches    in  part  . 

George  II.  Oi  rtis,  Prof,  of  Music.  New  York. 

Urate, 

Singing-Schools, 
Voice,  Culture  <>r  t  be. 

Rev.  Dr.  S.  S.  Cotting,  Cor.  Sec.   Baptist  Edu- 
cational Society,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Baptists 
Prof.  E.  II.  Day,  .Normal  College,  New  York. 

i  teology, 

m  Lneralogy, 

Science,  The  Teaching  <>r  (part  it.). 
Rev.  Dr.  Charles  I'.  Deems,  New  York. 

Mci  hodlsts  (in  part  i. 

Bon.  W.  L.  Dickinson,  Supt.   Schools,  Jersey 
City. 

Jersey  City. 


James  Donaldson,  LL.  D.,  Rector  of  the  High 
School  of  Edinburgh,  and  Editor  of  the  Edu- 
cational News. 

I'Mucal  inn  I  I  heory  oi), 

England  (in  part), 

I  nst  ruction, 

Memorj . 

Science,  The  Teaching  of  (part  I.), 

Senses,  Education  of  the. 

Dr.  A.  Douai,  [rvingtou,  N.  J. 
Developing  Method  (in  part), 
Bar,  <  ultivation  of, — an  I  other  articles. 

Prof.  W.  E.  Grtffis,  late  of  the  Imperial  Col- 
lege, Tokio.  Japan. 
Japan. 

.Miss  Maky  Gdrney,  of  the  Women's  Education 
I  nion.  London,  England. 

Women,  Higher  education  of. 

Hon.  II.  M.  Hale,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Colorado. 

Colorado  (in  part). 
Prof.  Wm.  (i.  Hammond.  Law  Department  Iowa 
State  University,  Iowa  City. 
Law  Schools. 

Thomas   F.  Harrison,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Schools, 

New  York. 

Geography. 

Dr.  E.  O.   H  wi:\.  Chancellor  Syracuse   Univer- 
sity. Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
Mel liodists  (in  part). 

J.  W.  11  \wi:s.  New  York. 

College  (in  part), 
Harvard  University, 

^  ale  College,  — and  other  articles  on  \m.  rican 
colleges  and  universities. 

Rev.  W.  W.  Hicks,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Florida. 

Florida  (in  part). 

Hon.  T.  W.  Higginson,  Newport,  R.  1. 

Rhode  Island. 

Prof.  Charles  T.  IIiuks.  Dickinson  College, 
<  larlisle,  Pa. 

(  heinist  ry. 

Dr.  Fred.  Hoffmann,  New  York. 

Pharmaceutical  Schools. 
Hon.    HENRY    HOUCK,    Dep.   Supt.    Public    In- 
struction. Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania. 

Thomas  Hi  (jter,  A.  ME.,  President  Normal  Col- 
lege, New  York. 

Teachers'  Seminaries. 

Rev.  I>r.  I.  F.  HcRST,  Pics.  Drew  Theological 
Seminary,  Madison,  N.  J. 

Seneca. 

Rev.  I>r.  E.  T.  Jeffers,  Prea  Westminster  Col- 
lege, New  Wilmington,  Pa. 
Prosbj  terlans  m  part). 


Prof.  D.  P.  Kidder,  Drew  Theological  Semina- 
ry, Madison,  N.J. 
Sunday-Schools, 
Theological  Schools. 

Albert  K lam roth,  late  Commissioner  of  Com- 
mon Schools,  New  York. 

Falk,  P.  L.  A., 
Germany. 

Rev.  Prof.  E.  G.  Klose,  Moravian  Theological 
Seminary,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

Moravians. 

W.  H.  Larrabee,  New  York. 

Francke,  A.H.,— and  other  biographical  articles. 

Dr.  Edwin  Leigh.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Illiteracy, 
Phonetics. 

R.  M.  Leverson,  Ph.  D.,  Denver,  Col. 

Social  Kconoiny, 

Dr.  J.  Berrien  Lindsley,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Nashville  University, 
Presbyterians  (in  part). 

J.  M.  Logan,  Princ.  Springfield  School,  Pitts- 
burgh. Pa. 

Pittsburgh. 

W.  MacDonald,  High  School  of   Edinburgh, 
Scotland. 

England  (in  part), 
Ireland   in  part), 
Scotland  (in  part). 

Wdlson  MacDonald,  Artist,  New  York. 

Art-Education. 

Hon.  J.  M.  McKenzie,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 

Nebraska. 

Nebraska  (in  part  . 

Hon.  J.  M.  McKleroy,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Alabama. 

Alabama  (in  part) 

Prof.  Francis  A.  March,   Lafayette    College, 
Easton,  Pa. 

Anglo-Saxon, 
Belles-Lettres, 
Classics,  Christian, 
English,  the  Study  of, 
Lafayette  College, 
Orthography. 

Prof.  J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohx,  University  of  St. 
Andrews,  Scotland. 

English  Literature. 

Thomas  Miller,  M.  A.,  late  Fellow  of  Queens' 
College,  Cambridge,  England  . 

Cambridge  University. 

Prof.  0.  W.  Morris,  late  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Inst.,  New  York. 

Deaf-Mutes  (in  part). 
Prof.  Edward  Olney,  University  of  Michigan. 

Algebra, 
Arithmetic, 
Geometry, 
Mathematics. 

S.  S.  Packard,  of  Packard  Business  College, 
New  York. 

Book-keeping, 
Business  Colleges. 

Hon.  John  D.  Philbrick,   Supt.  Schools,  Bos- 
ton, Mass. 

Boston. 

Hon.  J.  L.  Pickard,  Supt.  Schools,  Chicago,  111. 

Chicago. 

Prof.    A.    Rauschenbdsch,    Theol.    Seminary, 
Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Mennonltes. 

Hon.  Andrew  J.  Rickoff,  Supt.  Schools,  Cleve- 
land. 0. 

Cleveland. 


Prof.  I.  P.  Roberts,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y. 

Agricultural  Colleges. 

C.  C.  Rounds,  Princ.  State  Normal  School,  Far- 
mington.  Me. 

Maine. 

Win.    H.   Rcffner,  LL.  D.,   Supt.  Public   In- 
struction, Virginia. 

Virginia. 

Prof.  Charles  A.  Schlegel,  Normal  College, 
New  York. 

Mager,  Karl. 

Prof.  David  B.  Scott,  College  of  the   City  of 
New  York. 

New  York,  College  of  the  City  of, 

Oral  Instruction, 

Khetorlc. 

Edward  Seguin,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

Thermometry,  Educational. 

Hon.  R.  D.  Shannon,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Missouri. 

Missouri. 

Hon.  J.  W.  Simonds,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
New  Hampshire. 

New  Hampshire. 

Hon.  J.  H.  Smart,  Supt.  Public   Instruction, 
Indiana. 

Indiana  fin  part). 

Prof.  Walter  Smith,  State  Director,  Art  Edu- 
cation, Mass. 

Drawing. 

William  L.  Stone,  Jr.,  New  York. 

Stone,  William  L. 
Hon.  John  Swett,  late  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
California. 

California, 

San  Francisco  (in  part). 

Rev.  Dr.  I.  N.  Tarbox,  Cor.  Sec.  Amer.  Educ. 
Society,  Boston,  Mass. 

Congregationalists. 

Rev.  Dr.  H.  A.  Thompson,  Pres.  Otterbein  Uni- 
versity, Westerville,  0. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

D.  L.  Thompson,  Plainfield,  N.  J. 

Genius, 

Locke,  John, — and  other  articles. 

J.    S.   Thornton,    B.  A.,    University    College 
School,  London,  England. 
King's  College   London), 
London,  University  of, 
Murray,  Lindley, 

Owens  College  (Manchester,  England), 
Preceptors,  College  of, 
Rousseau, 
University  College  (London). 

Whxiam  B.  Wait,  Supt.  New  York  Institution 
for  the  Blind. 

Blind,  Education  of  the   in  part). 

S.  Walker,  University  College  School,  London, 
England. 

Working  Men's  College  (London). 

H.  L.  Wayland,  Editor  of  Tlie  National  Bap- 
tist, Philadelphia. 

Wayland,  Francis. 

Rev.  Dr.  J.  P.  Weston,  Pres.  Dean  Academy, 
Franklin,  Mass. 

Universalists. 

Prof.  J.  H.  Worman,  Norwich,  N.  Y. 

Hebrews, 

Plato, 

Ronie, — and  other  articles. 

R.  M.  Wyckoff,  M.  D.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Medical  Schools  (in  part1. 

F.  Zinsser,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

Medical  Schools  (in  part;. 


•*,>     OP 


THP! 


^ 


lUHIVEESITy] 
E  CYCLOP.EKIA  OF  EDUCATION. 


ABACUS  (6r.  5/3of,  a  slab  or  board),  a  piece 
of  school  apparatus,  used  to  facilitate  the  teach- 
ing of  chili  hen  to  count,  and  perform  other  sim- 
ple arithmetical  operations.  Various  forms  of 
the  abacus  are  employed  as  counting  or  adding 
machines.  .Such  a  contrivance  was  much  used 
among  the  ancients;  and  in  China,  epiite  long 
and  difficult  computations  are  performed  by 
means  of  such  an  instrument,  called  swan-pan. 
(See  Numeral  Frame.) 

ABBOT,  Benjamin,  LL.  D.,  distinguished 
for  his  long  connection  with  Phillips  Academy. 
Exeter,  N.  IF.,  of  which  institution  he  was  the 
principal  for  a  period  of  fifty  years,  from  1 788 
to  183S.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard  College. 
He  died  at  Exeter  in  1849,  at  the  advanced  age 
of  86  years.  Edward  Everett  delivered  one  of 
his  graceful  and  elegant  speeches  on  the  occasion 
of  the  retirement  of  I  >r.  Abbot  from  the  prin- 
cipalship  of  Phillips  Exeter  Academy.  —  See 
Everett,  Orations  and  Speed/is. 

ABBOTT,  Rev.  Jacob,  a  distinguished  cler- 
gyman, teacher,  and  author,  was  born  at  Hallo- 
well,  Me.,  in  1803.  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1 820.  He  was  professor  of  mathemat- 
ics and  natural  philosophy  in  Amherst  College 
from  1825  to  1829,  and  afterwards  took  charge 
of  the  Mount  Vernon  school  for  girls,  in  Boston. 
In  connection  with  education,  he  is  chiefly  noted 
for  his  numerous  books  for  the  young,  among 
which  may  be  particularly  mentioned  the  Rollo 
Books,  the  Franconia  Stories,  the  Harper  Stun/ 
Books,  Science  for  the  Young,  and  The  Teacher. 
A  full  catalogue  of  his  publications  embraces 
about  200  titles.  He  has  also  edited  many  other 
educational  works,  and  compiled  a  series  of  read- 
ing books.  His  brothers,  Rev.  Gorham  D.  and 
Rev.  John  S.  C,  are  also  noted  for  their  labors 
in  the  field  of  educational  and  literary  effort. 

ABC,  the  first  three  letters  of  the  English 
alphabet,  often  used  to  denote  the  alphabet  itself; 
as.  "  To  learn  A  B  C  is  felt  to  be  extremely  irk- 
some by  the  infant,"   Tat/lor     (See  Alphabet.) 

A-B-C  BOOK,  a  primer,  or  little  book  used 
to  learn  the  alphabet  and  its  simplest  combina- 
tions, with  tlie  most  rudimental  lessons  in  read- 
ing.   (See  I  Lorn-Book.) 

A-B-C  METHOD.    See  Alphabet  Method. 

ABECEDARIAN.  This  word,  formed  from 
the  names  of  the  first  four  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, is  generally  used  to  denote  a  pupil  who  has 
not  advanced  beyond  the  most  elementary  stage 
of  school  or  book  education,  that  is,  who  is 
learning  A  B  C,  or  the  alphabet,  The  name 
has  been  sometimes  applied  to  one  engaged  in 
teaching  the  alphabet,  (See  Reading,  and  Word 
Method.) 

1 


A-B-C  SHOOTERS(Germ.  ABC-Schiitzen), 
pupils  of  those  scholastic  vagrants  who,  during 
a  certain  period  of  the  middle  ages,  and  even 
later,  used  to  wander  through  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many, giving  instruction  to  such  pupils  as  they 
could  pick  up,  who  accompanied  them  in  their 
journeyings.  These  itinerant  teachers  were  called 
Bacchants,  from  their  disorderly  lives  and  their 
disposition  to  indulge  in  wild  revels.  Their 
pupils  were  often  obliged  to  purloin  food,  fowls, 
etc.,  to  supply  their  masters'  wants,  and  hence 
were  called,  partly  in  derision  of  their  elementary 
knowledge,  A-B-< !  Shooters  —  shoot,  in  their 
parlance,  being  the  slang  word  for  steal. — See 
Sohmid,  Enci/clopddie;  and  Barnard,  American 
Journal  of  Education,  vol.  v. 

ABELARD,  or  Abailard,  Pierre,  one  of 
the  most  famous  teachers  of  pliilosophy  and 
theology  in  the  middle  ages,  was  born  in 
Nantes,  in  1079,  died  April  21st,  1142,  at  St. 
Marcel,  near  Chalons-sur-Saone.  A  pupil  of 
William  of  Champeaux  in  philosophy,  and  of 
Anselm  of  Laon  in  theology,  he  became  the 
dreaded  and  hated  rival  of  both,  as  they  found 
themselves  entirely  eclipsed  by  the  cosmopolitan 
reputation  of  their  pupil,  who  for  a  time  was  re- 
garded in  the  Christian  world  as  the  foremost  of 
all  living  teachers.  The  tragic  end  of  his  love 
for  his  pupil  Heloise,  whom  he  had  seduced, 
closed  to  him  the  higher  ecclesiastical  dignities, 
and  drove  him  into  the  austerities  and  retirement 
of  monastic  life;  but  his  theological  and  philo- 
sophical writings  continued  to  keep  the  Christian 
world  in  a  high  state  of  excitement.  His  opin- 
ions were  repeatedly  condemned  by  councils 
and  synods  as  heretical,  but  he  always  preferred 
submission  to  the  sentence  of  the  Church  rather 
than  open  defiance.  His  influence  on  the  schools 
of  the  middle  ages  was,  without  doubt,  greater 
than  that  of  any  of  his  contemporaries.  He  in- 
troduced dialectics  into  theology,  and  thus,  as 
Cousin  says,  "contributed  more  than  any  other 
to  the  foundation  of  scholasticism." 

A  complete  edition  of  the.  works  of  Abelard 
was  published  by  Cousin  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1849— 
1859),  containing  also  valuable  notes  by  the 
editor.  Among  the  best  biographical  works  on 
Abelard  are  those  bylte'musat  (Abelard,  2  vols., 
Paris.  1845),  and  Wilkens  (Peter  Abalard 
Gottingen,  is.').")). — See  also  Schmidt,  Geschichte 
der  Padaqogik. 

ABERCROMBIE,  John,  M.  D.,  was 
born  at  Aberdeen,  in  1781.  and  died  in  1844. 
In  his  profession  as  a  physician  he  rose  to  great 
eminence,  and  was  widely  distinguished  for  his 
writings  on  medical  subjects.  In  connection 
with  education,  he  is  noted  for  his  Inquiries  con- 


ABIXGDOX  COLLEGE 


ACADEMY 


centring  the  Intellectual  Powers, and  Tlie  Philos- 
ophy of  the  Moral  Feelings.  These  two  works 
possess  great  merit,  and  have  been  quite  exten- 
sively used  as  school  text-books.  They  were 
edited  and  adapted  to  the  use  of  schools  in  this 
country  by  Jacob  Abbott. 

ABINGDON  COLLEGE,  at  Abingdon, HI., 
under  the  control  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  was 
founded  in  April,  1853.  The  number  of  students 
in  the  institution  in  1875  was  about  180.  It 
has  an  endowment  of  $20,000.  The  college 
building  is  a  handsome  edifice  well  supplied  with 
modern  furniture  and  appliances.  There  are 
about  1000  volumes  in  the  library,  besides  which 
the  institution  has  a  museum  and  laboratory. 
'I  he  names  of  its  successive  presidents  are  Patrick 
Murphy.  •(.  W.  Butler, and  Oval  I'irkey.  The 
annual  tuition  fee  is  from  $30  to  S.'i1.). 

ABSENTEEISM  is  opposed  to  regularity  in 
the  attendance  of  pupils  belonging  to  a  school; 
that  is.  the  number  of  school  sessions  from  which 
a  pupil  was  absent,  as  compared  with  the  number 
at  which  he  was  present,  during  any  particular 
period,  gives  the  absenteeism  of  the  pupil  for 
that  period.  The  average  daily  attendance  of 
pupils  divided  by  the  average  daily  enrollment 
the  "average  number  belonging"  shows  the  per- 
centage of  attendance:  and  this  subtracted  from 
loo  gives,  of  course,  the  percentage  of  absentee- 
ism.     Within   certain    limits,   this   is  a  criterion 

of  efficiency  of  management  and  instruction. 
Class  teachers  who  interest  their  pupils  neces- 
sarily secure  a  more  regular  attendance  than 
those  who  fail  in  this  respect  :  and  principals  of 
schools  who  keep  a  careful  watch  over  all  the 
pupils  belonging  to  their  schools,  strictly  and 
uniformly  enforcing  wholesome  rules  of  disci- 
pline, and  carefully  notifying  parents  of  the  ab- 
sence of  their  children,  inquiring  into  the  cause 
of  the  same,  and  admonishing  both  parents  and 
pupils  of  the  need  of  strict   regularity,  will,  of 

course,  succeed  best    in    this    regard.       Where    the 

basis  for  computing  the  degree  of  absenteeism  is 
the  average  enrollment,  and  where  regularity  of 
attendance  is  made  a  test  of  efficient  manage- 
ment, teachers  will  be  more  careful  to  keep  the 
number  of  pupils  on  the  rolls  as  little  as  possible 
above  the  average  attendance.  I  leiice.  to  render 
this  test  reliable,  a  uniform  rule  should  1h>  follow- 
ed in  the  discharging  of  pupils  for  non-attend- 
ance. Such  a  rule  has  been  adopted  in  many 
cities  <>f  the  Union,  any  pupil's  name  being  in- 
variably dropped  from  the  roll  after  a  certain 
number  of  days  of  absence,  however  caused. 
This  is  based  on  the  principle  that  irregularity  of 
attendance  being  at  school  one  day.  one  week, 
or  one  month,  and  absent  the  next  is  not  only  of 
no  profit  to  the  pupil  concerned,  but  a  positive 
injury  to  the  other  pupils,  and  is  a  serious  hin- 
drance and  embarrassment  to  the  teacher  in  the 
management  of  the  school.  To  some  extent,  ab- 
senteeism thus  computed   may    indicate  also  the 

prevailing  tone  of  the  community  in  regard  to 
education  the  degree  of  appreciation  of  the 
benefits  of  education  generally  felt  by  the  people, 

as  inducin;;  parents  to  sacrifice  their  own  persona] 


advantage,  in  the  employment  of  their  children, 
to  the  interests  of  the  latter,  in  enjoying  the  bene- 
fits of  school  instruction. 

"Absenteeism"  is  also  technically  applied  to  a 
total  neglect  of  school  attendance  by  a  part  of  the 
school  population  of  any  place.  This  is  exhibited 
by  a  comparison  of  the  average  attendance  of 
1  hi  pi  Is  with  the  census  of  children  of  school  age. 
(See  Attendance.) 

ABSTRACT  AND  CONCRETE.  These 
terms  have  a  very  important  application  in  many 
departments  of  practical  education.  Abstract 
has  reference  to  general  ideas,  or  the  ideas  of 
qualities  considered  apart  from  the  things  to 
which  they  belong;  concrete,  to  those  which  are 
only  conceived  as  belonging  to  particular  objects 
orsubstances.  '!  bus,  if  we  speak  of  a  man. a  horse, 
a  tree,  etc..  we  use  abstract  or  general  idea.-: 
for  we  are  not  thinking  of  any  particular  object 
of  the  class,  but  only  of  the  assemblage  of  qual- 
ities or  characteristics  that  especially  belong  to 
all  the  members  of  the  class.  But  when  we 
mention  such  names  as  ( 'icero.  Washington.  John 
Smith,  etc..  we  have  in  our  mind  a  conception  of 
the  charai  teristics  that  served  to  distinguish  those 
persons  from  all  other  men.  Thus, the  expression 
five  pounds  represents  a  concrete  idea  :  the  word 
five,  an  abstract  one. 

The  immature  minds  of  young  children  em- 
ploy to  a  greal  extent  concrete  ideas,  and  hence 
the  instruction  addressed  especially  to  them 
should  deal  principally  with  these.  As  the  mind 
advances,  it  becomes  more  and  more  occupied 
with  abstract  conceptions,  which  constitute  the 
material  for  all  the  higher  forms  of  thought  and 
ratiocination. 

ACADEMY  i  ( Jr. '  \mS^ftm  or  'AKod^/teia)  was 
originally  the  name  of  a  pleasure  ground  near 
Athens,  and  was  said  to  be  so  called  after  Aca- 
demus,  a  local  hero  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan 
war.  Its  shady  walks  became  a  favorite  resort 
for  Plato:  and.  as  he  was  accustomed  to  lecture 
here  to  his  pupils  and  friends,  the  school  of  phi- 
losophers which  was  founded  by  him  was  called 
i  he  Academic  School,  or  merely  the  Academy. 

In  the  history  of  ancient  philosophy,  three  dif- 
ferent academies  are  distinguished,  the  Old  Acad- 
emy, formed  by  the  immediate  followers  of 
Plato,  the  Middle  Academy,  founded,  about  24  I. 
by  Arcesilaus.  and  the  New  Academy,  whose 
founder  was  ( 'arueades,  about  L60  B.  C.  Some- 
times the  philosophical  schools  founded  by  Philo 
and  AntiochuS  tire  called  respectively  the  Fourth 

and  tin'  Fifth  Academy.    Among  the  Romans. 

( 'icero.  who  regarded  himself  as  all  adherent  of  the 

Academic  philosophy, gave  the  name  of  Academy 

to  the  gymnasium  at  his  villa  near  Tusculum,  as 
well  as  to  one  of  his  villas  in  Campania,  where  he 
wrote  his  Academical  Qucestiones.     During  the 

middle  ages,  the  term  was  but  little  used  for 
learned  institutions:  but.  after  the  revival  of 
classical  studies  in  the  L5th  century,  it  again  be- 
came frequent.  In  a  wider  sense,  it  was  some- 
times applied  to  higher  institutions  of  learning 
in  general.  I  iradually.  however,  its  use  was,  in 
most  countries,  restricted  to  Special  schools,  as 


ACADEMY 


ACCOMPLISHMENTS 


academies  of  mining,  of  commerce,  of  forestry, 
of  fine  arts,  and,  especially,  of  music.  In  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States,  the  national  high 
schools  for  tlic  education  of  military  and  naval 
officers  arc  called  academies.  Thus,  England  h;is 
the  Naval  Academy  at  Portsmouth,  and  the 
Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich;  and  the 
United  States,  the  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point,  and  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis. 
In  the  United  States,  the  name  has  also  been 
assumed  by  a  large  number  of  secondary  schools. 
■which  are  designed  to  prepare  ih  rir  pupils  for 
colleges,  or  to  impart  a  general  knowledge  of  (he 
common  and  higher  branches  of  education.  As 
they  are.  in  nearly  all  cases,  private  institutions, 
independent  of  any  control  by  state  boards,  their 
courses  f  instruction  widely  differ, ranging  from 
the  lowest  primary  class  to  the  highest  classes  of 
grammar  and  high  schools.  Tiny  are  usually 
both  boarding  and  day  schools. 

The  name  academy  is  also  employed  to  des- 
ignate associations  of  learned  men  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  science  and  art.  Some  of  these 
associations  are  of  an  entirely  private  character, 
others  have  been  founded  by  the  state.  The 
first  academy  of  this  kind  was  the  Museum  of 
Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  which  was  founded  by 
Ptolemy  Soter.  After  its  model,  the  -lews,  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  first  century  of  the  <  hristian 
era, began  to  establish  academies  for  the  develop- 
ment of  Talmudic  science.  Later,  the  Arabian 
caliphs  established  academies  at  their  places  of 
residence,  to  show  their  interest  in  the  promotion 
of  science.  Efforts  to  establish  Christian  acad- 
emies of  this  kind  were  made  by  Gregory  the 
Great  and  Charlemagne,  but  both  failed.  It  was 
not  until  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  that 
associations  of  this  kind  were  formed  in  Italy  for 
the  purpose  of  fostering  the  free  development  of 
science  and  art,  in  opposition  to  the  rigid  conser- 
vatism of  the  monastic  and  ecclesiastical  schools. 
They  gave  special  attention  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  Italian  language  and  literature.  It  was  es- 
pecially the  Aceademia  della  Crusca,  founded  at 
Florence  by  the  poet  Grazzini,  to  which  the 
Italian  language  is  indebted  for  its  purification 
and  development.  From  Italy,  these  institutions 
spread  to  the  other  countries  of  Europe  :  and,  as 
they  became  the  centers  of  literary  activity,  they 
exercised  every-where  a  prominent  influence 
upon  the  intellectual  progress  of  the  several 
countries,  and,  especially,  upon  the  improvement  | 
and  regulation  of  the  native  tongue.  Prominent 
among  these  academies,  was  the  Academie fran- 
caise,  instituted,  in  1  <'.'{.">.  by  Cardinal  Kiche-j 
lieu.  In  1  7!':"),  it  was  united  with  three  other! 
French  academies  into  the  Instilut  national,] 
the  name  of  which  was  changed  by  Louis  XVI.  i 
into  histitut  de  France.  The  Institute  con- 
sisted then  of  four  academies:  (1)  V Academie 
francaise,  (2)  P  Academie  des  inscriptions  et\ 
belles  lettres,  (3)  V Academie  des  sciences,  (4) 
V Academie  des  beaux  arts.  A  fifth  academy,; 
V Academie  des  sciences  morales  et  poUHques, 
was  added  in  1832.  These  academies  are  among 
the  most  important  of  the  kind  in  the  world, 


and  their  influence  on  other  educational  insti- 
tutions has  been  considerable.  The  Academie 
franpaise  is  the  highest  authority  upon  every 
thing  relating  to  the  niceties  of  the  French  lan- 
guage, to  grammar,  and  the  publication  of  the 
French  classics.  The  Academie  des  inscriptions 
et  6c//cs-  Ifttrrs  embraces  among  the  objects  of 
its  attention  comparative  philology.  Like  the 
French  Institute,  the  academies  in  the  capitals  of 
Spain,    Portugal,     Sweden,     Russia,    and    other 

countries,  have  gradually  become  great  national 
centers  for  the  promotion  of  science  and  ait; 

but   no   such    centralization   has  been  effected  in 

Italy,  Germany,  England,  or  the  United  States. 
In  England,  the  learned  corporations  correspond- 
ing to  the  continental  a<  ademies  of  sciences  have 
generally  the  name  society  or  association.      Eng 
land  proper  has,  however,  a  royal  academy  of  arts 
(founded  in  1765,  re-organized  in   L768)  and  a 
royal  academy  of  music    (established   in    1822); 
and   in    Edinburgh,   there  is  a,  royal  academy  of 
yachting  (founded in  1754).  In  Ireland,  the  name 
academy,  according  to  its  continental  use.  has 
been  adopted  forthe Royal  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Dublin  (founded  in   1782). --In  the  United 
States  of   America  there  are  also  a  number  of 
learned   societies  to  which  the  name  academy, 
in  the  sense  used  on  the  continent  of   Europe, 
has  been  applied.      The   following  societies   are 
called  academies  :     The  American  Academy  of 
Arts  ami  Sciences,  at  Boston  (founded  in  1780), 
the  Connecticut  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
(founded  in   1799),   the    Academy  of  Natural 
Science  in   Philadelphia  (founded  in  1818),  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  (established 
in  1807),  the  National  Academy  of  Design,  at 
New  York  (founded  in  1828)  ;  the  Medical  Acad- 
emy of  New  York.   The  National  Academy  of 
Sciences  was  incorporated  by  Congress,  March 
3d,  1863.     In  New  York,   Philadelphia,  Brook- 
lyn, Chicago,  and  other  large  cities,    the  princi- 
pal opera  house  is  called  the  Academy  of  Music. 
ACCOMPLISHMENTS.       This   term,  as 
contrasted  with   en/turf,   refers   to  those  educa- 
tional acquirements  which  fit  a  person  for  certain 
special  activities,  while  culture  has  reference  to 
the  general   improvement  of   the  character  or 
mental  faculties.    Hence  the  expression  "external 
accomplishments,"   or  "  ornamental   accomplish- 
ments," such  as  skill  in  foreign  languages,  music. 
drawing,  painting,  dancing,  etc.    Involved  in  this 
application  of  the  term,  is  the  idea  of  display,  or 
the  ability  to  please,  or  the  power  to  awaken  ad- 
miration in  the  beholder.     Thus  in  the  Spectator 
we  find  the  expression  "the  visible  graces  of 
speech  and  the  dumb  eloquence  of  motion.'*  as 
indicating  the  accomplishments  of  a  pleasing  a  I 
dress  and  a  graceful  carriage. 

Accomplishments  are  either  purely  intellect- 
ual, as  that  of  language,  or  partly  or  wholly 
artistic,  such  as  music,  drawing,  dancing. etc.  In 
the  education  of  boys,  fencing  and  boxing  were 
formerly  considered  as  Indispensable  accomplish- 
ments; but  of  these,  at  the  present  time,  rowing 
seems  to  take  precedence,  as  contributing  to  a 
healthy  development  of  the  physical  system. 


ACCOM  PLISHMKN'TS 


ADAMS 


In  many  classes  of  schools,  particularly  in 
private  seminaries,  the  acquisition  of  certain  orna- 
mental accomplishments  constitutes  the  chief  end 
of  education.  Were  these  accomplishments  based 
on  a  solid  culture  of  the  intellectual  and  moral 
nature,  they  would  be  very  proper  and  desirable; 
but  being  merely  showy  and  superficial,  they 
constitute  a  perversion  of  the  true  end  of  edu- 
cation. Tims  Hannah  More  remarks:  "In  train- 
ing our  daughters,  should  we  not  carefully  culti- 
vate intellect,  implant  religion,  and  cherish  mod- 
esty? Then,  whatever  is  engaging  in  manners 
would  lie  the  aatural  result  of  whatever  is  just 
in  sentiment  and  correct  in  principle.  Softness 
would  grow  out  of  humility,  and  external  delicacy 
would  Bpring  from  purity  of  heart."  The  folly 
and  wrong  of  giving  this  exclusive  attention  to 
mere  accomplishments  have  very  frequently  been 
a  subject  of  satirical  invective.  Says  Sydney 
Smith:  "A  woman  of  accomplishments  may 
entertain  tin  ise  who  have  the  pleasure  of  knowing 
her  for  half  an  hour  with  great  brilliancy  ;  but  a 
mind  full  of  ideas,  anil  with  that  elastic  spring 
which  the  love  of  knowledge  only  can  convey,  is 
a  perpetual  source  of  exhilaration  and  amuse- 
ment to  all  that  come  within  its  reach.  Therefore, 
instead  of  hanging  the  understanding  of  a  woman 
upon  walls,  or  hearing  it  vibrate  upon  strings, 
instead  of  seeing  it  in  clouds,  or  hearing  it  in  the 
wind,  we  would  make1  it  the  first  spring  and  or- 
nament of  society,  by  enriching  it  with  attain- 
ments, upon  which  alone  such  power  depends." 
Goldsmith  also  inveighed  severely  against  this 
practice  in  his  time.  "Another  passion,"  he 
says,  "  which  the  present  age  is  apt  to  run  into 
is,  to  make  children  learn  all  things, — the  lan- 
guages, the  sciences,  music,  the  exercises,  and 
painting.  Thus  the  child  soon  becomes  a  talker 
in  all,  but  a  master  in  none.  Ife  thus  acquires 
a  superficial  fondness  for  everything,  and  only 
shows  his  ignorance,  when  he  attempts  to  exhibit 
his  skill."  The  tendency  of  the  present  time,  in 
what  is  called  fashionable  education,  is  equally 
subject  to  the  same  unfavorable  criticism.  Ac- 
complishments, in  the  first  stages  of  education, 
are  to  lie  regarded  as  secondary  to  the  solid  im- 
provement of  the  mind.  Those  rudimentary  at- 
tainments which  constitute  the  basis  of  all  school 
education,  and  are  indispensable  to  any  further 
progress,  namely,  reading,  spelling,  writing,  and 
arithmetic,  must  of  course  he  made:  to  which 
should  be  added  the  ability  to  use  one's  own  lan- 
guage, in  speaking  and  writing,  with  tolerable 
ease  and  propriety.  A  common-school  educa- 
tion should  give  great  prominence  to  these,  as 
not  only  constituting  the  acquirements  most 
generally  needed  for  success  in  hf e', bul  as  placing 
in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  the  keys  to  future 
progress  in  learning. 

Accomplishment,  being  derived  from  the 
French  accomplir,  to  finish  or  complete,  may  be 
contrasted  with  smattering,  a  mere  superficial 
acquirement  of  some  of  the  prominent  orrudi- 
mental  parts  of  any  subject.  No  educational 
scheme  should  admit  of  the  study  of  any  branch 
of   knowledge    which  cannot,   under   the   given 


circumstances  and  in  the  time  proposed,  be  ac- 
complished so  as  to  give  the  pupils  who  are  to 
pursue  it.  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
as  well  as  the  ability  to  apply  it  to  some  prac- 
tical purpose.  The  peculiar  talent,  or  bent  of 
mind,  of  children  should  be  regarded,  in  the  at- 
tempt to  bestow  upon  them  ornamental  ac- 
complishments, such  as  music  and  drawing,  ex- 
cept such  elementary  portions  of  these  arts  as  are 
within  the  capacity  of  all.  and  which  constitute, 
not  indeed  special  accomplishments,  but  a  part 
of  that  general  culture  which  the  most  element- 
ary education  should  bestow.      (See  CULTURE.) 

ACQUISITION.  The  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge must  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  scope  of 
every  process  of  teaching.  Sometimes  it  is  the 
primary  object  :  but,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  edu- 
cation, it  is  generally  secondary,  the  educative 
value  of  the  process  taking  precedence  of  the  prac- 
tical importance  of  the  knowledge  communicated. 
The  acquisition  of  new  ideas  must  always,  more 
or  less,  improve  the  mind  by  affording  additional 
material  for  the  exercise  of  its  various  faculties: 
but.  in  education,  what  particular  faculties  are 
concerned  in  the  study  of  any  subject  or  branch 
of  knowledge,  is  a  matter  of  paramount  im- 
portance, and  therefore  should  never  be  lost 
sight  of  by  the  teacher.  Where  this  is  disre- 
garded, instruction  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  mere 
rote-teaching ;  and  the  teacher  will  often  rest 
satisfied  when  his  pupil  can  repeat  the  formula1 
of  knowledge,  without  evincing  the  acquisition 
of  new  ideas,  on  which  alone  the  improvement  of 
the  mind  depends. 

ACROAMATIC  METHOD  (Gr.  oKpoaua- 
tikoc,  to  be  heard,  designed  for  hearing  only),  a 
name  originally  applied  to  the  esoteric  teachings 
of  Aristotle  and  other  Greek  philosophers,  to 
designate  such  as  were  confined  to  their  imme- 
diate hearers,  and  not  committed  to  writing, 
loiter,  the  term  has  been  applied  to  a  system  of 
instruction  in  which  the  teacher  speaks  and  the 
pupil  only  listens.  A  method  of  this  kind,  of 
course, presupposes  scholars  of  a  certain  maturity 
of  age  and  of  considerable  progress  in  intellectual 
culture,  it  forms  the  basis  of  the  lecture  system. 
(See  Lecture.) 

ADAM,  Alexander,  I/L.  D.,  was  born  in 
Scotland,  in  17-11.  and  died  in  L809.  He  at- 
tained a  high  distinction  as  a  teacher  while  licet  or 
,.f  the  High  School  at  Edinburgh  (1768   -1808). 

lie   was  also   the  author  of  several    educational 

text-books,  among  which  his  Roman  Antiquities 

(1791)  has  been  very  extensively  used  in  this 
country  and  in  <  Ireal  Britain. 

ADAMS,  John,  LL.  D.,  was  born  in  Can- 
terbury, < 't..  in  L772,  and  died  m  Jacksonville, 
111.,  in  L863.       lie  was  noted   both  as  a   teacher 

and  a  philanthropist.     After  graduating  at  rale 

College,    in     I7',l.">.     he   taught     the    academy    in 

his  native  town,  and  subsequently  other  schools. 
till,  in    L810,  he  became  principal   of  Phillips 

Academy.  Andovcr.  Mass.,  in  which  position   he 

continued  for  twenty-three  years.  In  L833,  he 
removed  to  Illinois,  and  was  very  active  in  effect- 
ing improvements  in  the  school  system  of  that 


ADRIAN   UOLLKGE 


ESTHETIC  (TI/ITRK 


State.  His  labors  in  connection  with  various 
}>enevoleiit  institutions  in  both  States,  were  nu- 
merous and  important.  Through  his  efforts,  a 
large  Dumber  of  Sunday-schools  were  established 
in  his  adopted  State.  Many  essays  and  other 
publications  on  education  attest  the  intelligence 
and  ability  with  which  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
training  of  the  young. 

ADRIAN  COLLEGE,  at  Adrian.  Midi., 
was  founded  in  is.")!),  by  the  Methodists.  The 
number  of  students  is  about  21)0,  males  and 
females,  about  one  fourth  of  whom  belong  to  the 
collegiate  department.  It  has  a  classical  and 
a  scientific  course  of  instruction,  a  school  of  the- 
ology, a  school  of  music,  and  a  normal  class.  Its 
corps  of  instructors  numbers  twelve,  and  it,  has 
one  endowed  professorship.  The  number  of 
volumes  in  its  library  is  about  1000;  its  endow- 
ment is$100,000.  Rev.  (J.  B  McKlroy,  D.  D.,  is 
the  president  of  the  Institution  (1876).  The 
tuition  fee  is  very  small. 

ADULTS,  Schools  for.  The  proper  time 
to  obtain  instruction  is  during  the  periods  of 
boyhood  or  girlhood,  and  youth.  (See  Age  in 
Education.)  It  is  in  the  interest  of  states  as 
well  as  of  families  and  individuals,  that,  as  much 
as  possible,  every  child,  not  prevented  by  physical 
disabilities,  should  have  its  share  in  the  instruc- 
tion provided  by  public  legislation  and  private 
effort.  The  majority  of  states  have  even  deemed 
it  a  duty  to  make  education  compulsory,  in  order 
to  render  it  universal.  (See  Compulsory  Edu- 
cation.) It  is  also  the  general  tendency  of  edu- 
cational legislation  to  extend  the  legal  school 
age  to  the  utmost,  in  order  to  make  the  educa- 
tion of  the  school  population  as  thorough  as  pos- 
sible. (See  School  Age.)  Still,  though  boy- 
hood and  youth  are  the  proper  ages  for  in- 
struction, the  need  of  special  schools  for  adults 
has  always  been  deeply  felt.  Though  modern 
legislation  has  succeeded  in  some  countries  in 
almost  wholly  extinguishing  illiteracy  (see  Illit- 
eracy), the  number  of  adults  whose  education, 
during  the  proper  age.  has  either  been  entire- 
ly insufficient,  or  who  find  themselves  on  en- 
tering life,  without  the  requisite  amount  of 
information  specially  needed  in  their  several 
avocations,  remains  ;us  great  as  ever,  and  is  even 
likely  to  increase,  as  the  standard  of  popular 
education  becomes  more  elevated.  Systematic 
reading,  instruction  by  private  teachers,  and. 
more  recently,  popular  lectures,  are  among  the 
principal  agencies  for  supplementing  the  de- 
ficiencies of  school  education.  Efforts  have,  How- 
ever, not  been  wanting  in  many  states  to  establish 
schools  for  adults  for  the  special  purpose  of 
giving  to  those  who  have  left  the  public  schools 
and  entered  into  practical  life,  a  suitable  oppor- 
tunity to  supply  the  deficiency  of  their  school 
education.  .Many  German  states  began  in  the 
l*th  century  to  establish   Sunday-schools     in 

which,   besides   religious  education,   a    review   of 

the  instruction  given  in  the  elementary  school 
was  provided  for.  As  the  school  age.  in  the 
<  rerman  states,  only  extended  t<>  the  1  Ith  year,  a 
Sunday-school  was  specially  provided  for  boys 


and  girls  to  the  Kith  or  18th  year  of  age.  Sev- 
eral states  made  attendance  at  these  schools  ob- 
ligatory for  all  boys  and  girls  who  had  left  the 
elementary  school  and  not  entered  any  higher 
school.  Special  attention  has  been  given  to 
schools  of  this  class  in  Austria,  where  the  gov- 
ernment has  established  "reviewing  schools" 
(  Wiederfiolungssohulen.)  (See  Austria.)  As  the 
ordinary  Sunday  or  reviewing  school  was  found 
to  be  insufficient,  especially  for  young  me- 
chanics, special  classes  or  schools  were  organized 
in  which  particularly  instruction  in  drawing 
was  given.  The  attendance  at  these  schools  is 
always  voluntary  ;  inmost  of  them  the  scholars 
have  to  pay  moderate  fees;  instruction  is  gen- 
erally given  on  Sunday  mornings,  and,  in  most 
schools,  is  confined  to  writing,  arithmetic,  and 
drawing.  In  some  of  the  German  states,  espe- 
cially in  Wiirtemberg,  an  evening  school  on 
week-days  has  been  added  to  the  Sunday-school; 
and  thus  a  great  impulse  has  been  given  for  the 
further  development  of  industrial  schools  for 
adults.  (See  Industrial  Schools.)  The  Schools 
for  Adults  established  in  other  Euri  >pean  countries 
are  .mostly  evening  industrial  schools.  In  the 
United  States,  evening  schools  have  been  very  ex- 
tensively introduced,  to  give  to  all  adults  an  op- 
portunity of  obtaining  the  same  education  as 
children  receive  during  the  day:  ami  some  of 
the  larger  cities  afford  in  these  evening  high 
schools  instruction  in  the  studies  of  a  higher 
grade.     (See  Evening  Schools.) 

ADVENTISTS.  This  is  the  name  of  several 
organizations  of  American  Christians,  the  dis- 
tinctive doctrine  of  whom  is  the  belief  in  the 
speedy  second  advent  of  (  hrist,  and  the  end  of  the 
world.  In  1875,  there  were  four  different  organ- 
izations: (1)  The  Advent  Christian  Association  ; 
(2)  TheAmerican  Millennial  Association  (Evangel- 
ical Adventists);  (3)  The  Life  and  Advent  Union; 
(1)  The  Seventh  Day  Adveutists.  'I  he  churches 
of  this  denomination  were  formerly  almost  wholly 
independent,  and  had  fewer  church  boards  for 
common  interests  than  most  of  the  other  religious 
denominations  of  the  United  States.  The  great- 
est advance  in  point  of  organization  has  been 
made  by  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists.  'I  he  sub- 
ject of  education  and  the  founding  of  a  denomi- 
national school  was  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  members  of  this  denomination  by  Elder 
•James  White  and  wife,  in  the  early  part  of  1872. 
The  matter  was  referred  to  a  General  Com- 
mittee, who.  during  the  summer  and  autumn 
of  1ST.'},  solicited  subscriptions  to  this  enterprise, 
obtaining  pledges  for  over  $54,000.  I  Mi  the  1 6th 
of  March.  L874, an  association  was  formed,  under 
the  law  of  Michigan,  'dor  the  incorporation  of 
institutions  of  learning ;"  and  a  school  edifice, 
capable  of  accommodating  between  four  and  five 
hundred  students,  was  finished  in  1875.  —  Sec 
Annual  Cyclopedia,  1875,  art.  Adventists;  also 
SeventJi  Day  Adventists;  a  brief  sketcli  of 
their  Origin,  Progress,  and  Principles  (Battle 
Creek,  L874). 

AESTHETIC  CULTURE.      See    Esthetic 

s      Ct'LTHBE. 


AFFECTATION 


AGE 


AFFECTATION,  as  opposed  to  what  is  real, 
genuine,  and  natural,  is  care  fully  to  be  guarded 
against  in  the  education  of  the  young.  In  certain 
peculiarities  of  character,  there  is  a  proneness  to 
the  formation  of  habits  of  affectation  in  manners 
and  speech.  This  tendency,  however,  rarely 
shows  itself  at  an  early  age.  <  'hildren  generally 
yield  to  their  natural  impulses,  and  do  not  as- 
sume or  feign  what  they  do  not  feel.  or.  to  use  a 
common  expression,  "  put  on  airs."  Their  mode 
of  training,  however,  may  tend  to  this,  partic- 
ularly if  they  arc  forced  to  assume  an  unnatural 
mode  of  expression  in  phraseology  or  pronuncia- 
tion, in  the  attempt  to  make  them  excessively  pre- 
cise in  such  matters.  Some  styles  of  reading  and 
elocution  may  lead  to  this  characteristic;  and 
hence  the  importance  of  adopting  methods  that, 
in  all  respects  correspond  to  the  prevailing  usage. 
Certainly,  nothing  can  be  more  disgusting  than 
the  forced  imitation  of  peculiar  and  unnatural 
models  of  conceived  propriety  of  speech  and 
manners,  which  we  sometimes  find  to  prevail 
among  the  pupils  of  certain  schools,  or  the  ••min- 
cing airs "  which  are  often  assumed  by  those,  both 
male  and  female,  but  particularly  the  latter,  who 
affect  to  belong  to  the  best  society,  and  hence  ar- 
rogate to  themselves  a  superior  degree  of  refine- 
ment. The  standard  of  the  educator  should  lie. 
in  every  respect,   that  ease,  grace,  simplicity,  and 

beauty  that  belong  to  what  is  natural :  and  every 

tendency  to  the  contrary,  in  his  pupils,  should  be 
promptly  and  sternly  repressed.  Locke  says: 
"Plain   and   rough    nature  left  to  itself,  is  much 

lietter  than  an  artificial  ungracefulness,  and  such 
studied  ways  of  being  ill  fashioned.  The  want 
of  an  accomplishment,  or  some  defect  in  our  be- 
havior, coming  short  of  the  utmost  gracefulness, 
often  scapes  observation  ;  1  nit  affectation  in  any 
part  of  our  carriage,  is  lighting  up  a  candle  to 
our  defects,  and  never  fails  to  make  us  to  be 
taken  notice  of,  either  as  wanting  sense  or  want- 
in-  sincerity." —  See  Locke,  Thoughts  concern- 
ing Education. 

AGASSIZ,  Louis  John  Rudolph.  This 
eminent  naturalist  and  teacher  was  born  at 
Motiers,  near  Neufchatel,  in  Switzerland.  May 
28.,  1807, and  died  at  <  lambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  14., 
Is;:!.      His    ancestors    were    Huguenots,   driven 

from  France  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes.  His  father  was  the  pastor  of  a  protest- 
ant  parish;  his  mother,  the  daughter  of  a  phy- 
sician. Under  the  latter  he  received  his  firsl 
education  till  the  age  of  eleven,  when  he  was 
M'nt  to  the  gymnasium  at  Bienne,  where  he  re- 
mained four  years.  His  subsequenl  studies  were 
puisne  1  at  the  college  of  Lausanne,  the  medical 
school  of  Zurich,  ami  the  universities  of  Heidel- 
berg and  Munich.  At  the  latter  place,  he  partic- 
ularly distinguished  himself  for  his  attainments 
in  natural  history.  At  Paris,  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Humboldl  and  Guvier,  both  of 
whom  held  him  in  high  esteem  for  his  talents  and 
scientific  acquirements.  In  1846,  he  came  to  the 
United  States,  being  invited  to  deliver  a  course 

of    lectures    at    the    I  owell    I  list  it  ute.  in    Boston. 

The  next  j  ar,  he  accepted  the  appointmenl  <>f 


professor  of  zoology  and  geology  in  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School,  then  just  established.  He  com- 
menced his  duties  in  1848,  and  settled  per- 
manently in  the  United  States,  where  his  greatest 
fame  was  achieved  by  his  numerous  labors  as  a 
naturalist  and  a  scientific  lecturer  and  teacher. 
The  establishment  of  the  Anderson  School  of 
Natural  History  on  Penikese  Island  in  loTH, 
was  almost  the  last  act  of  his  life.  The  means  for 
founding  this  school  were  furnished  by  Mr.  John 
Anderson,  a  generous  and  public-spirited  citizen 
of  New  York, who  not  only  devoted  for  this  ob- 
ject the  island  of  Penikese,  but  the  sum  of 
$50,000,  as  a  permanent  endowment.  Agassiz 
had  long  advocated  the  establishment  of  such 
a  school  for  the  special  instruction  of  teachers 
in  marine  zoology ;  and  during  the  summer  of 
L873,  he  devoted  his  time  and  energies  to  this 
institution,  being  present  at  every  exercise  and 
lecture,  and  the  constant  companion  of  the 
students.  His  chief  publications  were  Recher- 
ches  sur  les  Poissons  Fossiles,  L833- — 1844; 
Etudes  sur  les  (/lacier*.  1840 ;  System?,  gla- 
ciaire,  is  IT.  and  Contributions  to  the  Natural 
History  of  the  United  States.  Though  chiefly 
eminent  as  a  naturalist,  and  particularly  in  the 
department  of  ichthyology,  he  was  an  accom- 
plished linguist,  being  versed  in  six  languages, 
lie  read  Plato  and  Aristotle  in  the  original, 
wrote  several  works  in  elegant  Latin,  and  was 
a  good  Hebraist.  French  and  German  were 
to  him  vernacular  tongues,  and  he  could  speak 
and  write  the  English  language  with  case  and 
correctness.  He  was  a  natural  teacher,  fond 
of  giving  instruction,  patient  and  sympathetic, 
overflowing  with  an  earnest  love  for  bis  sub- 
ject, and  having  a  mind  replete  with  stoics  of 
information.  His  voice.  look,  and  manner  at 
once  gained  the  attention  of  his  pupils  :  and  the 
clearness  of  his  explanations  as  well  as  the  fluen- 
cy of  his  delivery  gave  interest  to  every  subject 
upon  which  he  spoke.  His  skill  in  ready  graphic 
delineations  with  chalk  and  blackboard  was 
astonishing,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the 
effectiveness  of  his  teaching.  Lew  have  ever 
made  such  rich  additions  to  the  stores  of  science, 
or  have  been  more  zealous  in  diffusing  the  bene- 
fits of  knowledge  among  mankind.  His  ex- 
ample as  a  teacher  has  been  of  very  greal  value, 
since  his  system  was  to  teach  from  natural  ob- 
jects rather  than  from  books,-  to  enable  the 
pupil  to  acquire  an  experience  of  bis  own  before 

presenting  to  his  mind  the  results  of  the  ex- 
perience and  observation   of    Others.       His  own 

assumed   title    "  Louis    Agassiz    Teacher,"  was 

tin c  Of   which    he  seemed  to  be  most  proud  ; 

and  till   teachers  should   cherish   the    example 

which  he  set,  as  the  true  means  of  success. 

AGE,  in  Education.     The  life  of  man  has 
been    variously    divided    into    periods,    or    ages. 

Thus  Pythagoras  assumed  four,  Solon  and  Ma- 
crobiusten,  different  ages,  while  others  have  pre- 
ferred a  division  into  five,  six.  seven,  or  eight. 
With  regard  to  the  education  of  man,  one  great 
turning  point  stands  forth  so  conspicuously,  that 
t   ichers  al  all  times  have  chosen  it  as  a  broad 


A.GE 


line  of  demarcation,  into  whatever  number  of 
periods  they  have  thought  it  proper  to  divide 
human  life.  This  turning-point  in  life  is  the 
period  when  man  panes  from  the  age  of  youth 
into  that  of  virility.  The  physical  development 
at  this  time  has  become  complete ;  in  social  life 
both  Bexes  have  attained  majority  ;  and  the  edu- 
cation of  the  young  man  or  woman  for  the 
career  that  has  been  selected,  is,  in  the  main,  con- 
cluded. Up  to  this  time,  the  education  of  man 
is  conducted  by  others,  chiefly  parents  and 
teachers:  henceforward,  he  is  expected  to  edu- 
cate himself,  and  to  assume  the  education  of 
others. 

Daring  the  period  of  life  when  man  is  depend- 
ent upon  others  for  his  education,  three  different 
ages  are  broadly  distinguished, — childhood,  boy- 
hoo  1  or  girlhoo  Land  youth.  These  are  marked. in 
the   physical  development  of    the   body,   by   the 

shedding  of  teeth,  the  entrance  of  puberty,  and 
the  setting  in  of  virility.  The  process  of  mental 
development  in  these  three  ages  is  as  different  aa 
the  physical  basis  ;  and,  accordingly,  each  of  them 
demands  a  peculiar  pedagogical  and  didactical 
treatment. 

Childhood,  which  embraces  the  first  seven 
years  of  life. is  characterized  by  the  rapid  growth 
and  development  of  the  organs  of  the  body.    At 

the  age  of  seven  a  chill  weighs  about  six  times 
as  much  as  at  its  birth,  and  it  has  attained  one 
half  of  the  stature,  and  about  one  thir  1  or  one 
fourth  of  the  weight  of  the  grown  man.  The  mind 
is.  during  this  period,  more  receptive  than  self- 
active  :  the  only  manifestations  of  self-activity 
being  found  in  the  efforts  to  retain  and  arrange 
the  impressions  which  have  been  received.  All 
pedagogical  influence  upon  the  pupil  in  this  age 
can  be  only  of  a  preparatory  character.  The  body 
must  be  guarded  against  injuries,  and  must  have 
opportunities  for  a  vigorous  and  manifold  develop- 
ment. The  mind  must  be  preserved  from  debasing, 
weakening,  or  over  exciting  influences,  and  must 
be  kept  open  for  any  thing  that  is  conducive  to 
the  development  of  its  faculties;  and,  in  order 
not  to  become  sated  and  confused,  it  must  learn 
to  distinguish  what  is  important  from  the  less 
important.  As  the  child  is  thoroughly  dependent 
upon  its  educator  and  unable  to  direct  its  own 
exertions,  it  should  be  made  to  understand  as 
clearly  as  possible,  that  any  opposition  of  its  own 
will  to  that  of  its  educators  can  be  followed  by 
only  evil  consequences.  It  should,  therefore,  be 
taught  obedience,  but  not  obedience  through  fear, 
for  fear  has  a  repressive  influence  upon  the 
development  of  the  mental  faculties,  but  an 
obedience  springing  from  confidence  in  the 
superior  wisdom  and  experience  of  the  teacher, 
and  from  love  produced  by  his  kindness.  The 
natural  educators  of  the  child  are  the  parents, 
especially  the  mother;  but,  toward  the  close  of 
this  age.  systematic  teaching  by  a  professional 
teacher  begins.  Legislation  in  regard  to  the 
school  age  differs  considerably  in  different 
countries.  In  some,  children  are  sent  to  the  pub- 
He  schools  when  they  are  four  years  of  age :  in 
others,  not  until  they  are  seven.     (See  School 


A  ok.)  Of  course,  instruction  at  such  an  age 
must  be  limited  to  the  most  elementary  rudi- 
ments, such  as  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 
The  method  should  be  thoroughly  adapted  to  tin- 
mental  condition  of  the  child,  and  modern  edu- 
cators are  agreed  in  recognizing  the  importance 
of  object  teaching  for  the  first  stages  of  a  child's 
instruction.  A  novel  mode  of  instruction, specially 
intended  as  introductory  to  the  regular  prima  r\ 
school,  is  the  kindergarten,  founded  by  Frcelxd. 
The  astonishing  rapidity  with  which  it  lias  spread 

through  all  the  countries  of  the  civilized  world, 
and  found  admission  into  educational  systems 
otherwise  radii  ally  at  variance,  seems  to  prove  it  to 

lie  a  great  improvement  in  elementary  education. 
(See  Kindergarten.) 

Boyhood  or  ijirlhooil  embraces  the  time  from 
the  7th  to  the  14th  year  of  age.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  the  body,  this  age  is  characterized  by 
lie  appearance  of  the  permanent  teeth,  by  the 
completed  growth  of  the  brain,  and  by  the  first 
consciousness  of  sexual  difference.  Boys  and 
-iris  long  for  the  free  and  frequent  exercise  of 
their  muscular  systems.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
age.  girls  like  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  plays 
of  the  boys ;  but  they  soon  show  a  preference  for 
more  quiet  occupations  and  less  publicity ;  while, 
on  tie  other  hand,  boys  manifest  an  increased 
interest  in  noisy  and  wild  sports.  It  is  among 
the  prime  duties  of  the  educators  of  this  age.  to 
keep  the  development  of  the  natural  desires  and 
aspirations  of  the  two  sexes  within  the  right 
channels.  The  minds  of  boys  and  girls  afford 
many  proofs  of  independent  thought  and 
activity.  The  company  of  adults  is  not  sought 
for  by  them  as  eagerly  as  before,  but  they  feel 
entire  satisfaction  in  the  society  of  children  of 
their  own  age.  They  think,  as  yet.  little  of  the 
realities  of  life  and  of  their  future  careers ;  but 
their  plays  give  more  evidence,  than  before,  of 
plan,  serious  thought,  and  perseverance,  and 
generally  indicate  the  faculties  with  which  they 
have  been  most  strongly  endowed  ;  each  child, 
in  this  way,  foreboding  to  some  extent  its 
future  career.  It  is  of  great  importance  that 
the  educator  should  not  only  understand  the 
peculiar  nature  of  this  age  in  general,  but  that 
he  should  thoroughly  know  the  character  of  each 
individual  ;  for  the  faults  which  are  peculiar  to 
this  age  are  best  overcome  in  individual  cases,  if 
the  educator  knows  how  to  make  the  right  kind 
of  appeal  to  those  good  qualities  of  his  pupils 
which  are  most  strongly  developed.  !n  arran- 
ging a  course  of  instruction  for  this  age.  it  must 
be  specially  remembered  that  the  minds  of  boys 
ami  girls  are  predominantly  receptive.  Hie  mem- 
ory readily  receives  and  faithfully  retains  im- 
pressions: and  this,  therefore,  is  the  right  time 
for  learning  a  foreign  language  and  geographical 
and  historical  facts.  The  independence  of  mind 
peculiar  to  this  age  shows  itself  at  the  same  time 
in  the  growth  of  imagination,  which  awakens  in 
the  boy  a  lively  interest  in  all  that  is  great  and 
extraordinary  in  history.  On  many  questions 
telat in--  to  the  education  proper  for  this  age. 
educators  still  differ.     Prominent  among  these 


AGRICOLA 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 


questions,  are,  whether  the  two  sexes  should  be 
educated  separately  or  conjointly,  to  what  extent 
the  same  course  of  instruction  should  be  pre- 
scribed for  both,  whether  special  studies  should  be 
begun  at  this  age,  or  whether  the  entire  course 
should  be  obligatory  for  all  the  children  of  a 
school.    (See  Co-education  of  the  Sexes.) 

The  age  of  youth  extends  from  the  beginning 
of  puberty  to  the  complete  development  of  sexu- 
ality, or  from  the  fourteenth  to  about  the  twenty- 
first  year  of  age.     At  this  time  the  growth  of  j 
the  body  is  completed  ;  young  men  and  women  j 
become  aware  of  their  special  duties  of  life  and  of 
the  difference  in  the  careers  upon  which  they  are  | 
respectively  to  enter.  The  time  of  study  is  draw-  I 
ing  to  its  close  ;  the  entrance  into  active  life  is  at  | 
hand.     Among  the  lower  classes  of  society,  this 
transition  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  this  age; 
and  the  only  increase  of  knowledge  that  is  access-  j 
ible  to  most  persons  of  these  classes  must  be  de- 
rived from  evening  schools,  public  lectures,  and 
reading  ;  while  those  of  the  wealthier  classes,  and 
all  who  wish  to  fit  themselves  for  any  of  the 
learned  professions,  now  enter  upon  the  special 
studies  of  those  professions,  or  finish  the  general 
studies  of  the  preceding  age.  Toward  the  close  of 
this  period,  if  not  earner,  the  preparations  for  enter- 
ing public  life  are  completed,*  >r  an  actual  entrance 
into  life  begins.  —See  Schw  irz,  Erziehungslekre; 

ScHLEIERMACHEK,     Erziekztngslehre,     edited     by 

Platz;  Beneke,  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichts- 
lehre;  Berbart,  Umriss  padagogiscTier  Vor- 
lesungen. 

AGRICOLA,  Rodolphus,  an  eminent  edu- 
cator of  the  middle  ages,  was  horn  in  August  14-!3 
(or  1442)  at  Baflo,  near  Groningen,  in  Holland. 
Bis  original  name  was  Buysmann,  which,  after 
the  custom  of  his  time,  he  exchanged  for  a  Latin 
name.  After  his  native  province,  Friesland,  he 
is  also  sometime-;  called  Frisius.  lie  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Louvain,  Paris,  and  Ferrara; 
and,  after  returning  to  bis  native  country,  distin- 
guished himself  greatly  by  introducing  the  study 
of  Greek  into  the  countries  north  of  the  Alps. 
In  14S.'i,  lie  accepted  an  invitation  from  his 
friend.  Bishop  Dalberg  of  Worms,  and  deliv- 
ered lectures  alternately  at  Beidelberg  and  at 
Worms,  lie  died  in  Heidelberg,  Oct.  28.,  1485. 
Ilis  works,  which  are  uol  very  numerous,  are 
written  in  Latin.  His  principal  work  De  inven- 
tione  dialectica  attacks  the  scholastic  philosophy 
of  the  age.  In  an  educational  point  of  view,  his 
epistle  to  Barbirianus  in  Antwerp,  the  so-called 
Epistola  de  formando  studio,  is  of  special  im-  j 
portance.  At  the  time  of  its  publication,  it  was 
regarded  as  a  compendium  of  the  pedagogical 
views  of  the  German  humanists.  Its  prime  ob- 
ject  was  to  advise  his  friend  as  to  the  continua- 
tion of  hisstudies.  Agricola  recommended  philos- 
ophy, by  which  term  he  understood  also  ethics 
and  physics,  and,  in  general,  the  entire  range  of 
natural  science,  as  the  study  most  deserving  his 
friend's  attention:  he  represents  it  as  the  only 
road  to  true  knowledge  and  perfect  felicity. 
the  other  science  could   procure  only  a 


Willi" 


doubtful  happiness.     The  Latin   language  was 


regarded  at  that  time  as  necessary  for  this  study, 
but  Agricola  advised  his  friend  always  to  repro- 
duce what  he  had  learned  in  German.  Three 
things  were  needed  for  pursuing  any  study:  (1 )  To 
understand  what  had  been  learned;  (2)  To  retain 
what  had  been  understood ;  (3)  To  derive  ad- 
vantage from  what  had  been  learned.  The  first 
was  obtained  by  application,  the  second  was  the 
gift  of  memory,  the  third  could  only  be  ac- 
quired by  practice.  While  the  works  left  by 
Agricola  would  alone  not  suffice  to  assign  to  him 
a  prominent  place  among  the  educators  of  the 
middle  ages,  it  appears  from  the  writings  of  his 
contemporaries  that  his  personal  influence  was 
very  great,  and  that,  in  fact,  he  was  regarded  as 
second  to  none  but  his  friend  Reuchlin.  His 
letters  to  Reuchlin,  to  Alexander  Hegi us,  an  ex- 
cellent educator,  who  founded  the  famous  school 
of  Deventer,  to  Antonius  Liber  of  Soest,  a  very 
zealous  humanist,  who.  after  fruitless  efforts  to 
establish  a  school  at  Emmerich.  Kampen,  and 
Amsterdam,  at  length  succeeded  at  Alkmaar, 
where  he  died  in  1514,  and  to  other  contem- 
poraries, contain  a  large  amount  of  information 
on  the  educational  movements  of  his  times.  A 
complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Agricola  has 
been  published  by  Alardus,  of  Amsterdam  (Co- 
logne. L539). — See  Schmidt.  Oeschichte  der  Pa- 
dagogik,  h.  152;  Ratjmer,  Geschichte  der  Pdda- 
<l<i(jJh\  trans,  in  Barnard's  German  Educational 
Reformerst;  Geiger,  in  Allgemeine  Deutsche 
Biographie,  i,  L51  —  156  ;  Trebling,  Vita  et 
merita  Rudolphi  Agricolce  (Groningen,  ls;J0) ; 
Hallam's  Literature  of  Europe. 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES.  It  is 
only  within  the  last  fourteen  veal's  that  any 
general  and  systematic  effort  has  been  made  in 
the  United  States  to  furnish  facilities  for  acquir- 
ing a  thorough  scientific  and  practical  education 
in  agriculture.  In  1862,  Congress  gave  to  the 
several  states  and  territories  land  scrip  to  the 
amount  of  30,000  acres  for  each  senator  and 
representative  in  Congress,  provided  that  each 
state  or  territory,  claiming  the  benefit  of  this 
act,  should,  within  five  years  from  its  passage. 
"provide  not  less  than  one  college,  which  should 
receive  for  its  endowment,  support,  and  main- 
tenance the  interest  of  all  moneys  derived  from 
the  sale  of  the  aforesaid  scrip  or  lands."  It 
was  further  required  that  "  the  leading  object" 
of  these  colleges  ••should  be,  without  excluding 
other  scientific  and  classical  studies,  and  includ- 
ing military  tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of 
learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts,  in  order  to  promote  the  liberal 
and  practical  education  of  the  industrial  classes, 
in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  of  life." 
The  main  supporter  of  this  law  was  the  Hon. 
•  Iiistin  S.  Morrill,  senator  from  Vermont.  Of 
all  laws  enacted,  either  state  or  national,  for 
the  advancement  of  higher  education,  no  one  has 
ever  been  productive  of  such  fruitful  results. 
The  originators  ami  framcrsof  this  law.  "builded 

better  than  they  Unew."  The  tabulated  state- 
ment below,  while  it  shows  a  vast  amount  ac- 
complished in  a  short  space  of  time,  cannot,  of 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 


9 


necessity,  give  more  than  a  faint  idea  of  what 
has  been  done  in  advancing  agricultural  edu- 
cation in  the  single  direction  of  a  systematic 
and  thorough  collegiate  training.  Looking  back 
over  the  last  ten  years,  we  notice  that  those 
engaged  in  agriculture  have  made  marvelous 
progress  in  general  information,  as  well  as  in 
technical  subjects  having  a  direct  bearing  upon 
their  special  calling.  This  has  been  largely 
brought  about  by  the  munificent  endowments  of 
( 'ongress.  For  as  soon  as  the  act  had  become  a 
law,  numerous  energetic  and  far-seeing  men 
brought  the  matter  prominently  before  the 
several  state  legislatures,  setting  forth  the  great 
benefits  that  would  arise  from  an  acceptance  of 
the  donation.  Some  strenuously  opposed  its  ac- 
ceptance, as  it  would  add  heavy  burdens,  in  order 
to  furnish  buildings  etc.,  to  those  already  im- 
posed by  the  war  ;  and  others  opposed  it,  believ- 
ing the  whole  scheme  to  be  chimerical  and  im- 
practicable. Through  these  discussions,  which 
have  not  yet  wholly  ceased,  much  valuable  in- 
formation has  been  disseminated  ;  and  the  effect 
has  been,  to  arouse  thoroughly  the  agricultural 
classes  to  a  sense  of  their  rights  and  duties. 
These  earnest  and  continued  discussions  have 
developed  latent  talents,  and  excited  a  desire  for 
information  among  the  farmers,  that  is.  as  yet, 
only  partially  gratified.  They  have  made  it  pos- 
sible to  publish  and  sustain  numerous  agricult- 
ural journals  with  regular  contributions  from 
the  pen  of  many  of  the  ablest  writers  on  the 
practical  and  scientific  subjects  of  the  day.  They 
have  created  such  a  demand  for  agricultural 
literature,  that  a  large  proportion  of  our  relig- 
ious and  political  journals  devote  more  or  less 
space  to  the  subject.  These  are  but  a  few  of  the 
incidental  results  of  this  wise  and  munificent  act 
of  Congress :  and  they  are  none  the  less  real  or 
beneficial,  although  they  cannot  be  tabulated  or 
set  forth  in  long  columns  of  figures.  Such  rapid 
strides  have  been  made  in  some  directions  within 
the  last  few  years,  that  a  chemist  and  a  laboratory 
have  become  a  necessary  adjunct  to  many  of  the 
agricultural  industries, — notably  to  that  of  the 
manufacture  of  cheese,  butter,  and  commercial 
fertilizers.  Up  to  1865,  the  agricultural  college 
of  Lansing,  Mich.,  was  the  only  one  in  the  United 
States  in  which  students  could  pursue  a  college 
course  arranged  and  adapted  to  meet  the  wants 
of  those  who  might  desire,  in  after  years,  to  en- 
gage in  agriculture.  Since  that  time,  some  thirty 
colleges  have  been  organized — about  one  half  of 
them  from  parts  of  universities — which  are 
largely  devoted  "to  teaching  such  branches  of 
learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts."  The  donation  of  lands  by  Con- 
gress did  not  furnish  endowment  sufficient  fully 
to  equip  and  man  these  numerous  institutions  : 
but  it  afforded  the  means  to  lay  the  firm  founda- 
tions upon  which,  aided  by  Btate  and  individual 
munificence,  have  been  reared  many  noble  insti- 
tutions of  learning,  which  are  doing  an  important 
and  much-needed  work.  We  can  hardly  con- 
ceive of  the  grand  and  important  position  these 
institutions  are  to  occupy  when    the  wants  of  an 


increased  population  shall  furnish  a  demand  for 
the  products  of  the  soil  at  prices  sulliciently  re- 
munerative to  induce  many  trained  and  educated 
men  to  embark  in  agriculture. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  an  exact  statement  of  the 
present  condition  of  agricultural  colleges,  since 
they  are  only  a  part  of  colleges  or  universities 
devoted  also  to  teaching  mechanic  arts,  and  scien- 
tific and  classical  studies  more  or  less  germane  to 
agriculture.  We  find  that,  in  this  department,  and 
in  that  of  mechanics. there  are  at  present  about  300 
professors  and  teachers.  So  far  as  reported,  361 
students  have  graduated  after  a  full  course  in 
agriculture.  According  to  the  usual  proportion 
of  freshmen  to  graduates,  this  would  indicate 
that  1,444  had  pursued  the  course  for  a  longer  or 
a  shorter  period.  The  number  of  graduates  who 
during  their  course  have,  to  use  the  phraseology 
of  the  act  of  Congress  endowing  these  institu- 
tions, pursued  studies  "  relating  to  agriculture 
and  the  mechanic  arts,"  is  <><>!>  :  making  the  total 
number  who  have  entered  these  courses,  for  a. 
longer  or  a  shorter  period.  2,676.  The  number 
of  students,  as  far  as  reported,  in  all  the  depart- 
ments of  the  institutions  named,  is  6,907,  of 
whom  715  are  ladies,  and  2,889  are  receiving 
instruction  in  military  tactics.  The  minimum  cost 
of  board — usually  in  clubs — is  SI. 25  per  week; 
the  maximum  cost,  $5.00;  and  the  average, 
$3.00.  The  cost  of  room  rent  per  term  ranges- 
from  $1.33  to  $12.00.  In  all  but  two  or  three 
institutions,  some  provision  is  made  for  a  greater 
or  less  number  of  free  scholarships,  and  several 
offer  free  tuition  for  all.  As  a  general  rule,  no 
pains  have  been  spared  by  these  colleges  to  fur- 
nish all  the  facilities  for  pursuing  a  college  course 
at  the  least  possible  expense.  Manual  labor  is  re- 
quired in  11  of  the  colleges  ;  in  the  others,  it  is 
optional.  The  price  paid  for  students'  labor 
ranges  from  5  to  IS  cents  per  hour.  State  ap- 
propriations have  been  made  of  nearly  one  and 
a  half  million  of  dollars,  which  have  been  largely 
used  for  erecting  buildings.  The  amount  of  pri- 
vate donations  it  is  iuqwssible  to  arrive  at  ac- 
curately, but  they  cannot  fall  short  of  $5,000,01)0. 
The  late  Ezra  Cornell  gave  $700,000  to  the  uni- 
versity that  bears  his  name,  and  the  total  amount 
of  private  donations  to  this  single  institution  is 
not  less  than  SI  ,400.000,  of  which  the  colleges  of 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  have  received 
their  due  proportion.  The  number  and  equipment 
of  laboratories,  workshops,  etc.,  in  the  colleges 
that  serve,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  illustrate  and 
teach  subjects  relating  to  agriculture,  an-  as  fol- 
lows :  mechanical  laboratories  or  workshops,  10, 
all  of  which  are  furnished  with  tools  for  work- 
ing in   ii and  wood,  and  several  with  engines, 

planers,  turning-lathes,  drilling-machines,  saws. 

and  other  necessary  but  less  expensive  tools; 
physical    laboratories,    L6,    most    of    which    are 

furnished  with  apparatus  for  illustrating  the  sub- 
jects of  mechanics,  electricity,  magnetism,  heat, 

acoustics,  and  optics.  All.  with  one  or  two  ex- 
ceptions, have  well  equipped  chemical  labarato- 
ries;  and  several  of  them  furnish  facilities  for  in- 
struction in  chemistry  not  excelled  in  any  other 


10 


AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGES 


institutions  in  the  United  States.  Nine  anatom- 
ical, 12  geological,  and  15  botanical  laboratories 
are  already  equipped  for  student  practice.  Eight 
of  these  colleges  have  greenhouses  in  operation  ; 
most  of  them  have  drafting-rooms,  with  the 
necessary  tables  and  models  for  illustrating  the 
subjects  taught.  A  large  amount  of  practice  in 
drawing  is,  moreover,  required  in  several  of  the 
branches  related  to  agriculture.  Eree-hand 
•  hawing,  as  yet,  has  not  been  largely  introduced. 
Some  ten  colleges  have  large  collections  of  mod- 
els of  farm  implements  and  machinery;  engrav- 
ings, photographs,  charts,  and  drawings;  to- 
gether with  numerous  specimens  of  grains, 
grasses,  anil  other  plants  ;  geological  and  miner- 
alogical  specimens :  collections  of  insects  and 
skeletons  of  domestic  anl  other  animals:  all 
constituting  what  might  be  called  an  agricult- 
ural museum,  though  usually  kept  in  separate 
rooms  for  the  sake  of  convenience.  Ten  of  these 
institutions  offer  one  or  more  prizes  for  good 
scholarship;  six  report,  through  their  lea  ling 
otficer,  that  the  effect  of  offering  such  prizes 
appears  to  be  "good ;"  six  consider  it  "bad;" 
two.  "doubtful :'  one,  ••  that  it  depends  on  cir- 
cumstances :"  one.  that  it  is  "  a  healthy  stimu- 
lant to  be  carefully  used  : "  and  one.  "  won  con- 
slat"  \\  least  twelve  appear  to  have  kept  care- 
ful accounts  of  farm  receipts  and  expenditures; 
but  since  we  have  no  reports  of  the  amount  of 
increase  in  the  valuations  of  farm-stock,  imple- 
ments, etc.,  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the 
farms  are  worked  at  a  profit  or  a  loss.  The 
total  gross  receipts  of  twelve  farms  reported,  for 
L874,  are  $64,329.60,  or  an  average  of  $5,360.80 
per  farm.  The  total  expenditures  for  experi- 
ments, during  the  same  year,  on  eight  of  these 
farms,  are  S"\l-13.2<>.  This  indicates  that  farm 
experiments  are  not,  as  yet,  carried  on  to  any 
great  extent  ;  and  the  reason  for  this  is,  doubt- 
less, a  lack  of  means  rather  than  of  disposition. 
Every  professor  of  agriculture  fully  appreciates 
the  benefit,  not  only  to  his  class  but  to  himself 
as  well,  of  extended  and  systematically  conducted 
experiments.  They  are,  indeed,  effective  but 
costly  auxiliaries  to  the  class-room  lectures. 
There  is  a  constantly  increasing  tendency  to- 
ward using  the  farm  and  its  appliances,  regard- 
Less  of  pro'it  or  loss,  in  order  to  teach  and  illus- 
trate the  principles  of  agriculture,  rather  than — - 
as  has  too  often  been  the  case  using  it  simply 
as  a  means  of  increasing  the  common  fund.  The 
aggregate  number  of  acres  used  for  general  and 
experimental  farming  by  twenty  of  these  col- 
leges is  5,081  ;  added  to  which  there  are  1  12 
acres  of  orchard.  92  acres  of  vegetable  gar- 
den, 29  acres  of  small-fruit  garden,  1,360  acres 
of  native  timber,  438  acres  of  planted  timber, 
and  580  acres  used  as  college   "■rounds.     Though 

we  find  thai   the  planted  timber  is  about  six 

acres  to  each  hundred  of   arable  land,  -  w  Inch    is 

certainly  a  very  creditable  showing  yet  forestry 
i-  taught  to  but  a  limited  extent,  there  being  no 

distinctive  course  yel  marked  out  in  that  branch 
of  study.  We  are  far  behind  some  of  the  Euro 
j »ean  countries  in  our  facilities  and    methods  for 


training  students  in  the  art  and  practice  of  the 
care,  preservation,  and  planting  of  forests.  As 
a  part  of  the  equipment  for  illustration  and 
practice  on  these  farms,  are  found  some  500  head 
of  neat-cattle.  236  of  which  are  thorough-breds. 
representing  nine  distinct  1  needs.  The  horses 
and  mules  number  129,  only  3  of  which  are 
thorough-breds:  the  total  number  of  sheep  is 
233,  of  which  58  are  pure  bloods  of  various 
breeds;  the  swine  exceed  500, including  about 
4()i>  pure-bred  animals, representing  nearly  all  of 
the  well-established  breeds.  This  aggregation  of 
laboratories,  workshops,  museums,  greenhouses, 
orchards,  gardens,  farms,  and  domestic  animals 
is  furnished  and  provided  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  affording,  not  only  the  means  for  illus- 
trating the  subjects  taught, but  actual  experience 
and  skill  in  those  processes  which  require  that 
the  judgment,  eye.  and  hand,  as  well  as  the  in- 
tellect, should  be  trained. 

The  propriety  and  expediency  of  the  Congres- 
sional grant  by  means  of  which  these  institu- 
tions have  been  established,  have  been  seriously 
called  in  question;  indeed,  it  has  been  held  that 
the  function  of  government  should  be  strictly 
confined  to  the  promotion  of  elementary  instruc- 
tion. In  L873,  President  Eliot,  of  Harvard 
College,  took  strong  ground  against  the  endow- 
ment, by  the  Government,  of  institutions  for  su- 
perior or  technical  instruction,  and  was  sus- 
tained in  this  view  by  President  McCosh  and 
others.  At  the  session  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  held  at  Elmira,  N.  V.,  in  Au- 
gust, L873,  this  question  was  considerably  dis- 
cussed, and  the  principle  underlying  the  endow- 
ment of  the  agricultural  colleges  was  ably  vindi- 
cated in  a  paper  by  Prof.  <i.  W.  Atherton,  of 
New  Jersey,  entitled  The  Relation  of  ike  Gen- 
eral Government  to  Education,  in  which  he 
said.  "  These  younger  institutions  have  a  larger 
average  of  students,  by  more  than  one-tenth. 
than  the  long-established  colleges,  and  are  fairly 
occupying  with  them  the  field  of  higher  educa- 
tion. In  an  important  sense,  however,  they  are 
not  the  rivals  of  the  older  colleges.  Their  grad- 
uates, to  only  a  limited  extent .  enter  the  learned 
professions.  They  become  engineers,  farmers. 
mechanics,  architects.  They  labor  with  hand 
ami  brain.  They  become  leaders  and  organizers 
of  labor,  and  thus  precisely  fulfill  (he  intent  of 
Congress  when  it  designed  these  institutions  to 
furnish  a  '  liberal  and  practical  education  to  the 
industrial  classes'"  Prof.  Atkinson,  on  the 
same  occasion,  took  similar  ground.  "What, 
said  he,  "is  the  government  domain  but  the 
property  of  the  people,  and  to  what  higher  use 
can  the  people  put  it  than  to  promote  the  higher 
as  well  as  the  lower  education  of  all  the   people? 

We  have  in  this  country  no  aristocracy  of  edu- 
cation— not  one  education, as  in  the  old  country  . 

for  the  '  masses.'  and  another  and  higher  one  for 
the  privileged  minority.  The  republican  prin- 
ciple is,  the  best  education  for  all     the  best  and 

highest  education  for  the  '  masses.'  That  is  the 
only  principle  on  which  republican  institutions 
can  be   founded."     The  words  of  Washington 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 


11 


fully  justify  this  principle:  "In  proportion  as 
the  structure  of  a  government  gives  force  to 
public  opinion,  it  is  essential  that  public  opinion 
should  be  enlightened." 

t 'ourse  of  Study.  -The  full  course  of  four 
vcars  in  agriculture  comprises  the  following  sub- 
jects: (In  some  eases,  a  few  are  omitted  or  a  few 
aided:    hut    those   mentioned  will  serve  to  show 

what  studies  are  now  generally  considered  appli- 
cable and  necessary  in  this  course) — (1)  algebra; 
(2)  solid,  plane,  and  analytical  geometry,  trigo- 
nometry, and  the  calculus:  [H)  rhetoric  and 
composition, declamation  and  English  literature; 
(4)  drawing,  free-hand  and  linear;  (5)  surveying 
and  mapping ;  (6)  book-keeping,  especially  applied 
to  farm  accounts:  1 7i  botany,  general  and  agricult- 
ural;  (8)  horticulture,  floriculture,  and  general, 
market,  and  landscape  Hardening;  (9)  history, 
which  may  comprise  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing: American,  English,  Roman,  French,  agricult- 
ural, and  history  of  civilization  ;  (10)  physiology, 
hygiene,  and  comparative  anatomy.  (11)  zo- 
ology and  entomology;  (12)  veterinary  anatomy, 
physiology,  medicine,  and  surgery ;  (13)  chem- 
istry, general  and  agricultural ;  (14)  French  and 
German,  usually  extending  through  not  less 
than  two  or  three  terms  (when  both  languages 
are  not  required.  German  is  usually  preferred); 
(15)  physics,  geology,  mineralogy,  and  meteo- 
rology; (16)  constitutional  and  municipal  law 
and  political  economy;  (IT)  mechanics  applied 
to  agriculture  :  (18)  strength  and  preservation  of 
materials;  (1!))  rural  architecture.  The  subjects 
treated  of  under  the  head  of  applie  1  or  practical 
agriculture — with  slight  changes — are  as  follows  : 
(1)  stock-breeding,  including  the  laws  of  likeness 
or  similarity,  variation  and  atavism  ;  the  influence 
on  the  subsequent  progeny  of  the  dam.  by  tlu 
first  fruitful  connection,  in-and-in  and  miscel- 
laneous breeding,  the  government  of  sex,  the 
relative  influence  of  sire  and  dam  on  the  prog- 
eny, pedigrees  and  their  value,  the  history,  forma- 
tion, and  characteristics  of  breeds  and  families  ; 
("_')  the  selection,  breeding,  feeding,  and  general 
management  of  domestic  animals,  each  species 
and  race  being  treated  of  separately  ;  (3)  annual 
nutrition  ;  (4)  the  education,  shoeing,  driving, 
and  care  of  the  horse;  (5)  drains, — their  material 
anil  construction,  and  the  effect  of  drainage  on 
health,  soil,  climate,  and  plants;  (6)  soils, — their 
classification,  character,  mechanical  division,  and 
preparation  for  the  cereals  and  grasses ;  (7)  the 

preparation  and  selection  of  seed;  (8)  sowing, 
planting,  cultivating,  and  harvesting;  (9)  the 
nutrition  of  plants;  (10)  insect  enemies  and 
fungi;  (11)  the  culture  of  roots  and  their  value 
as  food  for  man  and  beast  ;  (12)  forage  plants, — 
their  culture,  use,  and  value;  (13)  weeds, — 
their  habit  of  growth,  time  of  seeding,  and  mode 
of  eradication  :  (14)  the  effects  of  air.  water,  heat, 
and  light,  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the 
growth  of  plants;  (15)  the  care,  cultivation,  and 
us- of  natural  and  artificial  forests;  (16)  fields, 

—  their   number,    shape,  and  size;    (17)   fences. 

—  their  material,  construction,  and  durability ; 
(18)  farm  yards  and  buildings  ;  (1!))  water  priv- 


ileges; (20)  farm  accounts;  (21)  the  manufact- 
ure, preservation,  and  application  of  farm  ma- 
nures: (22)  the  rotation  of  crops  :  (23)  farm  ma- 
chinery and  tools;  (24)  rural  law.  The  subjects 
of  instruction,  as  tar  as  possible,  are  illustrated 
by  diagrams,  cuts,  and  models.  The  lectures 
are  supplemented  by  field  practice,  varying  from 
5  to  15  hours  per  week,  and  sometimes  even 
more.  Visits  are  frequently  made  to  adjoining 
farms  and  herds.  The  lectures  and  practice 
usually  extend  through  at  least  one  year.    The 

foregoing  statement  shows  conclusively  that  there 
has  been  an  earnest,  systematic,  and  successful 
effort  to  promote  the  education  of  the  rural  clas- 
ses; and  it  may  be  truthfully  said,  that,  within 
the  last  ten  years,  no  other  department  of  educa- 
tion has  made  an  equal  degree  of  advancement. 

The  lirst  agricultural  school  in  Europe  was 
founded,  in  1804,  by  Fellenberg,  at  Ilofwyl  in 
Switzerland.      It   flourished    tor   more   than    30 

years  under  the  excellent  directi >f  Wehrli, 

and  educated  nearly  3,000  pupils.  'I  he  success  of 
Ilofwyl  led  to  the  establishment  of  other  schools 
of  the  same  character;  and.  at  present,  such 
schools  are  found  in  every  country  of  Europe. 
They  are  very  numerous  in  Germany  and  Aus- 
tria, and  are  divided  into  two  classes. — a  lower, 
called  Ackerbauschule,  intended  chiefly  to  give 
practical  instruction  in  agriculture,  and  a  higher, 
called  Landwirlhschafisschule,  in  which  the 
whole  science  of  agriculture,  with  all  its  auxil- 
iary sciences,  is  taught.  The  most  celebrated 
among  the  schools  of  a  higher  class  are  those  at 
Hohenheim  (established  in  1818),  Schleisheim 
(1822),  Jena  (1826),  Eldena  (1835).  Wiesbaden 
(1836),  Tharand  (1829),  Regenwalde  (1842), 
Poppelsdorf  (1H46),  Proskau  (1847),  I  ngarisch- 
Altenburg  (181 8).  Special  chairs  of  agriculture 
have  been  established  at  the  universities  of  Rer- 
lin,  Halle,  Gottingen,  Munich,  Leipsic,  Uiessen, 
and  Jena  ;  and  instruction  in  agriculture  is  also 
given  in  the  polytechnic  schools.  England  has 
a  Royal  Agricultural  College  at  Cirencester, 
founded  in  1849  ;  and  in  Scotland,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  has  a  chair  of  agriculture, 
and  special  lectures  are  given  in  a  college  at 
Aberdeen.  Ireland  has  two  agricultural  schools 
of  a  higher  grade, — one  at  Templemoyle,  founded 
in  1827;  and  the  other  at  Glasnevin,  founded 
in  L838.  France  has  three  higher  agricultural 
schools  and  one  school  of  forestry.  In  Italy, 
there  are  two  agricultural  schools  of  a  higher 
grade,  at  Milan  and  1'ortici.  Russia,  besides 
a  large  number  of  schools  of  agriculture  and 
forestry  of  a  lower  grade,  has  an  Agricultural 
Institute  at  Gorygorezk,  founded  in  L836,  an 
Institute  of  Agriculture  and  forestry  at  New 
Alexandria,  and  an  Academy  of  Agriculture 
and  forestry  at  Pctrovskoi.  See  LoEBE,  Die 
landwirthschofUichen  LehranstaUen  Europa's 
(Stuttgart.  L849)  ;  Schulz,  Die  (heoretisch-prak- 
tische  Ackerbauschule  (Jena,  1869). 

In  the  following  tabular  exhibit,  will  be  found 
a  full  statement  of  the  location,  condition,  re- 
sources, etc.,  of  all  the  agricultural  colleges  and 
departments  in  the  United  States. 


12 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 


STATE 


TOWN 


Arkansas Fayetteville 

Alabama Auburn 

California Oakland 

Connecticut New  Haven 

Delaware  Newark 

Florida J 

...  '  (  Athens   ) 

Borgia |  Dahlonega  . . .  } 

Illinois Champaign 

Indiana La  Fayette 

Iowa 'Ames 

Kansas  'Manhattan 


Kentucky  . 
Louisiana  . 
Maine 


Lexington 


Orono 


Maryland Near  Hyattsvillo, 

(Boston 


Massachusetts 


( Amherst . 
Lansing 


Michigan  . . 

Minnesota Minneapolis 

Mississippi Oxford 


Missouri jColumbia 

Nebraska Lincoln 

Nevada lElko 


New  Hampshire  Hanover 


New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina. 

Ohio 


Oregon  

Pennsylvania  . . 

Hhode  Island. . , 
South  Carolina. 
Tennessee , 

Texas 

\  ermont 


New  Brunswick. 

Ithaca  

Chapel  Hill 

Columbus 


Cor  vail  is 

State  College. 

Providence. . . 
Orangeburg  . 
Knoxville 

Bryan 

Burlington  . . 


Name  and  location  of  insti- 
tution, and  date  of  organiza- 
tion 


Virginia 


West  Virginia. 
Wisconsin 


!  (Hampton 

f  Blaoksburgb 
antown  . . 

M:i  llS'in 


(  Ark.  Indus.  University,  i 

(     Jan.  1871 j 

|  Agr.  &  Mechan.  Coll.  of 
(  Alabama,  March  1872. 
(  Univ.  of  California,  Fall 
I     of  1869 

Yale     Coll.  —  Sheffield 

Scientific  School,  1846. . 

Delaware  College 

Florida  State  Agr.  Coll. 

Univ.  of  (  Coll.  of  Agr. 

Georgia.  ( &  Mech.  Arts 
(HI.    Indus.   University, 

I      March  1808 

( Perdue  Univ.,  Septem- 
(     ber  16th, 1874 

Iowa  State  Agr.  Coll.  '68 

Kansas  State  Agr.  Coll. 

(Agr.  &  Mechan.  Coll.  of 
(     Kentucky,  1866 

(  Maine  State  Coll.  of  Agr. ) 
(      &  Mech.  Arts.   186'.).. .  J 

Maryland  Agr.  Coll.,  '68 
I  Mass.  Inst,  of  Technol- 1 

I      ogy ( 

\  Muss.  Agr.  College,  Oc-  I 

I      tober  2d,  1867 j 

I  Mich.    State    Agr.   Coll..  I 
(     February  1855 ) 

Univ.  of  Minn.,  1868.... 

Univ.  of  Mississippi .... 

/Univ.  of  Mo.,  1840 

\  Agr.   College,  organized 

) 1870 

{ Agr.  Coll.  of  Nebraska,  i 
|     June  1872 J 

Prep.  Department 

Dartmouth  Coll.— N.  H. 
Coll.  of  Agr.  &  Mech. 
Arts 

Rutgers  College,  1770... 

Cornell  University.  1868 

Univ.  of  North  Carolina 

(Ohio  Agr.  &  Mech.  Col-) 

(     lege,  1873. ( 

(Corvallis    College,    Au- 

I      gust,  1868 

j  Pennsylvania  State  Col- 1 
I     lege,  February  1859..] 

Brown  University 

I  ( llaflin  University  .Stale  > 
I      Agr.  Coll.  &  Mech.  Ins.  ) 

Tenn.  Agr.  Coll..  1869.. . 

I  Agr.  &  Mech.   coll.  of 

I      Texas 

I  Univ.  of  Vermont   and  I 

state  Agr.  coll..   1866.  j 

Hampton  Normal  \-  Agr.  | 

i  ustitution  ) 

(  Virginia  Agr    &    Mech.  i 

\     College,  1872 i 

West  Virginia  Univ 

I    ii\  .  el'  Wisconsin.  1868 


Name. 


title,     and    age 
president 


of 


N.  P.  Gates,  A.  M.,  42. . . 

Rev.     I.    F.    Tichenor, 
D.  D.,49 


U     (J 

^i    re. 


O  h 

■-    - 


'— 

a 

c 

SJ 

— 

V 

E 

r. 

u 

— 

^ 

< 

z 

— 

u 

3 

- 

u 

O 

O 

2 

■z:  ■    • 

3-3  J= 

~      t»      'J 

a  3  v 
-O  s<5 

2  5-ca 
N>u  . 

g  o< 

u  °  o 


£  5    »J 


°5; 


6.2 


s-s 


Rev.  Noah  Porter,  D.  D., 
LL.  D 

Win.  H.  Purnell,  A.M.. 
(Not  yet  organized.] 

Bev.  A.  Lipscomb,  D.  D. 

John  M.  Gregory,  LL.D., 

regent 

A.    M.     Shortridge,    A.i 

M.,  42 

A.  S.  Welch,  LL.D.,  53.. 
( Rev.     Joseph    Deuison, 

I     D.  D 

J.  B.  Bowman,  LL.  D., 

regent  

Not  yet  organized.) 

Rev.  C.F.  .Allen,  D.D.,  59 

W.  H.  Parker.  49 

John  D.  Runkle,  Ph.  D.. 
LL.  D 

W.  S.  Clark,  LL.  D.,  50..     10 


10 

5 

20 

35 
10 

11 

29 

1 
13 

13 


7 
34 


T.  C.  Abbot,  LL.D. 


W.W.  Folwell.  M.  A..43. 
<  Rev.  J.  N.  Waddel,  D.  D., 
I      Chancellor 


D.  Read.  LL.  D..68 

S.  R.  Thompson  Dean.  42 

I D.    R.    Sessions,    Prin- 
i     cipal.  36 

Rev.  Asa  D.  Smith,  D.D., 
LL.  D 

(Rev.     W.   H.    Campbell. 

i       Ii.  D 

A.D.White,  LL.D,  43.. 
(Not  yet  organized.) 

Edward  Orton.  A.  M... 
B.  L.  Arnold,  A.  M.,38.. 

Jas.  Calder,  D.  D  ,  50... 

(Bev.  E.  G.  Robinson.  ]). 
j     D.,  LL.D 

Bev.  K.Cooke. A.M.,  M.l> 
|  Rev.  T.  W.  Humes.  S.  T. 
|       D.,  60 

Not  yel  organized.] 
M.  D.Buckham,  A.M..  43 

S.  C.  Armstrong.  86.  .  .  . 

c.  I.,   c.  Minor,  M.    \.. 
1. 1..  D.,  30 


13 

10 
13 

25 


i  Rev.  .1.  H.Twombly,  l> 

i     i>..  48 


ii 

10 
23 

10 
5 

11 


16 

7 
18 

7 

16 


54* 


22 

0 
40 


77 
123 


40 

1 


•jo 
0 


15 

344 

15 

88 

312 

230 

0        56 
SO       277 


71 
352 


iss 
512 


166 

52      148 
255 


30 


292 


12 


P 

1" 


2501 
123      407     P 


P 
P 


0     113    P 

37  |   Ii:. 
56 

77  I  100J 
123  156J 
11      255     P 


4911    P 

18     P 

18 

479 


P 

1' 


23        91 
0     200     P 


222      P 
345     P 


*  No  distinct  degree  for  these  departments.    Graduated  as  Ph.  B. 
**  No  Beport . 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 


13 


age 
LH    83 


45 


L15 

L16 
L16 


79 

0 
M 


10—15  cts 
8  cts 


$130,000 


L15      8 


L16| 

L 
L14 


0 
59 


L16    87 


L15 
1,14 


1, 17   40 


12 }z  cts 

7—10  its 
9  cts 


5—10  cts 
10  cts 

15  cts 
10  cts 
15  cts 

12  cts 
10—15  cts 


L 

L14 


50 


1,16 
L14 


89 


$130,000  0 

$253,000  0 


$120,000 


15  cts 


10—18  cts 


5—10  cts 


5 — 8  cts 
7—18  cts 

15  cts 


$319,000 

$371,000 
$500,000 

$1G5,000 

$134,000 

$12,800 

$450,000 
$231,377 
$256,037 


$319,000 
$212,238 


$165,000 
$134,000 

$170,000 
$231,377 
$256,037 

$54,749 
0 


25,000  a.  t 
$75,000) 

0 

31.321  a. 


0 

165,154  a.) 

$495,463 j 
149,374  a.  I 

$945,770) 


200,000  a. ) 
$325,000 ) 

90,000  a. ) 
$300,000 ) 


$25,000 
$22,000 


$50,000  to 
53,000 


$40,000  to 
$48,000 


$10,000 
$20,000 

$6,000 


$145,000 
$100,000 


K(l     -1      ■> 


86 


$35,000 

$18,000 

$13,000 
$12,800 

$25,000 

variable 

$34,698 

$63,467 


$27,710 

$20,000 
$32,000 


7(1 

$2,500.  Farm      70 

$65,000       50C 

$210,000     ;  145 
$60,000     ,  294 


4d 
40 


35 

8  4 

Id  1(1 


$397,325 
$1,261,999 


$116,000 
$601,999 


$500,000 


$395,267 
$50,000 


$396,000  $268,909 


$125,000 
$210,000 

$220,833 


(  400,000  a.  \ 
{  $2,000,000 ) 

90,000  a. 
0 


$9,900 

$8,000 
$6,000 

$8,500 
$16,196 
$10,699 

$5,474 
0 


$107,500 


$250,000 

$180,000 
$100,000 

$250,000 
$231,407 
$147,713 

2,250.  Stock 


400  7  12 


370 
285 

383 
150 
114 

640 
293 


2 

1 

5 
8 
2  3 


0  20 


is 


1 
0 

1^ 


$6,960 
$40,000 


$40,000 
Farm  &  Stock 

$56,000 


$122,626 

$95,000 

$190,000 


0 
0 
0 

52,403  a.  \ 
$65,503) 


$6,500 
$32,923  $30,000 

$20,500  $22,572 


$19,000 
$40,000 


is, Kill 
$10,329 
$20,629 


$65,781  $16,148 


$632,000 

$125,000 

$180,000 

$209,500 

$38,950 


95 
124 


227 


200 


5 
10|  6 


0 
150 

150 

175 

35 

40 

300 

0 

250 

0 


20 

0 

300 


75 
55 


21 

23 
90 


50 

22 

0 


20 

ll  60 
0 


12 


20 


30 
1 


185:18 

300  5 
150  6 


2d 


30 


65 


l! 

0   50 

•jo 


1 

0 
60 


60 


26 


20 


10 
30 

80 


14 


ANN 


ALABAMA 


AHN,  Johann  Franz,  a  (Jerman  teacher, 
noted  for  his  method  of  teaching  foreign  lan- 
guages, was  born  in  179(*>,  and  died  in  1865.  He 
gave  instruction  for  many  years  in  the  Meal- 
schule  at  Neuss,  and  published  several  manuals 
for  teaching  the  German  and  other  languages  ; 
but  his  chief  work  was  his  Practiced  Method/or 
tin'  rapid  and  easy  Learning  of  the  French 
Language  (Praktischer  Lehrgang  zur  schnel- 
len  und  leichten  fflrlernung  der  franzb'siscJien 
Sprache).  'Phis  work,  between  L834  and  1875, 
passed  through  190  editions.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  several  works  in  general  literature,  llis 
elementary  books  on  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guages have  been  translated  into  all  the  languages 
of  the  civilized  world,  and  have  everywhere  found 
an  immense  circulation.  The  fame  thus  acquired 
by  Aim's  method  of  studying  foreign  languages 
has  led  to  numerous  imitations,  not  a  few  of 
which  are  utterly  unworthy  of  the  just  reputa- 
tion of  the  original  author.  The  method  of  Aim 
was.  to  a.  large  extent,  founded  on  the  works  of  Dr. 
Seidenstucker,  and  combines  both  the  analytical 
ami  the  synthetical  method.  The  principle  on 
which  it  is  ba£ed  is.  that  the  mode  of  learning 
a  foreign  language  should,  as  closely  as  possible, 
correspond  to  the  manner  in  which  a  child 
acquires  a  knowledge  of   his  native  tongue. 

AINSWORTH,  Robert,  an  English  teacher 
and  scholar  of  considerable    eminence,  was   born 

in  L660,  and  died  in  1.743.  He  taught  private 
schools  for  some  years,  but  having  soon  obtained 
a  competency,  he  was  enabled  to  relinquish  the 
business  of  teaching.  From  171 4  to  1736, he  was 
engaged  in  compiling  the  Latin  dictionary  which 
has  made  him  famous.  This  work  was  extensively 
used  in  schools  both  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States,  but  has  for  some  years  been  superseded 
by  works  of  greater  accuracy. 

ALABAMA,  one  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  American  Union,  was  originally  a  part  of 
Georgia, except  the  south-western  portion,  which 
belonged  to  Florida.  It  was  set  off  from  Georgia, 
in  L798,  as  a  portion  of  the  Territory  of  Missis- 
sippi, from  1  si  7  to  L819,  it  was  known  as  the 
Territory  of  Alabama,  in  the  latter  year,  being 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state.  Its  area  is 
50,722  si|.  m.  :  and  its  population,  in  1870,  was 
996,992,  of  whom  521,384  were  whites:  475,510, 
colored  persons;  and  98,  Indians. 

Educational  History. — The  first  constitution 
of  the  state  declared  that  "schools  and  the  means 
of  education  should  be  forever  encouraged,"  and 
gave  directions  for  the  preservation  of  all  land 

grants  r ived  for  this  purpose  from  the  general 

government,  and  the  seminary  lands  for  a  "state 
university  for  the  promotion  of  the  arts,  litera- 
ture, and  science."  Attempts  were  made,  in 
L823, and  at  various  times  thereafter, to  organize 
an  efficient  public-School  system;  but  little  was 
accomplished  ti!L  1854,  when  a  general  system 
was  established  under  which,  according  to  the 
report  of  the  supc  rintendent  of  education,  the 
state,  in  lNf>7,  was  "in  proportion  to  her  white 
tax-paying  and  school-attending  population,  far 
ahead  of  nearly  all  the  southern  states, and  most 


of  the  New  England  states ;  was  the  superior, 
in  the  school  room,  of  even  Massachusetts;  and 
was  almost  the  peer  of  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania/' In  L856,  county  superintendents  were 
substituted  for  the  county  boards  of  school  com- 
missioners previously  existing.  Under  this  sys- 
tem, township  trustees  had  complete  control  of 
the  school  funds,  and  could  aid  schools  already 
established  according  to  their  discretion.  In 
1860,  according  to  the  census  of  that  year,  there 
were  in  the  state  1.903  public  schools,  with  I'd  ,751 
pupils,  and  17  colleges,  attended  by  2,120  stu- 
dents, besides  206  academies  and  other  schools, 
with  10.77s  pupils.  The  income  for  the  support 
of  common  schools  was  $489,474,  of  which  near- 
ly $200,000  was  derived  from  public  funds.  The 
progress  made  during  the  previous  decade  is  in- 
dicated by  the  fact  that,  in  1  Sat),  there  were  re- 
ported 127,390  children  in  the  state,  of  whom 
only  35,039  were  attending  school.  The  consti- 
tution of  the  state,  ratified  Feb.  4.,  L868,  ex- 
pressly provided  that  all  children  between  the 
ages  of  5  and  21  years  should  be  educated  free 
of  charge;  and  in  accordance  with  its  provisions, 
a  new  system  was  adopted  the  same  year,  which 
placed  the  schools  under  the  supervision  and 
control  of  a.  board  of  education,  and  gave  to 
county  superintendents  much  of  the  power  be- 
fore committed  lo  township  trustees.  In  L871, 
the  school  law  was  again  changed,  the  control  of 
the  schools  being  entrusted  to  a  state  superin- 
tendent, district  superintendents,  and  township 
trustees,  all  elected  by  the  people.  'I  he  state 
board  of  education  was  abolished,  its  duties  be- 
ing discharged  by  the  legislature,  which,  in  the 
words  of  tiie  law,  "shall  designate,  in  advance, 
such  days  as  they  may  deem  best  (during  the 
session  of  the  general  assembly)  for  the  consider- 
ation of  measures  relating  to  the  educational  in- 
terests of  the  state;  on  which  days  the  state 
Superintendent  shall  be  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the 
house  then  considering  educational  measures, 
and  shall  have,  and  may  exercise. all  of  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  a  member  of  such  house,  but 
have  no  vote."  In  1872.-.':.  and  -  I,  various 
changes  were  made  in  the  school  law;  but  the 
new  constitution  of  the  state,  which  took  effect 
December  (>..  1875,  supersedes  all  laws  previous- 
Iv  passed,  and  confirms  that  portion  of  the  act 
proposed  in  1871,  which  relates  to  the  admin- 
istration of  the  schools. 

State  Superintendents.  —  The  office  of  state 
superintendent  was  first  tilled  by  General  W.  F. 

Perry,  his  title  being  Superintendent  of  Educa- 

eation.      He    was    elected    by  the    legislature    in 

L854.  His  successor,  in  1854,  was  »i.  It.  l>u  Val, 

who  died  in  office,  his  successor  being.  I.  B.Taylor. 
who   was  appointed  to  lill    the  vacancy  in  L865. 

John  Ryan  was  elected  to  the  office  in  L866,and 

served  till  L867,  when  the  office  was  merged  in 
that  of  State  comptroller,  its  duties  being  per- 
formed by  M.  A.  Chishohn.  from  November. 
L867,t0  -inly.  L868.  In  that  year,  the  title  of 
the  office  was  changed  to  that  of  Superintendent 
.a  Public  Instruction,  N.  B.  Cloud  being  the 
first  incumbent,      llis  successors  were  J.  llodg- 


ALATtAMA. 


15 


son  (1870—72);  Joseph  II.  Speed  (1872—4); 
John  M.  McKleroy  (1874—6);  and  I.croy  P.  Box, 
with  the  title  of  Superintendent  of  Education, 
restored  by  the  constitution  of  1875. 

School  System.  —  By  the  law  of  L877,  the 
officers  i>f  the  school  system  are  (1)  a  superin- 
tendent of  education  for  the  state,  (2)  a  county 
superintendent  in  each  county,  and  (■">)  three 
trustees  of  public  schools  in  each  township  or 
other  school  district.  The  state  superintendent 
is  elected  by  the  people,  and  holds  office  for  two 
years.  I  lc  is  required  to  give  a  bond  in  the  sum 
of  815,000,  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his 

duties,  which    are   as    follows:    (  1  )  To  exercise  a 

general  supervision  over  all  the  educational  in- 
terests of  the  state ;  (2)  To  visit  annually  every 
county  in  the  state  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting 
the  schools  and  their  management,  assisting  also 
in  the  organization  and  managementof  teachers' 
institutes:  (3)  To  apportion  and  distribute  an- 
nually the  school  money  as  prescribed  by  law, 
and  to  sec  to  its  proper  disbursement;  (4)  To 
keep  proper  records,  and  to  prepare  and  dis- 
tribute to  the  other  school  officers  necessary 
blanks  :  (5)  To  keep  in  his  office  an  accurate  ac- 
count of  the  capital  of  all  sixteenth-section  or 
other  trust  fund  to  which  each  township  may  be 
entitled:  and  (6)  To  make  an  annual  report  to 
the  governor.  The  county  superintendents  are 
appointed  by  the  state  superintendent  for  two 
years.  Their  duties  are  to  pay  the  teachers,  to 
receive  and  take  charge  of  the  school  moneys  of 
the  county,and  distribute  the  same,  and  to  make 
an  annual  report  of  their  proceedings  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  schools  of  the  county,  to  the  state 
superintendent.  They  are  required  to  give  bonds 
for  the  faithful  performance  of  their  duties. — 
Three  township  trustees  are  elected  biennially 
who  have  the  immediate  control  of  the  schools. 
subject  to  supervision  by  the  county  superintend- 
ent. In  several  of  the  cities,  special  school  laws 
are  in  force,  by  which  the  immediate  manage- 
ment of  the  schools  is  entrusted  to  city  boards  ol 
commissioners,  subject  cither  to  the  supervision 
of  the  county  superintendent,  or  of  city  super- 
intendents. Four  grades  of  schools  are  compre- 
hended in  the  operation  of  the  law — primary, 
intermediate,  grammar,  and  high  schools.  In  the 
filet,  spelling,  reading,  and  the  elements  of  arith- 
metic and  of  geography  are  taught  ;  in  the 
second,  these  studies  are  continued,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  grammar  and  writing;  in  the  third, 
etymology,  composition,  history,  and  elocution 
are  added  :  and  in  the  fourth,  the  higher  branches 
common  to  schools  of  this  grade  are  pursued. 
The  school  fund  is  composed  of  "the  income 
from  the  16th  section  trust  fund,  the  surplus 
revenue  fund,  until  it  is  called  for  by  the  United 
States  government :"  the  proceeds  of  "  all  lands 
or  other  property  given  by  individuals  or  ap- 
propriated by  the  state  for  educational  purposes, 
and  all  estates  of  deceased  persons  who  die  with- 
out leaving  a  will  or  heir:"  "  an  annual  poll  tax. 
not  to  exceed  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  on  each 
poll ;"  with  such  other  moneys,  "  to  be  not  less 
than   §100,000  per  annum,  as   the   general  as- 


sembly shall  provide  by  taxation  or  otherwise." 
It  is.  also,  made  the  duty  of  the  assembly  to 
increase,  from  time  to  time,  the  public  school 
fund,  as  the  condition  of  the  treasury  ami  the 
resources  of  the  state  will  admit.'  In  addition 
to  this,  each  county  may  raise,  by  annual  taxa- 
tion, an  amount  not  exceeding  10  cents  on  each 
$100  of  taxable  property.  Ninety- six  percent 
of  the  money  raised  oi-  appropriated  must  be 

used  for  the  payment  of  teachers  unless  other- 
wise directed  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each 
branch  of  the  legislature.  Schools  tor  whites  and 
blacks  must  be  separate.  Sectarian  or  denomina- 
tional schools  are  not  cut  it  led  to  any  share  of  the 
public-school  money.  'I  he  school  age  is  from  7 
to  21  years. 

Educational  Condition. —  The  number  of 
school-districts  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was  1,696, 
the  area  of  each  being  six  miles  square  except  in 
the  ease  of  fractional  townships.  In  each  of  these 
districts,  there  must  be.  at  least,  one  school  for 
each  race, — white  and  colored.  The  *'/'<><>{  reve- 
nue,  at  that  time,  was  as  follows  : 

Interest  on  Kith  section  fond $146,983.32 

"      "  the  surplus   revenue 

fund 53,526.94 

One-fifth  of  the  state  revenui 

the  previous  year 209,887. 1 1 

Poll-tax  collected  in  IsT'J— :;.. . .     -  0,486.66 
'•  ••  '«  1S7.» 73,555.30 


Total $564,439.66 

This  state  has  received  from  the  Peabody  fund, 
since  1868,  §59,550.  The  amount  received  in 
1875  was  |4,300.     (See  Peabody  Fund.) 

The  expenditures  were  as  folloyvs  : 
Poll-tax  disbursed  by  superintend- 
ents  $73,555.30 

Apportioned     to     counties    and 

cities 176,332.29 

Apportioned  to  normal  schools. . .  10,000.00 
Incidental  expenses 2,550.00 

Total $562,437.59 

The  other  principal  items  of  school  statistics 

are  the  following  : 

No.  of  children  of  school  age:  white,     '.'.'!:!, 7:;:: 

colored,  172,537 


Total 40"3,270 

No.  of  children  enrolled:  white,        91,202 

colored,    ."> 4 ,.">!»"> 

Total 145,797 

Avcrage  attendance:  white,      67,024 

colored,  4::,22:> 


Total. 

Xo.  of  teachers: 


white,   male,  1,669 

"       female,  1,006 

colored,  male,  1,002 

female,  'isl 


.110,253 


Total 3,961 

Average  monthly  salary,  white  teachers $26.50 

»  "  "    colored       "        $'!'■  87 

Normal  Instruction.  —  Three  state  normal 
schools  are  in  existence,  the  expenditure  for 
which,  during  the  year  1875,  was  810,000.  The 
first,  at  Florence,  organized' in  1873,  is  designed 
for  the  education  of  white  teachers  of  both  sexes. 


■11 ; 


ALABAMA 


It  has  a  library  and  apparatus  valued  at  $8,000, 
besides  the  buildings,  which  are  estimated  at 
$30,000;  and,  in  L875,  reported  4  teachers  and 
126  pupils.  The  State  Normal  School  and  Uni- 
versity, at  Marion,  and  the  Normal  School,  at 
JIuntsville,  are  neither  of  them  so  extensive  as 
that  at  Florence.  They  are  intended  for  the 
education  of  colored  teachers.  The  former,  in 
1875,  had  3  teachers  and  70  pupils  ;  the  latter, 
2  teachers  and  8-1  pupils.  This  institution  is 
designed  to  become  a  university  for  the  colored 
population  of  the  state.  Besides  these  state  nor- 
mal institutions,  there  are  four  schools  of  the 
same  grade  under  the  control  of  the  American 
Missionary  Association,  and  one  conducted  by 
the  Methodists,  having  an  aggregate,  in  the  state, 
of  G59  pupils  under  normal  instruction. 

Teachers'  institutes  were  held,  during  the 
year  1875, in  six  counties,  and  their  organization 
is  contemplated  in  four  more.  The  interest 
aroused,  both  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  and  of 
the  people  at  the  places  of  meeting,  leads  to  the 
belief  that  their  permanent  establishment  is  only 
a  question  of  time. 

Secondary  Instruction. — There  are  21s  pub- 
lic high  schools  in  operation  in  the  state,  3  of 
which  are  for  colored,  the  remainder,  for  white 
pupils.  The  course  of  study  prescribed  for  these 
institutions  has  been  already  stated.  A  number  of 
high  schools  and  academies  are  scattered  through 
the  state,  which  occupy  a  position  intermediate 
between  the  primary  schools  and  colleges.  Accu- 
rate statistics  in  regard  to  them  are,  however,  dif- 
ficult to  procure.  In  Talladega  College,  the  work 
has  thus  far  been  entirely  preparatory,  the  colle- 
giate classes  not  having  been  formed.  In  1875, 
it  had  1 2  instructors,  and  a  total  of  247  students  in 
all  the  departments.  It  is  conducted  by  the 
American  Missionary  Association  for  the  benefit 
of  the  colored  people. 

Superior  Instruction. — There  are  several  in- 
stitutions of  this  grade  in  the  state,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  enumerated  in  the  fol- 
lowing list : 


NAME 


Howard  College 

Southern  University. 

Spring  Hill  College. . 
Univ.  of  Alabama. .    . . 


Location 


\\  lien    Religions 
found-  denomina- 

ed  tion 


Marion 

Greensboro 
Near  Mobile 
Tuscaloosa 


1hi:j  Hap. 

L856  M.F.pis.S. 

1836  B.  C. 

1820  Non-sect. 


To  the  above  list. must  be  added  9  institutions 
which  afford  opportunities  for  the  higher  edu- 
cation of  women.  In  addition  to  the  studies 
usually  pursued  in  such  institutions,  special  at- 
tention is  given  to  the  ornamental  branches. 
The  number  of  instructors  in  these  institutions, 
in  L875,  was  80  ;  the  number  of  students.  ss:j. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.  — 
The  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Ala- 
bama was  established  at  Auburn  by  an  act  of  the 
legislature,  its  endowment  being  the  proceeds  of 
the  liuid  grant  made  by  Congress  for  the  benefit 
of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  The 
amount  thus  derived  was  $218,000,  to  which  was 
added  .all  the  property  of  East  Alabama  College, 


amounting  to  more  than  SI  00,000.  Students 
are  required  to  pursue  a  three  years'  elementary 
course,  after  which  they  are  permitted  to  choose 
one  of  four  courses — that  of  scientific  agriculture, 
of  civil  and  mining  engineering,  of  literature,  or 
of  science.  Under  agricultural  chemistry,  are 
taught  the  composition  of  soils,  the  relation  of 
air  and  moisture  to  vegetable  growth,  the  chem- 
istry of  farm  processes,  the  methods  of  improving 
soils,  etc.  These  are  accompanied  by  lessons  in 
practical  agriculture  throughout  the  course.  Mili- 
tary training  is  given,  but  only  to  the  extent  of 
improving  the  health  and  bearing  of  the  stu- 
dents. Free  scholarships,  two  in  number,  are  pro- 
vided for  each  county  in  the  state.  The  course 
of  study  covers  four  years.  The  number  of  in- 
structors in  all  the  departments,  in  1*75,  was  7; 
the  number  of  students,  50,  in  the  regular  course, 
and  5  in  the  special.  Law  is  taught  in  departments 
organized  for  the  purpose  in  the  State  University 
and  the  Southern  University  ;  theology,  in  the 
Southern  University,  in  Talladega  College,  and, 
to  some  exteut,  in  Howard  (  ollege ;  medicine, 
in  the  Southern  University,  and  in  the  Medical 
College  of  Alabama,  at  Mobile.  This  last  in- 
stitution provides  a  two  years'  course  of  study, 
and,  in  1875,  had  9  instructors  and  50  students. 

Special  Instruction.-  The  Alabama  Institution 
for  the  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind  was  founded  in 
18f>0  at  Talladega,  and  is  maintained  at  an  annual 
expense  of  about  $1H,000.  The  deaf-mute  depart- 
ment is  provided  with  a  small  museum  of  natural 
history  and  a  library  of  300  volumes.  The  studies 
pursued  are  mathematics  and  the  ordinary  En- 
glish branches.  Instruction  is  also  given  in  agri- 
culture and  gardening.  In  1875,  there  were 
4  instructors  and  52  pupils.  In  the  department 
for  the  blind  there  were,  in  the  same  year,  2  in- 
structors and  10  pupils. 

ALABAMA,  University  of,  at  Tuscaloosa, 
was  chartered  in  1820,  but  not  organized  till 
ls.il.  At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war, 
it  was  in  a  prosperous  condition,  but  was  burned 
by  a  federal  force  during  the  war.  It  was  rebuilt 
in  1868,  and  is  now  in  a  nourishing  condition. 
The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  apparatus, 
etc.,  is  estimated  at  $150,000  :  and  it  has  an  en- 
dowment of  $300,000.  Its  library  contains  5,000 
volumes.  In  L874,  the  number  of  instructors 
was  9,  and  of  collegiate  students  7(i.  'I  he  aca- 
demic depart  men  t  embraces  eight  courses  of  study, 
i 'I  nil  to  the  selection  of  the  students:  (1)  Latin 
language  and  literature;  (2)  Greek  language  and 
literature;    (.'!)    English   language  and  literature; 

ii)  Modem  languages;   (5)  Chemistry,  geology, 

and  natural  history;  (6)  Natural  philosophy; 
(7)  Mathematics  and  astronomy  ;  (8)  Mental  and 
moral  philosophy.  The  department  of  profes- 
sional education  embraces  a  school  of  law,  and 
a  school  of  civil  engineering.     All  the  students, 

except  those  specially  infirm,  are  subjected  to 
military  drill.  A  special  military  school  affords  in- 
struction in  military  science  and  art,  in  military 
law.  and  in  elementary  tactics.  The  president  of 
the  institution  is  Carlos  G.  Schmidt,  LL.  D., 
elected  in  1874. 


ALP.ION   COLLEGE 


ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL 


17 


ALBION  COLLEGE,  al  Albion,  Mich.,  was 
chartered  aa  a  college  in  L861,  by  members  df 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  The  number 
of  students  is  about  200,  males  and  females.  It 
lias  a  preparatory,  classical,  and  scientific  course 
of  instruction,  its  endowment  fund  is  $200,000. 
It-  library  contains  about  2000  volumes.  Rev. 
<;.  B.  Jbcelyn,  D.  1>..  is  the  president  of  the 
institution   (1875).  The  tuition  is  free. 

ALCOTT,  Amos  Bronson,  an  American 
educator,  was  born  in  L799.  He  firsl  gained 
distinction  by  teaching  an  infant  school,  for 
winch  employment  he  evince  I  a  singular  aptitude 
and  tact.  He  removed  to  Boston  in  L828,  \vh  re 
he  manifested  the  same  skill  in  teaching  young 
children  at  the  Masonic  Temple.  His  methods, 
however,  were  in  advance  of  public  opinion,  and 
were  disapproved,  (hi  the  invitation  of  James 
P.  Greaves,  of  London,  ^he  co-laborer  of  P< 
loz/.i  in  Switzerland,  in  educational  reform,  Mr. 
Alcott,  in  L842,went  to  England;  but  the  death 
of  Mr.  <  rreaves,  which  occurred  before  his  arrival, 
interfered  with  his  prospects.  On  his  return  to 
thi<  country,  he  attempted  with  some  of  his 
Rngjish  Mends  to  establish  a  new  community 
at  Harvard.  Mass.;  but  the  enterprise  was  soon 
abandoned.  Mr.  Alcott  has  since  written  several 
works,  one  of  which,  Concord  Days,  was  pub- 
lished in  1872. — See  E.  P.  Peabody,  Record  of 
Sr](nol  (  Hoston,  1834),  and  Conversation  on  the 
Gospels  (Boston,  1836). 

ALCOTT,  William  Alexander,  M.  D., 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  noted  for  his  zeal  and 
success  as  a  common-school  teacher,  and  his  life- 
long efforts  in  behalf  of  popular  education,  was 
born  in  Woleott,  Ct.,  in  1798,  and  died  at 
Auburndale,  Mass.,  in  1859.  He  bad  only  an 
elementary  education  :  and,  for  several  years,  he 
taught  in  the  district  schools  of  his  native  State, 
distinguished  for  his  remarkable  earnestness,  and 
the  many  reforms  which  he  labored  to  introduce 
into  the  imperfect  school  management  and  in- 
struction of  his  time.  He  afterwards  studied 
medicine;  but  Ids  chief  labors  were  devoted  to 
the  cause  of  education,  co-operating  with  Gallau- 
det,  Woodbridge,  and  others  in  the  endeavor  to 
bring  about  much-needed  reforms  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  State.  Subsequently,  he  associated 
himself  with  William  ( '.  Woodbridge,  and  as- 
d  him  in  the  compilation  of  his  school  geog- 
raphies, and  also  in  editing  the  American  An- 
nals of  Education.  He  also  edited  several  juve- 
nile periodicals.  His  newspaper  contributions 
were  very  numerous,  and  quite  effective  ^>n  ac- 
COUnl    of     their    racy    and    spirited    style.       An 

article  which  he  published  on  the  Construction  of 
-    oolrHouses  gained  him  a  premium  from  the 

American  Institute  of  Instruction.  His  labors 
as  a  lecturer  on  hygiene,  practical  teaching,  and 
kindred  subjects  were  severe  and  unintermitting. 
He  is  said  to  have  visited  more  than  20,000 
schools,  in  many  of  which  he  delivered  lectures. 
His  writings  are  very  numerous;  and  some  of 
them  were  widely  popular.  The  most  noted  are  : 
Confessions  of  a  Schoolmaster,  The  House  I 
Lir^  in,  The  Young  Man's  Guide,  The  Yo>*//>/ 


Woman's  Guide,  The  Young  Housekeeper,  etc., 

etc.     l>r.  Alcott   was  a  genuine  philanthropist, 

though  extreme  and  somewhat  eccentric  in  mans 
of  his   views.      As  one  of    the    pio rs    in    the 

cause  of  common-school  education  and  reformin 

practical  teaching,  his  labors  were  of  incalculable 
value. 

ALCUIN  (Lat.  Flaccus  Albinus  Alcuinus), 
a  distinguished  English  scholar,  ecclesiastic,  and 
reviver  of  learning,  was  born  in  Yorkshire 
aboul  753,  and  did  in  804.  lie  was  educated 
at  York  under  the  direction  of  Archbishop 
Egbert,  and  was  subsequently  director  of  the 
seminary  in  that  city.  Returning  from  Rome, 
whither  he  had  gone  by  direction  of  the  English 
king,  he  met  the  emperor  Charlemagn< 
Parma,  and  was  induced  by  that  monarch  to 
take  up  his  residence  at  the  French  court,  and 
become  the  royal  preceptor.  Accordingly,  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  he  gave  instruction,  for  some 
time,  to  Charlemagne  and  his  family,  ill  rhetoric, 
logic,  divinity,  and  mathematics.  It  has  been 
said  with  much  truth,  that  " France  is  indebted 
to  Alcuin  for  all  the  polite  learning  of  which  it 
could  boast  in  that  and  the  following  ages."  The 
universities  of  Paris,  Tours.  Soissons,  and  many 
others  were  either  founded  by  him,  or  greatly 
benefited  by  his  zeal  in  their  behalf,  and  the 
favor  which  he  procured  for  them  from  Charle- 
magne. In  796,  be  was  appointed  abbot  of  St. 
Martin's  at  Tom's,  where  he  opened  a  school  wdiich 
acquired  great  celebrity.  Here  he  continued 
teaching  till  his  death.  Alcuin  was  probably 
the  most  learned  man  and  the  most  illustrious 
teacher  of  his  age ;  and  his  labors  were  veiy  im- 
portant in  giving  an  impetus  to  the  revival  of 
learning,  after  the  intellectual  night  of  the  Dark 
Ages.  He  left  many  epistles,  poems,  and  treat- 
ises upon  theological  and  historical  subjects,  all 
written  in  Latin,  and  noted  for  the  elegance  and 
purity  of  their  style.  The  Life  of  Alcuin  (Lebe/t 
Alalia's)  by  Prof.  Lorf.nz.  of  Halle  (1829)  has 
been  translated  into  English  (1837)  by  Si.ee. — See 
AUgemeine  Deutsche  Biographic,  art.  Alcuin. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL,  a  name  vari- 
ously applied,  but  chiefly  designating  (1)  a  school 
of  philosophers  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  which 
is  chiefly  noted  for  the  development  of  Neoplato- 
nisin.  and  its  efforts  to  harmonize  oriental  theol- 
Ogy  with  (deck  dialectics;  (2)  a  school  of 
Christian  theologians  in  the  same  city,  which 
aimed  at  harmonizing  Pagan  philosophy  with 
Christian  theology.  The  city  of  Alexandria  be- 
came, soon  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  by  whom  it  had  been  founded,  a  chief 
seat  of  science  and  literature.  The  time  during 
which  the  teachers  and  schools  of  Alexandria 
enjoyed  a  world-wide  reputation,  is  called  tin 
Alexandrian  Age,  and  is  divided  into  two  pe- 
riods, tin'  former  embracing  the  time  of  the 
Ptolemies,  and  extending  from  323  to  30  I'..  C. 
and  the  second  embracing  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
mans, extending  from  .'!<)  !!.('.  to  640  A.D. 
(irammar,  poetry,  mathematics,  and  the  natural 
sciences  were  all  taught  in  the  Alexandrian 
School ;  and  among  the  most  illustrious  teachers 


18 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT 


ALGEBRA 


were  Ammonius,  Plotinus,  Hierocles,  Proclus, 
Apollonius  (poet),  Galen  (physician),  Euclid 
(mathematician), Eratosthenes  (astronomer),  Ptol- 
emy (geographer).  When  Christianity  began  to 
gain  a  firm  footing,  it  was  found  necessary  to  de- 
vote to  the  instruction  of  the  catechumens  special 
care,  in  order  to  fortify  them  against  the  attacks 
upon  Christianity  by  the  pagan  philosophers.  The 
catechists  not  only  gave  to  the  candidates  for 
admission  into  the  Christian  Church  element- 
ary instruction.  1  tut  also  delivered  learned  lectures 
on  Christianity,  and  combined  with  it  instruction 
in  philosophy.  Though,  from  its  original  character, 
the  school  continued  to  be  called  the  catechetical 
school  of  Alexandria,  it  was  in  its  subsequent 
development  something  very  different  from  a 
catechetical  school,  and  may  rather  be  regarded 
as  the  first  theological  faculty,  or  school  of  scien- 
tific theology,  in  the  Christian  Church,  [n  op- 
position to  the  pagan  philosophers,  the  teachers 
of  the  Christian  schools  chiefly  undertook  to 
show  that  Christianity  is  the  only  true  philos- 
ophy, and  alone  can  lead  to  the  true  gnosis,  or 
knowledge.  As  the  first  teacher  of  the  Christian 
theological  school,  Pantaenus  (about  180)is  men- 
tioned, who  was  followed  by  Clement,  Origen, 
Heraclas,  Dionysius,  Pierius,  Theognostes,  Sera- 
pion,  IVter  Martyr.  The  last  famous  teacher  of 
tin'  school  was  Didymus  the  Blind  (335  to  .'!'.).'>). 
who, being  blind  from  boyhood,  had  learned  read- 
ing, writing,  geometry,  etc..  by  means  of  brass 
let  ters  and  figures,  and  was  equally  distinguished 
for  his  piety  and  extent  of  knowledge.  The  method 
of  teaching   used    in  this,  as  well  as  in  the  other 

schools  of  that  age.  was  the  Pythagorean.    The 

teacher    explained,   and     the     pupil    listened    in 

silence,  though  he  was  permitted  to  ask  questions. 

Every  tefifiher  taught  in  his  own  house,  there  be- 
ing no  public  school  1  mill  lings.    The  teachers  did 

not  receive  a    fixed   salary,  but    the   pupils  made 

them  presents.  Origen  is  reported  to  have  de- 
clined all  presents,  lie  supported  himself  on  a 
daily  Stipend  of   four  oboli,  which  he  received  for 

copying  the  manuscripts  of  ancient  classics. — See 
M  ltter,  Histoire  de  I'ecole  d'Alexandrie  (2  vols., 
2d  ed.,  Paris,  L840  1844);  Barthelemy  St.- 
Hilaire,  De  I'ecole  d'Alexandrie  (Paris.  L845); 
Simon,  Histoire  <!'■  I'ivolc.  d'Ale.ri  tin  trie  (2  vols., 
Paris,  L844  —  L845);  Vacherot,  Histoire  cri- 
tique de  I'ecole  d'Alexandrie  (3  vols..  I'aris.  L846 
— 1851);  Guerike,  ~De  Schola  quaz  Alexandriae 
floruit  vittfi-lirtiru    (Halle,    lSL'l);    I  Iasski.c,  veil, 

ue  schola  '/mi''  Alexandriae  floruit  catechetica 
(Stettin.  L826)  :  Kittkk,  Geschichte  der  christ- 
lichen  Pkihsqphie,  vol.  i,  p.  11!) — 564. 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT,  king  of  the  West 
Saxons  and  virtually  ruler  of  all  England,  holds 
the  same   prominent    position    in    the   history  of 

education  in  England,  which  Charlemagne  occu- 
pies in  fiance  and  Germany,  lie  was  horn  in 
8  I '.(.succeeded  his  brother  Ktheh'ed  as  king  of  the 
West  Saxons  in  871,  and  died  in  901.  After 
having  thoroughly  humbled  the  Danish  invaders 
and  secured  the  independence  of  England,  he 
gave  his  whole  attention  to  internal  reforms,  and 
>l>eeiaUy  to  the  promotion  of    education.     Al- 


though he  is  said  to  have  been  twelve  years  of 
age,  before  he  was  taught  the  alphabet,  and 
although  his  health  was  always  feeble,  he  showed 
a  thirst  for  knowledge  which  is  almost  without 
parallel  in  the  history  of  European  princes. 
He  gave  eight  hours  every  day  to  religious 
exercises  and  to  study.  He  translated  nu- 
merous works  from  Latin  into  Saxon,  as  Bede's 
History  of  England,  Boethius'  De  Consola- 
tione  Philosophiae,  and  the  Liber  Pastoralis 
Curae  of  Gregory  the  Great.  He  invited  dis- 
tinguished scholars  to  his  court  from  all  coun- 
tries, among  whom  Wernfried.  Plegmund.  and 
Athelstan  of  Mercia,  Grimbald  of  France,  the 
Irishman  John  Scotus  Krigena.  and  the  monk 
Asser  of  Wales  are  the  most  famous.  A  large 
number  of  schools  were  founded  and  suitably 
( irganized.  The  convents  became,  more  genera  1 1  v 
than  had  been  the  case  before,  nurseries  of 
science.  All  the  public  officers  were  required  to 
learn  to  read  ami  write  ;  and  Alfred  declared 
that  the  children  of  every  freeman  without  ex- 
ception should  be  able  to  read  and  write,  and 
should  be  instructed  in  the  Latin  language.  A 
complete  list  of  his  works  is  given  in  the  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,  art.  Alfred.  —  See  Stol- 
bero,  Leben  Alfred desGrossen,  \  M  iinster,  L815); 
Weiss,  Geschichte  Alfred  des  Grossen  (Schaff- 
hausen,  1852);  Freeman,  Old  English  Jlistan/ 
and  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest. 

ALFRED  UNIVERSITY,  at  Alfred.  X. 
V.,  was  founded  in  1857,  by  the  Seventh  Day 
Baptists.  The  number  of  students  in  the  pre- 
paratory department  (in  1874)  was  293,  males 
and  females,  ami  in  the  collegiate  department 
114,  of  whom  42  were  females,  it  has  a  clas- 
sical and  a  collegiate  course  of  instruction.  Its 
endowment  is  $70,000;  the  number  of  volumes 
I  in  its  library  is  about  3500.  Rev.  .).  Allen  is 
the  president.     Its  tuition  fee  is  small. 

ALGEBRA  (Arab,  aljabr,  reduction  of 
parts  to  a  whole).  For  a  general  consideration  of 
the  purposes  for  which  this  study  should  he  pur- 
sued.and  its  proper  place  and  relative  proportion 
of  time  in  the  curriculum,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  article  MATHEMATICS.      If  is  the  purpose  of 

this  article  to  indicate  some  of  the  principles  to 

be  kept  in  view,  and  the  methods  to  he   pursued 

in  teaching  algebra. 

The  Literal  Notation. — While  this  notation 

is  not  peculiar  to  algebra,  'out  is  the  char- 
acteristic language  of  mathematics,  the  student 
usually  encounters  it  for  the  first  time  when 
he  enters  upon  this  study.  No  satisfactory 
progress  can  be  made  in  any  of  the  higher 
branches  of  mathematics,  as  General  Geometry, 
Calculus,  Mechanics.  Astronomy,  etc..  without 
a  good  knowledge  of  the  literal  notation.  By 
far   the    larger    part   of  the   difficulty  which    the 

ordinary  student  finds  in  his  study  of  algebra 
proper  -  the  science  of  the  equation  —  and 
in  his  more  advanced  study  of  mathematics, 
grows  out  of  an   imperfect   knowledge  of  the 

notation.  These  are  facts  well  known  to  all  ex- 
perienced teachers.  Nevertheless,  it  is  no  unfre- 
quent  tiling  to  hear  a  teacher  say  of  a  pupil : 


ALGEBRA 


19 


"  He  is  quite  good  in  algebra,  but  cannot  got 
along  very  well  with  literal  examples!"'  Nothing 
couM  be  more  absurd.  It  comes  from  mistaking 
the  importance  and  fundamental  character  of 
this  notation.  It  is  of  the  first  importance  that, 
at  the  outset,  a  clear  conception  be  gained  of 
the  nature  of  this  notation,  and  that,  in  all  the 
course,  no  method  nor  language  be  used  winch 
will  do  violence  to  these  principles.  Thus,  that  the 
letters  a,  b,.c.  y, etc., as  used  in  mathematics, rep- 
resent pure  number,  or  quantity,  is  to  be  amply- 
illustrated  in  the  first  lessons,  and  care  is  to  be 
taken  that  no  vicious  conception  insinuate  itself. 
To  Bay  that,  as  5  apples  and  G  apples  make  11 
apples,  so  5a  and  (>a  make  11a,  is  to  teach 
error.  If  this  comparison  teaches  any  thing,  it 
is  that  the  letter  a  in  5a,  6a,  and  11a,  simply 
gives  to  the  numbers  5,  6,  and  11  a  concrete 
.-iirnificance.  as  does  the  word  apples  in  the 
first  instance  ;  but  this  is  erroneous.  The  true 
conception  of  the  use  of  a,  to  represent  a  num- 
ber, may  be  given  in  this  way :  As  5  times  7 
and  6  times  T  make  1 1  times  7,  so  5  times  any 
number  and  6  times  the  same  number  make  1 1 
times  that  number.  Now,  let  a  represent  any 
number  whatever ;  then  5  times  a  and  6  times  a 
make  11  times  a.  The  two  thoughts  to  be  im- 
pressed are.  that  the  letter  represents  some  num- 
ber, and  that  it  is  immaterial  what  number  it  is, 
so  long  as  it  represents  the  same  number  in  all 
cases  in  the  same  problem.  Again,  the  genius 
of  the  literal  notation  requires  that  no  concep- 
tion be  taken  of  a  letter  as  a  representative  of 
number,  which  is  not  equally  applicable  to  frac- 
tional and  integral  numbers.  Thus  we  may  not 
say  that  a  fraction  which  has  a  numerator  a  and  a 
denominator  b.  represents  a  of  the  b  equal  parts  of 
a  quantity,  or  number,  as  we  affirm  that  f  repre- 
sents 3  of  the  4  equal  parts ;  for  this  conception 
of  a  fraction  requires  that  the  denominator  be 
integral ;  otherwise,  if  b  represent  a  mixed  num- 
ber, as  4|,  we  have  the  absurdity  of  attempting 
to  conceive  a  quantity  as  divided  into  4§  equal 
parts.  The  only  conception  of  a  fraction,  suf- 
ficiently broad  to  comport  with  the  nature  of  the 
literal  notation,  is  that  it  is  an  indicated  oper- 
ation in  division  :  and  all  operations  in  fractions 
should  be  demonstrated  from  this  definition. 

So  also  to  read  .r  m,  ux  to  the  mth  power",  when 
m  is  not  necessariiy  an  integer,  is  to  violate  this 
fundamental  characteristic  of  the  notation.  In  like 
manner,  to  use  the  expressions  greatest  common 
divisor,  and  least  common  multiple,  when  literal 
quantities  are  under  consideration,  is  an  absurd- 
ity, and  moreover  fails  to  give  any  indication  of 
the  idea  which  should  be  conveyed.  For  example, 
we  cannot  affirm  that  'lax1 — 2bxy  is  the  greatest 
common  divisor  of  2a3.c4  — 2d2bx3u-\-2ahixiyi 
—  2b3xy1  and  WbWy2  —  2abix2yi  —2b*xtf\ 
since  ax— by  is  a  divisor  of  these  polynomials,  and 
whether  2ax'2 — 2bxy  is  greater  or  less  than  ax — 
by  cannot  be  affirmed  unless  the  relative  values 
of  the  letters  are  known.  To  illustrate,  2axl 
— 2bxy=2x  {ax — by).  Xow  eujjpose  «=500, 
6=10,  y=2,  and  .r^-rV;  then  ax — 6y=30,  and 
2ax'2 — 2bxy=6.     Moreover,  it  is  not  a  question  I 


as  to  the  value  of  the  divisor  that  is  involved ; 
it  is  a  question  as  to  the  degree.  Hence,  what 
we  wish  to  affirm  is  that  2ax" — 2bxy  is  the 
highest  common  divisor  of  these  polynomials, 
with  respect  to  x. 

In  order  that  the  pupil  may  get  an  adequate 
conception  of  the  nature  of  the  literal  notation, 
it  is  well  to  keep  prominently  before  his  mind 
the  fact  that  the  fundamental  operations  of  ad- 
dition, subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division, 
whether  of  integers  or  fractions,  the  various  trans- 
formations and  reductions  of  fractions,  as  well  as 
involution  and  evolution,  are  exactly  the  same  as 
the  corresponding  ones  with  which  he  is  already 
familiar  in  arithmetic,  except  as  they  are  modi- 
fied by  the  difference  between  the  literal  and  the 
Arabic  notations.  Thus,  the  pupil  will  be  led 
to  observe  that  the  orders  of  the  Arabic  notation 
are  analogous  to  the  terms  of  a  polynomial  in  the 
literal  notation,  and  that  the  processof  "carrying 
in  the  Arabic  addition,  etc.,  has  no  analogue  in 
the  literal,  simply  because  there  is  no  established 
relation  between  the  terms  in  the  latter.  Again, 
he  will  see  that,  in  both  cases,  addition  is  the 
process  of  combining  several  quantities,  so  that 
the  result  shall  express  the  aggregate  value  in 
the  fewest  terms  consistent  with  the  notation. 
This  being  the  conception  of  addition,  he  will  see 
that  for  the  same  reason  that  we  say,  in  the  Ara- 
bic notation,  that  the  sum  of  8  and  7  is  5  and  10 
(fifteen),  instead  of  8  and  7,  we  say,  in  the 
literal  notation,  that  the  sum  of  5aa:  and  6ax  is 
Wax.  Infact.it  is  quite  conceivable  that  the 
pupil,  who  understands  the  common  or  Arabic 
arithmetic,  can  master  the  literal  arithmetic  for 
himself,  after  he  has  fairly  learned  the  laws  of 
the  new  notation. 

Positive  and  Negative. — Although  the  signs  + 
and  ■ — ,  even  as  indicating  the  affections  positive 
and  negative,  are  not  confined  to  the  literal  nota- 
tion, the  pupil  first  comes  to  their  regular  use 
in  this  connection,  and  finds  this  new  element 
of    the   notation  one   of    his    most    vexatious 
stumbling-blocks.      Thus,  that  the  sum  of  5ay 
and — 2ay  should  be  'Say,  and  their  difference 
lay,  and   that  "  minus  multiplied    by  minus 
should  give  plus,"  as  we  are  wont  to  say.  often 
seems  absurd  to  the  learner.     Yet  even  here  he 
may  be  taught  to  find  analogies  in  the  teach- 
ings of  the  common  arithmetic,  which  will  at 
least  partially  remove  the  difficulty.     When  he 
comes  to  understand,  that  attributing  to  numbers 
the  affection  positive  or  negative  gives  to  them 
a  sort  of  concrete  significance,  and  allies  them 
in  some  sort  to  denominate  numbers,  he  may 
at  least  see,  that  bay  and  'lay  do  not  neces- 
sarily make  lay ;  for,  if  one  were  feet  and  the 
other  yards,  the  sum  would  not  be  lay  of  either. 
if.  then,  he  comes  to  understand  that  the  funda- 
mental idea  of  this  notation  is,  that  the  terms 
positive  and  negative  indicate  simply  such  opposi- 
tion in  kind,  in  the  numbers  to  which  they  an 
applied,  as  makes  one  tend  to  destroy  or  counter- 
balance the  other,  he  is  prepared  to  sec  that  the 
sum  of  bay  and  — 2ay  is  3ay  ;  since,  when  put 
together,  the  — 2ay,  by  its  opposition  of  nature . 


20 


ALGEBRA 


destroys  lay  of  the  5a//,  The  ordinary  illustra- 
tions in  which  forces  acting  in  opposite  directions, 
(notion  in  opposite  directions,  amounts  of  proper- 
ty and  of  debts,  etc.,  are  characterized  as  positive 
ami  negative,  are  helpful,  if  made  to  set  in  clearer 
light  the  fact,  that  this  distinction  is  simply  in 
regard  to  the  way  in  which  the  numbers  are  ap- 
plied, and  not  really  in  regard  to  the  numbers 
themselves. 

So,  also  in  multiplication,  the  three  principles, 
ill  that  the  product  is  like  the  multiplicand; 
ili  ii  a  multiplier  must  be  conceived  as  essen- 
tially abstrad  when  the  operation  is  performed; 
and  (3)  that  the  sign  of  the  multiplier  shows 
what  is  to  be  done  with  the  product  when 
obtaine  I.  remove  all  the  difficulty,  and  make  it 

a  mi  more  absurd  that  "min  is  multiplie  I  by 
minus  gives  plus."'  than  that  -plus  multiplie  1  by 
plus  gives  plus":  in  fact,  exactly  the  same  course 
ofargumenl  is  required  to  establish  the  one  con- 
clusion as  to  establish  the  other.  When  we  ana- 
lyze the  operation  which    we  call    multiplying 

a  by    j    A.  we  say   "    f-  a   taken   h  times  gives 

-{-ab.  Now  the  sign  -j- before  the  multiplier 
indicates  that  the  product  is  to  be  taken  ad- 
ditively,  that  is,  united  to  other  quantities  by  its 

own  sign.'"  So  when  we  multiply — a  by — b, 
we  say-  -  a  multiplied  by  b  (a  mere  number) 
gives  —  <ib  (a  product  like  the  multiplicand). 
But  the  —  sign  before  the  multiplier  indicates 
that  this  product  is  to  be  taken  subtractively. 
i.  e.  united  with  other  quantities  by  a  sign  op- 
posite to  its  own."  This,  however,  is  not  the  place 
to  develop  the  theory  of  positive  and  negative 
quantities;  our  only  purpose  here  is  to  show 
that  the  whole  grows  out  of  a  kind  of  concrete 
or  denominate  significance  which  is  thus  put 
upon  the  numbers,  and  which  bears  some  analogy 
to  familiar  principles  of  common  arithmetic. 

Exponents.  -One  other  feature  of  the  mathe- 
matical notation  comes  into  prominence  now  for 
the  first  time,  and  needs  to  be  clearly  compre- 
hended: it  is  the  theory  of  exponents.  Bfere, 
as  well  as  elsewhere,  it  is  important  to  guard 
against  falsi'  impressions  at  the  start.  The  idea 
that  an  exponent  indicates  a  power  is  often  so 

fixed  in  the  pupil's  mind  at  first,  that  he  never 
afterwards  rids  himself  of  the  impression.  To 
avoid   this,  it   is  well    to   have    the   pupil  learn  at 

the  outset    that  not  all  exponents  indicate  Hie 

sum'  thing;  thus,  while  some  indicate  powers, 
others  indicate  roots,  others  roots  of  powers,  an  1 

others  still  the  reciprocals  of  the  latter.  Too  much 
pains  can  scarcely  he  taken  to  strip  this  matter 

of  all  ob8CUrity,  and  allow  no  tog  to  gather 
around    it.      Nothing  in  algebra  gives   the  young 

learner  so  much  difficulty  as  radicals,  and  all  be- 
cause he  is  nol  thoroughly  taught  the  notation. 
Perhaps,  bul  lew.  even  of  those  who  have  at- 
tained considerable  proficiency  in  mathematics, 
have  reallj  Bel  clearly  before  their  own  minds  the 

tact  that  used  as  an  exponent  is  not  a  fraction  in 
the  Same  Sense  a-       in  its  ordinary  use.  and  hence 

that  the  demonstration  that  ■$■  =  §  as  given  con- 
cerning common  fractions.  \<\  m.  means  proves 

♦hat    the   exponent    J    equals   the   exponent  J. 


Other  principles  bearing  on  this  important  sub- 
ject will  he  developed  under  the  following  head. 
Methods  of  Demonstration. — It  requires  no 
argument  to  convince  any  one  that,  in  establish- 
in-  the  working  features,  if  we  may  so  speak,  of 
ascience.it  is  important  that  they  be  exhibited 
as  direct  outgrowths  of  fundamental  notions. 
Thus,  in  giving  a  child  his  first  conception  of  a 
common  fraction,  no  intelligent  teacher  would 
use  the  conception  of  a  fraction  as  an  indicated 
Operation  in  division,  and  attempt  to  build  up 
the  theory  of  common  fractions  on  that  notion. 
It  may  lie  elegant  and  logical,  and  when  we  come 
to  the  literal  notation  it  is  essential ;  but  it  is  not 
sufficiently  radical  for  the  tyro.  It  is  not  natural. 
but  scientific  rather.  So  in  the  literal  notation, 
the  proposition  that  the  product  of  the  square 
ron/s  of  lii-n  numbers  is  equal  to  the  square  root 
of  their  pi'oduct,  may  be  demonstrated  thus:  Let 
s/a  x  \  b=p,  whence  ab=p*\  and.  extracting  the 
square  root  of  each  member  we  have  ^  ,,h  =  p. 
Hence  N  "X\  6  =  \  ah.  Now.  this  is  concise 
and  mathematically  elegant  ;  but  it  gives  the 
pupil  no  insight  whatever  into  "the  reason  why." 
What  is  needed  here  is,  that  the  pupil  be  en- 
abled to  see  that  this  proposition  grows  out  of 
the  nature  of  a  square  root  as  one  of  the  two 
equal  factors  of  a  number  :  i.  e.,  lie  needs  to  see 
its  connection  with  fundamental  conceptions. 
Thus  v«'~  means  that  the  product  ab  is  to  be  re- 
solved into  two  equal  factors,  and  that  one  of  them 
is  to  be  taken.  Now.  if  we  resolve  a  into  two  equal 
factors,  as  v"  :i"(l  \  "•  and  l>  into  two  equal 
factors,  as  \/b  and  \Jb,  ab  will  be  resolved  into 
four  factors  which  can  be  arranged  in  two  equal 
groups,  thus  x  aK  b  X  s/as/'l>.  Hence  x  av  b  is 
the  square  root  of  ab  because  it  is  one  of  the  two 
equal  factors  into  which  ab  can  be  conceived  to 
be  resolved.  In  this  manner,  all  operations  in 
radicals  may  be  seen  to  be  It; used  upon  the  most 
elementary  principles  of  factoring.  Again.  a> 
another  illustration  of  this  vicious  use  of  the 
equation  in  demonstrating  elementary  theorems, 
let  us  consider  the  common  theorems  concerning 
the  transformations  of  a  proportion.  As  usually 
demonstrated,    by    transforming    the    proportion 

into  an  equation,  and  pice  versa,  the  real 
reason  why  the  proposed  transformation  does 
no!  vitiate  the  proportion,  is  not  brought  to 
light  at    all.      for  example.  Suppose    we  are    to 

prove  that.  If  four  quantities  are  in  propor- 
tion, they  an'  in  proportion  by  composition, 
i.  e.,  if  u  :  b  :  :  c  :  d,  a  :  a  +  b  :  :  c  :  c  -\-  it. 
The  common  method  isto  pass  from  the  given 
proportion  to  the  equation  be  =  ad,  then  add 
ac  to  each  member,  obtaining  i/r -{-be  =oc-|-  <"!■ 
or  c  (a  +  b)  =  a  (c  -f-  d),  and  then  to 
traii-form   this  equation    into    the    proportion 

n  :  a  I  It  :  :  r  :  r  \  il.  No  doubt,  this  is  concise 
and  elegant,  but  the  real  reason  why  the  transfor- 
mation does  not  destroy  the  proportion.  \  i/..  thai 

both  ratios'have  been  divided  by  tin'  same  mnn- 

ber,  is  not  even  suggested  by  this  demonstration. 
On  the  other  hand,  let  the  following  demonstra- 
tion be  used,  and  the  pupil  not  only  sees  exactly 
why   the    transformation   does    not  destroy  tin' 


ALGEBRA 


21 


proportion,  bat  at  every  step  has  his  attention 
held  closely  to  the  fundamental  characteristics  of 
a  proportion.  Let  the  ratio  a  :  6  be  r;  hence  as 
a  proportion  is  an  equality  of  ratios,  the  ratio 
C  :  '/  is  /■ ;  and  we  have  a  -£-  />  =  r,  and  C  -r-  '/ 
=  r,  or  a  =  br.  and  c  =  dr.  Substituting  these 
values  of  a  and  e  in  the  terms  of  the  proportion 
which  are  changed  by  the  transformation,  we 
have  <t  -f  b  =  br  -f-  6,  or  b  (r  -f-  1),  and  c  +  <7 
=  <//•  -f  d,  or  c?(r  +  1);  whence  we  see  that 
n  :<t  -\-b  :  :  c  :  c  -f-  </  is  dedueed  from  a  :b  :  :c:d 
by  multiplying  both  consequents  by  r  +  1  (the 
ratio +1),  which  docs  riot  destroy  the  equality 
of  the  ratios  constituting  the  proportion,  since  it 
divides  both  by  the  same  number.  Moreover, 
this  method  of  substituting  for  the  antecedent  of 
each  ratio  the  consequent  multiplied  by  the  ratio. 
enables  us  to  demonstrate  all  propositions  con- 
cerning the  transformation  of  a  proportion  by  one 
uniform  method,  which  method  in  all  cases  clearly 
reveals  the  reason  why  the  proportion  is  not 
destroyed. 

This  choice  of  a  line  of  argument  which  shall 
be  applicable  to  an  entire  class  of  propositions 
is  of  no  slight  importance  in  constructing  a 
mathematical  course.  It  enables  a  student  to 
learn  with  greater  facility  and  satisfaction  the 
demonstrations,  and  fixes  them  more  firmly  in 
his  memory;  while  it  also  gives  broader  and 
more  scientific  views  of  truth,  by  thus  classi- 
fying, and  bringing  into  one  line  of  thought, 
numerous  truths  which  would  otherwise  be  seen 
only  as  so  many  isolated  facts.  This  is  beauti- 
fully illustrated  in  the  higher  algebra  by  the  use 
of  the  infinitesimal  method  of  developing  the 
binomial  formula,  logarithmic  series,  etc.,  in  con- 
trast with  the  cumbrous  special  methods  which 
have  so  long  held  their  place  in  our  text-books. 
By  the  old  method  of  indeterminate  coefficients, 
the  pupil  is  required  to  pursue  what  is  to  him 
always  an  obscure,  long,  and  unsatisfactory  process 
for  the  development  of  each  of  these  series. 
Nor  are  these  processes  so  nearly  related  to  each 
other,  but  that,  to  the  mind  of  the  learner,  they 
would  be  even  more  perplexing  than  if  absolutely 
independent.  Moreover,  they  are  styles  of  argu- 
ment which  he  never  meets  with  again  during 
his  subsequent  course.  On  the  other  hand,  after 
having  learned  a  few  simple  rides  for  differentiat- 
ing algebraic  and  logarithmic  functions*  he  is 
enabled  to  develop  these,  and  several  other  im- 
portant theorems,  in  one  general  way.  which  is  as 
remarkable  for  its  concise  simplicity,  as  it  is  for 
its  extensive  application  and  habitual  recurrence 
in  the  subsequent  course. 

Range  of  Topics  to  be  Ehnbraced. — We  may 
distinguish  three  different  classes  of  pupils,  who 
require  as  many  different  courses  in  this  study. 
First,  there  is  a  very  large  Dumber  of  our  youth 

who.  if  in  the  city,  never  pass   beyond  the  pram 


*)  Ft  may  be  new  t"  s  .mm-  that  there  is  a  bIi 
elementary  method  of  proving  the  rule  for  differentiat- 
ing a  logarithm  without  refnrence  to  series.  This 
method  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Watson  of  tie'  University 
of  Michigan,  and  was  first  presented  t<>  the  public  in 
Olsf.y's  University  Algebra  in  is":;. 


mar  school,  or.  if  in  the  country,  never  have  other 
school  advantages  than  those  furnished  by  the 
common  or  rural  district  school.     Nevertheless, 

many  of  these  will  receive  much  greater  profit 
from  Spending  half  a  year,  or  a  year,  in  obtaining 
a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  algebra   (and 

even  of  geometry)  than  they  usually  do  in  study- 
ing arithmetic.  (Sec  AJUTHMETIC.)  For  this 
class  the  proper  range  of  topics  is,  a  clear  expo- 
sition of  the  nature  of  the  literal  notation; 
the  fundamental  rules,  and  fractions,  involv- 
ing only  the  simpler  forms  of  expression,  and 
excluding  such  abstruse  subjects  as  the  more 
difficult  theorems  on  factoring,  the  theory  of 
lowest  common  multiple  and  highest  common 
divisor;  simple  equations  involving  one,  two, 
and  three  unknown  quantities;  ratio  and  pro- 
portion; an  elementary  treatment  of  the  subject 
of  radicals  with  special  attention  given  to  their 
nature  as  -roving  out  of  the  simplest  principles 
of  factoring;  pure  and  affected  quadratics  in- 
volving one.  and  two  unknown  quantities,  'flic 
second  class  comprises  what  may  be  called  high 
school  pupils.  For  this  grade  the  range  of 
toi>ies  need  not  be  much  widened,  hut  the 
study  of  each  should  be  extended  and  deepened. 
This  will  be  the  ease  especially  as  regards  the 
theory  if  exponents,  positive  and  negative 
quantities,  radicals,  equations  involving  ru<l- 
icals,  and    simultaneous    equations,    especially 

those    of    the    second    degree.        To    this    should 

In-  added  the  arithmetical  and  geometrical  pro- 
gressions, a  practical  knowledge  of  the  binomial 
formula,  and  logarithms,  and  a  somewhat  ex- 
tended treatment  of  the  applications  of  algebra 
to  the  business  rules  of  arithmetic.  A  wide 
acquaintance  with  the  results  attained  in  our 
high  schools  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  an 
observation  extending  over  more  than  twenty 
years  satisfy  the  writer  that  time  spent  in  these 
schools  in  attempts  to  master  the  theory  of 
indeterminate  co-efficients,  the  demonstration 
of  the  binomial  and  logarithmic  formulas,  or 
upon  the  higher  equations,  series,  etc.,  is,  if 
not  a  total  loss,  at  least  an  absorption  of  time 
which  might  be  much  more  profitablj  employed 

on  other  subjects,  such  as,  for  example,  history. 
literature, or  the  elements  of  the  natural  sciences. 
The  course  taken  by  such  pupils  gives  them 
no  occasion  to  use  any  of  these  principles  of  the 
higher  algebra ;  and  the  mastery  of  them  which 
they  can  attain  in  any  reasonable  amount  of  time 
is  quite  too  imperfect  to  subserve  the  endsof 
good  mental  discipline.  This  second  course  is 
entirely  adequate  to  fit  a  student  for  admission 
into  any  American  college   or  university.     'I  he 

third  course  is  what  we  may  tall  the  coll 
course.  The  principal  topics  which  our  present 
arrangements  allow  us  to  add  to  the  second  ( ourse 
as  above  marked  out,  in  order  to  constitute  this 
course,  are  the  theory  of  indeterminate  co-effi- 
cients; a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  differentiation 
of  algebraic  and  logarithmic  functions  to  enable 
tin-  student  to  appreciate  the  idea  oi  function  and 
variable,to  produce  the  binomial  formula,  the 
logarithmic  st  rtes.and  Taylor's  formula,  which  is 


22 


ALGEBRA 


necessary  in  treating  Sturm's  theorem,  and  to  ap- 
preciate also  the  demonstration  of  that  theorem; 
indeterminate  equations;  a  tolerably  full  prac- 
tical treatment  of  the  higher  numerical  equa- 
/inns;  and  the  interpretation  of  equations; 
adding,  if  may  be,  something  upon  interpolation 
and  serifs  in  general. 

Class-Room  Work. — It  is  probably  unneces- 
sary to  say,  that  a  careful  and  thorough  study  of 
text-books  should  be  the  foundation  of  our  class- 
room work  on  this  subject;  nevertheless,  so  much 
is  said,  at  the  present  time,  in  disparagement  of 
"hearing  recitations"  instead  of  "teaching,"'  that  it 
may  lie  well  to  remark  that, if  our  schools  succeed 
in  inspiring  their  pupils  with  a  love  of  books,  and 
in  teaching  how  to  use  them,  they  accomplish  in 
this  u  greater  good  than  even  in  the  mere  knowl- 
edge which  they  may  impart.  Books  are  the 
great  storehouse  of  knowledge,  and  he  who  has 

the  habit  of  using  them  intelligently  has  the  key 
to  all  human  knowledge.  But  it  is  not  to  be 
denied,  that  there  is  an  important  service  to  be 
rendered  by  the  living  teacher,  albeit  that  service, 
especially  in  this  department,  is  not  formal  lect- 
uring on  the  principles  of  the  science.  With 
younger  pupils,  the  true  teacher  will  often  pref- 
ace a  subject  with  a  familiar  talk  designed  to 
ftrepare  them  for  an  intelligent  study  of  the 
esson  to  he  assigne  I,  to  awaken  an  interest  in  it, 
or  to  enable  them  to  surmount  some  particular 
difficulty.  For  example,  suppose  a  class  of  young 
pupils  are  to  have  their  first  lesson  in  subtrac- 
tion in  algebra;  a  preliminary  talk  like  the  fol- 
lowing will  be  exceedingly  helpful,  perhaps 
necessary,  to  an  intelligent  preparation  of  the  les- 
ion. Observe  that,  in  order  to  profit  the  class, 
the  teacher  must  confine  his  illustrations  rigidly 
to  the  essential  points  on  which  the  lesson  is 
based.  In  this  case  these  are  (1)  Adding  a  neg- 
ative quantity  destroys  an  equal  positive 
quantity;  (2)  Adding  a  positive  quantity  de- 
stroys an  equal  negative  quantity;  (3)  As  the 
minuend  is  the  sum  of  the  subtrahend  and 
remainder,  if  the  subtrahend  is  destroyed  from 
Dut  tin-  minuend,  the  remainder  is  left.  Now.  in 
what  order  shall  these  three  principles  be  pre- 
sented ?    I  >oubtless  the  scientific  order  is  that  just 

given;  but  in  such  an  introduction  to  the  subject 

as  we  are   considering,  it    may  be  best  to  present 

the  3d  first;  since  this  is  a  truth  already  familiar, 

and  h  nee  affords  a  connecting  link  with  previous 
knowledge.     Moreover,  this  being  alrea  ly  before 

tin'  mini  as  a,  statement  of  what  is  to  be  done, 
the  1st  and    I'd   will   follow  in  a,  natural  order  as 

an  answer  to  th  ■  question  how  the  purpose  is  ac- 
complished. To  present  the  3d  principle,  the 
teacher  may  place  on  the  blackboard  some  sim- 
ple example  in  subtraction  as  : 
12.'.  |1,.  will  then  question  the  class  thus: 
■  .;,.  What  is  the  L25  called?  What  the  74? 
What  the  5]  ?  How  much  more  than  71  is  125? 
[f  we  add  71  and  25,wha1  is  the  sum'.'    Of  what 

th  ii  is  the  minuend  composed  ?  What  is  5]  |  7  I '.' 
[f  we  destroy  the  74,  what   remains?    If  in  any 

case  we  can  destroy  the  subtrahend  from  out  the 
minuend,   what    will    remain?     Saving    brought 


this  idea  clearly  before  the  mind,  the  teacher  will 
proceed  to  the  1st  principle.  If  — Sab  be  added 
to  lab  how  much  of  the  lab  will  it  destroy? 
(Here  again  we  proceed  from  a  fundamental  con- 
ception— the  nature  of  quantities  as  positive  and 
negative,  thus  deducing  the  new  from  the  old.) 
Repeat  such  illustrations  of  this  principle  as  may 
have  been  given  in  addition  If  several  boys  are 
urging  a  sled  forward  by  lab  pounds,  and  the 
strength  of  another  boy  amounting  to  3ab 
pounds  is  added,  but  exerted  in  an  opposite 
direction,  what  now  is  the  sum  of  their  efforts? 
What  kind  of  a  quantity  do  we  call  the  3ai? 
[Negative.]  Why?  How  much  of  the-f-7ai 
does  -Bab  destroy  w hen  we  add  it?  If  then 
we  wish  to  destroy  +  3ab  from  -\-  lab,  how  may 
we  do  it?  Proceeding  then  to  the  2d  principle, 
it  may  be  asked,  how  much  is  6 ay  —  2 ay?  If 
now  we  add  -f  '_'  ay  to  (i  ay  —  2  ay,  which  is  4ay, 
what  does  it  become?  What  does  the  —  2ay 
destroy?  What  then  is  the  effect  of  adding  a 
positive  quantity?  Such  introductory  elucida- 
tions should  always  be  held  closely  to  the  plan  of 
development  which  the  pupil  is  to  study,  -and 
should  be  made  to  throw-  light  upon  it.  It  is  a 
common  and  very  pernicious  thine.'  for  teachers 
to  attempt  to  teach  in  one  line  of  development, 
while  the  text -book  in  the  pupils  hands  gives 
quite  another.  In  most  cases  of  this  kind,  either 
the  teacher's  effort  or  the  text -book  is  useless,  or 
probably  worse — they  tend  to  confuse  each  other. 
Such  teaching  should  culminate  in  the  very  lan- 
guage of  the  text;  and  it  is  desirable  that  this  lan- 
guage be  read  from  the  book  by  the  pupil,  as  the 

conclusion  of  the  teaching.  Moreover,  there  is 
great  danger  of  overdoing  this  kind  of  work. 
Whenever  it  is  practicable,  the  pupil  should  be 
required  to  prepare  his  lesson  from  the  book. 
A  competent  teacher  will  find  sufficient  oppor- 
tunity for  ••teaching"  after  the  pupils  have  gath- 
ered all  they  can  from  the  book.  Another  im- 
portant service  to  be  rendered  by  the  living  teacher 
is  to  emphasize  central  truths,  and  hold  the  pupils 
to  a  constant  review  of  them.  So  also  il  is  his  duty 
to  keep  in  prominence  the  outlines  of  the  subject, 
that  the  pupil  may  always  know  just  where  he  is 
at  work  and  in  what  relation  to  other  parts  of  the 

the  subject  that  which  he  is  studying  stands.    All 

deli  nit  ions,  statements  of  principles,  and  theorems 

should  be  thoroughly  memorized  by  the  pupil  and 
recited  again  ami  again.    In  entering  upon  a  new 

subject., as  soon  as  these  can  be  intelligently  learn- 
ed, they  should  be  recited  it:  a  most  careful  and 
formal  manner:  and.  in  connection  with  sub- 
sequent demonstrations  and  Solutions,  they  should 

lie  called  up  and  repeated.  Thus,  suppose  a  high 
school  class  entering  upon  tin'  subject  of  equa- 
tions.    Such  a  class  may  be  supposed  to  be  able 

to  grasp  the  meaning  of  the  definitions  without 

preliminary  aid  from  the  teacher,  save  in  special 
cases.      The    first    lesson   will    probably  contain   a 

dozen  or  more  definitions,  with  a  proposition  or 

two;  and  the  first  work  should  be  the  recitation 
of  these  by  the  pupils  individually,  without  any 
questions  or  suggestions  from  the  teacher.  Il- 
lustrations should  also  be  required  of  the  pupils ; 


ALGEBRA 


23 


but  neither  illustrations  nor  demonstrations 
should  be  memorized,  although  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  secure  a  good  style  of  expression, 
modeled  on  that  of  the  text.  To  this  first  rec- 
itation on  a  new  subject  all  the  class  should  give 
the  strictest  attention;  and  every  point  in  it 
should  be  brought  out,  at  least  once  in  the  hear- 
ing of  every  pupil.  In  the  course  of  subsequent 
recitations  in  the  same  general  subject,  individ- 
uals will  be  questioned  on  the  principles  thus 
developed.  For  example,  what  algebra  is  will 
have  been  brought  clearly  to  view  in  this  first 
recitation;  but  when  a  pupil  has  stated  and 
solved  some  problem,  and  has  given  his  expla- 
nation of  the  solution  from  the  blackboard,  the 
teacher  may  ask:  Why  do  you  say  you  have 
solved  this  problem  by  algebra?  The  answer 
will  be:  Because  1  have  used  the  equation  as  an 
instrument  with  which  to  effect  the  solution. 
Can  you  solve  tliis  problem  without  the  use  of 
an  equation?  What  do  you  call  such  a  solution  ? 
What  is  algebra  ?  Again,  suppose  the  solution 
has  involved  the  reduction  of  such  an  equation  as 
2.r— }=l  (3.6-— 1)  4-  i  (,c  + 1).  Of  course,  in  the 
first  place  the  pupil  will  solve  the  example  and 
give  a  good  logical  account  of  the  solution;  but 
the  teacher  will  make  it  the  occasion  for  review- 
ing certain  definitions  and  principles  with  this 
particular  student,  in  such  a  practical  connec- 
tion. Thus  he  will  ask:  What  is  your  first  equa- 
tion ?  What  is  your  last?  [a?=2.]  Do  you  look 
upon  these  as  one  and  the  same  equation,  or  as 
different  equations  ?  In  how  many  different  forms 
have  you  written  your  given  equation  ?  What 
general  term  do  you  apply  to  these  processes  of 
changing  the  form  of  an  equation  ?  What  is 
transformation  ?  Similarly,  every  principle  and 
definition  will  be  reviewed  again  and  again 
in  such  practical  connections.  But  the  great,  and 
almost  universal,  evil  in  our  methods  of  conduct- 
ing recitations  is  the  habit  of  allowing  mere 
statements  of  processes  to  pass  for  expositions  of 
principles,  as  given  by  the  pupil  from  the  black- 
board in  explanation  of  his  work.  The  writer's 
observation  satisfies  him  that  this  most  pernicious 
practice  is.  as  he  has  said,  almost  universal  Let 
us  illustrate  the  common  practice,  and  then  point 
out  the  better  way.  The  pupil  has  placed  the 
following  work  upon  the  board: 
lxi— 28.r+14=238 
7a;2— 28.r=224 

x-— 4,c=32 
x2— 4a;4-4=36 
x— 2= +  6 
,<r=2  +  6=8,  and—  4. 

He  is  then  called  upon  to  explain  his  work. 
Something  like  the  following  is  what  we  hear  in 
the  majority  of  our  best  schools: 

"Given  7x2— 28,c+14=238,  to  find  the  value 
of  x. 

"Transposing,  I  have  7,r2—  28x=224. 

"Dividing  by  7,  x1 — 4t=32. 

••Completing  the  square,  x2 — 4a;4-4=36. 

•Extracting  the  square  root,  x — 2=4-6. 

Transposing,  x=2  +  6=8,  and  — 4  " 

Aud  the  pupil  turns  to  his  instructor  in  the 


full  consciousness  of  duty  nobly  done.  The 
fact  is,  all  that  he  has  said  is  useless,  nay,  worse 
than  useless,  ile  has  simply  intimated  what 
processes  he  has  performed.  That  he  could  solve 
the  problem  was  sufficiently  apparent  from  his 
work.  There  was  no  need  that  he  should  tell 
us  what  he  had  done,  when  he  had  performed 
the  work  before  our  eyes.  AN' hat  is  wanted  is 
a  clear  and  orderly  exposition  of  the  reason  why 
he  takes  every  step.  This  involves  two  points, 
since  he  is  to  show  (1)  that  the  step  taken  tends 
to  the  desired  end,  that  is,  the  freeing  of  the  un- 
known quantity  from  its  connections  with  known 
quantities  so  as  finally  to  make  it  standalone  as 
one  member  of  the  equation  ;  and  (2)  that  the 
step  docs  not  destroy  the  equation*  Something 
like  the  following  should  be  the  style  of  expla- 
nation: "Given  7.r2— 28,^+14=238,  to  find  the 
value  of  x.  In  orderto  do  this,  I  wish  so  to  trans- 
form the  equation  that,  in  the  end,  .'•shall  stand 
alone,  constituting  one  member  of  the  equation, 
while  a  known  quantity  constitutes  the  other 
member.  Jlencel  transpose  the  known  quantity 
14  to  the  second  member.  This  I  do  by  subtract- 
ing 14  from  each  member,  which  may  be  done 
without  destroying  the  equation  (or  the  equality 
of  the  members),  since,  if  the  same  quantity  be 
subtracted  from  equals,  the  remainders  are  equal. 
1  thus  obtain  7a;2 — 28a-=224.  I  now  observe 
that  the  first  term  of  the  first  member  contains 
the  square  of  :c,  while  the  second  contains  the  first 
power.  I  wish  to  obtain  an  equation  which  shall 
contain  only  the  first  power  of  x.  Jn  order  to  do 
this.  I  make  the  first  term  a  perfect  power  by 
dividing  each  member  of  the  equation  by  7, 
which  does  not  destroy  the  equality,  since  equals 
divided  by  equals  give  equal  quotients,  and  1  have 
x2 — 4.c=32.  Now,  observing  that  a-2 — Ax  con- 
stitutes the  first  two  terms  of  the  square  of  a 
binomial  of  which  the  square  of  half  the  coeffi- 
cient of  x,  or  4,  is  the  third  term,  1  add  4  to  this 
member  to  make  it  a  complete  square,  and  also  add 
4  to  the  second  member  to  preserve  the  equality 
of  the  members,  and  have  x2 — 4a;+4=36.  Ex- 
tracting the  square  root  of  x2 — 4x-f-4,  I  have 
x — 2.  an  expression  which  contains  only  the  first 
power  of  x;  but  to  preserve  the  equality,  1  also 
extract  the  square  root  of  the  second  member,  ob- 
taining x — 2=  -j-6-  Finally,  transposing  —2  to 
the  second  member  by  adding  2  to  each  member, 
which  does  not  destroy  the  equation,  I  have  .c=8, 
and  — 4."  If  it  is  desired  to  abbreviate  the  ex- 
planation, it  is  far  better  to  make  it  simply  an 
outline  of  the  reasons  than  a  mere  statement 
of  the  process.  In  this  case,  an  outline  of  the 
reasons  may  be  given  thus:  The  object  is  to 
disengage  x  from  its  connections  with  other 
quantities  so  that  it  shall  stand  alone,  constitut- 
ing one  member  while  the  other  member  is  a 
known  quantity.  The  first  process  is  based  upon 
the  principle  that  equals  subtracted  from  equals 
leave   equal  remainders;  the  second,  upon  the 


*  "Destroy  the  value  of  the  equation",  is  an  absurd 
expression  which  we  frequently  hear.  An  equation  is 
i)  >t  a  quantity,  and  hence  has  no  value.  The  equality 
of  the  members  is  meant. 


24 


ALGERIA 


ALPHABET 


principle  that  equals  divided  by  equals  give  equal 
quotients,"  etc.  Again,  while  it  is  admissible 
when  the  purpose  is  to  fix  attention  upon  any 
particular  transformation,  to  omit  the  reasons  for 
some  of  those  previously  studied,  it  is  far  better 
that  these  be  omitted  pro  forma,  than  that 
something  which  is  not  an  exposition  of  reasons 
be  given.  Thus,  if  the  present  purpose  is  to 
secure  drill  in  the  theory  of  completing  the 
square,  after  having  enunciated  the  problem,  the 
pupil  may  say:  "  Having  reduced  the  equation  to 
the  form  as*— 4or=32,"  etc.,  proceeding  then  to 
give  in  full  the  explanation  of  the  process  under 
consideration.  But  it  is  well  to  allow  no  recita- 
tion on  such  a  subject  to  pass  without  having  at 
least  one  full  explanation.  These  remarks  apply 
to  study  ami  recitations  designed  to  give  intel- 
ligent facility  in  reducing  equations.  In  what  may 
he  called  "Applications  of  equations  to  the  solu- 
tion of  practical  problems"  the  purpose  is  quite 
different, and  so  should  lie  the  pupil's  explanation. 
In  tin 'si '.the  statement  is  the  important  thing,  and 
should  be  made  the  mam  thing  in  the  explanation. 
In  mosl  such  cases,  it  will  be  quite  sufficient,  if, 
after  having  given  the  reasons  for  each  step  in 
the  statement,  thus  fully  explaining  the  principles 
on  which  he  has  made  the  equation,  the  pupil 
conclude  by  saying  simply:  "Solving  this  equa- 
tion, I  have,"  etc.  Outlines  of  demonstrati 
and  synopses  of  topics  arc  exceedingly  valuable 
as  class  exercises.  I  -'or  example,  it  requires  a  far 
better  know  ledgeof  the  demonstration  of  Sturm's 
theorem  to  be  able  to  give  the  following  outline 
than  to  give  the  whole  m  detail :  (I)  No  change 

in   the  variable  which  does  not   cause  some  i 

of  the  functions  to  vanish,  can  cause  any  change 
in  the  number  of  variations  and  permanences  of 
the  signs  of  the  functions:  ('_')  No  two  consec- 
utive functions  can  vanish  for  the  same  value 
of  the  variable:  (.'{)  The  vanishing  of  an  inter- 
mediate function  cannot  cause  a  change  in  the 
number  of  variations  and  permanences;  and 
(4)  The  last  function  cannot  vanish  for  any 
value  of  the  variable;  and,  as  the  first  vanishes 
every    time    the    value    of     the    variable    passes 

through  a  root  of  the  equation,   it    by  so  doing 

causes  a,  loss  of  one,  and  only  one,  variation.  We, 
therefore,  have  the  theorem  [giving  the  theorem]. 

Finally,  no  subject  should  he  considered  as  mas- 
tered by  the  pupil  until  he  can  place  upon  the 
blackboard  a  synoptical  analysis  of  it,  and  discuss 
each  point,  cither  in  detail  or  in  outline,  without 
any  questioning  or  prompting  by  the  teacher.  The 
order  of  arrangement  of  topics,  i.  e.,  the  sequence 
of  definitions,  principles,  theorems,  etc.,  is  as 
much  a  part  of  the  subject  considered  scientifically 
as  are  the  detailed  facts;  and  the  former  should 

lie  as   firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  as  the  latter. 

ALGERIA,    a  division  of   N.  Africa,   which 
was   formerly  a  Turkish    pashalic,  but   has  since 

L830  been  in  possession  of  the  French.  The 
boundaries  are  not  defined,  and  the  tribes  dispute 
the  claims  of  the  French  to  large  tracts  on  the 
border.  The  territory  claimed  by  the  French  is 
estimated  at  about  258,317  sq.  m. ;    of   which 

about    1.50,568   are  Subject    to   the  civil,  and    the 


remainder  to  military,  government.  The  popu- 
lation according  to  the  census  of  1872  was 
2,416,225,  of  whom  245,117  were  Europeans 
and  their  descendants ;  34,574  native  Jews;  the 
remainder  were  Mohammedans.  In  regard  to  re- 
ligion. 233,733  were  Catholics,  6,006  Protestants, 
39,812  (including  those  of  European  descent) 
Jews,  and  141)  had  made  no  declaration.  The 
Catholics  have  an  Archbishop  and  two  Bish- 
ops :  the  Protestants  three  Consistories,  under 
which  both  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches 
are  placed.  In  regard  to  public  instruction, 
Algeria  constitutes  a  division,  ballet  1  the  .1  a "  lemy 
of  Algeria  and  headed  by  a  rector.  The  number 
of  free  public  schools  in  186(1  was  4 26,  with 
45,375  pupils ;  for  secondary  instruction  there 
are  four  colleges  and  one  Lyceum  (at  Algiers, 
Bona,  Constantine,  Philippeville,  and  Oran),  the 
secondary  institution  at  Tlemcen,  and  the  free 
school  at  Oran.  A  special  system  of  instruction 
lies  been  arranged  for  the  Mohammedan  popu- 
lation. It  comprises  the  dollar  (village  or  camp) 
schools,  the  law  schools  (zaiouas),  the  schools  of 
law  and  literature  i  m\  dresas),  the  French  Arabic 
si  hools,  ami  the  French  Arabic  colleges.  Algiers, 
capital,  has  special  schools  of  theology  and  of 
medicine.  The  educational  progress  of  this  coun- 
try derives  a  special  interest  from  the  fact  that 
it  illustrates  the  influence  which  the  government 
of  a  Christian  country  can  exercise  upon  a  Moham- 
medan dependency. — See  Bi.ocK,Dictionnairege- 
neralde  la  /><i/i,'/>//'r.  A  full  account  of  the  French 
laws  regulating  public  instruction  in  Algeria  may 
be  found  in  Greard,Lcj  Legislation  de  Vlnstrue- 
tiou  Primaire  en  France,  torn,  m.,  art.  Algerie. 
ALLEGHENY  COLLEGE,  at  Meadville 
Pa.,   was  founded    in    1817,    and    is    under    the 

direction  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
The  number  of  students  in  1*74 — .">  was  L32, 
more  than  one  half  of  whom  were  pursuing  the 
collegiate  course.  It  has  classical,  scientific,  and 
biblical  departments,  and  is  open  to  both  sexes. 
Its  library  contains  about  12,000  volumes.  Rev. 
L.  11.  Bugbee,  P.P.. is  the  president  of  the  faculty. 
ALMA  MATER  (Lat.,  fostering  mother)  is 
a  name  affectionately  given  by  students  of  colleges. 
and  universities  to  the  institution  to  which  they 
owe  their  education. 

ALPHABET.  The  alphabet  of  any  language 
is  the  series  of  letters,  arranged  in  the  customary 

Order,  which  form  the  elements  of  the  language 
when  written.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  first 
two  letters  in  the  Greek  alphabet,  which  are 
named  alpha,  beta.  The  letters  in  the  English 
alphabet  have  the  same  forms  as  those  of  the 
Latin  language,  which  were  borrowed  from  the 
Greek.  The  Latin  alphabet,  however,  did  not 
contain  all  the  Greek  letters.  The  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabel  were  borrowed  from  the  Phoeni- 
cian, which  was  that  used  by  many  of  the  old 
Semitic  nations,  and  i.-  of  unknown  origin.  It 
consisted  of  22  signs,  represent i ng  consonantal 
sounds.    Into  this  alphabel  the  <  .'recks  introduced 

many  modifications,  and  the  changes  made  by 
the  Romans  were  also  considerable.  Its  use 
in    English    presents    many    variations    from   its 


ALPHABET  MKTIIoh 


25 


final  condition  in  the  Latin  language.  Thus,  I 
and  J,  and  (J  and  V,  instead  of  being  merely 
graphic  variations,  were  changed  so  as  to  represent 
different  sounds, during  the  Kith  and  L7tn  cent- 
uries. W  was  added  previously,  in  the  middle 
ages.  The  twenty-six  letters  of  our  alphabet  have 
been   thus  classified  with  regard  to  their  history: 

(1)  B,  1>,  H.  K.  I,  M.  X.  1',  <>.  R,  S,  T,  letters 
from  tlir  Phoenicians ;  (2)  A.  E,  I.  0,Z, origin- 
ally Phoenician,  but   changed  by  the  Greeks; 

(3)  IT  (same  as  V),  X,  invented  by  the  Greeks; 

(4)  C,  F,  Phoenician  letters  with  changed  value  ; 

(5)  G,  of  Liitin  invention;  (6)  Y,  introduced 
into  Latin  from  the  Greek,  with  changed  form; 
(7)  •'.  V.  graphic  Latin  forms  raised  to  inde- 
pendent letters;  (8)  W,arecen1  addition,  formed 
by  doubling  D  (or  V),  whence  its  name. 

The  Imperfections  of  the  English  alphabet  are 
manifold:  (1)  Different  consonants  are  used 
to  represent  the  same  sound;  as  c  (soft)  and  s, 

30ft)  and  j,  c  (hard)  and  A'.  y  and  k,  x  and  ks. 

(2)  Different  sounds  are  expressed  by  the  same 
Letter;  as  c  in  cat  and  cell,  g  in  get  and  gin,  s  in 
sit  and  as,  f  in  if  and  of,  etc.  (3)  The  vowels 
are  constantly  interchanged,  as  is  illustrated  in 
the  following  table  of  the  vowel  elements  of  the 
language  and  their  literal  representations,  the 
diacritical  marks  used  being  those  of  Webster's 
Dictionary. 


Long. 
|  e       as  in  apo,  they 

a  i care,  ere 

a           •■    ••  art 

a  6       ••    "  all.  orb 

$         as 

it 

a            " 

a  8 

Short. 
in  end 

••    hat 
"   ask 
••    what,  not 

£  i        ■■    ••  eve,  p  que 

e  i  y    "    "  her,  sir,  myrrh 

3           '■    "  old 

o  u  So  •'    "  do,  rule,  too 

u  "       ••    "  urn 

l            " 

q  u  ot>  " 
6u 

••    ait 

"  wolf,  put,  book 
"    love,  luck 

u          "    "  use 

i  y       "    "  ice,  my 
oi  oy   "    "  oil,  boy 
on  ow  "   "  out,  owl 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  letter 
'i  is  used  to  represent  sere//  different  sounds;  e,five 
sounds;  o,  sir  sounds,  etc.  (See  Phonetics.)  The 
names  given  to  the  letters  are  not  in  conformity 
with  a  uniform  principle  of  designation.  Thus. 
the  names  of  /;,  c,  d,  g,  />,  t,  v,  and  z  are  be,  ce, 
de,  ;/e,  etc. ;  while  the  names  of  f,  1,  m,  it,  s,  and 
x  are  ef,  el,  em,  en,  etc. ;  and  the  names  of  j,  k, 
are  ja,  ka.  The  heterogeneity  of  these  names 
and  of  their  construction  will  be  obvious.  It  is 
important  that  the  teacher  should  take  cogni- 
zance of  these  incongruities  in  giving  elementary 
instruction,  as  they  dictate  special  methods  of 
presentation.   (See  Alphabet  Method.) 

ALPHABET  METHOD,  or  A-B-C 
Method.  This  has  reference  to  the  first  steps 
in  teaching  children  to  read.  According  to  this 
method,  the  pupil  must  learn  the  names  of  all  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet. cither  from  an  A-B-(  'book, 
from  cards,  or  from  the  blackboard;  that  is.  he 
must  be  taught  to  recognize  the  various  forms  of 

the  letters,  and  to  associate  with  them  their  re- 
spective names.  The  method  of  doing  this,  once 
very  general,  was  to  supply  the  pupils  with  books. 
and  then,  calling  up  each  one  singly,  to  point  to 
the  letters,  one  after  the  other,  and  to  pronounce 


the  name  of  each,  so  as  to  associate  arbitrarily 

the    form    with    the    name;    or,   in    simultaneous 

class  instruction,  to  exhibit  the  letters  on  sepa- 
rate cards,  and  teaeh  their  names  by  simple  repeti- 
tion. This  process  must,  of  course,  be  not  only 
long  and  tedious,  but  exceedingly  dry  and  uninter- 
esting to  a  child,  since  it  affords  no  incentive  to 
mental  activity, —  no  foot  1  for  intelligence.  By 
a  careful  selection  and  discrimination,  however, 
in  presenting  the  letters  to  the  attention  of  the 
child,  its  intelligence  may  be  addressed  in  teach- 
ing  the   alphabet    by  this   method.     The  simple 

forms,  such  as  I.   0,  X,  S,  will  be  remembered 

much  more  readily  than  the  others;  and  these 
being  learned,  the  remainder  may  be  taught  by 
showing  the  analogy  or  similarity  of  then  forms 
with  the  others.  Thus  0  becomes  ("when  a 
portion  of  it  is  erased;  one  half  of  it  with  I. 
used  as  a  bar, forms  I>;  two  smaller  D'sform  I>; 
and  so  on.  This  method  is  very  simple,  and  may 
be  made  quite  interesting  by  means  of  the  black- 
board. 

The  letters  which  closely  resemble  each  other 
in  form,  such  as  A  and  V,  M  and  N.  E  and  F, 
and  C  and  (J.  among  capitals,  and  b  and  d,  cand 
e,  p  and  q,  and  n  and  u,  among  small  letters, 
should  lie  presented  together,  so  that  their  minute 
differences  may  be  discerned.  When  the  black- 
board is  used  (as  it  should  always  be  in  teaching 
classes),  the  letters  may  be  constructed  before 
the  pupils,  so  that  they  may  perceive  the  elements 
of  which  they  are  composed.  Thus  the  children 
will  at  once  notice  that  b,  d,  p,  q,  are  composed 
of  the  same  elements,  differently  combined. —  a 
straight  stroke,  or  stem,  and  a  small  curve.  By 
an  appropriate  drill,  the  peculiar  forms,  with  the 
name  of  each,  will  then  be  soon  impressed  upon 
the  pupils'  minds:  and.  besides  that,  their  sense 
of  analogy,  one  of  the  most  active  principles  of 
a  child's  mind,  will  be  addressed,  and  this  will 
render  the  instruction  lively  and  interesting.  In 
carrying  out  this  plan,  the  teacher  may  use  the 
blackboard,  and  as  a  review,  or  for  practice,  re- 
quire the  children  to  copy,  and  afterwards  draw, 
from  memory,  on  the  slate,  the  letters  taught. 
Cards  may  also  be  used,  a  separate  one  being 
employed  for  each  letter.  With  a  suitable  frame 
in  which  to  set  them,  these  may  be  used  with 
good  advantage,  the  teacher  making,  and  the 
children  also  being  required  to  make,  various 
combinations  of  the  letters  so  as  to  form  short 
and  familiar  words.  A  horizontal  wooden  bar 
with  a  handle,  and  a  groove  on  the  upper  edge 
in  which  to  insert  the  cards,  forms  a  very  useful 
piece  of  apparatus  for  this  purpose.  Letter- 
Blocks  may  also  be  used  in  a  similar  manner  by 
both  teacher  and  pupils.  These  blocks  are  some- 
times cut    into  sections  so  as  to  divide   the  letter 

into  several  parts,  and  the  pupil  is  required  to 
adjust  the  parts  so  as  to  form  the  letter.  This 
method  affords  both  instruction  and  amusement 

to   VOUng  children,  and  at    the  same    time,   gi 

play  to  their  natural  impulse  to  activity.    'I  bese 
various  methods  will  be  combined  and  otb 
devised   by   every  ingenious  teacher.     In  some 
schools  a  piece  of  apparatus,  called  the  reading 


26 


ALUMXEUM 


AXALYSIS 


frame,  is  used.  This  is  constructed  like  a  black- 
board with  horizontal  grooves,  in  which  the  let- 
ters can  be  placed  so  as  to  slide  along  to  any 
required  position.  Hy  the  use  of  assorted  letters, 
the  teacher  can  construct  any  word  or  sentence, 
building  it  up  letter  by  letter,  as  types  are  set. 
.Many  interesting  exercises  in  reading  and  spelling 
may  be  given  by  means  of  such  an  apparatus,  the 
children  being  required  to  construct  words  and 
sentences  themselves,  as  well  as  to  read  those 
formed  by  the  teacher.  The  A  B  C  Method  of 
teaching  the  elements  of  reading  has  now,  quite 
generally,  been  superseded  by  the  Word  Method. 
—  See  Currie,  Early  and  Infant  School  Edu- 
cation, and  Principles  and  Practice  of  Common 
School  Education ;  Wickebsham,  Methods  of 
Instruction.   (See  Word  Method.) 

ALUMNEUM,  or  Alumnat  (Lat.,  from 
alere,  to  feed,  to  nourish),  the  name  given  in 
Germany  to  an  institution  of  learning  which  af- 
fords to  its  pupils  board,  Lodging,  and  instruc- 
tion. The  first  institutions  of  this  kind  arose  in 
the  middle  ages  in  connection  with  the  convents. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  are  those  founded  by 
Maurice  of  Saxony.in  the  L  6th  century,  at  Pfbrta, 
Meissen,  and  Grimma.  When  the  pupils  were 
i  ceived  and  instructed  gratuitously,  they  were 
expected  to  perform  various  services  for  the 
school  and  church,  such  as  singing  in  the  choir. 
The  pupils  of  thi'se  schools  were  called  alumni. 
(See  Alumnus.) 

ALUMNUS,  pi.  Alumni  (Lat.,  from  alere, 
to  feed,  to  nourish)  originally  the  name  of  a 
student  who  was  supported  and  educated  at  the 
expense  of  a  learned  institution  (see  Alumneum), 
now  generally  applied  to  a  graduate  of  a  college 
or  similar  institution.  The  graduates  of  higher 
seminaries  or  colleges  for  females  are  sometimes 
called  alum  inc. 

AMHERST  COLLEGE,  at  Amherst.  Mass.. 
is  one  of   the  chief  seats  of    learning  in  the 

United    Stales.      It  was  founded    in  L821    by  the 

Orthodox  Congregationalists,  especially  for  the 
education  of  young  men  for  the  ministry;  but 

its  charier  was  not    obtained  till  L825.      Its   first 

president  was  the  Rev.  Zephauiah  S.  Moore,  who 

in     L823    was    succeeded    1  > v    the    Rev.    1  leman 

Humphrey,  to  whose  strenuous  and  prudent 
efforts  the  college  owed  much  of  its  success,  lie 
continued  in  office  till  L845,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded bj  the  Rev.  Edward  Hitchcock;  and, 
on  the  resignation  of  the  latter,  in  L854,  the 
presenl  incumbent,  the  Rev.Wilham  A.  Stearns. 
D.  D.,  was  elected.  This  institution  has  been  the 
recipient  of  very  large  donations  from  private 

persons,    anil     appropriations     from     the     Slate 

amounting  to  upward  of  $50,000.  The  college 
funds  amount  in  the  aggregate  to  more  than 
$650,000.  lis  charity  fund  for  the  gratuitous 
•  ■ducal  i f  clergymen  amounts  to  about  $70,000; 

and  its  fund  for  free  scholarships  is  at  least 
$100,000.      The    n; s  of    the    principal    donors 

to  the  institution  are  Dr.  William   J.  Walker, 

to  the  extent  of  $240,000  :  Samuel  A.  Hitch- 
cock. $175,000;  Samuel  W'illiston.  $150,000; 
and  a  college  church  was  erected  a  short  time 


ago  from  funds  contributed  for  the  purpose  by 
W.  F.  Stearns,  son  of  the  president.  This  in- 
stitution occupies  twelve  public  buildings,  besides 
the  president's  house,  including  an  edifice  for  sci- 
entific instruction,  and  the  college  church.  There 
are  also  a  gallery  of  art.  a  cabinet  of  natural 
history,  containing  about  100,000  specimens,  and 
an  astronomical  observatory.  The  department 
for  physical  training  is  very  efficient.  It  com- 
prises an  extensive  and  well-appointed  gymna- 
sium ;  and,  at  a  certain  hour,  each  class  is  re- 
quired to  attend,  and  engage  in  exercise  under  the 
direction  of  the  professor,  who  is  a  thoroughly 
qualified  physician.  The  faculty  includes  twenty- 
three  instructors,  and  there  are  several  endowed 
professorships.  The  number  of  students  in  L874 
was  about  340.  The  college  library  contains 
more  than  30,000  volumes:  and  those  of  the 
societies,  about  10.001).  There  is  a  scientific  as 
well  as  a  classical  course:  also  a  post-graduate 
course,  established  in  1874,  in  history  and  polit- 
ical science,  with  especial  reference  to  a  "science 

of    statesmanship;'      while    any    graduate     may 

arrange  to  pursue  a  course  ol  study  in  any  de- 
partment additional  to  the  college  course.    The 

tuition  fee  is  $90  per  annum. 

ANALYSIS,  Grammatical,  or  Senten- 
tial.—  I'>y  the  analysis  of  a   sentence  is  meant  a 

decomposition  of  it  into  its  logical  elements. 
Every  sentence  must  either  be  a  single  proposi- 
tion, or  be  composed  of  propositions  more  or 
less  intimately  related:  and  every  proposition 
must  contain  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  the  for- 
mer expressing  thai  of  which  we  speak,  and  the 
latter,  what  we  say  of  it.  The  entire  or  logical 
Subject  must  contain  a  noun  or  pronoun,  either 
alone  or  with  related  words  called  modifiers  OS 
adjuncts,  or  it  may  be  a  phrase  or  a  clause.  The 
entire  or  logical  predicate,  in  the  same  manner, 
must  consist  of  a  veil)  with  or  without  adjuncts. 
These  constitute  all  the  parts, and  all  the  relations. 

involved  in  the  construction  of  a  sentence.  A  few 

words,  such  as  interjections,  may  be  used  inde- 
pendently of  them.     Grammar  has  been  defined 

as  the"arl  of  speaking  and  writing  correctly." 
or   as   the  ■•  practical   science    which    teaches    the 

right  use  of  language";  and  for  general  pur- 
poses this  account  is.  perhaps,  sufficiently  ex- 
plicit. It  docs  not.  however,  truly  distinguish 
grammar  from  the  other  aits  concerned  in  teach- 
ing the  "right  use  of  language,"  and  hence  does 
not    correct  Iv    point    out     its    peculiar    province. 

from  a  want  of  precision  in  defining  tin'  limita- 
tions of  any  art  or  science,  there  must  necessarily 
follow  a  corresponding  inaccuracy  and  looseness 

in    its   treatment  :    since,   before   we    can    reason 

properly  as  to  the  best  methods  of  attaining  any 

object,  we  must  clearly  conceive  what  thai  objecl 
is,  and  carefully  distinguish  it  from  all  others. 

The  special  province  of  grammar  does  nol  ex- 
tend beyond  the  construction  of  sentences:  hut 
it  is  (piite  obvious  that  to  use  language  correctly, 
those    principles   and   rules   must    lie   understood 

which  underlie  the  proper  method  of  combining 

sentences  so  that  they  may  constitute  decani  and 
logical  discourse.     A  person  may  be  sufficiently 


ANALYSIS 


27 


familial-  with  grammatical  rules  to  construct  sen- 
tences with  perfect  correctness,  but  may  so  ar- 
range them  as  to  express  only  nonsense  ;   and 

such  a  person  could  scarcely  be  considered  a.s  un- 
derstanding the  "right  use  of  language."  The 
sentence  being  the  peculiar  province  of  grammar, 
it  follows  that  the  only  subjects  of  investigation 

embraced  within  it  arc  words,  their  orthography, 
inflectional  forms,  and  pronunciation,  and  their 
arrangement  in  sentences.  All  grammatical  de- 
finitions and  rules  are  founded  upon  the  relations 

of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  to  each  other;  and. 
therefore,  these  relations  should  be  firsfc  taught, 
it  is  with  reference  to  these  relations,  that  words 
are  classified  into  parts  of  speech,  or,  as  they 
might  properly  be  called,  parte  of  the  sentence. 
To  define  or  explain  these*  parts  of  speech  before 
giving  any  definition  of  a  sentence,  is,  therefore, 
clearly  illogical :  yet  this  has  been  the  method  of 
many  grammarians,  words  being  explained  and 
parsed  aa  if  they  had  only  individual  properties, 
it  is  in  this  that  the  distinction  between  parsing 
and  grammatical  analysis  consists.  Both  are.  in 
fact,  only  different  kinds  of  analysis,  and  are 
base  1  on  precisely  the  same  relations, — those  in 
which  the  words  stand  to  each  other  as  parts  of 
tttence. 

Parsing,  as  uniformly  employed  by  gram- 
marians, is  a  minute  examination  of  the  in- 
dividual words  of  a  sentence,  with  the  view  to 
determine  whether  the  rules  of  grammar,  proper 
to  the  particular  language  in  which  the  sentence 
is  written,  have  been  observed  or  violated.  Anal- 
ysis, on  the  other  hand,  deals  with  the  relations 
upon  which  those  rules  are  based,  and  which 
are  common  to  all  languages.  Thus,  in  parsing, 
the  pupil  is  obliged  to  scrutinize  all  the  inflec- 
tional forms  in  which  the  words  composing  the 
sentence  arc  used  ;  and,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  they  are  proper  or  not,  must  not  only 
know  the  rules  of  syntax,  but  the  relations  of  the 
words  to  each  other,  so  as  to  be  able  to  apply 
those  rules.  The  relations  are  invariable  in  all 
languages,  but  the  rules  which  refer  to  the  in- 
flections are  founded  on  particular  usage,  and 
hence  are  in  no  two  languages  exactly  alike.  ( >n 
this  account,  since  the  general  logically  precedes 
the  special,  the  treatment  of  sentential  analysis 
should  precede  any  exercises  in  parsing.  Other- 
wise, how.  for  example, could  a  pupil  be  required 
to  distinguish  the  eases  of  nouns  and  pronouns, 
and  the  person  and  number  of  verbs,  before  be- 
ing  taught  the  relations  of  the  words  to  each  other? 

By  means  of  the  analytical  method,  when  rightly 
applied,  the  study  of  grammar  is  made  clear, 

logical,  and  easy  from  the  very  beginning.  The 
pupil  is  first  taught  the  nature  of  the  sentence, 
its  essential  parts,  and  their  relations  to  each 
other,  and  is  shown  how  to  analyze  sentences  of 
a  simple  character.  He  is  troubled  with  but 
little  phraseology  ;  for  all  the  terms  that  are  es- 
sential to  the  complete  distinction  and  designa- 
tion of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  are  subject,  verb 
or  predicate,  object,  attribute,  and  adjuncts.  These 
being  defined,  and  the  pupil  taught  how  to  dis- 
tinguish them,  a  complete   foundation  has  been 


laid  for  the  intelligent  study  of  all  other  gram- 
matical terms  and  distinctions;  and  this  being 
the  foundation,  should,  of  course,  be  the  first 
thing  done.  Those  who  oppose  the  analytical 
method  assert  that  words  are  the  real  elements  of 
a  sentence,  and  that  any  consideration  of  these 
involves,  therefore,  an  exhaustive  analysis  of  the 

sentence  itself.  With  the  same  propriety  mighl 
it  be  said  that  pieces  of  iron  of  various  shapes 
are  the  elements  of  the  steam-engine.  They  in- 
deed compose  the  machine,  and  it  can  ultimately 
be  resolved  into  them;  but  could  its  structure 
and  workings  be  explained  by  taking  these  frag- 
ments of  metal  in  a  hap  hazard  way.  and  noticing 
how  they  are  related  toothers  in  immediate  jux- 
taposition, without  regard  to  the  general  struct- 
ure of  the  machine,  and  the  dependence  of  its 
operation  upon  a  few  elementary  orprimary  parts. 
as  the  cylinder,  piston,  condenser,  etc.?  Words 
are  not  necessarily  the  real  elements  of  a  sen- 
tence. These  are  the  subject  and  predicate  and 
their  adjuncts:  and.  unless  these  component  parts 
of  the  general  structure  be  first  observed,  the 
relations  of  the  separate  words  cannot  be  under- 
stood. Hence,  we  find  that  those  writers  who 
have  ignored  a  definite  consideration  of  tl 
logical  elements,  have  fallen  into  many  errors 
and  inconsistencies. 

The  various  systems  of  analysis  in  use  differ 
in  no  essential  respect,  the  chief  variation  being 
in  the  nomenclature  employed  to  designate  the 
elements  of  the  sentence.  The  name  generally 
applied  to  a  proposition  forming  a  part  of  a  sen- 
tence is  a  clause,  and  any  group  of  related  words 
not  making  a  proposition  is  called  &  phrase.  The 
modifying  elements  are  by  some  called  adjective 
or  adverbial,  according  as  they  perform  the  func- 
tions of  adjectives  or  adverbs.  Instead  of  the 
term  adjective,  adnominal  is  sometimes  employed. 
The  term  adjunct  is  generally  employed  to  des- 
ignate an  element  subordinate  to  either  subject 
or  predicate.  Such  adjuncts  may  be  modifying, 
descriptive,  or  oppositional.  A  modifying  ad- 
junct changes  the  meaning  of  the  element  to 
which  it  is  applied,  generally,  by  making  it  more 
specific,  or  by  restricting  the  class  to  which  it  be- 
longs. Thus  animal  is  a  more  general  term  than 
four-footed  animal ;  hence./bwr^oofea  is  a  modi- 
fying adjunct.  But  the  term  man  is  no  more 
general  than  man  thai  is  born  of  a  woman,or 
mortal  man  ;  the  adjuncts,  that  is  born  of  a  wom- 
an and  mortal  being  only  descriptive,  not  modi- 
fying. A] (positional  adjuncts  only  explain  : 
as:  He,  the  chieftain  of  them  all,  in  which  the 
phrase,  the  chieftain,  etc.,  is  only  explanatory,  or 
appositional  Adjuncts  may  be  single  words. 
phrases  or  clauses;  and  one  of  the  chief  ad- 
vantages of  sentential  analysis  is  to  show  the 
pupil  that  groups  of  words  are  often  used  so  as 
to  perform  the  same  office  as  single  words.  In 
teaching  this  subject,  a  proper  gradation  of  topics 
should  Be  observed;  and  much  caution  exercised 
to  avoid  the  perplexing  of  the  young  pupil  by 

presenting  to  his  mind  distinctions  too  nice  to  be 

discerned  by  his  undeveloped  powers  of  analysis 

Various  methods  have  been  devised   in   order  to 


28 


ANALYSIS 


ANDREW 


present  to  the  eye  of  the  student  the  analyzed 
sentence,  so  as  to  show  clearly  the  relation  of  its 
parts;  and.  in  the  radimental  stages  of  the  in- 
struction, these  are,  without  doubt,  of  consider- 
able utility;  but  they  should  not  be  carried  so 
far  us  to  present  to  the  student  a  confused  mass 
of  loops,  lines,  curves,  or  disjointed  phrases,  far 
more  difficult  to  disentangle  than  to  analyze,  with- 
out any  such  aid,  the  most  involved  sentence. 
All  such  devices,  it  must  be  remembered,  are 
only  auxiliaries  to  the  mind's  natural  operations, 
and  cannot  at  all  supersede  them.  Neither 
should  the  exercise  of  analyzing  sentences  be  al- 
lowed to  degenerate  into  the  mechanical  applica- 
tion of  its  must  simple  requirements.  As  the 
student  advances,  he  will  be  able  to  omit  more 
and  more  of  the  routine,  until  he  reaches  a  stag  i 
of  progress,  at  which  the  general  structure  of 
the  sentence — its  component  clauses  and  their  re- 
lations, will  be  all  that  he  need  observe  or  state. 
When  judiciously  and  rationally  employed,  sen- 
tential analysis  must  engender  a  very  important 
quality  of  mind,  ami  greatly  conduce  to  clear 
thinking,  intelligent,  critical  reading, and  accurate, 
terse  expression.  -See  Mulligan,  Gramma 
Structure  of  the  English  Language  (N.Y.,  1852); 
Goold  Brown,  Grammar  of  English  Gram- 
mars, and  Institutes  if  English  Grammar, 
with  Kiddle's  Analysis;  Welch,  Analysis  of 
the  English  Senten.ce;  Greene,  Analysis  of  the 
English  Language;  Clark,  Normal  Grammar 
of  the  English  Language;  Cruttenden,  Phi- 
losophy of  Sentential  Language;  March,  Pars- 
ing and  Analysis;  Andrews  and  Stoddard, 
Latin  Grammar. 

ANALYSIS,  Mathematical.  See  Math- 
em  vni's. 

ANALYTIC  METHOD  OF  TEACH- 
ING. This  is  the  method  used  by  the  teacher 
when  he  presents  to  his  pupils  composite 
truths  or  facts,  and  by  means  of  analysis 
shows  tin'  principles  involved,  or  leads  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  to  an  analysis  of  them  for 
himself.  In  this  way  he  teaches  principles 
which  the  pupil  is  to  apply  to  the  elucida- 
tion of  many  diverse  problems.  In  the  synthetic 
method,  the  teacher  begins  with  principles,  ex- 
plains their  meaning,  and  shows  how  they  arc  to 
he  applied,  'rims,  suppose  the  pupil  is  to  lie 
taught  how  to  add  and  subtract  fractions.  Ac- 
cording to  the  analytic  method,  the  fractions  to 
lie  operated  upon  are  presented  to  the  pupil's 
mind,  and  he  is  shown,  firsl  the  difficulty  in- 
volved, and  sec My,  Imw  to  surmount  this  diffi- 
culty, by   (h   tin  ling  a  common   denominator, 

and  (2)  by  Changing    the    numerator   so   that  the 

fractions   with   the  common   denominator  may 

have  the  same  value  as  the  given  fractions.   'I  lieu 

the  method  of  addition  or  subtraction  becomes 

obvious.  In  this  way  learning  the  principle  him- 
self by  analysis,  the  pupil  is  enabled  to  construct 
•  '  genera]  rule,  and  applj  it  to  .my  given  ease.  In 
the  synth  tic  method,  the  pupil  would  be  taught 
in  the  first  place  the  nature  and  use  of  a  common 
denominator,  then  the  method  of  reducing  frac- 
i-  to  a  comm  'ii  denominator,  and  then  to  add 


or  subtract  fractions  by  finding  a  common  de- 
nominator. If  the  object  of  the  instruction  given 
were,  exclusively,  to  make  the  pupil  expert  in 
adding  and  subtracting  fractions,  the  synthetic 
method  would  perhaps  have  some  advantage  over 
the  analytic  ;  but.  since  an  important  part  of 
this  object  is  to  train  the  mind,  the  analytic  meth- 
od is  greatly  to  be  preferred;  for  (1)  it  stimu- 
lates the  mind  to  greater  activity.  (2)  it  teaches 
it  how  to  investigate  for  itself,  and  to  discover 
truth,  and  (3)  it  gives  it  a  much  clearer  knowl- 
edge of  the  fundamental  principles  involved  in 
the  subject  taught,  Whether  the  analytic  meth- 
od should  be  employed  and  to  what  extent,  is 
to  he  determined  by  a  consideration  of  the  nature 
of  the  subject  taught,  and  the  degree  of  advance- 
ment of  the  student.  In  the  higher  stages  of 
education, much  time  would  be  lost  by  rigorously 
following  this  method :  and  if,  in  the  more 
elementary  stages,  the  pupil's  mind  has  been 
thoroughly  trained  in  this  way,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  adhere  to  it  when  he  comes  to  study 

the  higher  branches.  At  everystage,  and  in  ev<  ry 

branch  of  instruction,  however,  there  will  be  oc- 
casion for  the  use  of  both  analysis  ami  synthesis; 
and  the  skill  and  judgment  of  the   teacher  must 

be  exercised,  at  every  step. to  determine  which  is 
the  appropriate  method  to  be  employed. — 
Palmer,  Th.e  Teacher's  Manual  (Boston,  1840). 
ANDREW,  Johann  Valentin,  a  German 
clergyman  and  educator,  was  born  at  llerreii- 
berg,  in  Wurtemberg,  in  L586,  and  died  in 
Stuttgart,  in  1654.  After  tilling  several  eccle- 
siastical positions  in  the  Lutheran  church  of 
his  country,  lie  became,  in  1650,  Superintendent 
General  at  Babenhausen,  and  in  L 654  at  Adel- 
berg.     Be  was  a  stern  and  influential  opponent 

of  the  principles  which  the  Lutheran  orthodoxy, 
at  that  time,  endeavored  to  carry  out  in  edu- 
cation, lie  denounced,  in  particular,  the  me- 
chanical method  of  teaching  Latin,  which  then 
prevailed,  as  well  as  the  equally  mechanical 
method  of  catechetical  instruction  in  the  pub- 
lic schools;  and  he  is  known,  in  the  history  of 
German  education,  by  the  reforms  which  he  in- 
troduced in  these  studies,  lie  insisted  that  no 
orders  should  be  given  to  the  pupils  in  a  foreign 
language,  that  they  should  not  be  required  to 
learn  any  thing  which  they  did  not  understand, 

and  that  no  explanations  should  be  given  to  them 
exceeding  their  comprehension,  or  not  enlisting 
their  interest.  His  views  on  pedagogical  and 
didactical  reform  are  fully  developed  in  the 
work  ReipubliccB  Christiana  Descriptio  (1619), 
which    sketches    the    constitution  of  an   ideal 

(  'hristian  republic,  giving  due  prominence  to  the 

organization  of  education.  Another  work,  writ- 
ten in  his  youth.  Idea  Bonce  Tnstiiutionis,  is  no 

longer  extant.  Andrea'  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Amos  ( 'omen ins.  whose  work.  Didactica  Magna, 

h  ■  earnestly  recommended.  The  autobiography 
of  Andrea'  in  Lit  in  has  been  published  by  Lheiii- 
wald  i  Berlin  1849).  -  See  Schmidt,  GescJiichte 
der  Padagogik,  rrr,  338;  Hossbach.  Andreas 
imil  sein  Zeitalter  (Berlin,  1830);  IIkxkk  in 
Deutsche  AUgemeine  Biographie,  art.  Andrea?. 


ANGLO-SAXON 


29 


ANGLO-SAXON  is  the  current  name  for 
thr  mother-tongue  of  the  modern  English  lan- 
guage. During  the  5th  and  6th  centuries,  tribes 
from  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea. —  Angl 
Sax<ms.  Jutes,  ami  others,  made  conquests  and 
settlements  in  England,  They  spoke  LowGerman 
dialects,  and  after  they  were  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, Roman  alphabetic  writing  was  intro- 
duced, and  a  single  literary  language  came  into 
use  through  the  whole  nation.  This  lan-nap' 
they  commonly  called  Anglisc,  or  Engli$c,i.e. 
English,  but  since  the  17th  century  it  lias  been 
called  Anglo-Saxon.  its  besl  period  was  the 
reign  of  Alfred   the  Great,  A.  I>.  871       901. 

In  the  careful  Study  of  its  literary  remains,  it    is 

necessary  to  distinguish  three  dialects, the  North- 
umbrian, the  Wes1  Saxon,  and  the  Kentish;  and 
three  periods,  the  early,  the  mi  Idle,  an  I  the  late: 
but  in  this  article,  our  attention  will  be  mainly 
directed  to  classic  Anglo-Saxon,  which  is  West 
Saxon  of  the  middle  period.  This  literary  lan- 
guage was  cultivated  mainly  by  rewriting  in  it, 
for  the  use  of  the  people,  the  best  Latin  works 
of  the  time  on  religion,  history,  and  philosophy. 
King  Alfred  and  his  learned  assistants  thus  pre- 
pared Gregory's  Pastorale;  the  General  His/on/ 
of  Orosius,  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Bede,the 
Consolations  <>f  Philosophy  of  Boethius;  and 
these  were  followed  by  many  other  translations 
in  prose  and  verse.  The  language  in  this  way 
attained  accuracy  and  ease  in  following  Latin 
compositions,  and  a,  higher  general  cultivation 
than  any  other  Teutonic  tongue  of  the  time. 
It  is  a  very  j mre  Low  German  speech,  closely 
akin  to  the  Friesic  ( >ld  Saxon,  and  I  hvtch.  These 
Low-  German  tongues  are  most  nearly  related,  on 
the  one  side,  to  High  German,  and  on  the  other 
to  Scandinavian;  and  more  remotely  to  Latin, 
Greek,  Slavic.  Sanskrit,  and  the  other  Indo- 
European  or  Aryan  languages.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  is  to  lie  classed  with  the  older  inflected  or 
synthetic  languages,  like  the  Latin,  Greek,  ami 
Sanskwit.  rather  than  with  the  analytic,  or  little- 
inflected,  like  French  and  English.  The  noun 
has  five  cases,  and  three  genders:  and  four  de- 
clensi  mi-  growing  out  of  differences  in  the  stems. 
The  adjective  is  declined  as  in  German,  in  a 
definite  and  an  indefinite  declension,  with  two 
numbers,  three  genders,  and  five  cases.  The 
onal  pronouns  are  also  fully  declined  in 
three  numbers,  having  special  forms  for  the  dual 
number  in  the  first  ana  second  persons.    There 

are  two  great  classes  of  verbs,  one  of  which 
forms  the  past  tense  by  reduplication,  ami  the 
other  by  composition  with  dide,  did.  In  the 
first  class  are  five  conjugations,  arranged  accord- 
ing to  their  root  vowels,  and  from  these  com, ■ 
most  of  what  are  called  the  irregular  verbs  of 
modem  English;  our  regular  verbs  come  from  flu' 
sixth  conjugation.  <>ur  Buffixes  of  derivation, 
our  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  are  also  in 
great  part  Anglo-Saxon.  The  syntax  is  of 
course  that  of  a  highly  inflected  language.  Some 
verbs  govern  an  accusative,  some  a  dative  or  in- 
strumental, some  a  genitive,  some  two  accusa- 
tives, some  an  accusative  and  dative,  and  so  on 


as  in  Latin  and  Greek.  The  uses  of  the  modes 
are  also  a  matter  of  great  nicety.  The  body  of 
rules  for  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  rivals  that 
for  the  Latin  subjunctive.  Most  of  the  diffi- 
culties if  English  syntax  find  their  solution  in  the 
tact  that  they  are  relies  of  idioms  which  were  gen- 
eral, ami  are  easily  understood,    in    Anglo-Saxon. 

The  laws  of  sound,  including  prosody,  are  note- 
worthy. The  vowel  sounds  are  very  susceptible 
to  the  influence  of  adjacent  letters.  A  root  a 
will  change  to  ae,  ea,  e,  o,  as  one  or  another 

letter  follows  it:  ami  so  with  the  other  vowels.  It 
is  in  this  way  thai  the  plural  of  man  comes  to  be 
men,  from   mani.    And,  m  general,  the  changes 

■  of  the  original  letters  of  an  English  word  in  in- 
flection are  to  be  explained  from  the  phom 
laws  of  Anglo-Saxon.  The  verse.  like  that  of 
the  other  early  Teutonic  nations,  is  accentual, 
and  marks  off  the  lines  by  alliteration.  The  art 
of  poetry  was  highly  cultivated:  the  sedp,  or 
]  o(t,  was  highly  honored,  and  it  was  a  disgrace 
to  any  man  nol  to  be  able  to  sin-  in  his  turn  at 
the  feasts.  We  have  specimens  of  the  old  ballad 
epic  reaching  far  back  into  heathen  antiquity, 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  the  North.  There  is 
also  a  body  of  Christian  poetry  in  similar  verse 
and  in  somewhat  similar  style. 

From  this  sketch  of  the  language  and  its 
literature  it  will  appear,  that  whatever  disciplin- 
ary advantages  are  to  be  gained  from  the  study 
of  an  inflected  tongue  as  such,  or  of  a  literature 
introducing  us  to  a  new  world  of  thought  and 
manners,  are  to  be  gained  as  well  from  the 
study  of  Anglo-Saxon  as  of  Latin  or  Greek.  It 
has,  however,  additional  and  more  intimate  uses 
to  those  who  speak  and  write  English,  and  have 
English  for  their  foster-mother  in  literature.  It  is 
the  mother  of  our  mother-tongue,  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  it  helps  us  at  every  step  in  our  study  of 
English  grammar  and  literature,  and  is  essential 

]  to  any  really  advanced  scholarly  knowledge  of 
either.  We  may.  therefore,  find  a  place  for 
Anglo-Saxon  in  all  grades  of  schools  in  which 
language  and  literature  are  studied,  using  it  in 
different  wavs  at  different  stages  of  progress. 

The  study  of  language  must  always  occupy  a 
chief  place  in  any  comprehensive  educational 
scheme.  It  has  two  great  divisions:  (1)  as  the 
study  of  the  art   of  communication,  (2)  as  the 

study  of  the  record  of  human  thought.  With- 
out the  art  of  communication,  man  cannot    live: 

w  ithout  access  to  the  accumulated  thought  of  the 
race,  any  generation  would  be  savages;  without 
an  introduction  to  the  emotions  and  ideals  of 
the  great  and  noble  which  are  embodied  in  lit- 
erature, any  generation  would  lapse  toward 
moral   idiocy. 

Common  Schools.  —  The  Anglo-Saxon  is  no 
longer  spoken,  ami   it  would  be   hardly  worth 

while  to  learn  to  speak  it:  but  in  learning  to 
speak  and  write  English  we  need  to  know  much 
of  it.  The  power  to  speak  well  is  founded  on 
familiarity  with  choice  idioms  and  synonyms. 
These  are  learned  in  connection  with  the  history 
of  the  formation  and  meanings  of  words,  and 
especially  in  English,  of  our  Anglo-Saxon  words. 


30 


ANGLO-SAXON 


There  are  several  school  etymologies  which  afford 
manuals  of  practice  in  the  study  and  use  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  elements  of  our  speech,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned :  Hand-Book  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  Hi  nit- Words  (New  York);  Hand-Bookqf 
Anglo-Saxon  Derivatives  (New  York);  Gibus's 
Teutonic  Etymology  (New  Haven);  Sargent's 
School  Manual  of  English  Etymology  (Phila.). 
In  these  books  the  pupil  is  told  the  meanings  of 
certain  Anglo-Saxon  words,  prefixes,  and  suffixes, 
and  of  English  words  which  are  derived  from 
them;  and  exercises  are  arranged  in  which  to 
acquire  skill  in  the  ready  use  of  this  knowledge. 
They  are  intended  for  the  Common  School. 
Haldeman's  Affixes  (Phila.)  is  a  treasury  of  this 
branch  of  learning. 

In  the  High  School  or  Academy,  Anglo-Saxon 
is  to  be  read  and  studied  not  only  as  explanatory 
of  English,  but  for  its  own  structure  and  liter- 
ature, just  as  Latin,  Greek,  and  German  are 
studied.  Manuals  for  this  study  in  its  simplest 
form  contain  brief  grammars,  selections  for  read- 
ing, notes,  and  vocabulary.  —  Such  books  are  S. 
M.  Shdte's  Anglo-Saxon  Mo,, mil  (N.  V.);  Bar- 
nes's Anglo-Saxon  Delectus  (London);  Vernon's 
Guide  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  Tongue  (London); 
<  !arpenter's  Introduction  to  the  study  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Language  (Boston).  Similar  to 
these,  but  containing  more  apparatus  for  a 
comparative  study  of  the  language  and  philo- 
logical Dotes,  are  March's  Introduction  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Language  (N.  Y.);  Morris's  Ele- 
mentary Lessons  in  Historical  English  Gram- 
mar, containing  Accidence  and  Word  Forma- 
tion (London). 

Normal  Schools.  —There  are  no  persons  to  whom 
tin's  study  is  more  important,  than  to  teachers  of 
English  grammar.  The  explanations  of  the  forms 
of  words  arc-  all  to  besought  in  it.  The  origin  and 
meaning  of  the  possessive  ending  's,  of  the  plural 
endings,  of  the  endings  for  gender,  of  the  tense 
forms  and  other  forms  of  the  verb,  the  adverbial 
endings,  the  prepositions,  may  at  any  time  be  de- 
manded of  the  teacher.  Pupils  will  ask  him 
whether  John's  hool:  is  a  contraction  of  John  his 
book;  how  comes  geese  to  be  the  plural  of  goose, 
and  men  tiaeplural  of  man:  how  comes  lady 
to  be  the/eminine  of  lord;  how  cornea  I  have 

loved  ti>  express  the  perfect  tense;    what  does  the 

to  mean  when  you  say  to  be,  or  not  to  be,  that  is 
the  question,  and  so  on  without  end.  Bui  such 
questions  cannot  be  answered  without  knowing 
Anglo-Saxon.     It  is  the  same  with  questions  of 

syntax.        Almost    all    difficulties    crow    out     of 

Anglo-Saxon  idioms,  or  find  their  solution  in 
the  forms  of  that  speech.  Teachers  who  know 
nothing  of  the  history  of  the  language  puzzle 
themselves  infinitely  with  subtle  reasonings  to 
prove  that  expressions  must  he  parsed  in  one 

way  CT  another,  when  a  glance  at  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  grammar  would  settle  the  matter  in  a 
moment.      No   teacher  can   safely  pronounce  on 

any  such  mooted  questions  of  our  language  with 

out  knowing  the  Anglo-Saxon  forms.  No  nor- 
mal school  ought  to  send  out  graduates  from  its 
grammar   department    wholly   ignorant    of    this 


study.  A  lesson  a  day  during  the  last  school 
term  skillfully  directed  to  the  most  frecpient  ex- 
amples in  which  this  knowledge  comes  into  use, 
would  perhaps  answer  the  most  pressing  necessi- 
ties of  the  common  school  teacher.  Twice  that 
time  woidd  be  a  meager  allowance  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  the  education  of  an  accomplished 
high-school  teacher  in  this  department.  For  this 
study  may  be  used  March's  Comparative  Gram- 
mar of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Language  I  New  York); 
—  this  contains  a  full  syntax  ;  R.  Morris's  His- 
torical Outlines  of  English  Accidence  (London 

Eadley's  Brief  History  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage, in  Webster's  Dictionary  (1865). 

Colleges  and  Universities. —  The  earliest  im- 
portant use  of  Anglo-Saxon  in  our  schools  was 
that  introduced  by  President  Jefferson  Into  the 
University  of  Virginia,  in  1825.  Be  thought 
that  it  was  a  rude  form  of  colloquial  English  dis- 
guised by  bad  spelling,  and  that  the  whole  gram- 
matical system  as  given  in  the  text-books  was  a 
series  of  ■•  aberrations  into  which  our  great  Anglo- 
Saxon  leader.  Dr.  Bickes,  has  been  seduced  by 
too  much  regard  to  the  structure  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages."  "  Remove,"  he  says. -the 
obstacles  of  uncouth  spelling  and  unfamiliar 
character,  and  there  would  be  little  more  diffi- 
culty in  understanding  an  Anglo-Saxon  writer 
than  Bums'  poems."  lie  proposed  to  have  text- 
books prepared,  in  which  the  original  Anglo- 
Saxon  should  be  accompanied  by  a  parallel 
column  containing  the  same  matter  respelt  into 
modern  English  or  forms  like  the  modern  En- 
glish, and  h\  explanations  of  the  meaning  of 
unusual  winds.  'I  hese  he  thought  would  be  few, 
so  that  the  whole    tongue  might  be  mastered 

with  great  ease  and  rapidity.  These  views  of  the 
language  are  all  wrong;  the  best  Anglo-Saxon 
manuscripts  are  really  spell  on  a  more  careful 
and    more    scientific    system    than   our    modern 

English.  The  language,  really,  is  an  inflected 
language,  like  I  atin  and  (deck,  having  its  case- 
endings  and  other  inflective  forms  from  the 
same  Original  as  those  sister-speeches.     Of  course. 

no  one  has  carried  out  Mr.  Jefferson's  plan  liter- 
ally. One  of  its  suggestions  has,  however,  been 
embodied  in  March's  Introduction  to  Anglo- 
Saxon  (New  York).     An  early  division  of  the 

prose  is  prepared  iii  parallel  pages  of  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  a  sort  of  English  made  by  giving  for 
each  Anglo-Saxon  word  the  corresponding  En- 
glish word  to  which  it  has  given   rise,  if  there  be 

any,  or  a  kindred  English  word.    The  following 

is  a  specimen: 

Se  leornere  segeth:  We  cildru  biddath  the, 
eala  lareow,  thael  thu  baece  Qssprecan  on  Ledene 
gereorde  rihte,  fortham  ungelaerede  we  sindon, 
and  gewemmedlice  w  e  sprecath. 

(The  learnersaith:  Wechilder1  bid-  thee, O-lo 
lore-master,  that  thou  teach  us  /o-speak  in  Latin 
i-rerd  right,  lot-that  *  un-i-lered ■■  we  are.  and 
i-weiiiincilly     we  speak.) 


l children  (Chauoer).  spray,  nlanguago  HalliwelT. 
'because,  o  unlearned  Stratuiauu).  c corruptly,  from. 
wrm,  a  spot. 


ANGLO-SAXON 


ANSELM 


31 


An  extract  from  the  poetry  of  Caedmon  is 
prepared  in  the  Bame  manner.  Tt  will  be  Been 
that  this  affords  an  easy  introduction  to  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  vocabulary, 
and  is  a  grateful  means  of  enabling  beginners 
who  wish  only  to  read  in  an  off-hand  fashion,  to 
get  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  books,  especially  of  simple  prose,  and 
makes  a  good  beginning  for  grammatical  and 
philological  study. 

There  has  been  a  great  increase  of  Anglo-Saxon 
study  in  our  colleges  within  the  last  ten  years. 
From  being  almosl  unknown,  and  wholly  unpro- 
vided with  any  suitable  apparatus,  it  has  become 
a  common  study,  and  a  number  of  manuals  have 
been  published  for  beginners  in  it.  both  in  America 
and  Europe.      There  is  ft  difference  of    opinion 
among  our  educators  as  to  whether  it  should  be 
studied  early  in  the  college  course  and  in  connec- 
tion with  English  simply,  or  later  and  in  connec- 
tion with  Latin,  Greek,and  German;  whether  it. 
should  he  mainly  a  literary  study,  for  reading  and 
the  vocabulary,  or   chiefly  a  grammatical   and 
philological  study.  The  earliest  of  the  later  text- 
books announced  for  publication  was  a  <  'ompar<  - 
Hi-.-  Grammar  by  P.  A.  March,  Prof,  of   the 
English  Language  and  Comparative  Philology  i:i 
Lafayette  College.    This  was  primarily  intended 
for  the   use  of   a  Junior  Class  in  college,  who 
have    already    studied    Latin,   Greek,    French, 
and  German,  according  to  a  progressive  plan  by 
which  each  language  is  compared  with  the  others 
in  its  grammatical  forms  and  analogous  words,  so 
that  when   beginning  Anglo-Saxon,  the  students 
are  good  comparative   grammarians  within  the 
range  of  the  above  languages.     It  is  the  plan  of 
this  grammar  to  compare  the  Anglo-Saxon  with 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  Gothic,  Old  Saxon,  Old 
Frisic,  Icelandic,  and  Old  High  German.     Gen- 
eral principles  of    phonology,  enough   to  cover 
all  the  changes  of   sound,  are  first  laid  down, 
and  then  parallel   paradigms  of  the  inflection 
forms   in    these    languages    are    given,  and    the 
Anglo-Saxon  explained  under  their  guidance.    A 
comparative  syntax  is  also  given.     The  author 
in   this    way    introduces    the     student    to   the 
methods  of  the   modern  science  of  language  in 
connection  with  the  study  of    Anglo  Saxon,  so 
that  our  mother-tongue  may   share    the  honors 
of  this  new  science.    This  grammar  was  followed 
by   a    Reader,  which   is    prepared    with     notes 
.adapted  to  lead  to  and  aid  in  the  study  of  the 
grammar.     These  books  have  been  since  studied 
at  Lafayette   College   in   the   manner  here   sug- 
gested.    A   class  goes  slowly  on  with  the  reader 
and  grammar  together,  studying,  word  byword, 
letter  by  letter,  the   relations  of   the  forms  to 
<fthoee  of  dt  her  languages,  and  the  laws  of  change 
which  govern  their  history,  and  trying  to  ground 
all  in  the  laws  of  the  mi  ml  and  of  the  organs  of 
speech.     Besides  this  grammatical  study,  how- 
ever, the  substance  of  the  selections  is  carefully 
studied,    including    choice    extracts    from    the 
Anglo-Saxon    Chronicle   and   Beda   giving  the 
noticeable  events  of  history,  Anglo-Saxon  laws. 
and  extracts  from  the  great  poets.     In  method 


and  substance,  aa  thorough  and  scientific  study  is 
given  in  this  way  to  a  portion  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  as  can  be  given  to  <  J  reek  or  Latin  with 
the  ordinary  college  text-books.  The  study  is 
pursued  in  this  way  at  several  of  the  American 
colleges.  In  others,  rapid  reading  for  literary 
purposes  prevails.  The  text -books  used  are 
\I  lrch's  Grammar  and  Reader,  as  above,  in 
which  are  also  bibliographical  notes, ami  a  sketch 
of  the  literature;  Shdte's  Anglo-Saxon  Manual; 
Ki  Epstein's  Anglo-Saxon  <<ra/nniar(^SewYoTk); 
Corson's  Anglo-Saxon  and  Early  English 
(New  York);  Thorpe's  Analecta  Angh-Saxonica 
(Loudon);  Carpenter's  Introduction  to  Anglo- 
Saxon  (Boston). 

Nowhere  else  is  this  study  pursued  as  in 
America.  It  is  almost  wholly  neglected  in  the 
English  universities.  Nine  German  universities 
announced  lectures  on  it  for  the  winter  semester 
of  1874—5. 

Dictionaries  of  Anglo-Saxon  are  BoswORTH's 
(London);  Ettmueller's  Lexicon  Anglo-saxoni- 
cum  (Quedlinburg  &  Leipsic,  1851), — an  etymo- 
logical dictionary.  Other  valuable  works  of 
reference  or  for  further  reading  are  Thorpe's 
Beowulf,  with  translation,  notes,  and  glos- 
sary (London):  Grein's  Beowulf,  with  Ger- 
man glossary  (Cassel,  1867);  Heyne's  Beovulf, 
with  German  notes  and  glossary  (Paderborn, 
1873);  Thorpe's  Gospels  (London);  Bosworth's 
Four  Versions  of  the  Gospels  (London);  E. 
Mjbtzner's  Englische  Grammatik  (Berlin,  I860 
— 65);  C.  F.  Koch's  HOstorische  Grammatik 
der  englischen  Spracke  (Weimar,  1803 — 71); 
Marsh's  English  Language,  and  its  Early 
Literature  (New  York,  1862);  Morley's  English 
Writers  (London,  1867);  Wright's  Biog.Brit. 
LUeraria  (London.  1842);  Ettmceller's  Scdpas 
and  Bdceras  (Qued.  &  Leips.,  1850);  0.  W.  ML 
Grein's  Bibliothek  der  angelscLchsischeti  Poesit 
(Cassel  &  Gottingen,  1857—1864);  Grein's  Bi- 
bliothek der  angelsdchsischen  Prosa  (Cassel. 
1872);  Grein's  Sprachschatz  der  angelsdchsi- 
schen Dichter  (Cassel  &  Gottingen.  1864):  and 
articles  in  Appleton's  New  American  Oy- 
chpeedia,  and  Johnson's  New  Universal  <';/- 
clopcedia. 

ANSELM,  of  Canterbury,  a  saint  and 
doctor  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  founders  of  scholasticism. 
(See  Scholasticism.)  lie  was  born  at  Aosta,  in 
Piedmont,  about  L033,  entered,  after  a  dissolute 
youth,  the  Benedictine  order  in  L060,  succeeded, 
in  inc.::.  Lanfrancas  prior  of  the  monastery  of 
Bee  in  Normandy,  and.  in  L 079,  became  abbot. 
lie  was,  in  1093,  consecrated  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury,  and  died  in  L109.    The  school  of  Bee 

became,  through  him.  the  most  famous  of  the 
age.  1  le  endeavored  to  show  the  entire  harmony 
between  faith  and  science,  and  was  the  first  to 
develop  what  is  called  the  ontological  argument 
to  prove  the  existence  of  God.  He  was  a  de- 
termined and  effective  opponent  of  the  discipline 
which  at  that  time  prevailed  in  the  monasteries, 
and  which  even  allowed  abbots  to  cudgel  die 
obedient  monks.     "  A  fine  education,"  he  once 


32 


ANTIOCH  COLLEGE 


APHORISMS 


replied  to  an  abbot,  who  complained  of  the  in- 
efficiency of  his  educational  efforts.  ••  which  edu- 
cates man  to  animals  !  Because  they  receive  from 
you  no  mark  of  love  and  kindness,  they  mistrust 
you.  suspect  you  of  malignity  and  hatred,  and 
can  only  face  you  with  lowered  looks  and  averted 
eyes."  An  edition  of  Anselm's  complete  works, 
dso  containing  his  life,  by  his  friend  and  com- 
panion Eadmer,  was  published,  in  1744,  in  Ven- 
ice [Opera  omnia,  '1  vols.).  See  Moshler,  An- 
selm's  Leben  undSchriften  |  Tub.Quartalschrift, 
L826,  L827) ;  Basse,  Anselm  von  Canterbury, 
(2  \ols..  L843— 52;  an  abridged  English  trans- 
lation by  Torner,  London,  1860);  Ch.  de  Remu- 
Si!.  Anselme  de  Cantorbery  (Paris,  L852). 

ANTIOCH  COLLEGE,  at  Yellow  Springs, 
Green  Co.,  Ohio,  was  incorporated  in  L852.  Its 
buildings,  which  were  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$150,000,  have  a  plea-ant  and  healthful  situa- 
tion. This  institution  is  designed  to  afford  the 
means  of  a  useful  education,  at  small  expense,  to 
both  sexes.  Its  charter  forbids  (lie  teaching  of 
sectarian  dogmas;  but  the  instruction  is  Liiven 
in  consonance  with  tin-  spirit  of  liberal  Chris- 
tianity. Its  first  president  was  Horace  Mann 
(ls.").'3 — 59).  He  was  succeeded  by  Thomas 
Hill.  I).  I>.  (1859—62),  George  W.  Bosmer, 
I).  i>.  (1866 — 72);  and  since  then,  the  college  has 
been  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Edward  Orton 
and  Samuel  < '.  Derby,  A.  M.,  acting  presidents. 
Its  endowment  is  upward  of  SI  2(1,000.  It  has  a 
preparatory  and  collegiate  department ;  and  stu- 
dents are  permitted  to  select  any  studies  from  its 
curriculum  which  they  are  able  to  pursue  with 
advantage,  and  receive  a  certificate  for  the  same, 
after  passing  a  satisfactory  examination.  In  this 
respect,  the  institution  affords  the  advantages  of 
the  best  academies.  It  has  a  musical  institute 
under  the  supervision  of  the  faculty,  and  a  li- 
brary of  5000  volumes.  The  number  of  students 
in  187  I  was  about  100.  The  co-education  of  the 
sexes  has  been  very  successful  in  this  institution. 
The  annual  tuition  fee  is  S.'iT. 

ANTIPATHY.  This  term,  the  opposite  of 
sympathy,  denotes  the  instinctive  dislike  which 
is  fell  towards  some  persons  on  account  of  cer- 
tain peculiarities  of  temperament,  disposition. 
manners,  etc.  The  natural  characteristics  of  dif- 
ferent persons  show  remarkable  diversities  in 
this  respect.  Some  seem  lo  exert  a  kind  of 
magnetic  influence,  which  attracts  and  engages 
others,  and  by  means  of  which  they  immediately 
gain  the  good-will  and  affection  of  those  with 
whom  they  are  brought  into  communication. 
()ihers.  on  the  contrary,  appear  to  repel,  as  it 
were,  all  who  approach  them,  and  aie  obliged, 
therefore,  to  make  special  efforl  to  secure  the  con- 
fidence and  good-will  of  their  associates,  T'rank- 
ness  and  candor  tend  to  inspire  confidence;  while 
an  exhibition  of  reserve  and  shyness  produces 
aversion  ami  distrust.  Shy.  secretive  persons 
strive  to  avoid  others,  and  are  instinctively  avoided. 

They  naturally  produce  antipathy.  Hatred  is 
engendered  in  the  mind  towards  those  who  com- 
mit positive  acts  of  injury,  wrong,  or  crime;  but 
this  is  to  be  distinguished  from  antipathy,  which 


is  an  instinctive  dislike.  Such  a  feeling  is  apt 
To  exist  on  a  first  acquaintance  only,  and  is  often 
dismissed  subsequently  as  a  prejudice.  No  per- 
son can  succeed  in  teaching  children,  who  pos- 
sesses an  unfortunate  temperament  or  mental  con- 
stitution of  this  kind,  ami  such  a  one  should  seek 
other  employment  ;  since  all  real  success  in  prac- 
tical education,  depending  as  it  does  upon  in- 
spiring the  minds  of  pupils  with  love,  esteem,  and 
confidence,  must  be  founded  upon  the  opposite 
quality,  sympathy.    (See  Sympathy.) 

APHORISMS,  Educational.  The  expres- 
sion of  general  truths  in  the  form  of  aphorisms 
has  some  advantages  over  more  extended  state- 
ments, particularly  in  their  brevity,  pithiness, 
and  point.  The  understanding  grasps  them 
as  the  keys  to  practical  rules,  and  as  guides  in 
conduct  :  and  the  memory  more  readily  retains 
them.  It  is  not.  however,  to  the  uninformed, 
untrained  mind,  that  such  expressions  are  of  the 
greatest  use.  but  to  those  who,having  already  ac- 
quired by  experience  and  reflection  a  good  store 
of  facts  and  idea-  upon  the  subject  treated,  are 
glad  to  find  them  concentrated,  as  it  were,  in 
these  small  and  convenient  verbal  repositories. 
\o  subject  is  richer  in  such  aphorisms  than 
education  ;  and  to  no  one  will  their  study  and 
acquisition  prove  more  serviceable  than  to  the 
practical  teacher,  eager  to  avail  himself  of  the 
treasured  experience  of  others.  In  these  scintil- 
lations of  wisdom,  struck  out  from  the  minds  of 
ancient  and  modern  sages,  philosophers,  and  edu- 
cators, will  be  found  an  illumination  sufficient  per- 
haps to  guide  the  humble  explorer  in  the  field  of 
pedagogical  lore,  to  the  true  path  to  professional 
success,  as  well  as  to  the  temple  of  speculative 
and  practical  truth.  The  few  here  given  have 
been  selected  not  only  for  their  appositeness,  but 
for  their  value  as  the  exponents  to  correct  educa- 
tion and  teaching.    Their  arrangement  by  topics 

will  not  only  serve  to  divest  them  collectively 
of  their  fragmentary  character,  but  render  them 
easy  of  reference  and  application.  In  regard  to  the 
value  of  aphorisms  in  general,  t 'oleridge  remarks: 
"  Exclusively  of  the  abstract  sciences,  the  lar- 
gest and  worthiest  portion  of  our  knowledge 
consists  of  aphorisms:  and  the  greatest  and  best 
of  men  is  but  an  aphorism." 

I.    Value  of  Education. 

Man  cannot  propose  a  higher  or  holier  object 
tor  his  study  than  education  and  all  that  per- 
tains to  education.  —  l'l.Vl'o. 

Man  becomes  what  he  is  principally  by  edu- 
cation, which  pertains  to  tin  whole  of  lite.      l'i  vm. 

Man  becomes  whal  he  is  by  nature,  habit,  instruc- 
tion; the  last  two  together  constitute  education,  and 
must  always  ace pan}  each  other.     Aristotle. 

There  is  within  every  mind  a  divine  ideal,  the 
type  after  which  he  was  created,  the  germs  of  a 
perfect  person  ;  and  it  is  the  office  of  education  to 
favor  and  direct  these  germs.     Kant. 

Mali    is    tin     product    of  his    education.   — 

Helvetius. 

A  right-directed  system  of  education  is  a  moral 

power  in   the  mind,   second  only  to  that  creating 

energy  that    formed  and  sustains  in  existence  its 

material  frame-work. — A.  E.  Craig. 


APHORISMS 


33 


Of  all  the  men  we  meet  with,  nine  parts  out  of 
ten  are  what  they  arc,  good  or  evil,  useful  or  not, 
by  their  education. — Locke. 

Education  is  to  inspire  the  love  of  truth,  as  the 
supreme  good,  and  to  clarity  the  vision  of  the 
intellect  to  discern  it. — H.  Mann. 

Education  is  the  one  living  fountain  which 
must  water  even  part  of  the  social  garden,  or  its 
beauty  withers,  and  fades  away. — E.  Evebett. 

II.    Scope  of  Education. 

The  object  of  education  is  not  external  show 
and  splendor,  but  inward  development. — Seneca. 

A  good  education  consists  in  giving  to  the  body 
and  the  soul  all  the  perfection  of  which  they  are 
susceptible. — Plato. 

Education  can  improve  nature,  but  not  com- 
pletely change  it. — Aristotle. 

The  object  of  the  science  of  education  is  to 
render  the  mind  the  fittest  possible  instrument  for 
discovering,  applying,  or  obeying  the  laws  under 
which  God  has  placed  the  universe. — "Wayland. 

The  first  principle  of  human  culture,  the 
foundation-stone  of  all  but  false,  imaginary  cul- 
tm-e.  is,  that  men  must,  before  every  other  tiling, 
be  trained  to  do  somewhat.  Thus,  and  thus  only, 
the  living  force  of  a  new  man  can  be  awakened, 
enkindled,  and  purified  into  victorious  clear- 
ness. — C  arlyle. 

The  object  of  education  ought  to  be  to  develop 
in  the  individual  all  the  perfection  of  which  he  is 
capable.  — Kant. 

I  call  that  education  which  embraces  the  cult- 
ure of  the  whole  man,  with  all  his  faculties — sub- 
jecting his  senses,  his  understanding,  and  his  pas- 
sions to  reason  and  to  conscience.  —  Fellenberg. 

I  call  a  complete  and  generous  education  that 
which  fits  a  man  to  perform  justly,  skillfully, 
magnanimously,  all  the  offices,  both  private  and 
public,  of  peace  and  war. — Milton. 

All  true  education  is  a  growth ;  the  mind  is  not 
a  mere  capacity  to  be  filled  like  a  granary  ;  it  is  a 
power  to  be  developed.  — J.  P.  Wickersham. 

The  object  of  education  is  rather  to  form  a  per- 
fect character,  than  to  qualify  for  any  particular 
station  or  office. — A.  Potter. 

The  educator  should  not  so  much  form  and 
instill,  as  develop  and  call  out. — Michaelis. 

The  school  is  a  manufactory  of   humanity. — 

___      _      ,  ,  _     .,      Comenius. 

III.    Teacher  and  Pupil. 

Nature  without  instruction  is  blind;  instruc- 
tion without  nature  is  faulty  ;  practice  without 
either  of  them  is  imperfect. — Plutarch. 

The  fittest  time  for  children  to  learn  anything, 
is  when  their  minds  are  in  time,  and  well-dispos- 
ed to  it.  — Locke. 

Let  the  tutor  make  his  pupil  examine  and 
thoroughly  sift  every  thing  he  reads,  and  lodge 
nothing  in  his  head  upon  simple  authority  and 
upon  trust.— Montaigne. 

Let  the  child  learn  what  is  appropriate  for  his 
years,  and  not  precociously  what  he  ought  to 
learn  afterwards.  — Rousseau. 

To  learn  is  to  proceed  from  something  that  is 
known  to  the  knowledge  of  something  link  n<  >wn.  — 

Comenius. 

Perverseness  in  the  pupil  is  often  the  effect  of 
frowardness  in  the  teacher. — Locke. 

The  great  skill  of  a  teacher  is  to  get  and  keep 
the  attention  of  his  scholar;  whilst  he  has  that, 
he  is  sure  to  advance  as  fast  as  the  learner's  ability 
will  carry  him. — Locke. 

3 


It  is  the  teacher's  character  that  determines  the 
character  of  the  school;  not  what  lie  does  SO 
much  as  what  he  is.  The  maxim  is  a  true  one: 
As  is  the  teacher,  so  is  the  school. — J.  Currle. 

Teachers  should  observe  the  following  rules: 

1.  Never  to  correct  a  child  in  anger. 

2.  Never  to    deprive   a    child    of  anything 
without  returning  it. 

3.  Never  to  break  a  promise. 

4.  Never  to  overlook  a  fault. 

5.  In  all  things,   to  set  before  the  child  an 
example  worthy  of  imitation. — Wilderspin. 

It  matters  not  how  learned  the  teacher's  own 
mind  may  be,  and  how  well  replenished  with 
ideas,  and  how  widely  soever  he  sees  them,  there 
is  a  power  beyond  this  necessary,  to  produce 
copies  of  these  ideas  on  the  minds  of  others.— 

A.  R.  Craig. 

Those  studies  should  be  regarded  as  primarj  . 

that  teach  young  persons  to  know  what  they  are 

seeing,  and  to  see  what  they  otherwise  would  fail 

to  see.— J.  S.  Blackte. 

Long  discourses  and  philosophical  reasonings, 
at  best,  amaze  and  confound,  but  do  not  instruct 
children.  — Locke. 

It  is  as  important  how  children  learn,  as  what 
they  learn.— Dr.  Mayo. 

A  skillful  master  who  has  a  child  placed  under 
his  care,  will  begin  by  sounding  well  the  character 
of  his  genius  and  natural  parts. — Quintiuan. 
Pules   should  not  be  set  before   examples. — 

Comenius. 
Actual  intuition  is  better  than  demonstration. — 

Comenius. 
At  first  it  is  no  great  matter  how  much  you 
learn,  but  how  well  you  learn  it. — Erasmus. 

Study  is  the  bane  of  childhood,  the  aliment  of 
youth,  the  indulgence  of  manhood,  and  the 
restoration  of  age. — W.  S.  Landor. 

A  teacher  ought  to  know  of  every  thing  much 
more  than  the  learner  can  be  expected  to  acquire. 
He  must  know  things  in  a  masterly  way,  curious- 
ly, nicely,  and  in  their  reasons. — E.  Everett. 

The  teacher  should  create  an  interest  in  study, 
incite  curiosity,  promote  inquiry,  prompt  investi- 
gation, inspire  self-confidence,  give  hints,  make 
suggestions,  and  tempt  pupils  on  to  try  their 
strength  and  test  their  skill. — J.  P.  Wickersham. 
There  is  frequently  more  to  be  learned  from  the 
unexpected  questions  of  a  child,  than  from  the 
discourse  of  men  who  talk  in  a  road,  according 
to  the  notions  they  have  borrowed  and  the  prej- 
udices of  their  education. —  Locke. 

From  every  thing  noble  the  mind  receives 
seeds,  which  are  vivified  by  admonition  and  in- 
struction, as  a  light  breath  kindles  up  the  spark 
in  the  ashes. — Seneca. 

Curiosity  in  children  is  but  an  appetite  after 
knowledge  ;  and,  therefore,  ought  to  be  encouraged 
in  them,  not  only  as  a  sign,  but  as  the  great  in- 
strument nature  has  provided  to  remove  that 
ignorance  they  were  born  with. — Locke. 

Clearness  of  id«as  must  be  cultivated  by  exer- 
cising the  intuition,  and  the  pupil  must  be  edu- 
cated to  independent  activity  in  the  use  of  his 
own  understanding. — Seneca. 

Ideas  before  words;  principles  before  rules; 
the  judgment  before  the  memory  ;  incidental  in- 
formation before  systematic  :  reading  before 
spelling  ;  the  sounds  of  the  letters  before  their 
names;  and,  on  the  whole,  nature  before  art. — 

A.  R.  Craig. 


34 


APHORISMS 


The  school  should  cautiously  beware  of  making 
sacrifice  to  the  arrogant  requirements  of  the 
spirit  of  the  age;  which,  when  it  takes  a  wrong 
direction,  promotes  nonsense,  and  desires  to  study 
by  steam. — Stoy. 

Arouse  in  the  child  the  all-powerful  sense  of 
the  universe,  and  the  man  will  raise  himself  above 
the  world  ;    the  eternal  over   the   changeable. — 

Eichter. 

The  process  of  enlightening  the  mind  should 
not  be  like  lightning  in  the  night,  giving  a 
strong  light  for  a  moment,  but  only  blinding  by 
it,  and  then  leaving  every  thing  dirk  again  ;  but 
like  daybreak,  which  renders  every  thing  gradu- 
ally light. — J.  A.  Fischer. 

Human  perfection  is  the  grand  aim  of  all  well- 
directed  education :  the  teacher  should  have  ever 
present  with  him  his  ideal  man  whose  perfections 
he  would  realize  in  the  children  committ  id  to 
his  care,  as  the  sculptor  would  realize  the  pure 
forms  of  his  imagination  on  the  rough  mar  I 
lies  unchiseled  before  him. — J.  P.  Wickebsham. 


IV.     Training  and  Habit. 

Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go,  and 
when  he  is  old  he  will  not  depart    from    it. — 

Solomon. 
Training  is  developing  according  to  an  idea. — 

SCHWABZ. 

No  teaching  or  lecturing  will  suffice  without 
training  or  doing. — Stow. 

You  cannot  by  all  the  lecturing  in  the  world 
enable  a  man  to  make  a  shoe. — Dr.  Johnson. 

Nature  develops  all  the  human  faculties  by 
practice,  and  their  growth  depends  upon  their 
exercise.  — Pestalozzi. 

The  intellect  is  perfected  not  by  knowledge, 
but  by  activity.     Abistotle. 

The  end  of  philosophy  is  not  knowledge,  but 
the  energy  conversant  about  knowledge.— Aris- 
totle. 

The  great  thing  to  be  minded  in  education  is, 
what  habits  you  settle. — Locke. 

Infinite  good  comes  from  good  habits;  which 
must  result  from  the  common  influence  of  exam- 
ple, intercourse,  knowledge,  and  actual  experience: 
morality  taught  by  good  morals.     Plato. 

It  is  habit  which  gives  men  the  real  possession 
of  the  wisdom  which  they  have  acquired,  and 
gives  enduring  strength  in  it. — Pythagobas. 

A  man  is  not  educated  until  he  has  the  ability 
to  summon,  on  an  emergency,  his  mental  powers 
in  vigorous  exercise,  to  effect  his  proposed  ob- 
ject.      I>.   \\r.:,,ii;i;. 

The  great  result  of  schooling  is  a  mind  with 
just  vision  to  discern,  with  free  force  to  do;  the 
i  schoolmaster  is  Practice. —  Cablyle. 

1  [abil  is  a  power  which  it  is  not  left  to  our  op- 
tion to  call  into  existence  or  not;  it  is  given  to 
us  to  us  or  abuse,  but  we  cannot  prevent  its 
working.— J.  Cubs 

1  hi  mind,  impressible  and  Boft,  with  ease 
[mbibi  s  and  copies  «  hat  Bhe  bears  and  sees, 

i  life's  labyrinth  holds  Cast  the  clew 
That  education  gavi  her.  raise  or  true.— Cowfeb. 

V.     Development  of  the  Faculties, 

All  our  kn  I  I  e  originates  with  the  senses, 
proceeds  thence  to  the  understanding,  and  ends 

with  the  reason,  which  is  subordinate  to  no 
higher  authority  in  us.  in  working  up  intuitions, 
and  bringing  them  within  the  highest  unit\  of 
thought. — Kam  . 


The  power  of  reflection,  it  is  well  known,  is 
the  last  of  our  intellectual  faculties  that  unfolds 
itself;  and,  in  by  far  the  greater  number  of  in- 
dividuals, it  never  unfolds  itself  in  any  consider- 
able degree. — D.  Stewart. 

Clearness  of  ideas  must  be  cultivated  by  exer- 
cising the  intuition,  and  the  pupil  must  be  edu- 
cated to  independent  activity  in  the  use  of  his 
own  understanding.  — Niemeyeb. 

The  laws  which  govern  the  growth  and  opera- 
tions of  the  human  mind  are  as  definite,  and  as 
general  in  their  application,  as  those  which  ap- 
]>ly  to  the  material  universe  ;  and  a  true  system 
of  education  must  be  based  upon  a  knowledge 
and  application  of  these  laws.— J.  Henry. 

Knowledge  begins  with  perception  by  the 
si  uses;  and  this  is,  by  the  power  of  conception, 
impressed  upon  the  memory.  Then  the  under- 
standing, by  an  induction  from  these  single  con- 
ceptions, forms  general  truths,  or  ideas ;  and 
lastly,  certain  knowledge  arises  from  the  result  of 
judgments  upon  what  is  thoroughly  under- 
stood. — COMENTOS. 

The  mind  may  be  as  much  drawn  into  a  habit 
of  observation  and  reflection  from  a  well-directed 
1  sson  on  a  pin,  as  from  the  science  of  astron- 
omy.— A.  E.  Craig. 

During  early  childhood  enough  is  done  if 
mental  vivacity  be  maintained. — I.  Taylor. 

The  conceptive  faculty  is  the  earliest  develop- 
ed, and  the  first  to  reach  its  maturity:  it  more- 
over supplies  materials  and  a  basis  for  every 
otlur  mental  operation. — I.  Taylor. 

VI.  Language. 

Things  and  words  should  be  studied  together, 
but  things  especially,  as  being  the  object  both  of 
the  understanding  and  of  language.— CoMENTCS. 

He  who  has  no  knowledge  of  things  will  not 
In  lulpi  d  by  a  knowledge  ol  words. — Luther. 

The  sie,ns  of  thought  are  so  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  thought  itself,  that  the  study  of  lan- 
guage, in  its  highest  form,  is  the  study  of  the 
processes  of  pure  intellect. — E.  Everett. 

Speech  and  knowledge  should  proceed  with 
equal  steps.-    ComentcS. 

We  cannot  express  in  words  the  thousandth 
part  of  what  we  actually  think,  but  only  a  few 
points  .if  the  rapid  stream  of  thought,  lrom  the 
crests  of  its  highest  waves. — Zschokee. 

Language  is  the  sheath  in  which  is  kept  the 
sword  of  the  mind  :  the  casket  in  which  we  pre- 
serve our  jewel;  the  vessel  in  which  we  secure 
our  drink  ;  the  store-house  where  we  lay  up  our 

food.-  -LOTHEB, 

Thinking  is  aided  by  language,  and,  to  a  great 
extent,  is  dependent  upon  it  as  its  most  efficient 
instrument  and  auxiliary. — N.  Pobteb. 

VII.     Self-Education. 

The  primary  principle  of  education  is  the  de- 
termination of  the  pupil  to  self-activity— the  do- 
ing nothing  lor  him  which  he  is  able  to  do  for 
himself.     Sir  W.  Hamilton. 

The  peculiar  importance  of  the  education  of 
childhood  lies  in  the  consideration,  that  it  pre- 
pares the  way  tor  the  subsequent  self-education 

of  manhood. — J.  CrjRRlE. 

Self-activity  is  the  indispensable  condition  of 
improvement  ;  and  education  is  only  education — 
that  is,  accomplishes  its  purposes,  only  by  afford- 
ing objects  and  supplying  materials  to  this  spoil- 


APHORISMS 


APPARATUS 


35 


taneoua  exertion.  Strictly  speaking,  every  man 
mnst  educate  himself.  —Sir  W.  Hamilton. 

The  child  learns  more  by  his  fourth  year,  than 
the  philosopher  at  any  subsequent  period  of  his 
life;  he  learns  to  affix  an  intelligible  sign  to  every 
outward  object  and  inward  emotion,by  a  gentle  im- 
pulse imparted  by  his  lips  to  the  air. — E.  Evekett. 

If  all  the  means  of  education  which  arc  scatter- 
ed over  the  world,  and  if  all  the  philosophers  and 
teachers  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  were  to  be 
collected  together,  and  made  to  bring  their  com- 
bined efforts  to  bear  upon  an  individual,  all  they 
could  do  would  be  to  afford  the  opportunity  of 
improvement. — Degkrando. 

VIII.     Moral  Education. 

The  best-trained  head  along  with  a  corrupt 
heart,  is  like  a  temple  built  over  a  den  of  rob- 
bers.— Tegner. 

Head  and  heart  constitute  together  the  being 
of  man,  and  lie  who  is  sound  in  one  only  is  a 
cripple.     Stot. 

It  holds  as  a  rule  in  mental  as  well  as  in  moral 
education,  that  the  learner  should  be  habituated 
to  what  is  right  before  he  is  exorcised  in  judging 
what  is  wrong. — J.  CuRRTE. 

If  you  can  get  into  children  a  love  of  credit, 
and  an  apprehension  of  shame  and  disgrace,  you 
have  put  into  them  the  true  principle,  which  will 
constantly  work,  and  incline  them  to  the  right.  — 

Locke. 

Man  may  be  said  originally  to  be  inclined  to 
all  vices  ;  for  he  has  desires  and  instincts  which 
influence  him,  although  his  reason  impels  him 
in  an  opposite  direction. — Kant. 

In  my  opinion,  the  first  lesson  which  should 
quicken  the  understanding  of  the  young,  should 
be  intended  to  form  their  morals  and  their 
perceptions  ;  to  teach  them  to  know  themselves, 
to  live  well  and  to  die  well.  — Montaigne. 

Direct  teaching  on  moral  ideas  and  principles 
is  an  important-part  of  instruction. —Hegel. 

Faith  in  God  is  the  source  of  all  wisdom  and 
all  blessings,  and  is  nature's  road  to  the  pure 
education  of  man. — Pestalozzi. 

He  that  will  have  his  son  have  a  respect  for  him 
and  his  orders,  must  have  a  great  reverence  for  his 
son.  "Maxima  debetur  pueris  reverentia. " — Lo<  ike. 

A  properlj  conducted  school  is  a  sort  of  moral 
gymnasium,  preparatory  to  the  great  struggle  on 
the  arena  of  life. — A.  R.  Craig. 

Morality  is  in  infancy  founded  on  the  authority 
of  the  parent,  acting  with  the  support  of  habit  and 
association;  what  he  commands  is  law;  the  virtue 
of  childhood  is  summed  up  in  obedience. —Currie. 

In  man,  the  ideal  is  older  than  the  actual.  The 
loftly  lies  nearer  the  child  than  the  debased.  We 
measure  time  by  the  stars,  and  reckon  by  the 
clock  of  the  sun,  before  we  do  by  the  city  clock. — 

Richter. 

Love  awakens  love;  and  a  cold  and  heartless 
education  usually  produces  a  pupil  of  the  same 
character.— J.  A.  Frscm 

Children  should  live  in  their  paradise,  as  did  our 
first  parents,  those  truly  first  children. — Rousseau. 

IX.     Discipline  and  Government. 

Correct  thy  son.  and  he  shall  give  thee  rest  ; 
yea,  he  shall  give  delight  unto  thy  soul — Solomon. 

He  that  Bpareth  his  rod  hateth  his  son  ;  but  he 
that  loveth  him  chasteneth  him  betimes. — Solo- 
Ki  is. 


No  father  inflicts  his  severest  punishment,  un- 
til he  has  tried  all  other  means. — Seneca. 

A  principal  point  in  education  is  discipline, 
which  is  intended  to  break  the  self-will  of  chil- 
dren, in  order  to  the  rooting  out  of  their  natural 
lc  > w  tendencies.  — He<  a ■:  I .. 

There  is  one,  and  but  one  fault,  for  which 
children  should  be  beaten  ;  and  that  is  obstinacy 
or  rebellion. — Locke. 

Beating  is  the  worst,  and,  therefore,  the  last 
means  to  be  used  in  the  correction  of  children. — 

Locke. 

The  shame  of  the  whipping,  and  not  the  pain, 

should  be  the  greatest  part  of  the  punishment.— 

Locke. 
No  frighted  water-fowl,  whose  plumage  the 
bullet  of  the  sportsman  has  just  grazed,  dives 
quicker  beneath  the  surface,  than  a  child's  spirit 
darts  from  your  eye  when  you  have  tilled  it  with 
the  sentiment  of  fear.  -  II.  Maun. 

A  school  can  be  governed  only  by  patient,  en- 
lightened, Christian  love,  the  master  principle  of 
our  natures.  It  softens  the  ferocity  of  the  savage; 
it  melts  the  felon  in  his  cell.  In  the  manag  ment 
of  children  it  is  the  great  source  of  influence  ; 
and  the  teacher  of  youth,  though  his  mind  be  a 
store-house  of  know!  dee,  is  ignorant  of  the  first 
principle  of  his  art,  if  he  has  not  embraced  this 
as  an  elemental  maxim. — E.  Everett. 

Angry  feelings  in  a  teacher  beget  angry  feelings 
in  a  pupil;  and  if  tiny  are  repeated  day  after  day, 
they  will  at  last  rise  to  obstinacy,  to  obduracy 
and  incorrigibleness. — H.  Mann. 

The  evil  of  corporal  punishment  is  less  than 
the  evil  of  insubordination   or  disobedience. — 

H.  Mann. 
It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  establish  authority  ; 
peaceably,   indeed,    if    he   may, —forcibly  if  he 
must. — D.  P.  Page. 

There  are  usually  easier  avenues  to  the  heart, 
than  that  which  is  found  through  the  integuments 
of  the  body.— D.  P.  Page. 

Several  collect;ons  of  educational  aphorisms 
maybe  found  in  Barnard's  American  Joumail 
of  Education  (passim).— See  also  Wohlfartii, 
Pedagogical  Treasure- Casket  I  Padagogisches 
Schatzkastiein,  (Jot ha,  1857),  translated  in  Bar- 
nard's Jon  rind:  also  the  same,  republished 
from  Barnard's  Journal,  entitled  Educational 
Aphorisms  and  Suggestions,  Ancient  and 
Modern. 

APPARATUS,  School. — The  work  of  in- 
struction in  school  is  very  greatly  facilitated  by 
sufficient  and  appropriate  apparatus,  such  as 
blackboards,  slates,  globes,  maps,  charts,  etc. 
This  is  especially  required  in  the  teaching  of 
children  in  classes,  as  in  common  schools.  By 
this  means,  the  sense  of  sight  being  addressed, 
the  impressions  made  are  clearer  and  more  du- 
rable. Besides,  the  concrete  is  made  to  take  the 
place  of  the  abstract,  by  the  use  of  suitable  ap- 
paratus; and,  in  the  first  stages  of  education,  the 
former  is  almost  exclusively  to  be  employed, since 
ract  principles  or  truths  are  not  compre- 
hende  1  by  the  young  mind,  except  upon  a  suffi- 
ciently extensive  basis  of  concrete  tacts.  Thus, 
by  means  of  the  numeral  frame,  the  various  rudi 
mental  combinations  of  numbers  are  presented 
to  the  mind  of  the  young  pupil,  in  conne  t 


36 


APPAR  \TUS 


A  HAITIAN  SCHOOLS 


with  actual  objects ;  and  in  this  manner  a  clear 
idea  is  given  of  those  processes  which,  merely  by 
abstract  statements  of  the  truths,  would  scarcely 
be  apprehended  at  all.  Of  course,  the  teacher 
should  be  careful  not  to  carry  the  use  of  such 
apparatus  beyond  its  proper  limits  ;  since  the 
pupil's  mind  is  gradually  to  be  accustomed  to 
conceive  clearly  t lie  truth  of  abstract  propositions 
without  regard  to  their  concrete  applications. 

Every  stage  or  grade  of  school  instruction 
must  have  its  appropriate  apparatus.  Infant  in- 
struction requires  a  great  number  and  variety  of 
simple  apparatus  {gifts)  in  order,  by  natural 
methods,  to  aid  the  development  of  the  child's 
mind.  (See  Kindergarten.)  The  primary 
school  should  be  supplied  with  a  numeral  frame, 
blackboards,  slates,  and  pencils  for  the  use  of  the 
children,  a  box  of  forms,  spelling  and  reading 
charts,  color  charts,  pictures  of  animals,  etc.;  and, 
when  elementary  geography  is  taught,  simple 
maps  and  a  small  globe.  For  this  purpose,  one 
that  may  be  divided  into  hemispheres  (Hand 
Hemisphere  Globe)  is  best ;  since  by  means  of  it 
the  relation  of  the  planisphere  maps  to  the  globe 
may  be  clearly  shown.  (See  Globes.)  A  simple 
relief  globe  is  also  of  great  service  at  this  stage. 
Other  ingenious  and  attractive  apparatus  has 
been  devised  to  aid  the  work  of  the  primary 
school  teacher,  to  which  a  special  reference  is  not 
needed.  In  the  more  advanced  stages  of  instruc- 
tion, the  use  of  any  other  than  the  ordinary  ap- 
paratus, such  as  the  blackboard,  maps,  globes,  etc., 
becomes  less  and  less  necessary,  except  in  the 
teaching  of  certain  special  subjects;  as  higher 
arithmetic,  mensuration,  astronomy,  and  other  de- 
partments of  natural  science.  For  such  pur- 
poses, the  cube  root  blocks  and  other  geometrical 
solids,  a  tellurian,  an  orrery,  etc.,  will  be  of  great 
value.  Charts  of  physiology,  history,  etc.,  are 
scarcely  to  be  dispensed  with.  In  the  teaching 
of  natural  science,  very  expensive  and  compli- 
cated apparatus  is  not  at  first  required  Indeed, 
the  simpler  it  is, the  better  ;  since  the  use  of  such 
appliances  will  incite  the  pupil  himself  to  experi- 
ment with  those  simple  contrivances  which  his 
own  powers  of  invention  will  enable  him  to  de- 
vise. Thus  the  use  of  the  level'  may  be  just  as 
well   explained    by    means  of    a    pen-holder  or  a 

pointer  as  by  a  polished  steel  rod  specially  con- 
structed for  the  purpose.  Nothing  marks  more 
fully  the  ability  of  the  teacher  man  adroitness 
in  availing  himself  of  all  common  resources  for 
the  purpose  of  illustration.    Some  of  the  most 

important    discoveries    in    physical    science    have 

been  made  with  very  rude  apparatus.  In  the  use 
of  apparatus  to  illustrate  scientific  facts,  as  of 

the  globe,  tellurian,  or   orrery  for  the  purpose  of 

tea  hing  astronomy,  it  should  always  be  borne  in 
mind  that  such  contrivances  cannot  supersede  the 

study  of  nature  itself.  Cumbrous  ami  compli- 
cated machinerj ,  without  an  attentive  observation 
of  the  natural  phenomena  which  they  arc  in- 
tended to  explain,  rather  serve  to  give  false 
notions  than  to  imparl  correct  ideas  of  the  actual 
facts.  The  latter  must  be  clearly  grasped  by  the 
mind  as  facts  before  their  illustration  is  attempted 


by  means  of  artificial  contrivances.  This  depends 
upon  an  important  principle  which  the  teacher 
should  be  careful  to  recognize  and  apply.  (See 
Blackboard,  and  Numeral  Frame.) 

APPORTIONMENT.     See  School  Find. 

ARABIAN  SCHOOLS.  The  peninsula  of 
Arabia,  situated  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  has  an  area  of  1,218,798  square 
miles,  and  a  population  estimated  at  5,000,000. 
Of  late,  the  Arabs  have  been  of  but  little  account 
in  the  annals  of  education  as  well  as  in  political 
history.  In  former  centuries,  on  the  other  hand. 
t  hey  occupied,  for  a  considerable  time,  a  promi- 
nent position.  Arabia  was  the  birthplace  of 
Islamism,  which,  in  its  doctrinal  and  ethical 
peculiarities,  bears  the  most  evident  marks  of  the 
people  among  whom,  and  the  country  in  which, 
it  originated.  With  the  rapid  spread  of  this 
religion,  the  Arabs  became  a  powerful  people. 
extending  their  political  rule  far  beyond  their 
original  borders.  Large  empires  were  founded 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe;  and  science  and  the 
arts  kept  pace  in  their  development  with  the  in- 
crease of  political  power.  The  Arabian  schools 
of  the  caliphate,  and,  later,  those  founded  by  the 
Moors,  in  Spain,  not  only  attained  a  world- 
wide reputation,  but,  for  a  time,  were  generally 
recognized  as  eclipsing  all  other  literary  institu- 
tions. The  prosperity  of  these  schools  began 
during  the  rule  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommiyades. 
These  monarchs  transferred  their  residence  to 
Damascus,  the  capital  of  Syria,  which  at  that 
time  was  a  chief  seat  of  Creek  literature,  appoint- 
ed many  Greeks  and  Syrians  as  surveyors,  archi- 
tects, and  physicians  :  and  brought  the  Arabian 
mind  into  contact  with  the  civilization  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Syrians.  The  dynasty  of  the  Ah- 
bassides.  which  succeeded  that  of  the  Ommiyades 
in  7")(),  were  still  more  instrumental  in  the  pro- 
motion of  science  and  literature  among  the 
Arabs.  A  large  number  of  Greek  authors  were 
translated  into  Arabic;  and  in  medical  literature 
the  Arabs  became  BO  proficient,  that  through  the 
middle  ages  they  were  regarded  as  the  highest 
authorities.  Soon  the  Arabian  schools  were  also 
regarded  as  superior  to  all  others  in  mathematics 
and  astronomy.  A  translation  of  Aristotle  had 
a  far  reaching  influence  upon  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  Arabian  mind.  The  teachings  of  Aris- 
totle not  only  became  the  basis  of  Arabic  philos- 
ophy, but  through  the  influence  of  the  Arabian 
schools,  the  study  of  this  great  Creek  philosopher 
became  popular  among  the  Jews  in  Spain  and. 
Subsequently,    generally    among    the    dews    and 

Christians  of  Europe.  The  highest  prosperity 
was  attained  by  the  Arabian  Schools  in  Spain. 

In  the  higi)  schools  of  Cordova.  [Toledo,  Sala- 
manca, ami  Seville,  nearly  all  branches  of  human 
knowledge,  Mohammedan  theology  and  law, 
mathematics,  astronomy,  history  and  geography, 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  medicine  and  philosophy, 
were  taught.  In  these  schools,  dewish.  Moham- 
medan, and  Christian  teachers  worked  harmoni- 
ously together.  The  students  lived  in  coUeges,and, 
from  time  to  time,  had  to  pass  examinations.  The 
teachers  sometimes  employed  substitutes.    In  the 


ARCII.KOUMJY 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


37 


lower  schools,  which  were  mostly  connected  with 
mosques,  the  pupils  often  received  their  clothing 
and  hoard  gratuitously.  The  fame  of  the  Arabian 
schools  in  Spain  attracted  students  from  all  parts 
of  Christian  Kurope.  who  were  anxious  to  acquaint 
themselves  with  the  Greek  and  Arabic  literature 
and  the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  Among  the 
many  celebrated  men  who  studied  there,  was  the 
learned  Gerbert,   who  became  pope  under  the 

name  of  Sylvester  11.  Among  the  results  which 
these  students  brought  with  them  from  the 
Arabian  schools,  were  the  Arabic  numbers,  now 

in  genera]  use  in  the  eivili/.ed  world.  At  the 
close  of  the  H>th  century,  the  Arabian  schools  in 
Spain  began  to  decline,  and  the  downfall  of  the 
caliphate  of  Bagdad,  in  L258,  extinguished  the 
fame  of  their  Asiatic  schools. 

In  Arabia,  at  present,  there  is  little  education 
deserving  the  name.  Among  the  Bedouins, 
there  are  no  schools,  and  those  that  exist  in  the 
towns  and  villages  are  only  of  a  very  elementary 
character,  generally  connected  with  the  mosques, 
and  giving  instruction  in  reading,  particularly  of 
the  Koran,  writing,  and  the  rudiments  of  arith- 
metic. In  the  schools  connected  with  the  mosques, 
which  are  public  schools,  the  poorer  children  are 
taught  gratuitously;  but  besides  these  schools, 
there  are  private  seminaries  for  the  instruction 
of  children  of  the  higher  and  middle  classes.  A 
private  teacher  for  children  and  young  slaves  is 
no  uncommon  part  of  the  domestic  establish- 
ments of  distinguished  families.  There  is  no 
public  provision  for  the  education  of  women.  In 
some  of  the  larger  towns  and  cities,  there  are 
colleges  and  professional  schools,  in  which  mathe- 
matics, astronomy,  medicine,  etc.,  are  taught. 
One  of  the  chief  studies  is  that  of  the  Arabic,  to 
enable  the  scholars  to  read  the  Koran  and  the 
commentaries  upon  it.  of  which  there  are  several; 
since  these  are  written  in  a  dialect  differing  in 
some  respects  from  that  now  in  general  use. — 
See  Schmidt.  Geschickte  <h>r  Padagogik,  vol.  n. 

ARCHEOLOGY  (from  apyalnr,  ancient, 
and  ?.6yog,  knowledge,  science)  denotes  properly 
the  science  of  antiquities.  In  the  widest  sense  of  the 
word,  it  would  embrace  the  history,  mythology, 
political  institutions,  religion, commerce,  industry, 
literature,  and  fine  arts  of  ancient  times,  but  it  is 
now  more  generally  used  in  a  restricted  sense. 
Some  writers,  especially  in  America,  apply  it  to 
the  researches  into  the  primeval  period  of  man, 
and,  in  particular,  into  the  history,  customs,  and 
remains  of  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  a  coun- 
try. Thus  the  Indians  in  the  United  States  and 
the  Celts  in  Creat  Britain,  have  become  the  sub- 
jects of  profound  archaeological  research.— In 
Germany  the  term  is  now  more  frequently  used 
to  denote  the  science  of  the  monuments  which  are 
left  to  us  from  ancient  times,  and  especially  from 
Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Latin  antiquity.  As  the 
ancient  monumentB  contain  a  v;ust  amount  of  in- 
formation, not  to  be  derived  from  classical  litera- 
ture, archa'ology  is  regarded  as  an  important 
auxiliary  to  the  science  of  classical  philology. 
the  founder  of  arclueology  as  a  special  science 
was  Winckehnann  :  and   the    most  famous  work 


on  thui  subject  is  the  Handbuch der  Archotologie 
by  K.  ().  Miki.i.kh  (3d  edit.,  by  Weleker,  Bres- 
lau,  1846).  An  English  work  on  the  subject  is 
Westropp's  Handbook  of  Archaeology  (Loud., 
1869).  Biblical  archaeology  and  ecclesiastical  oi 
Christian  archa'ology,  are  branches  of  theology. 
The  former  treats  of  the  ancient  geography, 
physical  condition,  and  ethnography,  and  the 
general  antiquities  of  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
countries;  the  latter,  of  the  antiquities  of  the 
Christian  Church,  and  chiefly  of  the  early  his- 
tory of  Christian  worship.  Works  on  biblical 
archaeology  have  been  written  by  lb:  YYkitk, 
Scholz.Jahn,  ItosKNMiKi.i.KK,  Kkii.,  and  others; 
on  Christian  archa'ology,  by  Bingham,  Pellicia, 
Augusti,  Bintkrim,  Rheinwald,  Ottk.  Henry 
(Philadelphia.  1837),  Riddle  (2d  edit.,  Loud., 
L843),  Coleman.  [Ancient  Christianity  exempli- 
fied, Philadelphia,  1853).  At  many  of  the 
European  universities  and  theological  schools, 
special  courses  of  lectures  on  classical,  biblical,  or 
( 'hristian  archaeology  are  provided  for. 

ARCHITECTURE.     See  Fine  A  ins. 

ARCHITECTURE,  School.  See  School 
House. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  an  independ- 
ent state  of  South  America,  area  841  .000  sq.  m., 
or,  if  we  add  the  territory  which  is  claimed  by 
both  the  Argentine  Republic  and  Chili,  1,000,1 100 
sq.  in. ;  population,  according  to  the  census  of 
1st)!),  L,879,410.  The  republic  is  growing  rap- 
illy,  the  increase  of   population  from   1836   to 

1869  amounting  to  146  per  cent.  Since  1863, 
immigration  has  begun  to  assume  large  propor- 
tions. While,  from  1863  to  1866,  it  averaged 
annually  little  more  than  10,000,  it  reached,  in 

1870  and  the  following  years,  40,000.  The  for- 
eign element  is  especially  large  in  the  city  and 
province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  prominent  positions  in  the  literary 
institutions  of  the  country  are  occupied  by  for- 
eigners. Almost  the  whole  native  population 
belongs  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  but  the 
immigrants  from  the  United  States.  Great  Brit- 
ain, Germany,  and  Switzerland  have  established 
a  number  of  Protestant  congregations  and 
schools.  To  these  a  few  native  congregations 
have  been  added  by  the  Methodist  missionaries 
from  the  United  States.  '1  here  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  population  of  the  towns, 
and  that  of  the  country.  'I  he  former  are  gener- 
ally civilized,  and  take  a  profound  interest  in 
education  ;  but  the  gauchos,  or  the  horsemen  of 
the  plain,  think  hut  little  of  education  and  civili- 
zation. 

The  territory  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  after 
being  occupied  by  the  Spaniards,  formed  a  part 
of  the  Viceroyalty  of  Peru  till  177<>,  when  the 
Viceroyalty  of  La  Plata  was  erected.  The  war 
of  independence  against  Spain  began  in  L810, 
and  was  successfully  ended  in  1812.  In  1813,  a 
Sovereign  Assembly  was  convoked  ;  ami  in  1817, 
the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
La  Plata  was  formally  declared.  Pike  the  other 
republics  of  Spanish  America,  the  country  suf- 
fered much  from  civil  wars,   from  1H.V2  to  I860, 


38 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


ARISTOTLE 


Buenos  Ayres  was  separated  from  the  confedera- 
tion of  the  other  provinces,  and  formed  an  in- 
dependent commonwealth.  More  recently,  the 
progress  of  the  country  has  been  greater  and  more 
rapid  than  that  of  most  of  the  other  South 
American  republics. 

As  early  as  1605,  the  Jesuits  established  the 
university  of  Cordova,  which  soon  became  the 
literary  center  of  all  the  territory  lying  in  the 
basin  of  the  La  Plata  river.  Of  course,  instruc- 
tion during  the  17th  and  L8th  centuries  was 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  especially  the 
Jesuits;  and  very  little  was  done  in  the  way  of 
primary  instruction.  After  the  expulsion  or  the 
Jesuits,  in  I  TUT.  the  university  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Franciscans  and  greatly  declined. 
Though,  after  the  establishment  of  national  inde- 
pendence, there  were  not  wanting  those  who  fully 
appreciated  the  importance  of  education,  and 
sought  to  devise  plans  for  its  future  development, 
the  progress  at  first  was  very  slow.  The  active 
progress  of  education  dates  from  the  adoption  of 
the  constitution  of  Sept.  I860,  which  still  rules 
the  country.  Among  the  first  provisions,  is  one 
for  securing  primary  e  lucation  in  every  province' 
of  the  republic,  making  this  an  essential  obliga- 
tion. To  the  general  government  was  given  the 
power  to  dictate  plan  of  general  and  university 
education;  and  a  special  ministerial  department 
of  public  instruction  was  created.  Such,  how- 
ever, was  the  indifference  of  the  people,  that  the 
government,  in  order  to  carry  out  its  plans  of  sec- 
ondary education,  was  compelled  not  only  to 
offer  instruction,  hooks,  and  all  other  necessaries 
free,  but  also  to  pay  the  pupils  for  the  trouble 
of  attending  school  and  studying  their  lessons. 
The  National  College  of  Buenos  Ayres  was 
founded  shortly  after  the  adoption  of  the  present 
constitution.  Scholarships,  under  the  name  of 
cecas,  were  established,  giving  to  the  student  a 
monthly  allowance  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  dollars 
in  gold.  About  the  same  time,  three  other  pro- 
vincial institutions,  the  College  of  the  Uruguay 
in  the  province  of  Entre  Rios,  and  the  College 
ami  the  University  of  Cordova,  were  nationalized 
ami  placed  upon  ;\  similar  basis.  Up  to  1868, 
there  were  established  five  other  similar  institu- 
tions in  the  provinces  of  Tucunian,  Salta,  Cata- 
marca,  San  Juan,  ami  Mendoza;  and,  in  L868, 
five  others  were  added  in  San  Luis,  La  Lioja. 
Jujuy,  Santiago,  anil  Corrientes.  In  1872,  there 
were  thirteen  colleges,  with  uii'.iT  students  and 
162  professors.  The  colleges  are  visited  by  an 
inspector  of  national  colleges,  who  is  himself  a 
government  employe. 

In  L865,  the  national  government  took  its 
first  step  in  favor  of  primary  instruction,  distrib- 
uting $22,000  in  gold  among  the  various  prov- 
inces, for  the  purpose  of  promoting  a  popular 
movement  in  this  direction,  In  I  Hon  and  1867, 
th,  u  mill  was  voted  by  the  national  con- 

gre      for  this  purpose.     In  August  1868,  began 

th  •  a  lininist  ration  of    President  Sariniento.  who 

has  done  more  for  the  promotion  of  education 
than  any  other  statesman  of  South  America.  The 
progress   made  since  then   is   wonderful.    The 


new  minister  of  public  instruction,  Dr.  Nicolas 
Avellaneda,  in  his  first  report  to  the  congress 
(lHo9),  earnestly  advocated  sweeping  reforms: 
and  the  work  of  carrying  out  these  reforms  was 
begun  energetically.  For  the  year  1 869,  $1 15,000 
was  voted  tor  the  purpose  of  encouraging  pri- 
mary instruction;  for  1870,  $95,000,  and  for  1871 
$215,000.  In  L871,  a  law  was  also  passed,  crea- 
tine a  special  and  independent  fund  tor  the  pur- 
poses of  primary  instruction,  distributing  the 
proceeds  among  the  various  provinces  in  propor- 
tion to  the  efforts  which  they  themselves  might 
make.  This  law  took  effect  in  January  L873. 
In  1ST2.  primary  instruction  was  given  in  Kiss 
public  and  566  private  schools.      'I  he  children  of 

school  age  (<i  to  15)  numbered  468,987,  while 
the  number  of  those  attending  schools  was. 
97,549.  The  number  of  teachers  was.  male 
1558,  female  1408.  The  expenditure  for  primary 

instruction  in  the  same  year  was  $1,564,350.  In 
August  1871,  the  first  national  normal  school 
was  established  at  Parana,  it  had,  in  lsT2.  285 
students  and  6  professors.    '1  he  first  principal 

of  the  school  was  Dr.  Geo.  A.  Stearns.  —  'I  he 
Only  national  university,  at  Cordova,  was  re-or- 
ganized, in  1870,  by  President  Sarmiento,  who 
established  a  number  of  new  (hairs,  and  called 
from  Germany  professors  of  chemistry,  physics, 
and  botany, and  from  the  United  States  a  distin- 
guished professor  of  astronomy,  in  L872,  the 
university  numbered  II  professors  and  103  stu- 
dents. 'I  he  university  of  Buenos  Ayres  is  a 
provincial  institution.  It  was  organized  in  1822 
by  Rivadavia,  and  was.  at  first, only  a  law  school; 
but,  owing   to   the  zeal  of  its   rector,    Dr.  duan 

Maria  Gutierrez,  (hairs  of  mathematics,  experi- 
mental physics,  and  chemistry  were  soon  after- 
wards added.  Its  course  of  instruction  resembles 
that  of  French  institutions:  the  museum  has 
been  for  many  years  under  the  direction  of  the 
distinguished  Herman  naturalist.  Dr.  Burmeister. 
— See  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion for  1872  and  1ST.'!;  Lb  Roy,  in  ScHMIDS 
Encyclop.,  art.  Sudamerica;  Burmeister,  in 
Petermann,  Die  siidamerikanischen  Bepubliken 
Argentina,  Chile,  Paraguay  und  Uruguay  in 
Is;:,  (Gotha,  1875). 

ARISTOTLE,  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
teachers  and  philosophers  of  either  ancient  or 
modern  times,  was  horn  in  :!■>(  It.  ('.  at  Stagira, 
a   Greek  colony  of   Macedonia,   near   the  mouth 

of   the  Strymon.      from   his  birthplace  ho  is 

often  called  "the  StagiriteJ  His  father.  Nicom- 
achus,  was  a  distinguished  physician  and  friend 
of  the  .Macedonian    king    Amynlas  II.;  and  bom 

him  Aristotle  received  the  first  instruction.  Hav- 
ing lost  his  parents,  he  went  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen to  Athens,  where  he  was  for  twenty  years  a 

pupil  of  Plato.  His  great  teacher  used  to  call  him. 
on  account  of  hi-   r-st  less  study  and  his  thirst  for 

knowledge,  the  philosopher  of  truth  and  the  in- 
tellect of  his  school.  Subsequently,  however,  an 
estrangement  arose  between  them,  owing  chiefly 
to  the  radical  differences  in  their  philosophical 

and  educational  systems.  While  Plato  was  a 
thorough  idealist.  Aristotle  was  just  as  fully  a 


ARISTOTLE 


39 


realist  ami  the  father  of  experimental  science. 
About  •>  13  I!.  ( '..  Aristotle  was  appointed  by  king 

Philip  of  Macedon  teacher  of  his  son  Alexan- 
der, at  that  time  thirteen  years  old.  The  history 
of  Alexander,  who  intellectually  was  no  less  prom- 
inent among  the  kings  of  the  ancient  world 
than  as  a  conqueror,  testifies  to  the  success  of 
Aristotle  as  a  practical  teacher.  For  a  long  time, 
Alexander  was  anxious  to  show  his  gratitude  to 
his  preceptor  ;  and  after  the  conquest  of  Persia, 
he  presented  him  with  eight  hundred  talents,  or 
nearly  a  million  of  dollars.  Later,  however,  the 
friendly  relations  between  Alexander  and  Aris- 
totle greatly  suffered  from  the  vicious  habits  of 
the  former.     After  completing  the  education  of 

Alexander,  Aristotle  returned  to  Athens  fin  335, 
or  according  toothers  in  331,  B.  ('.)  and  taught 
philosophy  in  the  Lyceum. a  gymnasium  near  the 
city.  In  the  morning,  he  instructed  the  advanced 
ilars  in  lectures  acroamatic  or  esoteric:  in  the 
evening,  he  gave  popular  or  exoteric  lectures  to 
larger  circles  of  hearers.  From  the  shady  walks 
-  -.-ni)  around  the  Lyceum,  in  which  he 
walked  up  and  down  while  delivering  his  lectures, 
his  school  was  called  the  peripatetic.  After 
having  taught  in  this  way  for  thirteen  years,  and 
composed  most  of  his  immortal  works  on  philos- 
ophy ami  natural  science,  he  was  accused  by 
hemophilus,  a  prominent  citizen  of  Athens,  of 
impiety,  because  in  a  poem  he  had  attributed  di- 
vine honors  to  his  friend  liermias.  lie,  therefore, 
tied  to  Ohalcis  in  Eubcea,  where  he  died,  in  o22, 
B.  C,  of  a  chronic  disease  of  the  stomach. 

Aristotle's  method  of  teaching  was  essentially 
.analytic.  Proceeding  from  the  concrete,  he  tried 
to  derive  general  ideas  from  a  number  of  ob- 
served facts  and  phenomena ;  and  his  entire  phi- 
losophy is  based  on  the  principle  that  all  our 
know  ledge  must  be  founded  on  the  observation  of 
facts.  Pedagogy,  according  to  Aristotle,  must  be 
founded  on  principles  derived  from  the  knowl- 
edge of  man.  The  highest  goal  of  all  human 
activity  is  evdaijiovia,  happiness,  both  tor  the  in- 
dividual and  for  the  state.  This  evdaifiovia  is 
based  on  virtue,  which  is  acquire  1  ly  the  perform- 
ance of  moral  actions.  As  man  is  a  social  being, 
destined  to  live  in  society,  the  development  of 
virtue  in  general  is  dependent  upon  political 
lite.  The  object  of  the  state  is  to  establish  the 
iplete  happiness  of  families  and  communities, 
and  the  preservation  of  the  state  depends  on  an 
educational  syst  a  conformable  to  the  laws  and 
constitution.  Thrjmmr  education  will  not  pro- 
duce the  same  virtues  in  different  persons;  for 
the  formation  of  character  in  each  person  is  de- 
pendent on  three  different  things, — nature. habit. 
and  instruction.  It  must  be  the  aim  of  habit 
and  instruction  to  develop  the  peculiar  faculties 
which  nature  has  implanted  in  each  individual. 
In  the  education  of  a  child,  as  it  is  of  the  great- 
est importance  that  its  body  be,  from  its  birih.as 
perfect  as  possible,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
parents  be  suitably  matched,  and  that  women 
during  their  pregnancy  receive  substantial  food, 
and  be  preserved  as  much  as  possible  from  men- 
tal agitation.     Children  who  at  their  birth  are 


crippled  should  not  be  brought  up  at  all.  Until 
the  fifth  year  of  age,  children  should  not  be  oc- 
cupied in  hard  labor  ;  on  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, they  should  not  remain  inactive,  but  have 
suitable  exercises  in  plays  adapted  to  their  age. 
During  this  time,  as  well  as  during  the  two  fol- 
lowing years,  education  by  means  of  habit  takes 
place,  as  children  observe  what  they  subsequently 
have  themselves  to  perform.  Education  by  means 
of  instruction  begins  in  the  Tth  year  of  age  and 
lasts  to  the 'J  1st.      This  time   is  divided  into  two 

periods, the  one  extending  from  the  7th  year  to  the 

age  of  puberty  (about  the  I  lthyear)  theotherfrom 
the  1,4th  to  the  21st.  Education  by  habit  during 
this  period  continues,  but  the  chief  work  is  done 
by  instruction.  As  a  general  principle,  it  must 
be  observed,  that  a  state  can  only  exist  if  children 
are  educated  in  accordance  with  the -existing  con- 
stitution;  in  democratic  commonwealths,  in  which 
all  in  turn  may  rule  or  be  ruled,  it  is,  therefore, 
of  importance  that  boys  should  be  taught  obe- 
dience, for  only  those  who  have  learned  how  to 
obey  will  be  able  to  rule.  In  regard  to  the 
subjects  in  which  instruction  should  be  given, 
three  classes  should  be  distinguished,  (lj  that 
which  is  necessary  and  useful  for  life,  (2)  that 
which  leads  to  ethical  virtue,  and  (3)  that  which, 
going  beyond  these,  serves  the  highest  theoretic- 
al aims.  In  things  pertaining  to  the  ordinary 
occupations  of  life,  the  young  are  to  be  instructed 
only  so  far  as  such  occupations  are  becoming  to  a 
free  man.  Every  mechanical  work,  every  kind  of 
servile  or  menial  labor,  and  especially  every 
thing  that  might  injure  the  body,  is  to  be  avoided. 
The  fine  arts  should  be  practiced  with  a  view  to 
general  culture  ;  but  no  special  excellence  should 
be  aimed  at.  In  regard  to  ethical  virtues, 
children  must  especially  be  taught  to  be  consider- 
ate and  temperate,  in  order  that  the  exertions 
necessary  to  attain  self-control  may  lose  their 
original  unpleasantness  by  means  of  habit.  Fi- 
nally, there  are  for  ethical  as  well  as  theoretical 
education ,  certain  instructional  means,  namely 
reading  and  writing, gymnastics, music,  including 
rhythmics  and  poetry. and  occasionally  also  draw- 
ing. The  first  and  the  last  of  these  serve  also 
for  the  necessities  of  life:  and  care  should,  there- 
fore, be  taken  that  the  supreme  aim  of  a  noble 
education  be  not  infringed  upon.  Tin  instruction 
in  drawing,  therefore,  should  be  given  in  such  a 
way  as  to  enable  the  youthful  mind  to  under- 
stand ami  criticise  the  works  of  plastic  art. 
Gymnastics  educate  the  youth  in  manliness, 
and   give  to  the  body  health   and   beamy.      That 

which  is  properly  athletic  and  especially  every 

thing  that  leads  to  rudeness  and  ferocity,  should 
be  avoided,  a  point  of  view  which  the  Spartans, 
in  their  otherwise  excellent  educational  system, 
Somewhat  lost  sight  of.  Before  the  age  Of  pu- 
berty, only  easy  exercises  should  be  practiced, and 
all  violent  exertions  that  might  impede  natural 
growth,  should  be  avoided.  After  attaining  the 
a-_ ■•  of  puberty,  boys  may  <le vote  three  years  to 
r  branches  of  instruction;  then  more  diffi- 
cult exertions  and  privations  may  be  practiced; 
and  during  this  time  mental  occupations  should 


40 


ARITHMETIC 


receive  less  attention;  for  the  activity  of  the  mind 
is  impeded  by  the  exertions  of  the  body,  and  the 
activity  of  the  body  by  the  exertions  of  the  mind. 
Musical  education  deserves  special  attention  on 
account  of  its  ethical  influence.  Music  more  than 
any  other  art,  is  the  art  of  imitation,  and  reflects 
in  the  soul  of  the  hearer,  in  a  manner  both  at- 
tractive and  instructive,  the  various  affections 
and  emotions  of  the  mind.  The  Doric  melody  is 
specially  recommended,  as  keeping  the  right 
mean  between  passionate  excitement  and  woman- 
ish weakness.  The  last  class  of  subjects  to  be 
taught  in  the  instruction  of  youth,  are  those 
which  serve  for  theoretical  purposes,  or  for  the 
acquisition  of  the  so-called  dianoetical  virtues, 
which  are  only  to  be  found  in  the  more  intelligent 
class  of  men.  These  subjects  are  the  pure  sciences, 
as  mathematics,  dialectics,  and  philosophy.  The 
highest  of  all  practical  sciences,  political  econ- 
omy, is  not  a  fit  subject  for  the  young,  as  they 
are  too  inexperienced  in  the  actions  of  life  on 
which  political  science  is  based. —  like  the  edu- 
cational theories  of  Plato  and  other  Greeks,  the 
theories  of  Aristotle  almost  exclusively  refer  to 
free-born  youth.  But  little  attention  is  paid  to 
the  education  of  the  female  sex  and  the  working 
classes;  and  still  less  is  given  to  the  education 
of  slaves.  Aristotle  recommended,  however,  that 
the  moral  and  intellectual  improvement  of  the 
slaves  should  he  eared  for. 

Among  the  works  of  Aristotle  still  extant,  the 
Nicomachean  EJthics  and  the  Politics  contain  his 
views  on  education.  ( >n  the  educational  system 
of  Aristotle,  sec  Schmidt,  Gesckickte  der  Pada- 
gogik,  vol.  i;  and  Onckbn,  Die  Staatslehre  des 
Aristoteles,  2  vols.,  IsTO  —  1875.  —  See  also  Ari- 
stotelis  Ethica  Nicomachea,  edited  by  J.  E.  'I'. 
BOGERS,  (Lond.,  1874);  and  the  same,  translated 
by  R.  Williams.  (Lond..  L874);  The  Politics 
(Greek  text,  with  English  notes),  by  Richard 
Congreve,  (Lond..  1874);  The  Ethics,  with  Es- 
says mill  Notes,  by  Sir  A. Grant,  ilxmd.,  1874); 
(trotk,  Aristotle  (Lond.,  lsT'ij. 

ARITHMETIC  (Gr.ap^^ffljfromap^rfc, 
number),  the  science  of  numbers.  This  subject  oc- 
cupies a  prominent  place  in  the  curriculum  of  all 
elementary  schools,  both  primary  and  grammar,  as 
well  from  its  educational  or  disciplinary,  as  its 
practical  value.  On  a  fair  estimate,  not  less  than 
one-fourth  of  the  pupil's  time,  for  the  first  eight 
or  ten  years  of  his  school  lite,  is  given  to  the  study 
of  this  Bubject;  hut  the  results  are  too  often 
quite  inadequate  to  this  large  expenditure  of 
time,  the  most  that  can  generally  he  claimed 
being  a  tolerable  familiarity  with  the  processes 
of  the  fundamental  rules,  common  fractions,  and 
denominate    numbers,    with    a   very   imperfect 

knowledge  even  of  the  processes  of  decimal  frac- 
tions,   proportion,  evolution,  and   the   business 

rules  01  arithmetic.       Any  such  knowledge  of  the 

subject  as  enables  the  student  to  give  a  clear  ex- 
position of  the  reasons  tor  the  various  processes, 
or  as   is   required    to   render   him    trust  worthy  in 

ordinary  business  computations,  is  far  from  be- 
ing the  usual  attainment.  This  arises,  in  part  at 
hast,   from  a  fundamental    error    in    the   general 


treatment  of  this  branch  of  instruction. — the  dis- 
sociation, to  a  great  extent,  of  mental  from  writ- 
ten arithmetic ;  whereas  they  should  be  so  com- 
bined as  to  constitute  only  different  exercises  of 
the  same  subject,  (^uite  within  the  memory  of 
some  of  our  living  educators,  the  text-books  of 
arithmetic  generally  in  use  were  simply  single 
books  of  definitions,  rules,  and  examples.  Such 
were  Ostrander's,  Pike's,  Dabol's,  etc.  These  were 
succeeded  by  two  classes  of  text-books, — one, 
called  Mental  Arithmetics,  of  which  Lolburn's  is- 
a  type ;  and  the  other,  such  as  presented  an  at- 
tempt to  explain  the  reasons  of  the  processes  in- 
volved in  the  different  rules.  Of  the  latter, 
Adams's  New  Arithmetic  affords  a  fair  example. 
Following  these  two  lines,  the  science  has  been 
practically  divided  into  two;  and  so  diverse  are 
these  in  their  methods,  that  a  pupil  may  be  quite 
expert  in  one,  and  almost  entirely  ignorant  of 
the  other.  If.  in  addition  to  this,  the  fact  is  con- 
sidered that  the  text-books  in  the  course  have 
been  multiplied  until  there  are  now  two  books 
in  mental  arithmetic,  and  three  in  written,  in 
several  of  the  series  in  general  use,  the  rea- 
son for  the  length  of  time  consumed  on  this  sub- 
ject La  our  public  schools  will  he  obvious.  But 
there  is  still  another  cause  which  operates  with 
considerable  force:  that  is.  the  cumbering  of  our 
text-books  with  so  many  subjects  that  are  utterly 
useless  to  the  student.  No  branch  of  business  re- 
quires a  knowledge  of  greatest  common  divisor, 
least  common  multiple,  circulating  decimals,  or 
duodecimals.  It  is  indeed  important  that  a 
pupil  should  know  how  to  reduce  a  fraction  to 
its  lowest  terms :  but  no  ordinary  case  requires 
a  knowledge  of  the  process  for  finding  the  7.  c. 
<!..  nor  are  we  accustomed  to  use  it.  Lor  the 
process  itself  we  have  no  use  until  we  reach 
higher  algebra,  and  the  demonstration  of  the 
process  is  quite  too  intricate  for  the  ordinary 
pupil  in  elementary  arithmetic.  Again,  no  one 
uses  the  processes  of  alligation  alternate;  and  hut 
tew  indeed  of  the  great  mass  of  our  school  chil- 
dren can  comprehend  the  conditions  which  give 
rise  to  much  of  otir  business  arithmetic.  It  is 
not  intimated  that  such  problems  as  those  which 
arise  in  stocks,  arbitration  of  exchange,  general 
average,  etc..  should  not  have  a  place  in  an  arith- 
metical course,  but  only  that  they  do  not  belong 
in  the  course  for  the  masses.  There  are  other 
topics,  more  elementary  and  more  generally  use- 
ful, to  which  the  time  of  these  should  l>c  given. 
And  lastly,  on  this  topic,  of  what  conceivable 
use  are  many  of  the  examples  which  occupy  SO 
much  space  in  our  books,  and  BO  much  time  in 
the  course?    Take  the  following  as  specimens: 

I  bought  a  hat  coat,  and  vest,  For  $34;  the  hat  cost 
,-;  of  the  price  0?  the  coat,  and  the  vest  j  of  the  price 
uf  the  hat  :   what  was  the  cost  of  each? 

One-half  of  A's  money  =  $  of  B'SJ  and  the  intere-t 
of  3  of  A's  and  i  of  l!'s  money,  at  4  per  cent  for 
'_'  yr.  .'!  inmi.  is  Sis":   how  much  lias  each? 

\  and  li  have  the  same  income;  A  saves  J  of  his; 
lint  I!,  by  BDending  (SO  per  annum  more  than  A,  at 
the  end  'of  s  years  finds  himself  $40  in  debt;  what 
is  their  income,  and  what  does  each  spend  per  annum  1 

l!ut  it  is  said  by  some  that  these  things  are 
necessary  as  mental    gviiinasties.      However   ap- 


AKTTHMETIO 


41 


plicable  the  principle  involved  in  this  may  be, 
in  education  there  is  really  no  need  of  it.  If  the 
demands  of  actual  life  are  so  meager,  that  we 
must  make  a  large  part  of  our  discipline  in 
arithmetic  consist  in  unraveling  such  manufact- 
ured puzzles,  is  it  not  well  to  ask  the  question 
whether  there  are  not  other  branches  of  science 
which  will  afford  the  needed  discipline  by  deal- 
ing with  the  actual  and  useful,  instead  of  wasting 
time  and  strength  on  the  purely  fictitious?  The 
arithmetics  of  to-day.  however,  are  a  great  ad- 
vance, in  this  respect,  on  those  in  use  fifty  years 
ago  ;  but  no  editor  of  a  text-book  on  arithmetic 
has  yet  felt  at  liberty  to  cut  out  entirely  these 
superfluous  problems.  Undoubtedly, the  demands 
of  science  and  of  business  life  furnish  abundant 
resources  in  this  direction  ;  but  these  more  ab- 
struse problems  do  not  fall  within  the  purview 
of  an  elementary  course,  nor  come  within  the 
demands  which  actual  life  makes  upon  the  great 
majority  of  persons.  There  are  a  great  number 
and  variety  of  intricate  questions  which  do  act- 
ually arise  in  discounting  negotiable  paper,  as 
well  as  in  the  abstruse  questions  which  insurance 
and  annuities  present ;  but  it  is  not  the  aim  of 
our  elementary  courses  to  train  pupils  for  such 
specialties;  and  when  in  any  properly  co-ordin- 
ated course  of  study  such  topics  are  reached, 
their  solution  will  then  come  in  the  regular  line 
of  the  application  of  general  principles,  and  the 
Student  will  have  acquired  sufficient  maturity  to 
comprehend  the  business,  economical,  or  political 
relations  which  give  rise  to  them. 

What  should  constitute  the  course  in  arith- 
metic.— In  the  first  place,  there  should  be  a  thor- 
ough unification  of  the  processes  of  mental  and 
written  arithmetic.  There  is  but  one  science  of 
arithmetic ;  and  every  thing  that  tends  to  pro- 
duce the  impression  in  the  pupil's  mind  that  there 
are  two  species,  the  one  intellectual  and  the  other 
mechanical,  is  an  obstacle  to  his  true  progress. 
What  is  valuable  in  the  methods  now  peculiar  to 
mental  arithmetic,  needs  to  be  thoroughly  in- 
corporated with  what  is  practically  convenient 
or  necessary  in  written  arithmetic  ;  so  that  the 
whole  may  be  made  perfectly  homogeneous.  The 
basis  upon  which  this  is  to  be  effected  is,  that 
principles  should  be  discussed  first  by  the  use  of 
small  numbers  which  can  be  easily  held  in  the 
mind,  and  which  do  not  render  the  difficulty  or 
labor  of  combination  so  great  as  to  absorb  the 
attention,  or  divert  it  from  the  line  of  thought; 
and  that  we  should  pass  gradually,  in  applying 
the  reasoning,  to  larger  numbers  and  more  difficult 
and  complex  combinations,  in  which  pencil  and 
paper  are  necessary.  The  rationale  should  be  al- 
ways the  same  in  the  mental  (properly,  oral)  arith- 
metic and  in  the  written,  pencil  and  paper  being 
used  only  when  the  numbers  become  too  large,  or 
the  elements  too  numerous,  to  render  it  practi- 
cable to  hold  the  whole  in  the  mind.  For  example, 
suppose  the  pupil  to  be  entering  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  percentage.  The  first  step  is  to  teach 
what  is  meant  by  per  cent.  In  order  to  this, 
small  numbers  will  be  used,  and  the  process  will 
not  require  pencil  and  paper,  nor  will  such  num- 


bers be  selected  at  first,  as  will  cause  difficulty 
in  effecting  the  combinations.  Thus,  the  first 
questions  may  be,  "  Mr.  A  had  300  sheep  and 
lost  f>  out  of  each  hundred:  how  many  did  he 
lose?"  "  What  phrase  may  we  use  instead  of  '5 
out  of  each  hundred?'"  "Mr.  U  had  an  or- 
chard of  400  peach-trees  and  lost  6  per  cent  of 
them;  how  many  did  he  lose  ?"  "  What  phrase 
may  we  use  instead  of  '(5  per  cent?'"  To  as- 
sign as  the  first  example,  one  like  the  following 
would  be  a  gross  violation  of  this  principle : 
"Mr.  A  put  out  $759,  on  7  per  cent  interest; 
what  was  the  interest  for  a  year?"  After  the 
principle  to  be  taught  is  clearly  seen,  larger 
numbers  should  be  introduced,  and  such  as  re- 
quire that  the  work  be  written.  But  the  same 
style  of  explanation  should  be  preserved ;  and 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  have  it  seen  that 
the  method  of  reasoning  is  the  same  in  all  cases. 
To  illustrate  still  farther;  as,  in  practice,  the 
computer  ordinarily  uses  the  rati'  as  the  multiplier, 
the  form  of  explanation, when  the  whole  is  given 
orally,  should  be  adapted  to  this  fact.  At  first, 
such  an  example  as  the  first  above  will  naturally 
be  solved  thus  :  "  If  Mr.  A  lost  5  sheep  out  of 
100,  out  of  3  hundred  he  lost  3  times  5,  or  15 
sheep."  But  before  leaving  such  simple  illustra- 
tions, the  reasoning  should  take  this  form:  "Since 
losing  1  out  of  100  is  losing  .01  of  the  number, 
losing  5  out  of  100  is  losing  .0")  of  the  number. 
Hence,  Mr.  A  lost  .05  of  300  sheep,  which  is. 
1 5  sheep."  Thus,  in  all  cases,  the  form  of  thought 
which  will  ordinarily  be  required  in  solving 
the  problem,  should  be  that  taught  in  the  intro- 
ductory analysis.  A  farther  illustration  of  this 
is  furnished  by  reduction.  At  first,  the  question, 
"  How  many  ounces  in  ft  lb.?"  will  naturally  be 
answered,  "  Since  there  are  16  oz.  in  1  lb.,  in  5 
lb.  there  are  5  times  16  oz.,  or  HO  oz."  But  in 
practice  the  1  6  is  ordinarily  used  as  the  multi- 
plier, and  it  is  better  that  the  introductory 
(mental)  analysis  should  conform  to  this  fact. 
I  Ience,  the  pupil  should  be  led  to  see,  at  the 
outset,  that,  as  every  pound  is  composed  of  16 
ounces,  in  any  given  weight  there  are  16  times  as 
many  ounces  as  pounds;  and  he  should  be  re- 
quired to  analyze  accordingly.  Apart  from  this 
use  of  what  are  called  mental  processes,  there  is  no> 
proper  well-defined  sphere  for  their  employment. 
In  practical  applications,  it  is  quite  unphilos- 
ophical  to  classify  the  examples,  by  calling  some 
mental  and  others  written.  We  do  not  find  them 
so  labeled  in  actual  business  life.  The  pupil 
needs  to  discriminate  for  himself  as  to  whether 
any  particular  example  should  be  solved  without 
the  pencil  or  with  it.  It  should  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  business  men  rely  very  little  upon 
these  mental  operations.  They  use  the  pen 
and  paper  for  almost  every  computation,  in 
the  second  place,  in  constructing  our  course  in 
arithmetic,  we  need  to  give  the  most  careful 
attention  to  the  condition  and  wants  of  the 
youth  found  in  our  public  schools.  Perhaps  it 
is  no  exaggeration  to  say,  that  from  eighty  to 
ninety  per  cent  of  the  pupils  disappear  from 
these  schools  by  the  close  of  the  seventh  school 


42 


ARITHMETIC 


year;  and  not  more  than  one  in  one  hundred 
takes  a  high  school  course.  Since  all  pupils  of 
the  common  schools  have  need  of  the  rudiments 
of  number,  as  counting,  reading  and  writing 
.small  numbers,  the  simple  combinations  em- 
braced in  the  addition ,  subtraction,  multiplica- 
tion, and  division  tables,  the  simpler  forms  of 
fractions,  and  the  more  common  denominations 
of  compound  numbers,  an  elementary  text-book 
is  deemed  to  be  needful  for  many  schools.  The 
objections  often  urged  to  having  these  primary 
Lessons  entirely  oral  are,  that  it  makes  an  un- 
necessary draft  upon  the  time  and  energy  of  the 
teacher,  renders  the  pupils'  progress  very  slow, 
does  not  so  readily  supply  the  means  of  giving 
them  work  to  do  in  their  seats,  and  more  than 
all,  begets  in  their  minds  a  dislike  for  study  and 
self-exertion,  and  a  disposition  to  expect  that 
the  teacher  must  do  all  the  work,  and  tints 
■Carry  them  along.  But  whatever  disposition  may 
he  made  of  primary  arithmetic,  as  usually  un- 
derstood, there  is  an  imperative  demand  that  the 
course  in  arithmetic  for  the  masses  should  lie  so 
arranged  that  the  more  important  practical  sub- 
jects  can  be  reached  and  mastered  by  a  majority 
of  our  youth  during  the  comparatively  short  time 
which  they  can  spend  in  our  schools,     [n  order 

to  effect  t  his,  three  things  will  lie  found  necessary: 

(1)  a  rigorous  exclusion  of  all  topics  relatively 
unimportant,  (2)  a  judicious  limitation  of  the 

topics  presented, and  (3)  care  that,  in  the  laudable 
desire  to  secure  facility  in  fundamental  processes, 
— adding,  multiplying,  etc.,  the  teacher  tln-s,  not 
consume  so  much  time  that  the  great  mass  of 
tin-  pupils  will  never  advance  beyond  the  merest 
rudiments  of  the  subject.  The  range  of  topics 
to  be  included  in  the  common  school  course, 
will  In1  the  fundament  d  rules;  common  and 
decimal  fractions;  denominate  numbers  (care 
being    taken    to    reject    all    obsolete   or    unusual 

denominations,  ami  to  give  abundant  exercises 
calculated  to  insure  a  definite  conception  of 
the  meaning  of  the  denominations);  percentage, 
includiu'4  simple,  annual,  and  compound  interest, 
with  partial  payments,  common  and  bank  dis- 
count, and  some  of  the  more  common  uses  of 
percenidge.  If.  after  this,  the  course  may  be  ex- 
tend I'd,  the  nexi  subjects  in  importance  are  ratio, 
propoi'lioii'j&nd  th  •  square  and  cube  roots.  Much 
more  than  this  cannot  be  embraced  in  a  course 
Whiqh  the  mass  a  of,  our  youth  are  able  to  master; 

and  in  treating  these.  cOttStatil  care  will  lie  neccs- 
xii  v  tu  introduce  problems  which  occur  in  actual 
life,  and   as    far   as    possible  to  exclude  all  others. 

Somethihg  of  common  mensuration  should  be 
introduced  in  connection  with  the  tables  of  meas- 
ures of  extension;  and  the  more  common  prob- 
lems in  commision,  insurance,  taxes,  stocks;  etc., 
will  he  readily  introduced  in  percentage  without 

OCCUpj  ing  either  much  space  or  time. 

For   tlie    few    who   call    take    a  more   extended 

course,  a  thoroughly  scientific  treatment  of  the 
Bubjed  of  arithmetic  is  desirable;  and  this  quite 
:is  much  for  its  disciplinary  effect,  in  giving 
breadth  and  scope  tu  the  conceptions,  and  in- 
ducing a  disposition  to  systematize  and  gener- 


alize, and  thus  to  view  truth  in  its  relations, 
as  for  the  amount  of  mere  arithmetical  knowl- 
edge which  may  be  added  to  the  pupil's  stock. 
Here  we  may  introduce  an  analytical  outline  of 
the  subject,  presenting  the  topics  in  their  philo- 
sophical relations,  rather  than  in  their  mere  prac- 
tical and  economic  order  and  connection.  'Ihus, 
in  treating  notation,  the  various  forms  of  nota- 
tion can  be  introduced,  as  of  simple  and  com- 
pound numbers,  other  scales  than  the  decimal, 
various  forms  of  fractional  notation. the  elements 
of  the  literal  notation,  etc.  Then,  as  reduction 
is  but  changing  the  form  of  notation,  this  topic 
will  come  next,  and  will  embrace  all  the  forms  of 
reduction  found  in  common  arithmetic,  as  from 
one  scale  to  another,  of  denominate  numbers,  of 
fractions  common  and  decimal,  etc., showing  how 
all  arithmetical  reductions  are  based  on  the  one 
simple  principle:  If  the  unit  in  reference  to 
which  tin'  numbe?'  is  to  In'  expressed  is  made 
smaller,  the  number  must  be  multiplied,  and  if 
the  unit  of  expression  is  moil"  larger,  the  num- 
ber must  In-  divided.  Passing  to  the  combina- 
tions of  number,  under  mi  a/inn  all   processes 

thus  designated  in  arithmetic  will  be  treated, and 
the  general  principles  out  of  which  they  all  grow 
will  be  developed.  In  this  method  of  treatment. the 
pupil  will  noi  find  himself  merely  going overthe 
elementary  subjects  through  which  he  plodded  in 
t  he  days  of  his  chili  lliood.l  nit  new  ranees  of  thought 
will  lie  presented,  at  the  same  time  that  all  the 
principles  and  processes  of  the  elementary  arith- 
metic are  reviewed  :  the  very  first  sections,  even 
those  on  notation,  reduction,  and  the  ftindamen- 
itil  rules,  bringing  into  requisition  must  of  his 
knowledge  of  arithmetic,  and  giving  vigorous  ex- 
ercise  to  his  mind  in  grasping  new  truth.  I5ut 
in  addition  to  all  this,  which  pertains  to  the 
method  of  presentation,  there  will  lie  much  of 
practical  arithmetical  knowledge  to  be  gained. 
In  the  business  rules,  discount  needs  a  much  ful- 
ler treatment  than  it  has  usually  received  in  any 
of  our  textbooks.  Many  problems,  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  modern  business  circles,  are  nut  pro- 
vided for  in  these  books  :  and.  in  fact,  some  of  the 
must  common  have  had  no  solution  at  all  which 
has  been  made  public.  The  wonderful  develop- 
ment of  the  insurance  business  demands  that  its 
principles  and  methods  receive  a  much  fuller 
treatment  than  thej  can  have  in  an  elementary 
course:  this  is  especially  true  of  /;'/'<  insurance. 
Fan  ion  exchange,  customs,  equation  of  pay- 
ments, etc..  are  other  topics  suitable  for  this  ad- 
vanced course,  which  are  quite  impracticable  in 
an   elementary    course    within    the   reach  of    the 

masses.  Two  other  ends  will  he  subserved  by 
this  method:  (1)  It  will  he  a  leading purpose  to 
teach  the  pupil  how  to  investigate, ana  to  this  end 
he  should  he  put  in  possession  of  the  great  in- 
sirumcni  for  mathematical  investigation, namely, 

the  equation.    Of  course,  only  the  simpler  forms 

of  the  equation  can  he  introduced  :  nevertheless, 
enough  can  he  given  to  enlarge  very  greatly  the 
student's  power  to  examine  new  questions  for 
himself.      By  means  of  the  equation,  he   may  he 

taught  the  solution  of  such  problems  as  the  fol- 


ARITI IMKTIO 


43 


lowing,  which  would  he  quite  out  of  his  reacli 
without  this  instrument  : 

To  find  what  each  payment  must  be  in  order 
to  discharge  a  given  principal  and  interest  in  a 
given  number  of  eijttul  payments  at  equal  inter- 
vals of  tiin>\ 

To  find  the  present  worth  of  a  note  which 
has  been  running  a  certain  linn-,  and  is  due  at 
a  future  time,  with  minimi  payments  on  the 
principal,  and  mm  mil  interest;  so  that  the  pur- 
chaser shall  receive  a  differentrate  of  annual 
interest  from  that  named  in  th<>  note. 

These  and  many  other  important  business 
problems  are  quite  within  the  reach  of  the 
simple  equation, and  arc  scarcely  legitimate  ques- 
tions to  propose  to  a  student  who  has  not  some 
knowledge  <>f  this  instrument.  (2)  The  second 
general  purpose  which  we  shall  mention  as  being 
subserved  by  this  course  is,  that  by  grouping  all 
the  arithmetical  processes  under  the  fewest  pos- 
sible heals  and  showing  their  philosophic  de- 
pendence, the  whole  is  put  in  the  best  possible 
form  to  be  retained  in  the  memory.  Thus,  if  it  is 
seen  that  a  single  principle  covers  all  the  eases  in 
reduction,  that  another  simple  principle  covers  all 
the  so-called  "problems  in  interest"  that  all  the 
common  intricate  questions  in  discount  axe  read- 
ily solved  by  the  simple  equation,  etc.,  these  proc- 
esses will  not  he  the  evanescent  things  which 
they  have  often  been. 

Principles  and  maxims  to  be  kept  in  view 
while  f'-'ir/i/,/>/  arithmetic. — I.  There  are  two 
distinct  and  strongly  marked  general  aims  in 
arithmetical  study:  ( 1 )  To  master  the  rationale  of 
tlii- processes,  and  (2)  To  acquire  facility  and  ac- 
curacy in  the  performance  of  these  operations. 
The  means  which  secure  one  of  these  ends  are  not 
necessarily  adapted  to  secure  the  other.  Thus,  to 
secure  the  first,  for  example,  in  reference  to  ad- 
dition, the  steps  are,  learning  to  count,  learning 
how  numbers  are  grouped  in  the  decimal  system, 
learning  how  to  make  the  addition  table,  and, 
finally,  by  means  of  a  knowledge  of  the  sum  of  j 
the  digits  taken  two  and  two,  learning  to  rind  the 
sum  of  any  given  numbers.  In  regard  to  the 
latter  pro,  ess,  the  pupil  nee  Is  to  know  why  we 
write  units  of  a  like  order  in  the  same  column, 
why  we  begin  at  the  units'  column  to  add.  why  we 
••  carry  one  for  every  ten,"  as  the  phrase  IS,  etc. 
Bttt  all  this  may  he  known,  and  yet  the  pupil 
make  sorry  work  in  practical  addition.    In  order 

■■lire  a  knowledge  of  the  rationale,  each  step 
needs  to  be-clearly  explained  and  fully  illustrated, 
and  then  the  pupil  must  he  required  to  repeat  the  ; 
whole,  "over  and  over  again,"  in  his  own  language. 

For  this  purpose,  much  class  drill  on  the  black- 
board, in  having  each  pupil  separately  explain  in 
detail  the  reasons  for.each  step  of  the  work  which 
lie  has  before  performed,  will  be  necessary. 
Pupils  may  be  required  to  bring  into  the  class 

practical  exercises  Solved  on  their  slates, and  then 

sufficient  time  be  given  to  explanation  from  the 

slates.  These  three  things  repeated  in  about  the 
same  way,  (1)  a  clear  preliminary  explanation 
of  principles  either  given  in  the  text  bunk  or 
by  the  teacher,  (2)  a  thorough  mastery  of  these 


principles  by  the  pupil  so  that  he   can  state 
them  in  a  general  way.  and  (3)  a  careful  and  con- 
tinued repetition  of  them  in   the   class,   in   appli 
cation  to  particular  examples,  will  secure  the  first 
of  these  general  ends  of  arithmetical  study.      To 
secure  the  second,  namely,  facility  and  accuracy 
in   applying  these  principles,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
add  with  ease,  rapidity,  and  accuracy,  lone,  con- 
tinued drill,  with  the  mind  quite  unencumbered 
by  any  thought  of  the  reasons  for  the  processes, 
will  be  indispensable.     It  will  not  be  sufficient 
that  pupils  solve  accurately  numerous  examples. 
in   the  slow  plodding  way   to    which    they  an 
accustomed    in    their    private    study,    but    large 
numbers  of  fresh  problems  should  be  furnished 
in  the  class,  which  the  pupils  should  be  required 
to  solve   with    the    utmost    promptitude,  and 
with  perfect  accuracy.     In   respect   to  all    mere 
numerical  combinations,  as  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,   division,    involution,    evolution, 
etc.,  oral  drills  like  the  following  will  be  of  the 
greatest  use  and  should  be   continued  until   the 
combinations  can  be  made  as  rapidly  as  we  would 
naturally  read    the    numbers:     Teacher    repeats 
while  the  pupils  follow  in  silence,  making   the 
combinations,  "5-j-3-^2*+3,  squared,  — 7^f-7x 
3+7,  square  root,  etc."     These  oral  drills  maybe 
commenced  at  the  very  outset  in  regard  to  addi- 
tion, and  extended  as  the  other  rules  are  reached, 
and  should  not  be  dropped  until  the  utmost  facil- 
ity is  secured.     A  similar  drill  exercise  can  be 
secured  by  pointing  to  the  digits  as  they  stand  on 
the  board,  or  on  charts,  and  simply  speaking  the 
words   which    indicate    what   combinations    are 
required.     Any   figures  which    may   chance    to 
stand  on  the  board  may  be  used  in  this  way  to 
secure  an  indefinite  amount  of    most  valuable 
drill.  This  latter  exercise. — making  the  combina- 
tions at  sight  —  is  of  still  greater  practical  value 
than  the  former,  in  which  the  ear  alone  is  de- 
pended   upon;    for   it  is  a  singular   fact  that 
facility  in  one  method  docs  not  insure  it  in  the 
other,  and  the  latter  is  the  form  in  which  the 
process  is  usually  to  be  applied.     Again,  in  the 
business  rules  the  principles  underlying  the  pro- 
cesses must  be  clearly  perceived,  and  the  pupil, 
by  continued    practice   in    explaining  solutions 
written  upon  the  board,  must  become  able  to  give 
in  good  language  the  reason  for  each   step.      Bu1 
when  all  this  is  secured,  there  will  be  found  need 
of    much    drill    on    examples   to  the  answers  of 
which  he  cannot  have  access,  and  which  he  must 
take  up  and  solve  at  the  moment.  In  this  depart- 
ment, much  valuable  exercise  may  be  given  by 
handing  the  pupils  written  notes  or  papers  indue 
form,  and  requiring  them    to  compute  the  in- 
terest, or  discount,  or  make  the  required  com- 
putation at  sight.  But  the  illustrations  now  given 
will   Buffice    to    show    that    there    are,    as   above 
stated,  two  general  purposes — the  theoretical  and 

*  The  si^ns  of  division,  multiplication,  etc.  are  not 
used  with  strict  propriety  in  this  specimen  exercise; 
they  are  applied  to  the  result  of  all  the  preceding 
operations  in  each  case  as  though  all  before  them  bad 
been  included  in  a  parenthesis.  Thus  In  this  ca 
5-J-8,  or  8  which  is  meant  to  be  divided  by  2,  wiving  4, 
to  this  :i  added,  giving  7,  this  squared,  niviiii,-  49,  etc. 


44 


ARITHMETIC 


the  practical — which  must  run  parallel  through 
all  good  teaching  in  arithmetic,  and  that  they 
are  generally  to  be  attained  by  different  means. 
II.  In  order  to  realize  the  above,  a  careful 
discrimination  needs  to  be  made  between  simply 
telling  how  a  thing  is  done,  and  telling  why  it  is 
done.  Very  much  of  what  we  read  in  our 
text-books,  and  hear  in  classrooms,  under  the 
name  of  analysis,  in  explanation  of  solutions,  is 
nothing  more  than  a  statement  of  the  process — a 
telling  how  the  particular  example  is  wrought. 
This  vice  is  still  so  prevalent  as  to  need  the 
clearest  exposition  and  the  most  radical  treat- 
ment. Indeed,  it  has  become  so  general  as  to 
be  mistaken  by  the  masses  for  the  thing  it 
purports  to  be  ;  and  pupil  and  teacher  frequently 
seem  to  think  that  this  parrotdike  way  of  telling 
what  //us  been  done  is  really  a  logical  exposition 
of  the  principles  involved.  The  following  ex- 
ample, clipped  from  a  book  not  now  a  candidate 
for  popular  favor,  will  serve  to  illustrate  our 
meaning: 
".0017)36.3000(21352  Commencing  the  di- 

.'54  vision,  we  find  that  1  7 

is   contained    in    36,  2 

23  times.     We  place  2  in 

17  the  quotient,  and  sub- 

tract   2  x  17   from  .'ill. 

60  The    remainder    is   2::. 

51  17  is  contained  in  23, 

1  time.     Place  1  in  the 
90  quotient,  and  subtract 

85  1x17  from  23.  To  the 

remainder  <>   we  annex 
50  one  of  the  0s,  and  find 

34  that  17  is  contained  in 

60,  3  times  with   !»  re- 
16  mainder.    We  continue 

this  process,  annexing  to  each  remainder  a  new 
figure  of  the  dividend,  until  we  find  a  final  re- 
mainder Hi,  which  does  not  contain  17.  but  the 
division  by  17  may  be  expressed  by  writing  the 
divisor  underneath." 

Compare  this  with  the  following: 
Reasons  for  ///>-  Huh'  in  Short  Division. — 
The  divisor  is  written  at  the  left  of  the  dividend, 
simply  that  we  may  be  able  to  see  both  at  once 
conveniently. 

We  begin  at  the  highest  order  to  divide,  be- 
cause by  so  doing  we  can  put  what  remains  after 
each  division  into  the  next  lower  order  and 
divide  it  :  and  thus  we  get  all  that  there  is  of 
any  order  in  the  quotient  as  we  go  along. 

We  write  the  quotient  figures  under  the  orders 
from  whose  division  they  arise,  because  they  are 
of  the  same  orders. 

The  process  ascertains  how  many  times  the 
divisor  is  contained  in  the  dividend,  by  finding 

how  many  limes  it    is  contained    in    the  parts  of 

tin'  dividend  and  adding  I  he  results. 

This  may  be  readily  illustrated  by  an  example. 
For  this  purpose  let  us  divide  1547  by  4.     lhe 

following  is  an  analysis  of  the  operation: 

1547  e<|iials  12  hundreds,  ,'52  tens,  24  units, 
and  3  units ; 


in 


4  is  contained 

12  hds.         3  hds.,    or  300  times. 
32  tens      8  tens,    or    80  times. 
24  units  (')  units,  or      ti  times. 
3  units,  no  times. 


386  times. 


I   L547 
with  a  remainder  .3. 

III.  There  should,  also,  be  a  careful  dis- 
crimination between  pure  and  i/jijitierf  arithme- 
tic in  order  that  they  may  be  so  taught  as  to 
secure  the  proper  end  of  each.  Pure  arithmetic 
is  concerned  solely  with  abstract  numbers,  and 
the  breadth  of  discipline  to  be  secured  by  its  ttudy 
is  not  great ;  but  the  applications  of  arithmetic 
are  almost  infinitely  varied,  and  give  a  far  wider 
scope  for  mental  training.  In  the  latter,  the 
questions  are  not  how  to  multiply,  add.  subtract, 
etc..  but  why  we  multiply,  add,  or  subtract. 
Thus,  in  solving  a  problem  in  interest,  it  would 
be  quite  out  of  place  to  cumber  the  explanation 
with  an  exposition  of  the  process  of  multiplying 
by  a  decimal,  but  it  is  exactly  to  the  purpose  to 
give  the  reason  for  so  doing.  The  most  im- 
portant object  in  applied  arithmetic  is  to  ac- 
quaint one's  self  so  thoroughly  with  the  conditions 
of  the  problem — if  in  business  arithmetic,  with 
the  character  of  the  business — as  to  discern  what 
combinations  are  to  be  made  with  the  numbers 
involved.  .Many  of  these  applications  are  quite 
beyond  the   reach   of  the   mind   of  a  mere  child. 

Thus,  to  attempt  to  explain  to  very  young  pupils 
the  commercial  relations  which  give  rise  to  the 
problems  of  foi'eign  exchange,  or  the  circum- 
stances out  of  which  many  of  the  problems  in 
regard  to  the  value  of  stocks  grow,  would  be  per- 
fectly preposterous. 

IV.  In  teaching  applied  arithmetic,  it  is  of 
the  first  importance  that  the  problems  be  such  as 
occur  in  actual  life,  and  that  in  expressing  them, 
the  usual  phraseology  be  employed.  For  example, 
compare  the  following: 

(1)  What  is  the  present  worth  of  $600  duo  :?  yr. 
7  mo.  2(i  da.  hence,  at  <;  per  cent  per  annum! 

(2)  1  have  a  7  per  cent  note  for $500,  dated  Feb. 6th, 
1st::,  and  due  July  loth,  1876.  Mr.  Smith  proposes  to 
buy  it  of  me  Sept.  lstli,  1*74,  and  to  pay  me  Bach  a 
sum  tor  it  as  shall  enable  him  to  realize  1(1  per  cent 
per  annum  on  his  investment.  What  must  he  pay  me? 
In  other  words,  what  is  the  present  worth  of  this  note 
Sepl  18th,  L874? 

The  first  supposes  a  transaction  which  could 
rarely, if  ever,  occur,  and  even  disguises  that. 
Most  pupils  who  have  cone  through  discount  in 
the  ordinary  way.  if  asked,  "  What  interest  does 
the  $500  bear,  in  the  first  example?"  would  an- 
swer, "6  percent."  ( •fcoursc.it  is  understood  that 
the  money  is  not  on  interest.  Moreover,  we  find 
no  such  paper — no  notes  not  bearing  interest 
in  the  market.  Again,  the  assumption  seems  to 
he  that  the  note  -  if  even  a  note  is  suggested  at 
all—  is  discounted  at  the  time  it  is  made.  Thus, 
it    is   obvious    that    the    first    form    is    calculated 

to  give  the  pupil  quite  erroneous  impressions; 
whereas  the  second  brings  a  real  transaction  into 

full  view. 


ARITIIUKT1C 


ARIZONA 


45 


V.  From  the  beginning  to  the  cm  lot'  the  course, 
it  slunil  I  In'  the  aim  to  teach  a  few  germinal  prin- 
ciples and  lead  the  pupil  to  apply  them  to  as  great 
a  number  of  cases  as  his  time  and  ability  may 
permit.  Thus,  at  the  very  outset,  a  good  teacher 
will  never  tell  the  child  how  to  count ;  but  hav- 
ing taught  him  the  names  of  the  numbers  up  to 
fourteen,  will  show  him  the  meaning  of  the  word 
"fourteen  |  four  and  ten);  then  he  can  be  led  to  go 
on  to  nineteen  by  himself.  No  child  ought  to  be 
told  how  to  count  from  fifteen  to  nineteen;  and 
after  twenty,  he  needs  only  to  be  shown  how  the 
names  of  the  decades,  as  twen-ty,  thir-ty.  for-ty. 
and  tif-ty  arc  formed,  to  be  able  to  give  the  rest 
himself;  nor  docs  he  need  to  be  told  how  to  count 
through  more  than  one  decade.  In  reference  to 
the  fundamental  tallies,  it  may  be  suggested  that 
no  pupil  should  be  furnished  with  an  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  or  division  table  ready- 
made.  Having  been  taught  the  principle  on 
which  the  table  is  constructed,  he  should  be  re- 
quired to  make  it  for  himself.  As  preliminary 
to  practical  addition  and  subtraction,  the  combi- 
nations of  digits  two  and  two  which  constitute 
any  number  up  to  18  (9+9)  should  be  made 
perfectly  familiar.  Thus  the  child  should  recog- 
nize 1  +4,  and  2-|-3,  as  5;  l  +  ~>,  2+4,  and  3+3, 
as  G;  etc.;  and  this  should  be  made  the  founda- 
tion of  addition  and  subtraction.  He  should  be 
taught,  that  if  he  knows  that  3+4  =  7,  he  knows 
by  implication  that  23+4  =  27,  33+4  =  37,  etc. 
Passing  from  the  primary  arithmetic,  he  shoidd 
be  taught  common  fractions  by  means  of  the 
fewest  principles  and  rules  consistent  with  his 
ability.  Thus  in  multiplication  and  division.  To 
multiply  or  to  divide  a  fraction  by  a  whole 
number,  and  To  multiply  or  to  divide  a  irhole 
■number  by  a  fraction,  are  all  the  cases  needed; 
and  these  should  be  taught  in  strict  conformity 
with  practical  principles.  Thus,  to  multiply  a 
whole  number  by  a  fraction  is  to  take  a  frac- 
tional part  of  the  number;  and  to  divide  a  num- 
ber by  a  fraction  is  to  find  how  many  times  the 
latter  is  contained  in  the  former.  To  cover  all 
the  forms  of  reduction  of  denominate,  members, 
nothing  is  needed  but  the  principle  or  ride,  that  to 
pass  from  higher  to  lower  denominations,  we  mul- 
tiply by  the  number  which  it  takes  of  the  lower 
to  make  one  of  the  liigher;  and  to  pass  from  lower 
to  higher  we  divide  by  the  same  number.  These 
simple  principles  should  be  seen  to  cover  all 
cases,  those  involving  fractions  as  well  as  others. 

In  like  manner,  by  a  proper  form  of  statement 
of  examples,  and  an  occasional  suggestion  or 
question,  most  of  the  separate  rules  usually  given 
endear  percentage  may  he  dispensed  with.  In 
dealing  with  the  cases  usually  denominated  prob- 
lems in  interest, ail  that  is  needed  is  the  following 

brief  rule:  Find  tin-  effect  produced  by  using  a 
unit  of  the  number  required,  under  the  given 
circumstances,  and  compare  this  with  the  given 

effect.  This  should  be  made  to  cover  the  cases 
usually  detailed  under  six  or  eight  rules. 

\  I .  There  are  three  stages  of  mental  develop- 
ment which  should  be  carefully  kept  in  view  in 
all  elementary  teaching  :    (1)    The  earliest  slaye, 


in  which  the  faculties  chiefly  exercised  are  obser- 
vation, or  perception,  and  memory,  and  in  which 
the  pupil  is  not  competent  to  formulate  thought. 
or  to  derive  benefit  from  abstract,  formal  state- 
ments of  principles,  definitions,  or  processes; 
(2)  An  intermediate  stage,  ia  which  the  reason- 
ing faculties  (abstraction,  judgment,  etc)  are 
coming  into  prominence,  ami  in  which  the  pupil 
needs  to  be  shown  the  truth,  so  that  he  may  have 

a  clear  perception  of  it.  before  he  is  presented 

with  a  formal,  abstract  statement,  the  work, how- 
ever, not  being  concluded  until  he  can  state  the 
truth  (definition,  principle,  proposition,  or  rule) 
intelligently,  in  good  language,  and  in  general 
(abstract)  terms:  (.'!)  An  ultimate  stage,  or  that 
in  which  the  mental  powers  are  so  matured  and 
trained,  that  the  pupil  is  competent  to  receive 
truth  from  the  general,  abstract,  or  formal  state- 
ment of  it.  At  this  stage,  definitions,  principles, 
propositions,  and  statements  of  processes  maybe 
given  first,  and  illustrated,  demonstrated,  or  ap- 
plied afterward.  (See  Analytic  Method,  and 
Developing  Method.) 

ARIZONA  was  organized  as  a  territory 
Feb.  24th,  1863,  being  formed  from  the  territory 
of  New  Mexico.  Its  area  is  113,910  square 
miles;  and  its  population,  excluding  tribal  Indians 
and  military,  in  1870, was  9,581. 

Educational  History. — An  act  was  passed  by 
the  territorial  legislature  in  October,  1863,  author- 
izing the  establishment  of  common  schools  ;  and 
the  next  year,  another  and  more  complete  law 
was  enacted.     Nothing,  however,  of  any  impor- 
tance was  accomplished  toward  the  establishment 
of  a  system  of  common  schools  in  the  territory 
until  the  appointment  of   A.  P.  K.  Safford  as 
governor  in  1869.     Through  the  most  laborious 
efforts  on  his  part,  a  public  opinion  in  favor  of 
common  schools  was  awakened  among  the  people; 
and  in  consequence  thereof,  a  law  was  passed  in 
1871,    which  levied   a   tax   for   the   support  of 
schools,  of  ten  cents  on  each  one  hundred  dollars 
of  the    taxable  property  of   the  territory,  and 
authorized  the  supervisors  of   counties  and  the 
trustees    of   the    school-districts    to  levy  addi- 
tional taxes  for  the  establishment  and  mainte- 
nance of  free  schools  in  their  respective  districts. 
By  this  law,  the  governor  was  made  ex  officio 
superintendent    of    public    instruction,  and  the 
judges   of    probate,  county   superintendents.     It 
was   not   until   1872   that,  in   pursuance  of  these 
] mivisions,  schools  were  established.     In  July  of 
that  year,  the  governor  stared  that  "a  free  school 
had  been  put  in  operation  in  every  school-district 
where  there  was  a  Sufficient  number  of  children." 
The   larger  portion  of    the  children,  he  further 
stated,  '•  were  of  Mexican  birth,  and  few   could 
speak  the  English  language;  but  they  had  been 
taught   exclusively  in    English,   and    had    made 
satisfactory  progress."     In  L873,  the  total  school 
population  between   the  ages  of  6  and   21.  was 
reported  as  1,660,  of  whom  836  were  males,  and 
824  females.     Of  these  there  were  only  4S2  at- 
tending public  and  private  schools,  the  former. 
343.     The  whole  amount   paid    for  school   pur- 
poses  was   $11)080.      In   February.    1S73,    the 


46 


ARKANSAS 


school  law  was  amended,  constituting  the  system 
;is  it  now  exists. 

School  System.  —  The  governor  of  the  terri- 
tory is  ex  officio  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, and  apportions  the  school  fund  among 
the  several  counties,  according  to  their  respective 
school  population,  consisting  of  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years.  It 
is  made  his  duty  to  visit  and  inspect  the  schools 
as  often  as  once  in  each  year.  The  probate 
judges  of  the  several  counties  are  ex  officio  super- 
intendents of  public  schools  for  the  same.  'I  hey 
are  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  hold  their 
respective  offices  for  two  years.  A  tax  of  35 cents 
on  each  $100  is  levied  in  the  several  counties  for 
the  maintenance  of  schools,  and  a  tax  of  1  5  cents 
on  $100  for  the  whole  territory.  The  money  is 
divided  in  proportion  to  the  school  attendance. 
Each  district  may  levy  additional  taxes  by  a  vote 
of  two  thirds  of  the  district.  Education  is  made 
compulsory;  that  is,  parents  or  guardians  can  be 
compelled  to  send  their  children  sixteen  weeks 
during  the  year  to  some  school,  when  within  two 
miles  of  their  residence,  or  have  them  instructed 
at  home. 

Educational  Condition. — The  schools  of  Ari- 
zona are  all  of  a  primary  grade;  and  teachers 
receive  from  $100  to  $125  a  month,  males  and 
females  receiving  an  equal  salary.  According  to 
the  report  of  Gen.  Safford,  of  Dec.  21st.  ls7.">. 
there  were  in  the  territory  2,508  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one.  of  whom 
598  attended  public  schools.  The  receipts  for 
the  preceding  year  were  $28,759. 92,  and  the  dis- 
bursements were  $24,151.96. 

This  report  stated  that,  under  the  existing 
school  law.  the  free  school  system  had  been  made 
a  success,  and  that  ample  means  were  afforded  by 
which  every  child  in  the  territory  might  obtain 
the  rudiments  of  an  e  lucation. 

ARKANSAS.  This  state  was  originally  a 
portion  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana,  purchased 
from  the  French  government  in  lso;!.  It  re- 
mained a  pari  of  that  territory  until  L812,  when 
Louisiana  being  a  Lmitted  as  a  state,  it  became  a, 
part  of  the  Missouri  territory,  which  was  or- 
ganized  in  tli.it  year;  and  so  continued  till  L819, 
when  it  was  organized  as  a  separate  territory.  It 
was  admitted  into  the  Pnionas  a  state  in  L836. 
Educational  History. —  The  constitution  of 
L 836  contained  a  declaration  in  favor  of  educa- 
tion to  the  effect  that " as  knowledge  and  learn- 
ing, generally  diffused  through  the  community, 
are  essentia]  to  the  preservation  of  free  govern- 
ment," ii  should  lie  ih'  duty  of  the  general  as- 
sembly to  provide  for  the  sale  of  land.-  donated 
to  the  state  bj  the  general  government  for  edu- 
cational purposes  and  to  apply  the  money  re- 
ceived therefrom,  to  the  establishment  and  sup- 
port of  schools.  In  accordance  with  this  pro- 
vision of  tlii'  constitution,  the  legislature  passed 
certain  acts  prescribing  I  lie  manlier  of  disposing 
of  the  school  lands,  which  ads  are.  substantially. 
Still  in  force.  Two  provisions  of  this  law  are 
worthy  of  special  notice,  on  accounl  of  their  dis- 
astrous consequences.     The   first  was.  that,  upon 


the  petition  of  a  majority  of  a  township,  the 
comity  commissioner  should  sell  the  sixteenth 
section,  in  forty-acre  tracts,  to  the  highest  bidder, 
one-fourth  of  the  purchase  money  being  payable 
in  cash,  and  the  balance,  within  eight  years, in 
installments.  The  second  was.  that  the  county 
commissioner  should  loan  the  school  moneys  in 
his  hands  to  parties  who  would  give  satisfactory 
notes  to  secure  their  payment  with  interest.  The 
practical  operation  of  the  law  was  as  follows  :  A. 
B, and  ('  purchased  a  sixteenth  section,  say  Janu- 
ary 1st;  A  and  I!  being  security  for  O's  notes 
for  deferred  payments,  15  and  C  for  A's  notes, 
and  A  and  ('  for  Bs  notes.  Each  party  paid  tin- 
school  commissioner,  say  five  hundred  dollars,  as 
his  first  payment,  and  took  his  receipt.  The  same 
day.  they  each  borrowed  live  hundred  dollars 
from  the  school  fund  of  the  county,  thereby  vir- 
tually borrowing  from  the  school  commissioner 
the  money  to  make  the  firsl  payment  on  the 
lands.  The  notes  given  were  made  payable  in 
•lawful  money  of  the  United  States";  but.  after 
the  secession  of  the  state,  payments  were  made 
iii   confederate  money,  and  purchasers  of  school 

lands  were  not  slow   to  complete   their   payments 

in  that  currency  at  par.     During  this  period, the 

state  auditor  was  the  thief  executive  school  of- 
ficer, and  made  his  report  to  the  governor.      The 

last  school  report,  under  the  ancien  regime,  was 
made  by  William  Et.  .Miller,  state  auditor,  to 
Governor  Reetor,  who  held  office  at  the  time  of 

the  secession  of  the  state.  In  its  printed  form. 
it  consisted  of  one  leaf  of  a  book  about  as  huge 
as  Webster's  Spelling  Hook. and  states  that  there 
were    then    but    two    public  schools   in  the  state. 

Evidence  from  other  sources  shows  that,  by  the 
peculiar  system  of  financiering^described  above, 

Dy  loss  in  Confederate  money  and  Arkansas  war 
bonds,  and  from  the  usual  casualties  incident  to 
a  state  of  civil  war.  a  very  large  proportion  of 

the  sixteenth  section   and   other  school    lands  of 

the  state  was  squandered,  without  creating  anj 
considerable  permanent  school  fund,    (if  thai 

which  was  created,  the  sum    of  $8,000,  the   last 

remnant,  was  invested  in  the  purchase  of  medi- 
cines for  the  confederate  troops;    and  the  medi- 
cines were  lost  on  a   steamer  which  was  wrecked 
on  Brazos  river,  in  Texas. 
Two  provisions  of  the  Constitution  of  L868 

related  to  public  schools.  Section  I.  of  Article  V  I. 

provided    that    "'the  executive  department  of 

(his  state  shall  consist  of  a  governor,  etc..  ami 
a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  all  of 
whom  shall  hold  their  sewral  offices  for  a  term 
of  four  years.''  Article  XI.  related  to  education, 
and     its    several    sections    provided,  (1)    that    the 

general  assembly  should  establish  and  maintain 

a   system    of   live  schools    for    the  gratuitous   in 

struction  of  all  persons  between  the  agesof  five 

and  twenty-one  years;  i'-'i  that  the  supervision 
of  such  school.-,  should  be  intrusted  to  a  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction;  (3)  that  a  state 
university   should   he  established;     (4)    that   a 

school  fund  should    he    created    from  the  sales   of 

school  lands,  escheats,  estrays.  grants,  gifts,  one 

dollar  capitation  tax. etc:     a    that   no  part  of  the 


ARKANSAS 


47 


school  fund  .should  be  invested  in  the  bonds  of 
any  state,  city,  county,  or  (own  :  ((!)  that  the 
distribution  of  the  school  fund  should  lie  limited 
to  such  districts  as  had  kept  a  school  for  at  least 
three  months  in  the  year  for  which  the  distribu- 
tion was  made  :  and  that  each  child  should  1  e  re- 
quired to  attend  School  at  least  three  years:  (7) 
that,  in  every  district  in  which  the  school  fund 
should  he  insufficient  to  support  a  school  for  at 
hast  three  months  in  the  year,  the  general  as- 
sembly sin  mill  provide  by  law  for  levying  a  tax  ; 
(8)  that  all  lands,  moneys,  etc.,  held  iii  the  va- 
rious counties  for  school  purposes,  should  lie  re- 
duced into  the  general  school  fund  ;  and  (!))  that 
the  general  assembly  should  he  empowered  to 
raise  money  by  taxation  for  building  school- 
houses.  In  addition  to  these  provisions,  a  section 
of  the  article  on  finance,  etc.,  made  the  purchase 
money  for  school  lands  payable  into  the  state 
treasury, and  obligated  the  state  to  pay  interest  at 
the  rate  of  six  per  cent  per  annum,  upon  the  same. 
This  constitution  was  adopted  in  February, 
L868;  and,  upon  the  l.'ith  day  of  March  suc- 
ceeding, an  election  for  state  officers  was  held, 
General  Powell  Clayton  being  elected  governor, 

ami  I  fon. Thomas  Smith,  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  (hi  the  2d  day  of  April  ensuing, 
the  first  legislature  under  the  new  constitution 
met.  and,  in  due  time  (July  '1  .'id),  enacted  the 
school  law.  which  with  certain  modifications,  few 
in  number  1  nit  very  important  in  character,  has 
ever  since  been  in  force  in  the  state. 

This  law  provided  for  the  appointment  of  cir- 
cuit superintendents,  one  in  each  of  the  ten  judi- 
cial  districts  of  the  state,  whose  duties  in  their 
several  circuits  were  analogous  to  those  of  the 
state  superintendent,  in   supervising,  making  re- 
ports, etc.      A   school  trustee  was  appointed   in 
each  school  district,  with  the  same  duties  as  those 
already  specified.   The  report  of  the  school  trust 
ees  were    made    annually    to    the  circuit  super- 
intendents, who  transmitted  the  information  to 
the  state  superintendent,   to  be  used  in  his  bien- 
nial report.    Cinder  many  difficulties  and  embar- 
rassments, Superintendent  Smith  organized  his 
department  in  August,  L868;  and  in  December 
following,  the  trustees  of   the    various    districts 
were  elected.      In  September.  L869,  a  Special  ses-  i 
sion  of  the  state  board  of  education — composed 
of  the  state  and  circuit  superintendents  —  was 
he!  I.     At  this  time  the  only  free  schools  existing 
in  the  state    were  a    few    for    persons  of   color. 
established  by  the  Onited  States,  through  the 
agency  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau.  The  resources 
nf  the  school  department  consisted  of  (1)  saline 
lands,  about  20,000  acres;    (2)  seminary  lands, 
about  1  .Dili)    acres;    (3)    sixteenth-section    lands, 
about  841,000  acres.     The  original  quantities  of 
these  lands,  which  were  donated  by  the  United 
States  government   for  common  school  purposes, 
were  two  sections,  each  of  the  first  two  classes, 
and  928,000  acres  of    the   third  class,     of  the 
saline  and  seminary  land  funds,  about   $12,000 
in  specie,  war-bonds,  confederate  money,  etc..  had 
been   transferred,  after   March   6th,  L861,  to  the 
general  revenue  fund  of  the  state  ;   and  about 


$45,000  of  outstanding  notes,  to  the  solieitor- 
general  for  collection.  In  all,  the  claims  of  the 
state  for  school  lands  sold  and  moneys  loaned, 
with  accrued  interest,  amounted  to  about  three 
quarters  of  a  million  of  dollars.  The  several 
amounts  of  the  school  fund  on  hand  at  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  the  period  embraced  in 
Superintendent  Smith's  first  biennial  report,  were 
as  follows : — 

Oct.  1,  1868.     U.  S.  Currency $  2,691.98 

State  Scrip 56,302.97 

Total $58,954.96 

Oct.  1,  1870.     U.  S.  Currency $22,201.37 

State  Scrip..  .*. 12,991.12 

Total $35,192.49 

During  this  period,  the  scl 1  revenues  were 

subject  to  depletion  from  three  causes:  (1)  The 
taxes  on  sixteenth-section  lands  were  merged  in- 
to the  general  revenue  of  the  state:  (2J  The 
"fines,  penalties,  and  forfeitures."  levied  by  the 
various  courts,  were  loosely  handled  by  the  col- 
lecting officers  ;  (3)  in  many  cases,  the 'electors  of 
the  various  school  districts  refused  to  authorize 
the  levying  of  the  local  tax  for  school-houses; 
and  (4)  by  an  act  approved  March  2d,  L869, 
school-taxes  were  made  payable  in  interest-bear- 
ing certificates  issued  by  the  state  treasurer. 
Notwithstanding  all  these  obstacles,  the  school 
system  was  able  to  present,  in  1870,  considerable 
progress  since  the  preceding  year,  as  will  he  seen 
from  the  following  statistics  : 


ls70 


lso,274 

107,908 

2,537 

2,302 

41 

$405,748 


I-;,  i 


176,910 

117,112 

1,489 

1,335 

VI 

$188,397 


\ umber  of  children  of  school  age. 
"         "     attending  school 

'"    schools 

"       "  teachers 

"       "  teachers'  institutes 

Amount  of  money  paid  teachers. 

The  whole  number  of  school-houses  built  prior 
to  1868,  was  632  ;  in  L869  and  L870,  it  was  657. 
The  apportionment  of  the  state  fund  for  1868 
-1869  was  $377,919.94,  and  the  district  tax. 
$215,348.79.  In  addition  to  these  evidences  of 
progress  should  be  mentioned  the  organization  of 
the  State  Teachers'  Association,  July  2d,  L869  ; 
and  the  commencement  of  the  Arkansas  Journal 
of  Educatioti,  Jan.  1st.  IsTO.  The  institutions 
for  the    blind  and  for  deaf-mutes  were  also   re 

organized  during  the  period   referred    to,  and 

handsome  buildings  erected  for  their  accommo- 
dation. 

Superintendent  Smith's  second   report,  for  the 

two  years  ending  September  30th,  L872,  presents 

striking  evidence  oi  the  decadence  of  the  newly 

Wished  school    system.      Many  of   the  school 

districts  had  become  deeply  involved  in  debt, and 

had  levied  exorbitant  taxes  to  remove  the  in- 
cumbrance; the  depreciated  paper  was  destroy- 
ing the  schools  and  driving  tin  bes1  teachers  from 

the   state:   and  the   circuit    superintendents  Were 

neglecting  the  schools.    The  following  was  fch< 

condition  of  the  school  fund  : 

United  States  Currency *l  I  .'■  10.84 

."..20  Bonds 24,186.25 

State  Scrip 56,804.22 

Total $95,501.3] 


48 


ARKANSAS 


ARKANSAS   UNIVERSITY 


1872 

1871 

194,314 

196,237 

32,863 

69,927 

2,035 

2,128 

25 

31 

$353,624.90 

$424,4i.i.  90 

187 

302 

The  amount  of  money  distributed  since  Oct.  1st, 
1870,  was  as  follows  : 

United  States  Currency $  33,688.03 

State  Scrip 454,407.76 

Total $488,095.79 

The  balance  on  hand  at  the  above  date  was 
$39,87(>.75,  of  which  nearly  the  whole  was  in 
state  scrip.  The  following  general  summary  of 
statistics  shows  a  decrease  in  nearly  every  item 
as  compared  with  those  of  1870  : 


No.  of  children  of  school  age. 

"    "      "      attending   school 

"    "  teachers 

"     "  teachers'  institutes. .. . 

Amount  paid  teachers 

No.  of  school-houses  erected.. 

Almost  the  only  encouraging  feature  of  the 
period  covered  by  Superintendent  Smith's  second 
report,  was  the  opening  of  the  Arkansas  Indus- 
trial University  (Jan.  22d,  1872),  in  the  town 
of  Fayetteville.  Mr.  Smith  was  succeeded  in 
the  office  of  superintendent  by  Joseph  I !.  Oorbin, 
who  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  office  in  1872; 
and  the  only  report  which  he  issued  was  for  the 
year  ending  September  30th,  1873.  Prior  to 
this,  the  general  assembly  passed  a  new  revenue 
law,  which  was  construed  to  repeal  the  provision 
of  the  former  law  appropriating  two  mills  on 
the  dollar  out  of  the  ordinary  revenue  of  the 
state  for  school  purposes.  This  reduced  the 
amount  of  the  semi-annual  apportionment  from 
$210,000  to  $55,000,  all  of  which  was  in  state 
scrip,  worth  at  the  time  about  35  per  cent.  The 
same  legislature  abolished  the  office  of  circuit 
superintendent,  and  substituted  that  of  county 
superintendent.  It  also  limited  the  local  tax  to 
a  maximum  of  five  mills  ;  and  a  decision  of  the 
supreme  court  made  even  this  tax  payable  in 
state  scrip.  The  following  are  the  principal 
items  of  the  school  statistics  for  the  year  IS 7.'!  : 

Attendance  of  pupils 59,687 

Number  of  teachers 1,481 

Number  of  school-houses 1,035 

Number  of  teachers'  institutes 26 

A iin Hint  paid  teachers $259,747.08 

Revenue  raised  for  school  purposes. .  .$258,456.09 
Amount  of  expenditures $3ls,i);i7.77 

A  new  constitution  was  adopted  in  lH74,of  which 
the  following  are  the  chief  provisions  in  regard 
to  education: — (1)  That  the  state  "shall  ever 
maintain  a  general,  suitable,  and  efficient  system 
of  free  schools,  whereby  all  persons  in  the  slate. 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years,  may 
receive  gratuitous  instruction;"  (2)  That  no 
school  money  or  property  shall  be  used  for  any 
other  purpose;  (.'>)  That  the  general  assembly 
shall  provide  for  the  support  of  common  schools 
by  a  tax,  not  to  exceed  the  rate  of  two  mills  on 
the  dollar,  on  the  taxable  propertyof  the  state; 
a  capitation  tax  of  one  dollar,  and  a  local  tax  not 
to  exceed  live  mills  on  the  dollar ;  (4)  Thai  the 
supervision  of  the  schools  shall  be  vested  in  "such 
officers  as  may  be  provided  for  by  the  general 
assembly."  Under  this  last  pro\ ision,  the  duties 
of  superintendent   of    public    instruction  were 


transferred  to  the  secretary  of  state,  "until  other- 
wise provided  by  law." 

Elementary  Instruction.  —  The  only  common 
schools  in  the  state  at  present  (Nov.  1875)  arc 
those  of  the  city  of  little  Rock,  which  were 
opened  September  13th,  1875.  The  sole  reliance 
of  the  mass  of  the  citizens  for  educational  advan- 
tages is.  therefore,  upon  private  schools,  of  which 
a  large  number  were  opened  at  the  beginning 
of  the  school  year.  No  school  report  has  been 
rendered  since  that  of  Superintendent  Corbin,  in 
1873,  as  the  necessary  duties  of  the  secret  an 
of  state  have  rendered  an  active  supervision  of 
the  schools  impossible,  and  the  returns  from  the 
local  officers  are  very  imperfect. 

Normal  Instruction.  — ■  The  chief  provision 
for  the  training  of  teachers  in  the  state  is  the 
normal  department  of  the  State  Industrial  Uni- 
versity. A  course  of  two  years  and  one  of  three 
years  have  been  arranged,  the  former  embracing 
all  the  studies  likely  to  be  taught  in  any  of  the 
common  schools,  and  the  latter,  those  of  the  high 
schools.  Male  applicants  far  admission  are  re- 
quired to  be  1  (i  years  of  age,  and  females  14.  A 
training  school  is  operated  in  connection  with 
this  school.  Besides  this.  Quitman  College,  in 
Van  Buren  county,  is  a  normal  school  for  the 
training  of  colored  teachers.  There  is  also  a 
state  teachers'  association. 

Superior  Instruction* — The  most  prominent 

of  the  higher  educational  institutions  of  the  state 

are    the    Arkansas     Industrial    University,    at 

Fayetteville   (q.  v.).  and  St.  John's  College,  at 

j  little  Rock  (q.  v.)  ;  the  latter  of  which  is  under 

I  the  control  of  the  masonic  fraternity. 

Special  Instruction. —  The  Arkansas  Deaf- 
Mute  Institute  and  the  Arkansas  Institute  for 
the  Education  of  the  Blind,  both  at  little  Rock, 
are  the  only  institutions  for  special  instruction. 
The  former  was  incorporated  as  a  state  institu- 
tion in  18(>8.  The  latter,  the  same  year,  was  re- 
moved from  Arkadelphia  to  Little  Rock.  The 
financial  embarrassments  of  the  state  have  great- 
ly impeded  the  progress  and  efficient  operation 
of  these  institutions. 

Educational  .Inn noil, etc. — The  last  educational 
journal  published  in  the  state  was  the  Arkansas 
Journal  of  Education,  which  suspended  publica- 
tion in  1872  ;  and  the  only  works  on  the  schools 
of  the  state  arc  the  three  educational  re]>orts  of 
the  state  superintendents. 

While  the  present  educational  condition  of 
Arkansas  is  by  no  means  cheering,  it  is  not  quite 
hopeless.  The  decadence  of  the  school  system, 
which  a  short  time  ago  was  so  promising,  is  the 
result  of  financial,  political,  and  social  c\  ils  and 
misfortunes  thai  have  afflicted  the  state  from  its 
earliest  history.  Many  of  these  evils,  however, 
are  already  things  of  the   past,  of  which  only  the 

effects  remain.  Under  the  present  administra- 
tion, much  has  been  done  towards  developing  the 
natural  resources  of  the  state:  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that,  in  a  few  years,  its  educational  pros- 
perity will  be  restored. 

ARKANSAS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVER- 
SITY, at  Fayetteville,  Arkansas,  was  provided 


ARMY    SCHOOLS 


ARNOLD 


49 


for  by  an  act  of  the  state  legislature  in  1868, 
hut  was  not  opened  until  January  22.,  L872. 
The  law  regulating  the  institution  provides  for 
321  beneficiaries  who  are  entitled  to  four  years' 
Eree  tuition.  The  value  of  the  mounds,  build- 
ings, etc.  is  $]  B0,000.  The  buildings  will  accom- 
modate four  hundred  students,  and  consist  of  a 
brick  edifice  five  stories  high,  21  I  feet  in  length, 
with  a  depth  in  the  wings  of  L22  feet,  with  five 
large  and  several  small  halls,  and  thirty  class- 
rooms. The.  report  of  the  university  for  1874 
showed  an  attendance  of  32]  students,  in  its 
various  departments,  under  the  instruction  of 
so  professors  and  three  other  instructors.  The 
institution  includes  a  preparatory  aud  a  normal 
department,  a  college  of  engineering,  and  a  college 
of  general  science  and  literature.  A  college  of 
agriculture  and  a  college  of  natural  science;  with 
a  school  of  military  science,  and  a  school  of  com- 
merce, are  also  provided  for  :  and  an  experimental 
farm  for  the  agricultural  college  has  been  secured. 
The  university  library  is  as  yet  quite  small. 
Gen.  Albert  \\\  Bishop  is  the  president  of  the 
institution. 

ARMY  SCHOOLS.  See  Military  Schools. 

ARNDT,  Ernst  Moritz,  a  German  patriot 
an  I  author,  was  born  Dec.  26.,  1769,  at  Schoritz  on 
I;  men,  and  died  Jan.  29.,  1860,  at  Bonn,  lie 
was  appointed,  in  1 805,  professor  at  the  university 
of  Greifswalde ;  but  he  wrote  violently  against 
Napoleon  and,  therefore,  fled,  after  the  battle  at 
Jena,  in  1806,  to  Sweden.  In  1809,  he  returned, 
and  henceforth  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  na- 
tional movement  in  Germany  which  led  to  the 
wars  of  liberation  (1813  to  1815),  and  the  over- 
throw of  the  French  rule  in  Germany.  In  1818, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  history  at  the  uni- 
versity  of  Bonn;  but,  in  the  next  year  he  was 
retired  in  consequence  of  his  liberal  sentiments. 
In  1840,  he  was  reinstated  by  the  new  king 
Frederick  William  IV.  ;  and,  in  1848,  he  was 
a  member  of  the  National  Assembly  of  Frankfort, 
which  attempted  the  reconstruction  of  a  united 
Germany.  Arndt  is  chiefly  famous  in  Germany 
as  one  of  the  foremost  promoters  of  patriotism. 
One  of  his  songs,  Was  isi  des  Deutschen  Vater- 
land?  was  long  regarded  as  the  most  popular 
national  hymn;  but  was  superseded  in  popular 
favor,  during  the  Franco-German  war.  by  Die 
Wacht  am  Rhein.  Some  of  Arndt "s  numerous 
works  are  of  a  pedagogical  character,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  Fragmente  Hber  Menschen- 
bildung  (Altona,  L805),  which  explains  the  prin- 
ciples of  a  rational  education  of  man  in  accor- 
dance with  the  dictates  of  his  nature.  In 
opposition  to  the  ideas  of  Rousseau,  he  insisted 
that  the  essence  of  man  must  not  be  sought  in 
the  sensuous  nature  of  the  isolated  individual. 
but  in  his  spiritual  part,  and  in  his  rela- 
tions to  parents,  family,  society,  and  his  native 
country.  From  this  point  of  view.  Arndt  con- 
tends, with  Pcstaloz/.i.  that  the  mother  should  be 
the  first  teacher  of  the  child,  and  that  her  in- 
struction should  proceed  from  the  concrete.  He 
represents  love,  necessity,  and  freedom  as  the 
tliree  powers  which  cooperate  in  the  education 
4 


of  man.  The  work  of  these  three  great  powers 
IS  conditioned  by  the  bodily  and  spiritual  develop- 
ment of  the  pupil.     In  childh 1,  it  is  chiefly 

the  power  of  lo\e.  represented  by  the  mother, 
which  moulds  the  young  mind,  and  instills  into  it 
the  first  notions  of  God,  man.  and  life.  The 
power  of  necessity  must  curb  and  discipline  the 
vehemence  of  boyhood,  and  teach  the  habit  of 
diligence.  At  last,  in  the  age  of  ripe  youth,  love 
and  necessity  coalesce  into  the  spirit  of  freedom, 
or  self-control,  which  is  the  completion  of  every 
harmonious  education.  A  few  years  later.  Arndt 
gave  an  exposition  of  the  same  principles,  with 
special  reference  to  the  education  of  princes,  hi 
his  work  Entwurf  Ster  Erziehung  und  TJnter- 
weisunp  eines  F&rsten  (Berlin,  1813).  These 
educational  works  of  Arndt  exercised  far  less  in- 
fluence upon  the  rising  generation  of  Germany 
than  his  fairy  tales,  and  especially  his  patriotic 
songs,  many  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  most 
German  reading-books  and  thus  have  contributed 
very  much  toward  shaping  the  German  mind  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  In  his  autobiography, 
Erinnerungen  aus  diem  ausseren  Leben  (l.eip- 
sic,  2d  ed.,  1840),  Arndt  treats  fully  of  his  own 
education.  Biographies  of  Arndt  have  been 
written  by  Eugen  Labes  (I860),  II.  Rehbein  and 
R.  Keil  (1861),  and  D.  Schexkel  (1866). — See 
also  G.  Freytag,  in  Deutsche  Allgemeine  Bio- 
graphie,  art.  Arndt. 

ARNOLD,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  the  illustrious 
English  teacher  and  historian,  was  bom  at  West 
Cowes,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1795.  He  was 
educated  at  Winchester  College  and  Oxford 
University,  from  the  latter  of  which  he  obtained 
a  first-class  degree  in  1814.  He  attained  his 
greatest  fame  as  head-master  of  Rugby  School, 
to  which  position  he  was  elected  in  1828,  and  in 
which  he  continued  till  his  death.  In  the  course 
of  instruction  of  this  school,  he  introduced  many 
improvements ;  but  it  was  the  system  of  moral 
teaching  and  training  which  he  established,  that 
gave  to  him  and  to  the  school  their  greatest  distinc- 
tion. He  preserved  among  the  boys  the  highest 
tone  of  moral  and  religious  sentiment ;  and.  with 
consummate  tact,  habituated  them  to  the  practice 
of  the  principles  which  he  taught,  making  him- 
self both  feared  and  loved.  His  chief  reliance 
was  upon  guiding  the  public  opinion  of  the 
school,  as  the  most  powerful  element  of  control 
in  every  community.  For  the  practice  of  "fag- 
ging" previously  in  vogue  in  the  school,  he  insti- 
tuted a  system  of  responsible  supervision  by  the 
pupils  of  the  highest  class  over  the  younger 
boys,  thus  giving  full  opportunity  for  the  active 
exercise  of  those  virtues  which  they  had  been 
taught.  Rugby,  however,  by  no  means  occupied 
all  his  time  and  attention.  For  some  time  he 
held  a  place  in  the  senate  of  the  London  Uni- 
versity, and  a  short  time  before  his  death,  ac- 
cepted the  appointment  of  Regius  Professor  of 
Modern  History  at  Oxford,  where  he  delivered 
some  introductory  lectures.  To  this  position  he 
intended  to  devote  his  whole  energies,  retiring 
from  Rugby;  but  his  plans  were  frustrated  by 
his  sudden  death,  in  1842.     His  greatest  literary 


50 


ARNOLD 


ART  EDUCATION 


work  is  the  History  of  Rome,  which  he  publish- 
ed in  three  volumes  (1838  —  1840  —  1842), 
brought  down  to  the  end  of  the  Second  Punic 
War.  Tins  work  he  did  not  live  to  complete. 
His  miscellaneous  writings  are  varied  and  numer- 
ous. Dr.  Arnold's  purity  and  elevation  of  char- 
acter, his  conscientious  zeal  and  wise  efforts  as  a 
practical  educator,  his  learning  and  literary  skill, 
and  the  excellent  example  which  he  presented  in 
all  the  relations  of  life,  entitle  him  to  be  con- 
sidered "one  <>f  the  brightest  ornaments  of  his 
age."  —  See  Stanley,  Arnold's  lAfe  and  Cor- 
respondence (London,  L845)  ;  also  Tom  Brown's 
School-Days  at  Rugby  (Ixmdon  and  Boston, 
1857). 

ARNOLD,  Thomas  Kerchever,  an  En- 
glish clergyman,  was  born  in  1800  and  died  in 
L853.  He  is  chiefly  noted  for  his  school  man- 
uals for  elementary  instruction  in  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  German,  and  some  other  languages. 
These  books  have  been  extensively  used  in  this 
country  as  well  as  in  England.  They  are  based 
upon  a  thorough  system  of  practical  drill  in  all 
the  peculiarities  of  the  language  to  be  taught. 
Mr.  Arnold  also  prepared  a  series  of  school 
classics,  and  published  articles  on  various  relig- 
ious and  ecclesiastical  questions.  His  manuals 
for  classical  study  are  based  on  a  system  similar 
to  that  of  Ollendorff. 

ART  EDUCATION.  Every  complete  sys- 
tem of  education  must  provide  for  the  cult- 
ure of  all  the  varied  faculties  of  the  human 
mind,  physical  and  intellectual,  moral  and  spir- 
itual, esthetic  ami  emotional;  and  must,  be- 
sides, supply  the  means  necessary  for  the  develop- 
ment of  those  practical  capacities  upon  which 
the  social  and  national  progress  of  every  civilized 
people  depends.  Among  the  agencies  required 
for  this  purpose,  art  education  claims  profound 
attention.  The  element  of  beauty,  which  exists 
in  the  human    mind,   when    made   the  subject  of 

progressive  cultivation,  and  applied  to  the  vari- 
ous industries  of  social  life,  becomes  a  thing  of 
pecuniary  as  well  as  esthetic  value.    The  train- 

tng  of    the  hand  and   eye.    which    is  obtained  by 

drawing,  is  proved  by  experience  to  be  of  very 

great  advantage  to  the  operative  in  every  branch 

of  industry  ;  indeed,  in  many  occupations,  draw- 
ing is  indispensable  to  success.  But  the  value  is 
still  greater  if  to  this  simple  training,  the  culture 

of  the  perception  and  conception  of  forms  and 
their   combinations   is  added,    Leading  to  skill  in 

designing    a  branch  of  art  of  the  highest  value 

in  very  many  departments,)!'  manufacturing  in- 
dustry. "Art  education",  says  an  eminent  author- 
ity, ■■  embraces  all  those  appliances  ami  methods 
of  training  by  which  the  sense  of  form  and  pro- 
portion is  developed.  It  is  successful  when  the 
student  unerringly  discriminates  between  what  is 

ugly   and    what     is    beautiful,   and    expresses   his 

ideas  of  form  in  drawing  as  readily  as  ideasof 
ot  her  sorts  on  tlic  written  page." 

Art  culture   among  the   ancients  must  have 
been  carried  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection, 

as  is  obvious  on  an    inspection   .if   Egyptian,  As- 

s\rian.  and  more  especially  Grecian  antiquities. 


The  genius  of  Phidias  and  Praxiteles  must  have 
owed  its  development  to  the  results  of  many 
centuries  of  previous  culture.  The  Parthenon 
was  the  noblest  achievement  of  the  loftiest  genius 
making  use  of  the  agencies  and  residts  of  the 
most  complete  culture  and  education  in  art.  We 
have,  however,  no  history  of  that  education  in 
detail.  Instruction  in  the  art  of  design  (ypcujuidji) 
was  quite  general  at  Athens  and  in  some  of  the 
other  (  brecian  states  ;  and  Aristotle,  in  his  scheme 
of  education,  attributes  to  it  great  importance  as 
a  means  of  cultivating  the  sense  of  the  beautiful. 
The  establishment  of  art-schools  and  schools  of 
design  for  the  masses  is,  however,  of  modern 
origin,  and  is  due  to  a  consideration,  based  upon 
experience,  of  the  great  value  of  general  artistic 
skill  in  increasing  the  sources  of  national  wealth. 
This  will  be  fully  shown  as  we  proceed  :  but  as 
immediately  relevant  to  it  we  quote  the  follow- 
ing statement  of  the  French  imperial  commis- 
sion, in  its  summary  of  the  inquiry  on  profes- 
sional education :  "Among  all  the  branches  of 
instruction  which,  in  different  degrees,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest  grade, can  contribute  to  the 
technical  education  of  either  sex,  drawing,  in  all 
its  forms  and  applications,  has  been  almost  unan- 
imously regarded  as  the  one  which  it  is  most 
important  to  make  common."  Heretofore,  in 
the  struggle  and  conflict  of  nations  for  suprema- 
cy and  power,  it  was  believed  they  could  depend 
exclusively  upon  armed  men  and  heavy  guns; 
but  to-day  the  great  nations  of  Europe  rely  on 
industrial  education,  and  the  general  culture  of 
the  people.  The  World's  Fair  held  at  London,  in 
L8.")l,  revealed  plainly  to  England  that  she  was 
far  behind  her  great  rival  France  in  the  produc- 
tion of  articles  requiring  skilled  labor  and  taste, 
indeed,  below  all  the  other  civilized  nations  ex- 
cept the  United  States.  Convinced  of  her  inferi- 
ority, she  went  vigorously  to  work  to  give  general 
instruction  in  the  tine  and  industrial  arts,  by 
establishing  schools  for  special  training,  free  of 
cost,  to  those  whom  the  science  and  art  depart- 
ment of  the  government  had  selected  for  art- 
masters.  Art  scl Is  were  founded  for  instruc- 
tion in  drawing,  modeling,  and  design,  in  many 
of  the  large  cit  ies  and  towns  throughout  the  king- 
dom. The  British  official  report  for  L872  shows 
that  there  were,  at  that  time,  in  England  122  in- 
dustrial  art-BChools;    besides     which    there   were 

194,549  children  receiving  instruction  in  draw- 
ing in  the  •■schools  for  the  poor."  Fp  to  that 
time,  there  had  been  established  one  well-ap- 
pointed   art  school    of     I'.IO    students     for    every 

210.000  of  the  population;  so  rapidly  was  in- 
struction iii  an  as  applied  to  industry  provided 

for  and  diffused   anion-   the    industrial  classes  of 

( ireat  Britain.  Hut  the  results  had, previous  to  this 
time,  been  already  definitely  shown.  At  the  Fan's 
Fxposition  of  L867,  Englandstood  in  the  first  rank 

of   artistic   nations,  and    even    surpassed  sonic  of 

those  who  previously  had  carried  off  the  highest 
honors.  This  great  advance  made  by  the  English 
from  L851  to  L867  alarmed  the  French.  They  saw 
tiny  could  do  Longer  rely  on  that  prestige  which 

had  always  placed  .them  at  the  head;  and  they. 


ART  EDUCATION" 


51 


in  turn  began  to  reconstruct,  improve,  ami  in- 
crease their  art-schools.  The  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.,  after  due 
consideration,  made  an  elaborate  report,  and  the 
government  acted  upon  its  recommendations. 
Immediately  after  the  late  war  between  France 
and  ( t'crmany.the  Prussian  minister  of  commerce 
and  industry  issued  a  circular  calling  upon  the 
government  and  the  people  to  follow  the  example 
of  France  :  and  it  is  now  being  followed  in  all 
the  schools  of  Prussia,  from  the  primary  school  to 
the  university.  Not  only  in  England,  France, 
and  Germany,  hut  in  nearly  all  the  other  Euro- 
pean countries  is  this  great  movement  in  art-edu- 
cation in  progress.  The  United  States,  alone  of 
all  enlightened  nations,  is  making  but  little  ad- 
vancement and  little  effort  in  this  direction.  New 
York,  Massachusetts,  and  a  few  other  states  have 
enacted  laws  concerning  the  teaching  of  free- 
hand drawing  in  the  public  schools,  and  in  this 
way  have  shown  some  appreciation  of  the  great 
importance  of  the  subject. 

During  the  first  twenty-five  years  of  the  na- 
tional independence  of  the  United  States,  nothing 
was  accomplished  in  art-education.  All  teaching 
was  confined  to  the  few  lessons  that  were  given 
by  professional  painters.  Even  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  present  century,  no  school  had 
been  established.  In  1802,  however,  a  proposi- 
tion was  made  to  found  an  institution  for  the 
promotion  of  the  arts  of  drawing,  painting,  and 
sculpture,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  under  the 
name  of  The  New  York  Academy  of 'Fine  Arts. 
On  account  of  the  want  of  public  interest  in  the 
enterprise,  and  the  inactivity  of  those  who  start- 
ed it,  the  charter  for  the  academy  was  not  ob- 
tained until  1808.  In  1805,  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  was  founded  at  Philadel- 
phia by  seventy-one  citizens  ;  and  in  Boston,  in 
1807,  the  Public  Library  and  Department  of 
Fine  Arts  was  established.  These  institutions 
are  still  in  existence  :  but  the  New  York  Academy 
only  lasted  till  1816.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
there  were  any  schools  of  importance  connected 
with  the  first  academies.  The  few  artists  who 
belonged  to  them  probably  practiced  drawing 
from  casts,  and,  it  may  be,  sometimes  from  life. 
—  Among  the  names  of  those  who  took  an  in- 
terest in  art-matters  at  the  early  date  here  refer- 
red to,  may  be  found  some  of  the  best  men  of  the 
time;  and  at  their  head  stood  De  Witt  Clinton, 
certainly  the  foremost  man  in  the  State  of  New 
York.  He  was  the  president  of  the  Academy. 
and  delivered  an  address  upon  the  Fine  Arts 
when  he  retired  from  active  participation  in  its 
affairs.  According  to  the  venerable  Thomas  A. 
CummingS,  a  veteran  artist  at  this  date  (1876), 
this  address  was  probably  the  first  ever  delivered 
in  this  country  on  that  subject.  It  is  likely  that 
there  were  some  artistic  societies,  classes,  or  clubs 
besides  those  mentioned, straggling  into  existence 
in  cities  like  Boston.  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
Richmond,  and  ( Charleston,  but  of  these  we  have 
but  little  or  no  history.  It  is  quite  certain  that, 
up  to  1816,  no  attempt  had  been  made  to  in- 
struct students  anywhere    in  this  country.  In 


1825,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  was  chosen  to  pre- 
side over  a  new  association,  just  then  formed, 
called  the  New  York-  Drawing  Association. 
It  was  out  of  the  small  number  of  artists  who 

constituted  this  association,  and  who  met  fchra 
times  a  week  to  draw  from  casts,  that  the  present 
National  Academy  of  Design  was  established 
Much  dissatisfaction  was  caused  among  the 
members  of  the  Drawing  Association,  on  ac- 
count of  an  attempt  of  Col.  John  Trumbull,  the 
historical  painter,  acting  as  the  president  of  the 
then  almost  defunct  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,tx> 
assume  a  kind  of  dictatorship  over  them.  These 
pretensions,  however,  were  stoutly  and  success- 
fully repelled  by  president  Morse  and  the  young 
artists  of  the  association.  Col.  Trumbull  was 
evidently  opposed  to  art-schools;  and  according 
to  Mr.  Cummings.  he  assailed  the  students  of 
that  day  in  a  very  rude  and  improper  manner. 
The  resolution  of  Morse  and  his  associates  estab- 
lished on  a  firm  foundation  the  National 
Academy  of  Design,aa  the  L8th  of  January, 

1826,  with  twenty-five  artists,  and  a  life  school 
of  eleven  students.  Mr.  Morse  delivered  an  ad- 
dress at  the  first  exhibition  of  the  new  academy, 
in  which  he  announced  a  new  departure  from 
the  old  forms  and  usages  of  the  art-associations 
which  had  previously  been  established.  His 
course  was  to  be  the  same  as  that  adopted  and 
sanctioned  by  the  academies  of  Europe.  From 
1826  to  1830,  there  was  a  bitter  feud  between 
the  rival  institutions,  the  American  Academy 
and  the  National  Academy, — the  former  sup- 
ported by  the  renowned  John  Vanderlyn,  and 
the  latter  by  the  illustrious  and  indefatigable 
Morse.  The  contest  ended  by  the  discontinuance 
of  the  older  institution  ;  but  while  it  was  in 
progress,  the  interests  of  art  were  neglected,  and 
art-education  sunk  to  a  low  ebb.  Owing  to 
causes  that  have  not  been  explained,  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  has  never  been  able  to  estab- 
lish and  continue  a  first-class  school  for  the  edu- 
cation of  students.  On  this  account,  the  institu- 
tion can  hardly  lay  claim  to  be  a  national  one. 
nor  can  it  be  said  that  it  has  kept  pace  with  the 
educational  institutions  of  the  country. 

Methods  of  AH  Instruction. —  The  modes  of 
drawing  and  the  usages  of  art-schools  are  nearly 
the  same  now  that  they  were  in  the  Old  World 
two  hundred  years  ago;  that  is.  in  schools  in 
which  pupils  are  trained  to  be  professional  artists. 
After  students  have  learned  to  draw  from  the 
flat,  from  lithographs,  drawings,  etchings,  etc., on 
paper,  they  are  required  to  draw  from  plaster 
casts,  —  mostly  figures  and  fragments  of  the 
antique,  statues,  and  busts.  The  teacher  of  draw- 
ing very  Often  selects  for  the  student  those  casts 
which  arc  best  suited  to  his  taste,  style  and  abil- 
ity. These  casts  are  generally  so  arranged  and 
illuminated  as  to  show  strong  contrasts  of  light 
and  shade  ;  and  each  student  is  provided  with  an 
old-fashioned  i  Ira  wing-board,  which  is  simply  a 
board,  generally  about  35  x  25  inches,  with  two 
legs,  resting  upon  the  floor  and  thus  support- 
ing one  end,  while  the  other  end  rests  on  the  lap  of 
the  student.  A  charcoal  outline  of  the  object  to  be 


52 


ART  EDUCATION 


drawn  is  first  made.  This  being  easily  rubbed 
off,  the  student  is  thus  enabled  to  get  the  outline 
with  less  trouble  than  would  be  possible  with 
crayons,  which  are  only  resorted  to  after  a  correct 
outline  has  been  obtained.  —  The  life-school,  as 
it  is  called,  or  more  properly  speaking,  drawing 
from  the  living  form,  is  generally  conducted  in 
the  following  manner.  The  model,  or  person  who 
is  to  stand,  or  pose,  is  placed  generally  under  the 
light,  in  whatever  position  may  be  chosen  by  the 
students.  They  then  arrange  themselves  around 
the  model,  and  begin  their  drawings.  The  model 
stands  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  minutes  in  one 
position.  A  resl  is  then  taken,  and  at  will  the 
model  again  assumes  precisely  the  same  position 
as  before,  and  the  drawing  goes  on  until  each 
student  has  finished. 

Art  Schools  in  Ike  United  States. — The  num- 
ber of  art-schools  or  institutions  affording  art- 
instruction,  in  the  United  States,  according  to 
the  Report  of  the  V.  S.  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, for  L  874,  is  twenty-six;  as  shown  in  the 
following  table. 

Institutions  affording  Art  Instruction  in  U.  S. 

When 


Name 


School  of  Design  of  the 
San  Francisco  Art-As- 
sociation   

Yale  School  of  the  Fine 
Arts 

Art-Schools  oi  Chicago 
Academy  of  Design    . . 

Illinois  Industrial  Univer- 
sity   

Schools  of  Art  and  Design 
iif  Maryland  Institute 

Art-School 

Boston  Art-Club 

Lowell  School  of  Practical 
Design 

Mass.  lust,  of  Technology 

Mass.  Normal  Art-School 

Worcester  County  Free 
Institute  of  Industrial 
Science 

St.  Louis  Art-School 

Manchester  Art-Associa- 
tion   

Brooklyn  Art-Association 

Cornell  I  ni\  ersity  

Ladies'  A  i  i-A  --ociation   , 

National  Academy  ol  I >' 
sign 

The  Palette  Club 

CooperTJnionArt-Schools, 

1.  Women's  Art-School 

2.  Free  School  of  Art. 
Colli  ge  of  Fine  Arts  of 

Syracuse  University 
School  oi   Design  of  th< 

University  of  Cincinnati 
Toledo  University  of  Arts 

and  Trades  ...'.... 

Franklin  institute  Draw- 
ing i  llasses 

Art-Classes  of  the  Penns, 
\    id  >my  oi  Fine  Arts. 

Philadelphia  School  of 
Design  for  Women  .... 

Pittsburg  School  of  De- 
aign  for  Women 


Location 


founded 


San  Francisco,  Cal. 
New  Haven,  Ct. 
I  Ihicago,  111. 
Urbana,  111. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 
Boston,  Mass. 

Boston,  Mass. 
Boston,  Mass. 

Boston,  Mass. 


Worcester,  Mass. 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 


Manchester,  N.  H. 
Brooklyn,  X.  Y. 

Ithaca,  X.  Y. 
New  York,  N.  Y. 

New  York,  X.  V. 
New  York,  X.  Y. 

New  York,  X.  Y. 
New  York,  X.  Y. 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Cincinnati,  0. 
Coledo,  0. 
Philadelphia,  l'a. 
Philadelphia,  l'a. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 


1873 
1864 

1867 

1*71 

IMS 
lsri 
1  K.-,.-> 

1872 
1861 
1873 

1865 

1872 

lsTl 
isul 
Is.;;, 
1870 

1820 

L869 

1 866 

IV,  7 

IsT'J 
ISC!) 
Is72 
1 82 1 
L806 
ls|7 
L866 


Pittsburg,  l'a. 
Of  these  institutions  three  are  the  great  art- 
schools  at  Philadelphia,    New  York,  and   New 


Haven;  namely,  the  Pennsylvania  Academy 
of  the  F'nif  Arts,  the  National  Academy  of 
Design,  and  the  Yale  School  of  the  Fine  Arts. 
Ten  of  these  institutions  are  for  the  special 
training  of  artists.  Three  others,  the  Boston 
Art-Club,  the  Palette  Club,  and  the  Ladies' 
Art-Association,  are  voluntary  associations  of 
artists,  with  life-classes,  etc.,  for  their  own  im- 
provement. 

In  some  of  these  schools  nearly  every  kind  of 
art-culture  receives  attention,  —  drawing  from 
the  flat,  from  simple  objects,  casts,  the  antique, 
paintings,  and  from  life;  modeling  in  clay,  wax, 
and  plaster;  painting  in  oil  and  water  colors ; 
architecture  ;  and  fresco  painting.  In  others,  the 
instruction  is  given  with  special  reference  to  the 
practical  application  of  science  to  art.  to  the  edu- 
cation of  skilled  artisans,  to  mechanics,  manu- 
facturers, etc. 

Tlie  number  of  art  schools  is  so  small,  com- 
pared with  the  number  of  inhabitants,  that,  in 
fact,  but  very  little  national  progress  in  art-cul- 
ture can  be  expected.  On  account  of  the  lack 
of  opportunities  for  studying  painting  and  sculp- 
ture, most  students  who  have  the  means  go  to 
Europe  to  obtain  those  facilities  which  are  not  to 
lie  found  in  this  country.  According  to  the  Re- 
port above  quoted,  there  are  only  27  art-must  urns 
and  art-collections,  of  colleges,  etc..  in  the  United 
States.  Of  these  seven  are  in  New  York,  six  in 
Massachusetts,  two  each  in  Connecticut  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  one  each  in  Illinois.  Indiana, 
Louisiana.  Maryland,  Michigan.  New  Hampshire, 
Ohio.  Rhode  Island.  Vermont,  and  the  District 
of  Columbia.  The  incomes  of  eight  of  these 
institutions,  in  lsTl.  were  reported  as  amounting 
in  the  aggregate  to  about  $200,000;  bul  of  this, 
$70,000  was  reported  as  the  income  id' the  Cor- 
coran .1/-/  Gallery, aX  Washington,  which  lias  an 
endowment  of  $1,000,000.  Eleven  of  the  twenty- 
seven  institutions  above  referred  to  are  art -collec- 
tions connected  with  colleges  or  universities,  and 
mosl  of  them  are  of  recent  foundation, —  five 
since  1S72. 

Instruction  in  Drawing. —  There  is  a  growing 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  drawing  as  a  branch 
nt  common  school  instruction. and  a  much  clearer 

perception  of  the  fact  that  to  teach  drawing  sys- 
tematically in  the  schools  of  the  people  is  to  lay 
the  foundation  not  only  of  national  art-culture, 
but  of  national  progress  in  the  industrial  arts. 
The  state  superintendents  and  many  of  the  city 
superintendents  of  public  instruction  express  this 
sent  imeiit  very  generally  and  strongly,  and  earn- 
estly advocate  the  encouragemenl  of  drawing  in 
the  public  schools,  especially  for  the  purpose  of 
educating  thai  class  id  pupils  who  are  to  become 
the  future  skilled  laborers  and  artisans  of  the 
nation.     As  an  illustration,  we  quote  from  the 

superintendent  of  schools  in  Indiana:  "Indiana, 
as  much  as  any  slate  in  the  In  ion.  needs  to  look 

after  these  interests,  and  needs  to  educate  her 
children  for  the  work  which  must  either  be  done 
by  them  or  bysome  more  skillful  class,  imported 

from  abroad  to  supply  their  places.  Her  wood. 
wool,  minerals,  and   other   rough  materials  are 


ART  EDUCATION 


ARTS 


53 


carried  away  ami  manufactured  into  the  com- 
monest articles  of  daily  use,  and  are  returned  to 
the  state  as  imported  articles  at  an  enormous 
cost  .  •  •  The  skill  of  our  native  workmen  is 
limited  through  want  of  training,  and  our  labor 
is  not,  therefore,  of  the  most  profitable  quality. 

That  our  system  of  education  IS  in  tliis  point  de- 
fective, and  that  it  needs  such  improvement  as 
shall  look  to  the  preparation  of  persons  for 
skillful  labor,  are  no  longer  matters  of  ques- 
tion." i Sec  Report,  ks71  )  lie, therefore,  recom- 
mends that  the  statutes  of  the  state  be  SO 
amended  as  to  include  drawing  as  one  of  the 
common  school  branches  of  study.  In  Massa- 
chusetts, much  has  been  done  in  this  direction,  in 
compliance  with  the  law  of  1 870,  which  provided 
that  "  any  city  or  town  may.  and  every  city  and 
town  having  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  shall, 
annually  make  provision  for  giving  free  instruc- 
tion in  industrial  or  mechanical  drawing  to  per- 
sons over  fifteen  years  of  ag  !."  <  If  the  twenty- 
three  cities  and  towns  of  the  State,  in  L874, 
twenty  had  compile  I  with  the  statute.  In  1871, 
on  the  invitation  of  the  school  committee.  .Mr. 
Walter  Smith,  head-master  of  the  school  of 
art  in  Leeds,  England,  t  >ok  the  direction  of 
this  branch  of  instruction  in  the  public  schools 
of  Boston  :  and  subsequently  was  appointed 
State-Director  of  art-education.  Jn  1873,  the 
State  Normal  Art-School  was  established  at 
Boston,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Smith,  for 
the  training  of  art  teachers,  or  teachers  of  in- 
dustrial drawing,  which  institution,  in  1874,  had 
12  instructors  and  240  students.  The  results  of 
this  system,  so  complete  and  admirable,  have 
thus  far  been  eminently  successful.  The  state 
of  New  York,  following  the  example  of  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1875,  passed  a  law  requiring  indus- 
trial drawing  to  be  taught  in  all  the  common 
schools  of  the  state.     (See  Drawing.) 

Mule,  of  Establishing  Art  Schools. — The  first 
thing  necessary  for  the  establishment  of  art- 
schools,  or  for  the  introduction  of  drawing, 
modeling,  and  designing  into  schools  already 
established,  is  to  obtain  capable  teachers,  or  art- 
masters.  These  must  be  trained  in  the  art  in 
normal  schools  ;  or  the  officers  of  school-districts 
may  institute  classes  for  this  purpose.  The 
Cooper  Tustitiilf,  in  the  City  of  New  York,  and 
the  School  of  Design,  in  Cincinnati,  and  some 
others,  have  prepared  a  considerable  number 
of  excellent  art-teachers.  The  state  normal 
schools  have  also  done  something  in  this  direc- 
tion, but  have  the  facility  and  means,  if  properly 
applied,  to  do  very  much  more.  The  customary 
mode  of  procedure  in  art-instruction  has  already 
been  explained;  but  the  various  methods  of  in- 
struction in  drawing  will  he  given  in  another 
f>art  of  this  work.  (See  Drawing.)  Modeling 
lis  not  yet  become  as  prominent  in  industrial 
art-education  as  its  importance  demands.  With- 
out doubt,  the  modeling  of  real  forms  is  much 
more  beneficial  for  the  future  artisan  than 
representation  of  forms  upon  flat  surfaces.  It 
will  be  readily  perceived  tha  the  wood-carver, 
cabinet-maker,  machinist,  jeweler,  and  all  o1 


whose  work   consists  in  the  production  of  fori) 
would  be  liettcr  trained  in  this  way.    To  the  de- 
signer of  fabrics,  drawing  on    flat   surfaces  is 

the  preferable  practice  ;  but  in  Dearly  all  other 
eases,  modeling  affords  the  most  efficient  train- 
ing.     A    set    of    objects    classified    and    graded, 

from  the  simplest  to  the  most  complicated  forms. 
as  well  as  compositions  for  drawing  and  model- 
ing purposes, is  of  great  value  in  this  instruction; 
and,  accompanying  this,  there  should  be  a  com- 
prehensive text-1 k.or  manual,giving  directions 

as  to  the  modes  of  teaching,  the  arrangement  of 
rooms  and  studios,  the  adjustment  of  lights,  and 
the  placing  of  casts  and  models  ;  together  with  a 
full  description  of  the  materials  and  instruments 
needed  at  each  stage  and  in  each  department  of 
the  instruction.  For  valuable  information  and 
suggestions  in  this  direction,  see  Art-Education, 
by  Prof.  C.  0.  Thompson,  in  Report  of  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  (1873). 

Importance  of  Art-Education. — This  country 
can  compete  with  foreign  nations  in  the  produc- 
tion of  articles  requiring  taste  and  skilled  labor 
only  by  establishing  schools  for  instruction  in  the 
iine  arts  and  in  industrial  art.  so  that  the  native 
artisans  may  be  properly  educated.  Millions  of 
men,  women,  and  children,  in  Europe,  are  at  the 
present  time  receiving  an  industrial  art-education 
at  the  public  expense;  and  the  United  States. 
through  the  state  or  national  governments,  must 
make  a  similar  provision.  The  following  facts 
clearly  show  this  necessity.  In  lSTT.  there  were 
exported  from  the  United  States  articles  upon 
which  skilled  and  mechanical  labor  had  been  ex- 
pended, of  the  value  of  $24,631,835;  while  the 
value  of  such  articles  imported, was $1  77  s;>7.i32. 
In  the  same  year,  the  articles  of  taste  and 
skilled  labor  exported  from  France  amounted  to 
$434,513  800,  and  from  England, to $384,787,944. 
The  contrast  presents  an  instructive  lesson  as  to 
the  importance  of  art-education  in  its  relation 
to  national  wealth  and  prosperity. — See  Modem 
Art-Education  (Boston,  1875);  Official  Report 
of  the  Vienna  Exposition  (1873);  Reports  of 
U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  (1872,-3,-4.) 

ARTISANS,  Education  of.  See  Tech- 
nical Education. 

ARTS,  Liberal.  The  term  arts,  or  liberal 
arts,  was,  during  the  middle  ages,  applied  to  cer- 
tain studies  which  constituted  an  essential  part 
of  a  learned  education.  The  full  course  of  study, 
at  that  period,  embraced  "  the  seven  liberal  arts," 
three  of  which — grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric — 
composed  what  was  called  the  trivium  I  the  triple 
way  to  eloquence);  anil  the  remaining  four  — 
music,  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy - 
constituted  the quodrivium  (the  quadruple  way  |. 
The  termfaculty  of  arts  denoted,  in  the  univer- 
sities, those  who  devoted  themselves  to  philos- 
ophy and  science,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
faculty  of  theology,  of  medicine,  or  of  law. 
Master  |  Lat. magister)  was  used  to  designate  one 
who  taught  the  liberal  arts:  and  doctor,  one  who 
bt  or  practiced  divinity,  law.  or  medicine. 
The  first  degree  (gradus)  of  proficiency  in  the 
arts,    instituted,  as   it  is   said,  by  Gregory  l.v. 


54 


ASCHAM 


ASTRONOMY 


about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  was  that 
of  bachelor  (Lat.  baccalaureiis);  and  the  second 
that  of  matter,  which  originally  conferred  the 
right,  and  indeed  imposed  the  duty,  of  teaching 
one  or  more  of  the  liberal  arts.  This  title,  in  the 
colleges  and  universities  of  the  United  States, 
England,  and  Prance,  is  now  merely  honorary. 
(See  Degrees.) 

ASCHAM,  Rogar,  a  celebrated  English 
scholar  and  teacher,  who  flourished  during  the 
reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  .Mary,  and  Elizabeth, 
was  horn  in  l.">15,  and  died  in  1568.  He 
graduated  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  in  1537, 
became  a  college  tutor,  and  was  appointed  to  read 
Greek  in  the  public  schools.  In  L545,  he  pub- 
lished Toxophilus,  or  the  School  of  Shooting, 
in  which,  as  Dr.  Johnson  says.   "  he  designed  not 

only  to  teach  the  art  of  shooting,  but  to  give  an 
example  of  diction  more  natural  and  more  truly 
English  than  was  used  by  the  common  writers 
of  thai  age."  In  1548,  he  was  appointed  teacher 
of  the  learned  languages  to  the  lady  Elizabeth, 
afterwards  queen, and  continued  to  perforin  that 
service  for  two  years.  In  1553,  he  was  appointed 
Latin  secretary  to  Queen  Mary,  and  was  contin- 
ued in  the  same  office  by  Elizabeth,  besides 
acting  as  her  tutor  in  Latin  and  Greek.  His 
most  noted  work  is  ■•  The  Schokmaster,  or  u 
Plain  and  Perftte  Way  of  leaching  Children 
to  understand,read,  and  write  the  Latin  Tonge," 
published  by  his  widow  in  1571.  Dr.  Johnson 
said,  this  work  was  '■'  perhaps  the  best  advice  that 
was  ever  given  for  the  study  of  languages  :"  and  a 
recent  authority  says:  "This  book  sets  forth  the 

only  sound  method  of  acquiring  a  dead  language.'' 

—  See  Life  of  Ascham,  written  by  Dr.  Johnson 
for  an  edition  of  his  English  works, published  in 
17(d  :  Grant,  h<>  Vita  Rogeri  Ascham;  Wood, 
Fasti  Oxonienses ;  Hartley  Coleridge,  Lives 
(f  Northern  Worthies,  vol.  n. ;  Quick,  Essays 
on  Educational  Reformers  (London.  1868.)  The 
last  mentioned  work  contains  an  excellent  sketch 
of  Aschani's  method. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS.  By  this 
is  meant  that  relation  or  connection  which  is 
formed  between  ideas,  so  that  one  immediately 

suggests  the  other,  hence  called  by  Dr.  Lrown 
the  principle  of  simple  suggestion.  This  law  of 
mental  operation  demands  a  most  careful  con- 
sideration in  1mi|1i  moral  and  intellectual  educa- 
tion. Peelings  of  pleasure  and  pain  are  often 
associated  with  certain   ideas  or  objects  in  the 

minds  of  pupils  at  school,  and  thus  control  their 

whole  after  life.  Antipathies,  prejudices,  or 
predilections  are  thus  so  firmly  fixed,  that  thej 
can  never  be  eradicated.  The  law  of  association. 
rightly  applied  by  the  teacher,  may  thus  be  used 
to  establish  in  the  minds  of  his  pupils  an  abhor- 
rence of   meanness  ami   wrong,  of  falseh land 

dishonesty,  which  will  go  far  toward  forming  a 
thoroughly  virtuous  character.  This  law  has  a 
very  important  application  in  the  intellectual 
training  of  the  young,  and  in  the  general  cultlva- 

ii »f  the  mind.     Here  we  are  to  consider  the 

various  ways  in  which  the  law  of  association 
operates.  (See  Fa<  i  lties,  Development  of.)  The 


power  to  control  the  succession  of  our  ideas  or 
thoughts  very  much  depends  upon  the  habits 
we  may  have  formed  in  establishing  these  associa- 
tions. If  the  ideas  with  which  a  person *s  mind 
is  stored  are  connected  only  by  arbitrary  or  acci- 
dental associations,  he  will  find  it  difficult  to 
arrange  his  thoughts  on  any  subject  in  a  regular, 
logical  order.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
minds  so  trained  as  to  be  able,  at  any  moment, 
to  command  their  ideas  upon  any  subject  with 
which  tiny  are  acquainted,  so  that  they  flow 
forth  in  an  unintermitting  logical  stream.  Ma- 
caulay  says  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh.  "I  lis  mind 
was  a  vast  magazine,  admirably  arranged ;  every 
thing  was  there,  and  every  thing  was  in  its 
place.  His  judgments  on  men.  on  sects, 
on  books,  had  been  often  and  carefully  tested 
ami  weighed,  and  had  then  been  committed, 
each  to  its  proper  receptacle,  in  the  most 
capacious  and  most  accurately  constructed  mem- 
ory that  any  human  being  ever  possessed.  It 
would  have  been  strange  indeed,  if  you  had 
asked  for  anything  that  was  not  to  be  found  in 
that  immense  store-house.  The  article  which 
you  require  I  was  not  only  there  :  it  was  ready ; 
it  was  in  its  own  proper  compartment.  In  a 
moment  it  was  broughl  down, unpacked  and  dis- 
played." This  admirably  expresses,  of  course  in 
a  very  high  degree  of  development,  and  partly  as 
the  result  of  a  natural  constitution  of  mind,  the 
intellectual  quality  to  be  aimed  at  by  the  teacher, 
in  connection  with  the  association  of  ideas.  It 
follows,  too,  from  this  that  the  law  by  which 
ideas  become  permanently  associated  by  means 
of  repetition,  should  have  a  most  important  place 
in  the  consideration  of  the  teacher.  Certain 
branches  of  knowledge  require  the  special  appli- 
cation of  this  law:  such  as  arithmetical  tables, 
grammatical  paradigms,  and  all  other  things  that. 
having  no  logical  relations,  are  to  he  arbitrarily 
associated.  The  point  to  be  gained  in  such 
acquisitions  is  to  connect  these  ideas  iii  the  mind 
in  such  a  way  that   one  will    instantly,  and,  ;is  it 

were,  automatically,  suggest  the  other,  d  he  per- 
ceptions of  sight  and  hearing  may  both  be 
brought    into   play    in   ace plishing   this.     The 

former  are.  without  doubt,  the  strongest  and  the 

most  enduring,  as  Horace  truly  says. 

8  gulus  irritant  animoa  demissa  per  aureru, 
Quam  quae  sunt  oculia  aubjecita  fidelibua. 

Hence  the  use  of  the  blackboard  and  slate,  par- 
ticularly   tin-1    former ;     also    the    importance  of 

repeating  aloud  from  the  printed  page.  (See 
Intellect!  \i.  Education,  Memory,  Mnemonics, 
and  Rote-Teachtng.) 

ASTRONOMY  (Gr.dorpov.a star, and  vduoc, 

,i  law  i.  the  science  which  treats  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,   has    peculiarly    strong  claims  to  a    place 

i.i  every  educational  scheme  of  study,  both  its  a 

means  of   intellectual  training,  and  on  account  of 

the  practical  value  of  the  class  of  facts  which  it 
embraces,  as  well  as  its  ennobling  influence  upon 

the  mind  of    the    student.     The   progress  of   this 

science  in  modern  times  has  been  perhaps  the 

most  interesting  feature  of  the  intellectual  histo- 
ry of  the  period,  and  its  cultivation  in  this  coun- 


ASTRONOMY 


55 


try  has  shed  a  peculiar  luster  upon  American 
scientific  and  mathematical  genius.  The  im- 
mediate results  'it'  this  study  not  being  so  obvi- 
ous as  those  of  most  others  to  which  is  universally 
conceded  a  place  in  the  courses  of  instruction 
prescribed  forcommon  schools,  it  has  been  in 
these  schools,  comparatively  speaking,  a  neglected 

Subject.      Bui    the   science    to   which  we  owe  our 

means  of  measuring  time,  of  locating  places  on  the 

surface  of  the  earth  by  Longitude  and  latitude,  of 
fixing  the  boundaries  of  countries  ami  sections  of 
country,  of  accurately  mapping  out  coast-lines, 
of  navigating  the  ocean,  of  ascertaining  the  mag- 
nitude and  exact  figure  of  the  globe  which  we  in- 
habit, and  determining  its  relations  to  the  uni- 
verse, certainly  should  not  be  overlookd  1.  Pri- 
marily, astronomy  is  a  science  of  observation.  Its 
materials  are  observed  farts:  but  it  differs  from 
many  other  natural  sciences  in  that  the  observed 
facts,  far  from  explaining  themselves,  demand  a 
peculiar  exercise  of  conception,  judgment,  and 
reason,  in  order  to  infer  from  them  the  truths 
■which  they  obscurely  indicate.  Thus,  when  we 
observe  the  varying  apparent  diameters  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  the  phenomena  of  eclipses  and 
tides,  the  progressions,  stations,  and  retrograda- 
tions  of  the  planets,  etc.  we  have  advanced,  how- 
ever accurate  our  observations,  but  little  toward 
a  solution  of  the  mysteries  involved  in  these  ap- 
pearances. We  must  conceive  how.  under  a  general 
hypothesis  of  the  structure  of  the  solar  system, 
these  phenomena  are  caused,  since  the  phenom- 
ena often  seem  to  be  at  variance  with  the  facts; 
e.  g.  the  apparent  motions  of  the  planets  appear 
to  contradict  the  general  truth,  or  law,  of  their 
eastward  orbital  motion. 

Li  teaching  this  subject,  the  order  of  investi- 
gation— the  analytic  method,  should  be  at  tirst 
adopted,  for  two  reasons:  (1)  because  in  this  way 
we  are  able  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
clearer  conceptions  of  fundamental  facts,  and  (2) 
because  he  will  thus  form  the  habits  of  though! 
which  are  particularly  needed  in  the  study  of  thi  j 
.science.  We  should  insist  upon  his  observing  for 
himself  all  the  more  obvious  phenomena,  and 
then  stating,  as  fully  and  accurately  as  possible, 
the  result  of  his  observations.  It  is  astonishing 
how  many  persons  go  through  the  world,  filling 
the  measure  of  a  long  life,  without  casting  any 
thing  but  an  indifferent,  uninquuing,  and  un- 
interested glance  at  the  glories  of  the  stellar  firma- 
ment. So  it  is  also  with  children,  before  their  at- 
tention is  attracted,  and  their  interest  aroused, to 
observe  the  wonders  of  the  heavens.  The  teacher, 
therefore,  should  lead  his  pupils,  by  questioning 
them,  to  notice  some  of  the  most  ordinary  phe- 
nomena: 88  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  and 
the  moon,  the  phases  of  the  latter,  the  apparent 
diurnal  revolution  of  the  stars,  the  positions  and 
apparent  movements  of  the  larger  and  more  con- 
spicuous planets  among  the  stars,  the  ebb  and 
flow  of  the  tides,  the  solar  and  lunar  eclipses, 
etc.  Finding,  from  such  questioning,  that  they 
have  really  been  inattentive  to  what  they  might 
readily  have  observed,  the  pupils  will  strive  to  see 
these  things  for  themselves,  and   will  thus,  in  a 


short  time,  acquire  such  an  experience  of  their 
own.  as  will  enable  them  to  pursue  the  study 
with   interest  and  success.      As  soon  as  they  have 

acquired  a  clear  conception  of  these  natural  ap- 
pearances, their  attention  should  be  called  to  the 
explanation  of  them:  and  in  this,  for  a  short  time 
at  least,  it  would  be  well  to  let  the  pupils  try 
to  think  out  for  themselves  some  hypothesis  to 
account  for  what  they  have  seen,  and  not  to  give 

them  the  correct  scientific  explanation  until  they 
have  exhausted  their  own  conjectures.  For,  it  is 
not  so  much  facts  that  we  desire  to  communicate 

as  mental  habits:  and.  by  the  process  here  recom- 
mended, whatever  facts  are  finally  imparted, 
though  they  maybe  few.  will  he  indelibly  im- 
pressed upon  the  memory.  This  process  is.  how- 
ever, strictly  in  accordance  with  the  educational 
axiom,  that  the  pupil  should  be  told  nothing 
which  he  maybe  made  to  discover  for  himself; 
to  which  may  perhaps  be  added,  that  he  should 
In'  told  nothing  until  he  has  endeavored  to  dis- 
cover it  for  himself ,  and  has  failed  in  the  effort. 
(See  Science  Teaching.)  After  this  prelimi- 
nary instruction,  an  elementary  course  in  astron- 
omy would  embrace  the  following  topics  ar- 
ranged in  the  order  of  presentation: — (1)  The 
earth — its  form,  magnitude,  motions,  etc.,  with  the 
phenomena  connected  with  it,  and  arising  from 
its  relations  to  the  sun,  such  as  day  and  night, 
and  the  seasons;  ('_')  The  solarsystem — its  general 
arrangement,  the  bodies  of  which  it  is  composed, 
with  their  magnitudes,  distances,  periodic  times. 
the  position  of  their  orbits  and  axes,  and  their 
apparent  motions;  (3)  The  circles  etc.  of  the 
sphere;  as  equator,  equinoctial,  ecliptic,  merid- 
ians, tropics,  polar  circles,  longitude  and  latitude, 
both  terrestrial  and  celestial,  declination  and 
right  ascension,  the  horizon,  vertical  circles,  alti- 
tude and  azimuth,  etc.  If  the  preliminary  in- 
struction has  been  correct  and  thorough,  these 
various  tropics  cau  be  taught  in  such  a  manner 
as.  at  every  point,  to  appeal  to  the  learner's  in- 
telligence, and.  not  as  a  mass  of  arbitrary  facts, 
encumbering  his  memory  for  a  while,  to  drop  out 
afterwards  as  useless  lumber.  For  example,  if 
we  would  lead  his  mind  to  a  clear  idea  of 
the  use  of  longitude  and  latitude  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  we  ask  him  to  locate,  that  is.  to 
describe  the  location  of.  any  point  on  the  surface 
of  the  globe.  He  will  soon  he  led  to  perceive 
that  this  cannot  be  done  without  some  standards 
of  reference;  and  thus  the  use  of  the  equator 
and  meridians  will  become  obvious,  ami.  in  a 
similar  manner,  that  of  altitude  and  azimuth,  in 
locating  the  positions  of  stars  and  planets  in  the 
visible  heavens,  or  right  ascension  ami  declina- 
tion, in  fixing  their  places  in  the  celestial  sphere. 
No  part  of  this  science  need  be  taught  arbitra- 
rily. Even  the  numerical  facts,  as  distances,  mag- 
nitudes, periods  of  revolution,  etc.,  should,  in 
part  at  least,  be  worked  out,  however  rudely,  for 
the  student  from  the  data  of  observation:  or  he 
should  be  required  to  work  them  out  himself. 
after  being  taught  the  principles  and  methods 
involved.  Thus,  the  teacher  may  begin  with  the 
diameter  of  the  earth,  and  show  how    this  has 


56 


ATI  I  EN  HUM 


ATHENS 


been  determined;  then  the  distance  of  the  sun 
from  the  earth,  explaining  in  this  connection  the 
nature  and  use  of  parallax;  then  the  linear  di- 
ameter of  the  sun  from  its  apparent  diameter; 
then  the  sidereal  year  of  the  earth,  and  the 
sidereal  periods  of  the  planets  from  their  observed 
synodic  periods:  and  next  the  distances  of  the 
planets  from  an  application  of  Kepler's  third 
law,  etc.  In  this  way,  the  whole  subject  will  be 
so  woven  together  in  the  pupil's  mind,  that  it 
will  be  impossible  for  him  to  forget  its  funda- 
mental principles,  however  few  of  its  facts  of 
detail  he  may  retain.  After  such  a  course,  it 
will  be  a  very  simple  matter  to  present  for  his 
study  the  other  important  topics  comprehended 
in  the  general  subject. 

The  use  of  diagrams  and  apparatus  should 
be  constantly  resorted  to  in  giving  the  instruc- 
tion here  marked  out ;  but  great  care  should  be 
observed  to  prevent  the  use  of  apparatus  from 
superseding  or  obscuring  the  ideas  obtained  from 
the  observation  of  nature  itself.  The  student 
must  come  down  to  the  apparatus  from  a  clear 
conception  of  the  actual  phenomena,  using  the 
machine  to  apprehend  the  manner  in  which  the 
phenomena  occur.  Very  simple  apparatus  is 
much  to  be  preferred  to  cumbrous  and  compli- 
cated machinery,-— admirable,  perhaps,  aspiecas 
of  ingenious  workmanship, but  of  little  value  for 
the  purpose  of  illustration.  The  student  should, 
however,  be  thoroughly  practiced  in  the  use  of 
the  globes,  as  a  myessential  part  of  the  training 
comprehended  in  this  branch  of  instruction.  The 
use  of  a  telescope,  of  at  least  moderate  power, 
is  also  a  valuable  means  of  augmenting  both  the 
interest  and  in  ton  nation  of  the  student,  especially 
in  connection  with  the  study  of  uranography, 
which  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  useful  as  well 
as  entertaining  departments  of  astronomical 
science.  In  this  part  of  the  study,  a  good  plani- 
sphere will  prove  a  valuable  adjunct. 

The  religious  aspects  of  the  study  should  not 
be  lost  sight  of  in  giving  this  instruction.  The 
student  should  be  constantly  reminded  that,  in 
studying  the  phenomena  and  laws  of  the  material 
universe,  he  is  contemplating  the  works  of  an 
infinitely  wise  and  beneficent  Creator,  who  has 
wonderfully  endowed  us  with  faculties  to  behold 
the  splendor  of  his  works,  and.  in  some  degree, to 
conceive  of  their  vastness.     Says  a  distinguished 

German  educator:  "Astr my  is.  more  than 

.■iu\  other  science,  valuable  as  a  study  for  youth. 
None  will   seize  so  strongly  and   fully  upon    the 

youthful  mind.  It  hardens  the  body, sharpens 
the  senses,  practices  the  memory, nourishes  the 
fancy  witli  the  noblest  images,  develops  the 
power  of  thinking,  destroys  all  narrow-minded- 
and  lays  an  immovable  foundation  for  faith 
in  ( Sod." 

ATHENETJM,  or  Athenaeum  ((Jr. 
vaiov, a  building  dedicated  to  Athena,  or  Minerva, 
t'i  ■  tutelary  goddess  of  Athens.. was  the  name  ap- 
plied to  a  temple  at  Athens,  in  which  poets  and 
scholars  used  to  meet  ami  read  their  productions. 
At  Komi',  a  celebrated  institution  of  the  same 
mi  o  ■  v.,;-  founded  by  the  emperor  Hadrian,  on 


his  return  from  the  east,  about  133  A.  D.  It 
existed  until  the  5th  century,  and  also  served  as 
a  school  in  which  teachers,  specially  appointed 
for  the  purpose,  gave  instruction  in  poetry  and 
rhetoric.  In  modern  times,  this  name  is  frequent- 
ly used  to  denote  a  scientific  association  or  the 
building  in  which  such  an  association  meets.  In 
Belgium  and  Holland,  it  is  used  to  designate 
a  school  of  a  higher  grade,  ranking  next  to  the 
university.     (See  Belgium,  and  Netherlands.) 

ATHENS,  the  capital  of  ancient  Attica,  one 
of  the  political  divisions  into  which  Hellas  proper 
was  divided,  is  famous  as  the  city  in  which  Greek 
science  and  education  attained  the  highest  degree 
of  perfection.  The  educational  laws  of  Athens 
constitute  a  part  of  the  legislation  of  Solon.  (See 
Solon.)  They  are.  in  some  respects,  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  principles  which  regulated 
public  education  at  Sparta.  (See  Si-arta.)  While 
the  Spartans  almost  exclusively  aimed  at  develop- 
ing the  highest  perfection  of  the  body. at  Athens 
a  cultivated  mind  was  regarded  as  the  highest 
product  of  education.  All  the  Athenian  chil- 
dren, rich  and  poor,  had  to  attend  school  and 
to  learn  how  to  read  :  and  tardiness  in  attending 
school  as  well  as  truancy  was  punished  by  a  fine. 
Pupils  were  not  admitted  to  school  In  fore  their 
seventh,  nor  after  their  tenth  year  of  age.  Afb  i 
attending  school  for  several  years,  pool-  children 
were  required  to  be  employed  in  agriculture, 
commerce,  or  some  trade  :  while  the  children  of 
wealthy  parents  devoted  themselves  to  music, 
hunting, philosophy,  or  similar  occupations.  If  a 
father  neglected  to  have  his  son  instructed,  the 
son  was  not  bound  to  support  him  in  his  old 
age.  The  elementary  schools  had  at  first  one. 
subsequently  two  teachers. — the  grammatist,  who 
taught  reading  and  writing  (r<)  yp&MMTa),  and 
the  clitic,  who  read  the  classics  w  ith  the  children. 
explained  to  them  the  poets,  and  heard  them 
recite  poems.  Homer's  works  were  in  almost 
every  school;  and.it  is  said,  Alcibiades,  on  one 
occasion,  boxed  his  teacher's  ears  because  he  did 
not  find  a  copy  of  Homer  in  his  school.  The 
second  book   of  the  Iliad,  which  enumerates  the 

tribes  and  princes  who  followed  Agamemnon  to 
the  Trojan  war.  and  the  allies  of  the  Trojans. 
Supplied  tin'  outline  of  the  instruction  in  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  genealogy.  The  grammatist 
first  taught  the  children  the  alphabet,  the  forma- 
tion of  letters  into  words,  and  reading:  direct- 
ing them  to  pay  special  attention  to  long  and 
short  syllables,  to  correct  accentuation,  and  to 

euphonious  pronunciation.  '  When  they  had  ac- 
quired a  sufficient  knowledge  of  reading,  instruc- 
tion in  writing  began,  embracing  within  its  scope 
both  tachygraphy  (short-hand  writing)  and  cal- 
ligraphy. I  he  use  of  signs  for  abridgments  was 
known  to  the  Athenian  snort-hand  \\  rio  re.  The 
letters  were  drawn  by  a  s////i>s  (a  sharp-pointed 
iron  instrument  i  on  wax  tablets,  and  copied  by 

the  children.     The  use  of  ink  was  also   ki.ov  n. 

It  was  prepared  of  soot  and  gum.  ami  applii  I 
to  parchment,  linen, or  Egyptian  paper  (papyrus), 

by  means  of  a  brush  or  tube.  All  the  children 
were   required   to  learn   music  and  to    play   on 


ATLANTA  UNIVERSITY 


ATTENDANCE 


:.: 


the  lyre  or  cithara.     Many  learned  also  to  play 
on  the   flute.      The  instruction  in  music   was 
difficult, as  the  Greeks  usedavery  complicated 
system  of  notation.    Among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
however,  music  {jxovaiidj]  had  a  much  more  com- 
prehensive  signification,    embracing    grammar, 
rhetoric,  and  poetics.    The  school-house  {rn  616a- 
aKakelw)  had  benches  for  the  boys.anda  chair  or 
pulpit  (Ka&iSpa)  for  the  teacher.  The  teachers  of 
the  elementary  schools  enjoyed  but  little  repu- 
tation in  consequence  of   the  small  amount  of 
their  knowledge  and  their  severity  toward  their 
pupils.     The  chili  hen   of   affluent   parents  were 
educated   in  the   higher  branches  of  study,  as 
well  as  trained  by  regular  bodily  exercises  in  the 
gymnasia.    All  the  children  were  obliged  to  take 
part  in  the  gymnastic  exerfises,  in  order  that,  by  a 
proper  physical  development,  they  might  befitted 
for  their  duties  as  citizens,  both  in  peace  and  war. 
At  the  head  of  each  gymnasium,  was  thegymna- 
siareh.  who  was  elected  by  the  citizens  for  the  term 
of  one  year,  and  who  not  only  did  not  receive  any 
salary,  but  had  to  pay  for  the  oil  which  was  used 
for  the  anointment  of  the  pupils.     The  gymnasi- 
arehs  were  assisted   by  inspectors   who  had  to 
maintain  order,  discipline,  and  cleanliness.     The 
boys  were  required  to  attend  at  one  of  these  in- 
stitutions for  a.  term  of  two  years,  but  they  were 
allowed    to    make    their   own    selection.       They 
practiced  in  these  institutions  jumping,  running, 
climbing,  riding  on  horsebaek,  driving  chariots, 
wrestling,  throwing  javelins  and  quoits,  fencing, 
and  similar  exercises.  Special  attention  was  given 
to  swimming,  which  all   Athenian  boys  had  to 
learn.     Every  gymnasium  had  a  bath  which  was 
closed  at   sunset,   and   which   strangers,  during 
bathing   hours,   were  forbidden    to  enter  upon 
penalty  of  death.  The  private  tutor  (iratdayu-)  <>,  ) 
of  an  Athenian  family  was  generally  a   trust- 
worthy slave,  to  whose  care  children  were  com- 
mitted on  attaining  their  sixth  or  seventh  year. 
He  went  with  them  to  and  from  the  school  and 
gymnasium,  and  was  rather  their  custodian  than 
their  teacher.     The  latter  {Sidaamhig)  instructed 
them  in  grammar,  music,  and  other  branches  of 
learning.      The  education  of  girls  was  almost  ex- 
clusively left  to  their  mothers,  and  was  generally 
much  neglected.    ( trphan  children,  wdiose  parents 
had  fallen  in  battle,  were  carefully  educated  in 
the  public  institutions  at  the  expense  of  the  state. 
— See  Schmidt,  Geschichteder  Padagogik,v6L  i ; 
Wachsmuth,   HeUenische  AUerthumskun.de,  vol. 
ir.;  II.  I.  Schmidt,  History  of  Education  (N.  V.. 
1842);  Grote,  Hixton/  of  fV/wtv,  vol.  vm.  (N.  Y., 
1859). 

^  ATLANTA  UNIVERSITY,  at  Atlanta, 
'■a.,  was  organized  in  1869,  is  non-sectarian,  and 
offers  the  advantages  of  education  to  either  sex, 
without  regard  to  race,  color,  or  nationality. 
It  was  established  in  accordance  with  a  plan 
formed  early  in  the  history  of  the  work  of  the 
American  Missionary  Association  in  the  South, 
the  means  being  furnished  by  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau  and  the  state  of  Georgia,  as  well  as  by 
the  Association.  'Hie  value  of  its  grounds, 
buildings,  etc.,    is  estimated    at  $100,000  :  and 


by  a  law  passed  in  1*71,  it  receives  an  annual 
appropriation  of  $8000  from  the  State.  Its 
library  contains  about  3000  volumes.  In  IsTI. 
its  corps  of  instructors  numbered  II;  and  the 
whole  number  of  students  was  236:  in  the  pre- 
paratory department  46;  in  the  collegiate,  18; 
in  the  theological  class,  .'? ;  and  in  the  normal 
courses.  169.  The  normal  department  has  sup- 
plied a  large  number  of  teachers  for  the  schools 
of  the  State.  The  president  of  the  institution 
is  Edmund  A.  Ware,  A.  M.  Its  annual  tuition 
fee  is  82  I  ;  but  all  pupils  are  required  to  work 
for  the  institution  at  least  one  hour  a  day. 

ATLAS  is  the  name  applied  to  a  collection  of 
maps,  first  thus  used  by  Mercator  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  figure  of  Atlas,  bearing  the  globe 
on  his  shoulders,  being  on  the  title-page  of  his 
book  of  maps.  Atlas,  in  theancient  mythology, 
was  one  of  the  Titans,  who  for  the  crime  of  at- 
tempting to  take  heaven  by  storm  was  compelled 
to  bear  the  vault  of  the  heavens.  Some  suppose 
that  by  this  myth  is  communicated  the  fact  that 
a  certain  king,  named  Atlas,  labored  to  solve  the 
astronomical  problem  of  the  starry  universe.  The 
first  important  atlas  published  in  this  country 
was  that  of  Jedidiah  Morse  in  1775.  Vast  num- 
bers of  this  work  were  issued;  and  Blackwood's 
Magazine  remarked,  that,  it  had  quite  superseded 
all  other  works  of  the  kind  in  this  part  of  the 
world.  Many  new  editions  of  the  work  were 
subsequently  published.  That  of  Sidney  E. 
Morse  in  1823  was  widely  noted  :  and  of  this  an 
edition  with  cerographic  maps  afterward  had  a. 
very  extensive  sale  down  to  comparatively  recent 
times.  Among  the  most  important  and  valuable 
atlases,  apart  from  school  geographies,  at  the 
present  time,  may  be  mentioned  Stieler's  Hand- 
Atlas,  issued  from  Justus  Perthes's  world- 
renowned  cartographical  establishment  at  Gotha, 
under  the  editorial  supervision  of  A.  Petermann 
(completed  in  187")).  These  maps  are  noted  for 
their  minute  accuracy.  Macks  and  Johnston's 
Atlases,  published  in  England,  are  of  great  merit 
and  value.  Von  Spruner's  Historico-Geograph- 
ical  Atlas, and  .Menkes  OrbisAntiqui  Descriplio, 
also  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  Among  astronom- 
ical atlases,  those  of  R.  A.  Procter  are  the  most 
elaborate  and  correct. 

ATTENDANCE,  School.  This  is  an  im- 
portant subject  of  consideration  in  estimating  the 
effectiveness  of  any  system  of  public  education, 
as  showing  what  proportion  of  the  community 
participates  in  its  benefits.  Educational  statistics 
are  too  imperfect  and  too  deficient  in  uniformity 
to  render  any  comparison  of  different  states  and 
countries  in  this  respect  entirely  reliable.  Thi 
average    attendance,    accurately   computed,    as 

compared  with  the  entire  scl I    population,  Can 

alone  show  in  what  degree  the  people  ot '  an\  state 
or  country  participate  in  the  advantages  of  the 
education  provided  by  the  government,  and.  con- 
sequently, the  need  of  measures  designed  to  in- 
duce or  enforce  school  attendance.  'I  lie  annual 
average  attendance  is  usually  found  by  addi 
together  the  whole  number  of  pupils  present 
each  session  during  the  year,  and  dividing  the 


58 


ATTENDANCE 


sum  by  the  number  of  sessions.  Of  course,  this 
does  not  afford  an  accurate  basis  for  comparison 
where  the  schools  are  kept  open  during  different 
periods  of  the  year;  since  a  school  which  has 
been  kept  open  all  the  year  would,  with  the  same 
number  of  pupils,  show  no  larger  average  attend- 
ance than  one  kept  open  only  one  half  the  year. 
To  rectify  this,  the  aggregate  number  of  pupils 
in  attendance  at  all  the  sessions  is  often  divided 
by  a  fixed  number,  without  regard  to  the  actual 
number  of  sessions.  This  method  is  sometimes 
legally  enjoined  for  the  purpose  of  an  equitable 
distribution  of  the  school  moneys.  Obviously, 
both  tin' actual  average  and  statute  average  are 
needed  to  ascertain  the  true  effectiveness  of  a 
system  of  schools.  The  average  attendance  com- 
pared with  tin'  " average  number  belonging"  is 
useful  as  showing  the  temporary  regularity  or 
irregularity  of  attendance,  arising  from  various 
local  or  incidental  causes.  (Sec  Absenteeism.) 
It  is  generally  conceded  thai  in  the  United  States 
— .particularly  in  the  Northern  and  Western 
States  -  there  arc  but  few  native  children  who 
do  not  attend  school  some  portion  of  the  year, 
or  who  have  never  attended  any  school  during 
their  lives,  li  is  chiefly  among  the  foreign  pop- 
ulation, that  the  opportunities  for  school  attend- 
ance are  neglected. 


Table  of  School  Attendance. 


State 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut  . . . . 

Delaware 

Florida 

<»eorgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

toira 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts  . 

M  ichigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

.W\ ada  

New  Hampshire. 

Ww  Jersey 

New  Fork 

North  Carolina. . 

Ohio 

Oregon  

Pennsj  U  ania. . .  . 
Rhode  Island 
Smith  Carolina  .  . 

Tennessee 

Texaa  

Vermont 

Virginia 

(  ii  ■  inia . . . 
Wisconsin 


Per  cent  of 

enrollment 

on  school 

pop. 


35.8 
? 

7:i.'.i 
86.3 
39.3 
31.7 
30.9 
To.;, 
7-1. <; 
72.1 
63.1 

9 

26.5 
64.4 

4  ).2 
100 
74.9 
G1.3 
G3.8 
52.6 
i,.-,.:; 
76,3 
!»J.5 
62.fi 
65.4 

42.1 

71.8 

50.6 

7ILS 

89.7 
43.7 
60.2 
51.6 
87.3 
39.8 
62.4 
61.1 


Per  cent  of 

attendance 

on  school 

pop. 


27.1 
16.9 
44.3 
48.2 

9 

23.7 

l!i.3 
40.8 
47.» 
44.8 
39.9 
26.8 
15.9 
49.0 
23.6 
71. S 
38.8 

f 
31.4 
29.8 
64.1 
16.8 
64.3 
32.3 
112. 3 
28.1 
13.5 
37.1 
45.3 
65.8 

? 

37.5 
38.6 
55.9 
22.fi 
38.7 
39.8 


Per  cent 
of  atten- 
dance on 
enroll- 
ment. 

75.6 

9 

60.0 

55.8 

? 

7l.!i 
62. 1 
57. s 
C3.7 
G2.2 
57.1 

9 

fill.  2 
89.8 
48.6 

70.7 

51.7 

v 

£9.2 

56.7 
98.2 
59.9 
68.3 
5  1  .fi 
49.8 
66.6 
60.8 
73.3 
63.9 
61.9 

9 

62.3 

74.8 
64.0 
5(1.7 
63.0 
65.1 


The  above  table  is  chiefly  based  on  returns 
made  to  the  Bureau  of  Education  at  Washing- 


ton (see  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education 

for  1874),  and  obviously  shows,  except  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, great  irregularity  of  attendance,  as 
compared  with  the  census  enumeration  of  child- 
ren of  legal  school  age.  The  variations  in  the 
latter  in  the  several  States  must  lie  taken  into 
account  in  the  consideration  of  these  compara- 
tive statistical  facts.     (See  School  Age.) 

In  Delaware.  Iowa,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  Mis-} 
sissippi.  Missouri,  Nebraska.  New  York,  and 
West  Virginia,  the  school  age  is  the  same — 5  to 
21  ;  in  Florida.  Illinois,  Indiana.  Louisiana. 
North  Carolina.  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  Wis- 
consin, it  is  from  (i  to  21 ;  in  Georgia,  Nevada, 
Tennessee,  and  Texas,  it  is  from  (i  to  18;  in 
California..")  to  IT;  Connecticut, 4  to  16;  and 
in  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  5  to  1.5. 
The  exccs<  (if  attendance  over  the  enumeration 

in  Massachusetts,  indicates  that  pupils  are  per- 
mitted to  attend  School  who  have  not  as  vet 
reached,  or  who  have  passed,  the  legal  school  age. 

The  percentage  of  population  between  the  ages 

of  5  and  L5  enrolled  in  the  scl Is  in  1872—3 

was.  in  Alabama,  38;  Delaware,  59 :  Florida. 
-12:  Maine,  90;    Maryland,  67;  Mississippi,  70  ; 

Missouri.  88;  North  Carolina,  :">1  :  South  Caro- 
lina, -fti ;  Rhode  Island.  91;  Tennessee,  50; 
Texas,  56;   Virginia,  51  ;  West  Virginia,  67. 

In  England  and  Wales,  the  average  attendance 
at  the  public  schools,  in  L873,  was  about  28  per 
cent  of  the  population  of  school  age  (between 
3  and  13);  and  about  69  per  cent  of  the  total 
enrollment ;  and,  consequently,  the  enrollment 
was  about  -11  per  cent  of  the  school  population. 
Under  the  compulsory  education  act  in  force  in 
that  country,  the  school  attendance  had  con- 
siderably increased.  (See  England.)  A  careful 
comparison  of  the  census  returns  of  different 
countries  shows  that,  on  the  average,  tin'  children 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  12  constitute  about 
17  per  cent  of  the  entire  population.  Comparing 
this  rate  with  the  following  percentages  of  school 
attendance  as  compared  with  population,  we  may 
ascertain  approximative^  the  relative  rate  of 
attendance  in  each  country.  In  Saxony  the 
school  attendance  is  about  20  per  cent  ;  in  Prus- 
sia, I  .">  per  cent;  in  Norway,  I  I  per  cent;  in 
the  Netherlands,  13J  per  cent;  in  Denmark,  13 
percent;  in  Scotland  and  Protestant  Switzer- 
land. 11  per  cent;  in  Belgium,  11  percent;  in 
Austria,  in  percent :  in  England, 9  per  cent;  in 
belaud  ami  Catholic  Switzerland,  7  percent; 
in  Frame,  5  per  cent;  in  Portugal,  lj  per 
cent  :  in  Italy,  l  percent  ;  in  Greece, as]  to  118; 
in  Spain,  as  I  to  1  7d;  ami  in  Russia,  as  I  to  700. 

Mr.  Framis  Adams,  in  his  work  on  the  Free 
s< ■//nil/  Systi  'in  of  Ho' I  Tn  iti •< I  Sh  it<  's  (London,  187 5 ) . 
remarks,  in  connection  with  a  comparison  of  the 
school  attendance  in  this  country  v  ith  that  of  Eng- 
land :  "While  in  England  we  have  a  more  select 
enrollment,  and.  consequently,  a  more  regular  at- 
tendance   than    in    many    Of    the    States.         some 

of   them  the  principal  Northern   ami   Western 

Slates     yet,  so  far  as  concerns  our  hold  upon  the 
great  mass  of  the  population,  we  stand  only  on  a 

level  with  some  of  the  most  backward  of  the  old 


ATTENDANCE 


ATTENTION 


f)9 


slave  states.  T  do  not  forget  that  our  average 
attendance  is  estimated  upon  a  longer  school  year 

than  that  in  most  of  the  states,  hut  against  this 
fact  may  be  set  the  later  sehool  age  in  the  United 
States;  and  where  allowance  is  made  tor  every 
difference  which  would  tell  in  our  favor,  there 
*an  he  hut  one  conclusion — that,  in  the  work  of 
getting   the   masses   into  school,  we   are  still    far 

behind  a  country  in  which  absenteeism  and  irreg- 
ularity of  attendance  are  admitted. on  all  hands, 
to   he   the   most    crying  evils  under   which    their 

-in  labors." 
There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  school 
attendance  in  cities  and  in  rural  districts,  greatly 
in  favor  of  the  former,  owing  to  the  difference  in 

circumstances.  In  summer,  the  children  in  the 
country  are  kept  from  school  to  assist  in  the 
rural   labors  of  their   homes;  and   in   the  winter 

they  are  often  prevented  from  attending  school 
by  t'n  ■  long  distance,  which  they  have  to  travel, 
frequently  over  bad  roads,  in  order  to  reach  the 
sch  ii  il.  The  following  exhibits  the  attendance  in 
some  of  the  large  cities  of  the  Union  : 


City 


Baltimore  . . . . 

Boston 

Brooklyn 

Chicago 

Cincinnati  . . . . 
Cleveland  . . . . 

Detroit 

Jersey  city  . . . 

Newark 

New  York. . . . 
Philadelphia.. 

St.  Louis 

San  Francisco. 


Per  cent  of 
attendance 
on  populat. 


Per  cent  of 
attendance 

mi  whole 


Per  cent  of 
attendance 
on  average 


< .  i 
12.2 
8.3 
8.1 
7.2 
8.9 
8.5 
9.3 
7.8 
10.9 
9.7 

;>.4 
9.6 


enrollment     enroUm't. 


55.0 

T.i.l 

.VI.  I 

67.2 

74.5 
63.6 

6G.3 
50.9 
52.5 
i;:i.u 
68.4 
67.4 
61.9 


so. 
:i2.;. 

88.7 
94  2 
95.4 
93.5 

88.9 

S'.I.O 

915.4 
8ti.2 
'X',A 
76.6 


The  only  thoroughly  reliable  basis  for  a  com- 
parison of  the  school  attendance  of  different 
places  is  either  the  whole  population  or  the 
school  population  between  certain  ages.  The 
enrollment  is  not  to  be  depended  upon,  because 
it  is  not  kept  the  same  way  in  different  places. 
In  some,  it  is  greatly  increased  by  including  all 
the  children  enrolled  in  any  of  the  schools  during 
the  year,  many  pupils  being  thus  counted  several 
times. 

The  following  table  will  permit  a  comparison 
between  the  American  and  English  cities  in  re- 
spect to  school  attendance  : 


City 

Kate  of 

Number 

Per  cent  of 

enrollment 

enrolled 

attendance 

Liverpool. .  . 

Fcl..  Wo 

57,698 

66.6 

Leeds  

Feb.  i^7o 

44,498 

61.8 

Bristol 

Fell.   1^7o 

25,182 

70.7 

Newcastle  | 
on  Tyne    ( 

Jan.  1875 

17,444 

69.6 

Birmingham 

June  1875 

61,334 

67.6 

Manchester.. 

Feb.  H7o 

18,275 

67.1 

It  will  he  thus  seen  t  hat  the  average  attendance, 
as  compared  with  the  number  enrolled,  is  better 
in  this  country  than  in  England. 

In  estimating  the  efficiency  of  school  systems, 
the  period  of  attendance  is  a  very  important  ele- 
ment to  be  considered.  (See  School  Age,  and 
B(  HOOL  Vk.vr.) 


ATTENTION  (from  the  Latin  tendere,  to 
strain,  implying  a  strained  effort  of  the  mind)  is 
perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  mind's  activi- 
ties, since  the  quality  and  duration  of  the  intel- 
lectual impressions  depend  upon  the  degree  of  at- 
tention with  which  the  faculties  have  been  exerted 

iii  acquiring  them.  There  is  no  point  of  difference 
between  the  trained  and  the  untrained  intellect  so 
Striking  as  the  voluntary  power  of  fixing  the  mind 

for  a  continuous  period  of  time  upon  any  given 

subject.  Hence,  to  discipline  this  power  becomes, 
in  an  especial  manner,  the  ollice  and  duty  of  the 
educator.     Commencing  with  the  most  rudimen- 

tal  exercise  of  the  observing   faculties,  he  passes 

on,  step  by  step, to  the  process  by  which, through 
the  entire  and  determined  giving  up.  as  it  were, 
of  the  whole  mind  to  the  contemplation  and  study 
of  any  given  class  of  facts  or  ideas,  the  student 
learns  to  evolve  new  truths,  or  analytically  to  ex- 
plain the  intricacies  of  abstruse  problems.  When 
the  attention  has  become  obedient  to  the  will, 
this  branch  of  mental  training  is  complete  ;  and, 
therefore,  the  aim  of  the  educator  should  lie  to 
instill  habits  of  controlling  the  attention,  and 
rigidly  preventing  those  of  desultory,  wayward 
application,  or  listlessness.  This  power  of  con- 
tinuous attention  is,  without  doubt,  the  most 
valuable  result  of  intellectual  training.  To  pro- 
duce this  result,  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to 
interest  the  pupils,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  instruction.  Young  minds  have  an  intense 
desire  to  know — not  words  merely,  but  things. 
They  have  a  strong  craving  for  new  ideas,  and 
take  the  deepest  enjoyment  in  the  exercise  of  the 
perceptive  and  conceptive  faculties.  Hence  the 
importance  of  object-teaching.  The  perceptive 
faculties  are  exercised  in  the  observation  of  the 
sensible  qualities  of  all  the  different  things  with 
which  the  child  is  surrounded,  or  which  may  be 
presented  to  its  view  by  the  teacher,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  attracting  its  attention;  and  these  objects 
should  be  diversified  as  much  as  possible,  so  as  to 
appeal  to  the  child's  love  of  novelty. 

The  attention  should  not  lie  exercised  for 
Ion-'  periods  of  time.  When  the  teacher  per- 
ceives that  it  is  Sagging,  it  is  best  to  stop  the 
exercise;  for  all  that  is  done  while  the  child's 
attention  is  relaxed,  is  worse  than  fruitless. 
It  is  from  an  inattention  to  this  truth  that 
children  are  often  made  incurably  listless  in 
school.  They  are  set  at  exereises  which  awaken 
no  interest  in  their  minds,  and.  consequently,  ac- 
quire ineradicable  habits  of  superficial,  careless 
attention.  In  all  the  subsequent  studies  of  the 
pupil, it  is  essential  that  his  interest  be  awakened 
as  much  as  possible;  but  it  will  he  found  there 
is  a  reciprocal  action  of  interest  and  attention. 
The  pupil  having  acquired  in  the  first  stages,  in 
some  degree,  the  hain't  of  voluntary  attention, 
will,  as  a  matter  of  duty,  apply  his  mind  to  the 
studies  prescribed  for  him;  and  this  very  appli- 
cation, if  earnest  and  diligent,  will  soon  excite 
the  deepest  interest  in  the  subjects  of  study. 

'I  he  dependence   of   memory  upon  attention  is 

well  known  to  all  who  have  observed,  however 

Superficially,  the  operations  of  the  mind;  and  the 


GO 


A  D  G  USTANA  COLLEGE 


AUGUSTINE 


power  to  recall  at  will  our  mental  impressions 
and  acquisitions  is  perhaps  directly  in  proportion 
to  the  attention  with  which  the  associations  bind- 
ing them  together  were  formed.  When  these 
are  feeble,  loose,  accidental,  and  formed  with 
little  volition,  the  mind  will  have  but  an  imper- 
fect control  of  its  thoughts,  and  will  thus  be 
wanting  in  the  chief  quality  of  a  sound  intel- 
lectual character. 

Attention  requires  a  vigorous  exercise  of  the 
brain,  and,  therefore,  is,  more  or  less,  dependent 
upon  the  physical  condition.  When  this  has 
been  exhausted  by  labor,  either  bodily  or  men- 
tal, or  weakened  by  disease,  attention  is  scarcely 
possible;  and  the  effort  to  give  it  is  injurious, 
because  it  induces  still  farther  nervous  pros- 
tration. Neither  should  deep  attention  be 
exerted  or  attempted  immediately  after  a  hearty 
meal.  The  nervous  energy  is  then  directed  to  the 
digestive  functions,  which  active  cerebration  will 
greatly  disturb.  Hence,  the  diet  of  a  studenl 
should  be  light,  lntt  nutritious.  The  brain  should 
also  be  supplied  with  thoroughly  oxygenated 
blood.  No  one  can  think  well  iii  an  impure  at- 
mosphere, especially  if  it  is  contaminated  by  the 
breathing  of  many  persons.  In  this  way.  children 
often  suffer  a  serious  loss  of  health.  They  are 
crowded  in  apartments  too  small  for  the  number 
to  be  accommodated,  and  very  imperfectly  ven- 
tilated ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  are  expected  to 
give  close  and  earnest  attention  to  the  subjects 
of  instruction.  This  is  a  physical  impos- 
sibility, and  the  attempt  to  do  it  must  always 
be  followed  l»y  disastrous  results.  In  no  re- 
spect has  the  aphorism.  "  A  sound  mind 
in  a  sound  body"  a  more  forcible  application 
than  to  the  exercise  of  attention.  For  whal 
contrast  can  be  stronger  than  that  presented  by 
the  poor  wretch  whom  disease  has  berefl  of  every 
mental  state  but  wandering  thoughts  or  absolute 
vacuity,  and  the  man  of  sound  health  and  a  well- 
trained  mind,  who  is  ready  at  will  to  concentrate 
all  his  intellectual  energies  upon  a  given  subject, 
and  to  keep  them  steadily  fixed  upon  it  until  the 
object  of  his  investigations  his  been  attained! 
i  See  Intellectual  Fine  mow.) 

AUGUSTANA  COLLEGE  was  founded  at 
I'axton,  III.,  in  L863,  by  the  Swedish  AugUStana 
Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church.      It 

was  removed  to  Rock  Island.  111.,  in  L875,  where 
it  has  buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  estimated 
at  $50,000  in  value.     It  has  a  library  of  7000 

volumes,  a  faculty  of  seven  professors  and  two 
tutors,  and  III!  si  lulents,  of  whom  92  are  in  the 
collegiate  department.    The  chief  object  of  this 

college  is  to  afford  to  young  men  a  thorough  edu- 
cation   at    the    lowest    possible    rates  ialmiit   $100 

per  annum  for  tuition,  board,  and  room),  and  also 
to  prepare  young  men  for  the  theological  seminary 
connected  with  it,  and  for  teaching  in  the  paro- 
chial schools  of  the  Swedish  Lutheran  congre- 
gations. The  Rev.  T.  V  Hasselquist,  D.D.,  is  the 

president.    |  L) 

AUGUSTINE,  Saint  flat.  Aurelius  An- 
gustinus),  a    celebrated    doctor  of    the    Latin 

church,   and    one   of    the    'greatest    of    Christian 


teachers  and  theologians,  was  horn  Xov.  13.,  '■',' A . 
at  Tagaste.  in  Numidia, the  modern  Algeria.  His 
father,  Patricias,  was  a  pagan;  his  mother.  .Mon- 
ica, a  fervid  christian.  He  was  sent  by  his 
father  to  the  famous  school  of  Madaura,  and 
after  the  death  of  his  father  continued  his  studies 
at  Carthage.  His  life  at  this  time  was  very  licen- 
tious ;  but  he  never  forgot  the  pious  instructions 
which  his  mother  hail  given  him.  nor  the  devo- 
tional exercises  to  which  she  had  accustomed  him. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  religious  systems  of  the  an- 
cient Greeks  and  Romans,  as  well  as  with  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  scriptures,  he  tried  to  find 
rest  for  his  mind  in  the  Manichean  system.  At 
Rome,  to  which  he  went  at  the  age  of  20,  he 
achieved  great  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  elo- 
quence. Six  months  later,  he  was  called  to  Milan 
as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  1  lis  intercourse  with  Saint 
Ambrose,  who  was  then  bishop  of  Milan,  and  the 
incessant  entreaties  of  his  mother,  shook  his  faith 
in  Manicheism,  and.  in  ,'fsT.  brought  about  his 
conversion  to  Christianity,  lie  became  at  once 
one  of  the  most  prominent  writers  of  the  Chris- 
tian church;  and  after  spending  three  years  in 
seclusion  at  his  birthplace  Tagaste,  he  was  obliged, 

in  compliance  with  the  demand  of  the  people  of 
the  neighboring  town  of   Bippo,  to  take  on 

so  that  he  might  assist  bishop  Valerius  in  his 
failing  age.      Alter  the  death  of  Valerius,  in  •'!»•">. 

he  was  elected  his  successor, and  continued  bishop 

of  Hippo  till  his  death,  in  430.  His  reputation 
as  a  theological   writer,  soon   tilled   the  entire 

church,  and  his  influence  upon  theological  doc- 
trine and  upon  the  theological  schools  of  the 
Christian  world  proved  to  he  greater  than  that 
of  any  one  who  had  preceded  him. 

The  most  famous  of  all  the  numerous  work.-  of 
Augustine,  the  Confessions,  has  also  a  great  edu- 
cational interest,  as  it  contains  the  reflections  of 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of  the 
Christian  church  on  his  own  education.  He 
demonstrates,  in    the   clearest   light,   the    strong 

and  imperishable  influence  of  maternal  education 
upon  the  whole  after  life  of  man  :  and  from  his 
touching  account  of  the  fierce  conflict  between 
the  highest  intellectual  and  philosophical  aspira- 
tions on  the  one  hand,  and  moral  weakness  on  the 
other,  many  prominent  teachers  have  professed 
to  have  learned  more  than  from  the  study  of 
many  theories  of  education. —  Augustine  followed 
Tertullian  in  advocating  a  rigid  exclusion  of 
pagan  authors  from  the  education  of  young 
Christians.  Especially  did  he  oppose  the  reading 
of    the  ••  impioUS  fahles  of  the  poets,  the   polished 

lies  of  the  rhetoricians,  and  the  verbose  Bubtleties 

of  the  philosophers;"  but  the  reading  of  the 
historians  he  did  not  absolutely  object  to.  This 
question  as  to  the  use  of  pagan  classics  in  Chris- 
tian schools  has  continued  in  he  a  lively  qpntro- 
versy  in   the  Christian   church:    and.  even  in  the 

nineteenth  century,  the  views  of  Tertullian  ami 

Augustine  have  found  many  defenders.  (See 
( /HRISTl  \n  ( 'i.  \ssics.) 

By  the  establishment  of  a  training  institution  for 

candidates  for  the  priesthood,  Augustine  laid  the 
foundation  of   episcopal  seminaries,   and   gave  a 


AUSTIN"  COLLECE 


AUSTRALASIAN    COLONIES        111 


powerful  impulse  to  the  diffusion  of  theological 
nee  among  the  clergy.  He  refused  to  ordain 
any  one  as  a  priest  who  had  not  been  edu- 
cated in  his  seminary.  A  number  of  his  pupils 
ablished  similar  institutions  in  their  dioceses; 
and.  when  the  church  of  North  Africa  vas  dev- 
astated by  the  incursions  of  the  Vandals,  the 
African  bishops  established  seminaries  in  many 
of  the  plaees  where  they  found  a  refuge.  — 
By  his  work  De  catechizandis  rudibus,  Augustine 
became  the  father  of  I  'hristian  catechetics.  The 
work  was  compiled  in  compliance  with  the  ap- 
plication of  a  deacon  of  Carthage,  by  the  name 
of  DeogratJas,  who  wished  to  have  a  guided  took 
for  the  instruction  of  the  catechumens.  In  this 
work,  Augustine  demands  for  the  instruction  of 
the  catechumens  a  historical  basis,  regarding  an 
outline  of  Bible  history  as  the  best  compendium 
of  the  knowledge  that  is  necessary  for  salvation. 
Of  the  other  writings  of  Augustine,  the  work  De 
musica,  a  dialogue  between  a  teacher  and  a 
scholar,  and  De  magistro,  which  treats  of  Christ- 
as  the  best  teach  t.  are  partly  of  an  educational 
character.  —  Sec  Schmidt,  Geschichte  der  Pada- 
gogik,  n,  59,  sq. ;  Bindemann,  Der  heil.  Augu- 
stinus,  (2  vols..  1S44 — 1855):  Poojoolat,  Vie  de 
SLAugustin;  Mosheim,  Ecclesiastical  History, 
vol.  i.;  The  works  of  St.  Augustine,  edited  by 
M.  Dons  (London,  i  ST  (—(!).  Of  the  earlier 
editions  of  his  works,  that  by  the  Benedictines, 
in  11  vols.  (Paris.  1(579 — 1700)  is  considered  the 

AUSTIN  COLLEGE,  at  Huntsville,  Texas, 
was  founded  in   1849,  by   Presbyterians.      Its 

f  rounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus  are  valued  at 
G0,()00.  It  has  a  library  of  3000  volumes,  and 
a  preparatory  and  classical  department.  The 
number  of  students  is  about  90.  The  Rev.  S. 
M.  Luckett,  A.  M.,  is  the  president.  The  annual 
tuition  fee  is  from  $30  to  .§50. 

AUSTRALASIAN  COLONIES.  This 
name  is  now  commonly  vtsed  to  designate  the 
English  colonies  on  the  continent  of  Australia,  as 
well  as  the  neighboring  islands  of  Tasmania  and 
New  Zealand.  The  following  exhibits  the  area 
and  population  of  each  of  these  colonies  : 

New  South  Wales  .  308,560  sq.  m.  584.278  inhab. 

Victoria 88,4.r)l  "  807,756  " 

South  Australia  ...  380,602  "  204,883  " 

Queensland 668,259  "  160,000  " 

West  Australia !i7.">,s24  "  26,209  " 

Northern  Territorv  526,531  "  200  " 

Tasmania ". .  26,215  "  105,000  " 

NcwZ-aland 106,259  "  2!)!),500  " 

Total 3,077,701  sq.  m.  2,187,826  inhab. 

Natives   J  Australia  55,000      " 

natives    [NewZealand  45500      «. 

Grand  Total .2,288,326  inhab. 

The  progress  of  most  of  these  colonies,  especial- 
ly that  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South 
Australia,  has  been  very  rapid;  and  it  maybe 
ly  inferred  from  their  vast  resources,  as  well 
as  from  their  rapid  progress  in  the  past,  that 
these  colonies  will,  ere  long,  hold  a  prominent 
place  among  the  civilized  countries  of  the  world. 
Their  national  language  is  the  English.  There  is 
no  state  church  as  in  England,  but  the  Episco- 


palians form  the  dominant  body  as  regards  num- 
ber. Next  to  these  are  the  Roman  Catholics, 
who  constitute  about  25  per  cent  of  the  total 
population.  The  Methodists  rank  third.  All 
other  denominations  are  well  represented. 

As  the  colonies  are  independent  of  each  other, 
each  has  its  own  educational  system,  which,  how- 
ever, in  all  the  colonies  is  more  or  less  assimi- 
lated to  the  educational  law  of  England  or  the 
national  system  of  Ireland.  At  the  head  of  the 
system,  is  a  board  or  council  of  education,  con- 
sisting of  members  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ment. The  government  establishes  schools  to  be 
entirely  supported  and  controlled  by  the  state.  bu1 

also  grants  aid  to  schools  established  by  other 
parties,  in  case  they  submit  to  certain  regula- 
tions. In  several  of  the  colonies,  education  has 
been  made  compulsory.  With  regard  to  grade, 
the  schools  consist  of  primary  schools,  grammar 
schools,  colleges,  and  universities.  Of  the  latter. 
two  have  been  in  operation  for  some  time, — 
those  at  Sydney  and  Melbourne,  the  former  in 
1874  with  45  students,  the  latter  with  L22.  A 
third  university  was  more  recently  established  at 
Dunedin,  New  Zealand,  and  a  fourth,  in  L875,  at 
Adelaide.  A  monthly  periodical,  devoted  to 
education,  is  published  in  Sydney. 

The  Australian  Handbook  and  Almanac  for 
1876  gives  the  following  educational  facts  and 
statistics  for  the  several  countries : 

New  South  71  'ales. — The  number  of  schools  is 
returned  at  1 508,with  2,334  teachers  of  both  sexes, 
and  110,287  scholars, of  whom  57,917  are  boys.and 
52.370  girls.  Under  the  council  of  education, 
there  were  942  schools,  employing  >s77  male  and 
512  female  teachers,  with  92,303  scholars  of  both 
sexes.  These  schools  are  particularized  as  public 
schools,  provisional  schools,  and  half-time  schools. 
The  denominational  schools  under  the  board  num- 
ber 209,  of  which  90  belong  to  the  church  of 
England,  87  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  15  to  the 
Presbyterians,  10  to  the  Wesleyans,  and  1  to  the 
Jews.  There  are  also  under  the  control  of  the 
board  2  orphan  and  3  industrial  schools.  The 
private  schools  of  the  colony  numbor  555,  of 
which  55  are  for  boys.  87  for  girls,  and  1 1 3  mixed. 
St.  Paul's  College  had  12  students.  St.  John's 
College  1,  the  Grammar  School  293,  the  Heal' 
and  Dumb  Institution  53.  Toward  the  support 
of  these  educational  institutions,  the  sunt  of 
£154,220  was  contributed  by  the  government, 
and  L'i;7..'177  was  received  in  shape  of  fees  and 
voluntary  contributions.  The  number  of  sundaj 
schools  was  1.023,  with  an  average  attendance  of 
51 ,478,  and  6,497  teachers. 

Victoria.  -Of  day  schools,  including  state 
schools,  private  educational  establishments,  col- 
leges,  and  grammar  schools,   there  were.   March, 

:;i..  1st::,  1936,  with  an  attendance  of  160,743 
scholars  and  4,257  teachers.  The  common  &  ho 
numbered  L.048,  with  2,416  teachers.  73,826  boyB, 
and  62.136  girls.  The  local  receipts  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  schools,  arising  from  fees  and 
other  sources,  were  £117,868,  this  amount  being 
supplemented  by  a  government  grant  of  £182,202, 
making  a  total  of  £300,070.  The  private  schools 


62 


AUSTRALASIAN  COLONIES 


AUSTRIA 


numbered  881,  with  11,024  male  and  13,595 
female  scholars,  and  528  male  and  1236  female 
teachers.  The  number  of  grammar  schools  and 
colleges  was  7,  of  which  2  were  Episcopalian,  3 
Presbyterian.  1  Methodist, and  1  Roman  Catholic. 
The  total  number  of  masters  in  these  colleges 
and  grammar  schools  was  77,  the  total  number 
of  students  1,162.  Under  the  new  educational 
act,  the  instruction  in  the  state  schools  is  free, 
secular,  and  compulsory.  The  governing  power 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  minister  of  education,  assis- 
ted by  a  .secretary.  Each  school  is  under  period- 
ical inspection.  The  teachers  are  required  to  pass 
an  examination,  and  are  paid  by  fixed  salaries;  hut 
they  also  receive  the  fees  of  the  scholars,  and  have 
a  further  allowance  according  to  the  progress 
made  by  the  scholars  under  their  charge.  The 
number  of  Sunday-schools  was  1,381;  Episcopa- 
lian 262,  Presbyterian  308,  Wesleyan  324,  Prim- 
itive .Methodist  73,  (  ongregationalist  54,  Bap- 
tist 5!).  Roman  Catholic  171;  with  111,540  schol- 
ars and  11, si  5  teachers. 

Son///  Australia.  —  The  central  board  of 
Education  consists  of  7  members ;  the  officers 
are  3  inspectors  and  a  secretary.  The  number 
of  licensed  schools  open  at  the  close  of  1874  was 
320,  with  17,42G  enrolled  pupils,  and  315 
teachers. 

West  Australia.  —  The  legislative  council  in 
1870  passed  an  education  act,  based  upon  the 
principle  of  Poster's  act,  now  in  operation  in 
England.  Schools  are  divided  into  elementary 
and  assisted  schools.  The  former  are  maintained 
wholly  at  the  cost  of  the  colony,  the  latter  are 
private,  hut  may  receive-  a  capitation  grant  on 
submitting  to  government  inspection  for  secular 
results,  and  to  the  observance  of  a  strict  conscience 
clause  during  the  four  hours  of  secular  instruc- 
tion enjoined  by  the  Act.  The  elementary  schools 
are  under  the  control  and  supervision  of  a  central 
board  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  the  local 
district  boards  elected  by  the  electors.  Attendance 
at  school  may  be  enforced  by  the  local  boards. 
In  the  elementary  schools,  one  hour  a  day  is  de- 
voted, under  the  provisions  of  a  conscience  clause, 
to  reading  the  Bible  or  other  religious  books 
approved  by  the   hoard;    but  no  catechism  or 

religious  formulary  of  any  kind  can  lie  used  ;  and 
tin  Bible  must  he  read,  if  at  all.  without  note 
or  comment.  In  L874,  the  number  of  national 
and  assisted  schools  was  85,  with  an  average 
attendance  of  over  3,000.  There  is  a  Church  of 
England  collegiate  school  in  Perth,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  bishop. 

Qi  ensland.  -  Education  is  free.  The  prop- 
erty of  the  schools,  and  the  laud  granted  for 
school  purposes,  are  vested  in  a  board  of  educa- 
tion. Aid  is  granted  to  schools  not  established 
l'\  the  board,  on  complying  with  certain  regula- 
tions.   The  state  also  assists  in  the  establishment 

of  grammar  schools,  whenever  a  district    raises  a 

.sum  lor  this  purpose  by  subscription.  In  1*71. 
there  were  203  i ni 1 1 i;i t n  schools,  with  590  teach- 
ers,  and    29,012    scholars.      There    were   also    62 

private  schools,  with  lis  teachers  and  2,123 
scholars.    The  parliamentary  appropriation  for 


educational  purposes  in  1874  was  £72,000,  the 
local  subscriptions  were  £3,116.  The  property 
vested  in  the  board  was  valued  at  £83,358. 

Tasmania.  —  The  educational  system  is  under 
the  management  of  a  council,  and  the  attendance 
of  chili  hen  at  school  is  compulsory.  The  number 
of  schools  supported  by  the  government  was.  in 
1874,  147,  average  attendance  7,070,  scholars 
enrolled  1.2,158,  teachers  ins  male  and  116  female, 
besides  3!)  pupil  teachers  and  paid  monitors. 
There  are  four  schools  of  a  higher  grade.  The 
number  of  Sunday  schools  is  112,  with  1.112 
teachers  and  1  d.Oll  scholars. 

In  New  Zealand,  each  province  has  its  own 
laws  and  regulations.  To  both  national  and  de- 
nominational schools,  in  some  cases,  state  aid  is 
given  ;  in  others,  it  is  limited  to  national  schools. 
Dunedin  has  a  university.  In  1871,  out  of  chil- 
dren from  5  to  15  years  of  age,  59  in  every 
hundred  could  read  and  write,  and  72  were  at- 
tending school.  The  increase  in  attendance  from 
L872  to  ls7l  was  very  large.  The  number  of 
common  schools,  in  1874,  was  41)4.  of  colleges 
and  grammar  schools  4,  and  of  private  schools 
L82  ;  total  680,  having  an  attendance  of  41.(127 
scholars,  of  whom  21,774  were  males,  and  19.253 
females.  Of  the  entire  attendance.  33,790  be- 
longed to  the  common  schools:  498,  to  the  col- 
leges  and  grammar  schools:  and  (i.73!),  to  private 
schools.  Besides  these,  there  were  47  native 
schools,  with  (IS  teachers  and  1.214  scholars. 

AUSTRIA  (Germ.  Oesterreich  or  Oestreich, 

eastern  empire),  officially  designated  since  Isi'iN 
as  the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy,  has  an 
area  of  240,381  sip  in.,  and  a  population,  ac- 
cording to  the  last  census,  in  1869,01  35,904,435. 
The  empire  now  consists  of  two  main  divisions; 
Austria  proper  and  Hungary,  each  of  which  has 
the  legislative  and  administrative  control  of  its 
own  educational  affaire.  In  this  article  we  shall 
treat  only  of  Austria  proper,  called  also  ('is- 
leithania,  because  the  small  river  I.eitha  con- 
stitutes pari  of  the  frontier  between  it  and  Hun- 
gary.     For  thi'  rest,  see  BtJNGABY. 

Austria  proper,  or  Cisleiihania,  consists  of 
14  provinces  With  an  aggregate  area  of  115,925 
si p  in.,  am  1  a  population  numbering, according  to 

the  census  of    L869,  20,217,531,  and  estimated  at 

the  close  of  L874  at  21,169,341.  The  provinces 
formerly  wen'  either  independent,  or  belonged  to 
different  states,  and  they  still  are  inhabited  by 

people  of  various  nationalities.  An  official  cen- 
sus of  the  nationalities  has  not  been  taken  since 
1850;  hut  their  comparative  strength  is  well 
known,  and    the  estimates   made   by   writers  on 

this  subjeci  substantially  agree.  The  Germans 
number  about  7,109,000,  or  35,16  per  cent;  the 
(Vcchs  and  Slovacks,  1,719,000,  or  23,34  per 
cent  :  the  Poles.  2,444,000, or  1.2,09  per  cent  :  the 
Ruthenians,  2,585,000,  or  1.2,80  per  cent  ;    the 

Slovens     OT     Winds.     1,196,200,     or     5,92     per 

cent;  the  Croats  or  Serbs,  522,400,  or  2.5s  per 
cent  ;  the  Magyars,  17,700,  or  0,09 per cenl  :  the 
Italians,  588,000,  or  2,91  percent;  the  Rouma- 
nians, 2(>7. '.Mill,  or  1.(12  per  cent:  the  .lews. 
820,000,  or  1.05  per  cent.    Two  of  the  provinces, 


AUSTRIA 


63 


Upper  Austria  and  Salzburg,  are  wholly  Ger- 
man; besides,  the  Germans  bare  a  majority  in 
Lower  Austria  f 90  per  cent),  Carinthia  (69  per 
cent)',  the  Tyrol  (60 percent),  Styria  (63percen1 1, 
and  Silesia  (51  per  cent).  The  Czechs  control 
two  provinces,  Moravia  (71  per  cent)  and  Bohe- 
mia  (60  percent);  the  Slovens  (inc.  Carniola  (93 
percent);  and  the  Croats  or  Serbs  one.  Dalma- 
tia  (87  per  cent).  In  four  provinces,  no  one  na- 
tionality has  an  absolute  majority;  in  Galicia, 
the  Ruthenians  Dumber  44  per  cent,  and  the 
Poles  l'.!:  in  the  Bukovina,  the  Ruthenians  10, 
and  the  Roumanians  39;  in  the  Littorale,  the  Slo- 
vens 12,  the  Italians  31,  and  the  Croats  21. 

A  greater  harmony  than  in  regard  to  the 
nationality  of  the  inhabitants,  prevails  in  re- 
spect to  their  religion.  The  Roman  Catholics,  in 
1869,  constituted  91,92  per  cent  of  the  total 
population:  the  dews  4,06  per  cent,  the  ( h'tho- 
ilox  Creeks  '2:21,  the  Lutherans  1,22,  the  Re- 
formed 0,51,  all  others  0,02  per  cent.  Included 
in  the  number  of  Roman  Catholics  are  the 
United  Greeks  (11,53  per  cent)  and  the  United 
Armenians  (0,02  per  cent).  The  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  is  in  the  majority  in  every  province. 
except  the  Bukovina.  and  in  every  nationality, 
except  the  Roumanian. 

Until  the  government  of  Maria  Theresa,  public 
education  was  in  a  very  backward  state.  As  late 
as  1770,  thirty  years  after  the  accession  of  the 
empress  to  the  throne,  only  24  per  cent  of 
the  children  from  the  5th  to  the  13th  year  of 
age  attended  the  public  schools  of  Austria ;  in 
Lower  Austria,  only  1G  per  cent:  in  Silesia,  only 
4  per  cent.  The  large  majority  of  the  children, 
especially  in  the  country,  grew  up  without  any 
instruction.  The  first  impulse  to  the  thorough  or- 
ganization of  a  public  school  system  -was  given  by 
a  memorial  which  the  bishop  of  Passau,  Count 
Finnian. addressed  to  the  empress.  In  accordance 
with  his  suggestions,  the  council  of  state  proposed 
the  establishment  of  two  permanent  school  com- 
mittees for  the  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Austria  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  methods 
of  teaching  and  the  administration  of  the  schools. 
The  government  approved  the  plan,  and  the  first 
committee  was  established  May  19.,  1770.  One 
of  the  first  acts  of  the  committee  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  model  school  at  Vienna,  in  January, 
1771.  and  of  a  model  school  fund.  The  influence 
of  these  reforms  was  so  satisfactory,  that  the 
establishment  of  school  committees,  school  funds. 
and  model  schools  in  all  the  other  provinces, 
was  either  carried  into  effect,  or  at  least  begun. 
The  establishment  of  a  court  committee  on  stud- 
Studienhqfcomm ixxii >n  ).  February  12..  177  1. 
which  was  to  have  the  chief  control  of  all  the  edu- 
cational affairs  of  the  empire,  was  another  re- 
form of  gnat  importance.  In  December,  1774, 
the  first  comprehensive  school  law  was  published. 
It  provided  For  the  establishment,  in  connection 
with  every  parish  church,  of  a  common  {trivial) 
school,  in  which  religion.  Bible  history,  reading. 
writing,  and  the  elements  of  arithmetic,  should  be 
taught:  for  the  establishment  in  each  circle  of  at 
least   one  principal-school   (Hauptschule),    with 


three  or  four  teachers,  who  should  give  instruction 
in  the  Latin  language,  geography,  history,  com- 
position, drawing,  geometry,  and  the  elements  of 
agriculture ;  and  for  the  establishment,  at  the  seat 

Of  each  school  committee,  of  a  model  and  normal 

school,  \\  hieh.  besides  extending  the  course  of  in- 
struction pursued  in  the  principal-scl I.  was  also 

to  prepare  candidates  for  the  office  of  teacher.  At- 
tendance at  school  was  made  obligatory  after  the 
6th  year  of  age,  and  penalties  were  imposed  upon 
parents  and  guardians  who  should  fail  to  send 
their  children  to  school.  All  teachers  were  bound 
to  use  the  text-books  which  the  government 
caused  to  be  specially  prepared  for  the  Austrian 
schools.  The  school  law  was  chiefly  the  work  of 
Abbot  Felbiger.  who  in  connection  with  kinder- 
mann  and  other  distinguished  educators,  worked 
indef atigably  to  carry  into  effect  the  pro*  isiona  oi 
the  law.  The  emperor  Joseph  1 1,  regarded  the  dif- 
fusion of  education  a.s  the  soundest  basis  of  his 
reformatory,  schemes.  He  enforced  by  compul- 
sory" laws  the  education  of  all  children  from  6  to 
12  years  of  age  ;  and.  in  1  781 .  ordered  a  general 
school  census  to  be  taken.  The  patrons  of  the 
churches  were  required  to  provide  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  school  in  connection  with  every 
church  winch  was  without  one.  The  patent  of 
toleration  of  Oct.  13.,  1781,  gave  als<  >  ti  >  the  Prot- 
estants of  the  Augsburg  ami  Helvetic  confessions, 
and  to  the  non-united  Creeks,  the  right  to  estab- 
lish a  church  and  school  for  every  500  persons. 
The  Jews,  also,  were  at  first  authorized,  but  soon 
afterward  commanded,  to  establish  schools  for  the 
education  of  their  youth.  Great  prominence  was 
given,  even  in  provinces  not  I  ierman.to  the  teach- 
ing of  the  German  language,  the  knowledge  of 
which  was  an  indispensable  qualification  for  an 
appointment  to  any  state  office.  Instruction  in 
singing,  mechanical  work,  and  horticulture  was 
recommended.  Corporal  punishment  was  limited 
to  extreme  cases.  A  review  course  of  instruction 
I  WiederTiolungsunterricki)  was  to  be  provided 
on  Sundays  and  holidays  for  children  who  had 
finished  the  course  of  the  elementary  schools.  In 
the  capital  of  each  of  the  circles  into  which  the 
Austrian  provinces  were  divided,  school  commis- 
sioners were  appointed  to  superintend  the  public 
schools  in  common  with  the  deans.  During  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Leopold,  teachers'  associa- 
tions were  organized,  and  delegates  chosen  by 
these  associations  were  admitted  to  the  provincial 
boards  of  education.  A  revisory  committee  on 
studies  (Studienrevisionscommissicm  I, which  was 
formed  in  17'.».">.  under  the  emperor  Francis,  pre- 
pared a  new  constitution  tor  the  public  schools, 
which  was  published  in  1805,  and  formed  for  a 
long  time  the  legal  basis  for  public  education  in 
Austria.  The  influence  of  teachers  and  teach 
associations  on  the  government  of  the  schools  was 
greatly  restricted  ;  while, on  the  other  hand,  that 

of  the  Catholic  Church  was  greatly  extended, the 

inspection  and  superintendence  of  schools  being 
almost  wholly  transferred  to  the  parish  priests  ana 
the  bishop.  The  organization  of  the  review  course 
of  instruction,  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  Austrian 
system,  was  completed  in  1816  by  a  special  law. 


04 


AUSTRIA 


which  made  attendance  at  the  review  course  of 
instruction  compulsory  until  the  close  of  the 
1 5th  year  of  age  or  the  end  of  apprenticeship. 
In  1828,  the  government  began  to  publish  statis- 
tical accounts  of  the  progress  of  public  educa- 
tion, which,  as  appears  from  these  accounts,  con- 
tinued to  be  steady  in  all  the  provinces  of  the 
empire.  A  peculiar  feature  in  the  educational 
history  of  Austria,  at  that  time,  was  the  more 
general  introduction  of  the  vernacular  languages 
of  the  various  nationalities  into  the  public 
schools,  in  place  of  the  German,  which  thus  far 
had  been  too  predominantly  used  even  in  some 
districts  not  German.  Among  the  first  re- 
sults of  the  revolution  of  1848,  which  led 
to  the  abdication  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  1.. 
and  tlie  accession  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  I., 
was  the  establishment  of  a  ministry  of  public 
instruction,  which  in  the  same  year  published  an 
outline  of  the  proposed  re-organization  of  all  the 
Austrian  schools.  This  outline  established  several 
important  principles:  (1)  The  maintenance  of  a 
public  school  was  made  obligatory  for  the  com- 
munities; (2)  Instruction  was  every-where  to  be 
given  in  the  mother- tongue  of  the  pupils;  and 
(3)  For  the  candidates  of  teachers  who  formerly 
had  received  only  a  six  months*  instruction,  a 
special  course  of  two  or  three  years  was  arranged, 
which  was  gradually  to  be  developed  into  a  teach- 
ers'seminary.  In  1849,  Count  Leo  Thun  was 
appointed  minister  of  public  instruction,  who. dur- 
ing the  eleven  veal's  01  his  administration, carried 
into  effect  some  of  the  reforms  proposed  in  the 
outline,  and  organized  in  the  capital  of  every 
province  a  provincial  school  board,  consisting 
partly  of  experienced  educators  who  received  the 
title  of  school  councilor  (Sckulrath),  and  partly 
of  administrative  officers.  Put  the  chief  aim  of 
this  minister  was  the  establishment  of  a  far-reach- 
ing control  of  the  ( 'atholic  ( Ihurch  over  the  public 
school  system.  The  concordat  between  Austria  and 
the  Pope,  which  was  concluded  in  August.  1855, 

provides  thai  the  entire  instruction  of  the  Cath- 
olic youth,  both  in  public  and  private  schools, 
must  be  in  accordance  with  the  (  atholic  religion; 
thai  all  the  teachers  in  the  Catholic  schools  are 
placed  under  the  superintendence  of  the  church, 
and  that  the  bishops  will  propose  to  the  govern- 
ment lit  pei-sons  for  the  otlice  of  school  superin- 
tendents. The  disastrous  issue  of  the  war  against 
Prance  and  Italy  led  to  the  introduction  of 
Several  Sweeping  reforms,  and    the  establishment 

of  a  national  representation,  or  ReicTisrath,  in 
which  the  Liberal  party  impetuously  demanded 
the  emancipation  of  the  public  schools  from  the 
control  of  the  church,  and  the  abolition  of  the 
concordat.  The  ministry  of  instruction,  which 
was  Looked  upon  by  the  Liberals  as  a  tool  of  the 
church  was  totally  abolished  ;  but  the  govern- 
Mi  Hi  showed  greal  reluctance  in  yielding  to  other 
demands  of  the  Liberals.  A  new  organization 
of  the  public  school  system  was  provided  tor  by 

the  law  of  May  I  I.,  L869.  It  substitutes  for  the 
former    Haupt-  mnl  Trivicdschulen    (high  and 

common    bcI Is)    a  division    into   Vblks8ckulen 

(people's  schools)  and   Burgerachnlen  (citizens' 


schools).  The  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the 
former  are  religion,  language,  arithmetic,  writing, 
geometrical  forms,  the  elements  of  natural  science 
and  history,  singing,  and  gymnastic  exercises. 
According  to  the  number  of  teachers  allowed, 
it  may  have  from  one  to  seven  classes.  In  the 
Bv/rgerschule,  moreover,  composition,  natural 
science,  geometry,  book-keeping,  and  drawing  are 
taught.  Schools  of  the  latter  class  have,  when  com- 
plete, 8  classes,  or  if  connected  with  a  Volkssch  ule 
of  5  classes,  only  3  classes.  The  communities 
must  establish  a  school  whenever,  in  the  circuit 
of  one  hour's  walk,  40  children  are  found  who 
attend  a  school  at  least  half  a  German  mile 
distant.  A  second  teacher  is  allowed  when  the 
number  of  children  exceeds  80 ;  and  another 
for  every  additional  80.  The  school  age  lasts 
from  the  6th  to  the  14th  year.  There  are  special 
school  boards  for  the  communities,  districts,  and 
provinces.  The  number  of  Bihrgerschulen  and 
Vblksschulen  in  1871,  was  14,769.  of  which  6560 
were  German,  5746  Slavic.  1080  Italian.  24 
Boumanic,  5  .Magyar.  '!  Greek,  and  1352  mixed. 
The  number  of  male  teachers  was  20,904;  of 
female  teachers,  .'1, 1  !.">.  The  attendance  at  school 
was  941,497  boys  and  S7s.ll>:;  girls.  In  two 
provinces,  the  Tyrol  and  Moravia,  the  number  of 
children    attending  school   exceeded    that    of   the 

children  of  school  age;  in  UpperAustria,  Bohemia, 

and  Silesia,  it  was  between  90  and  '.HI  per  cent.  ; 
in  Lower  Austria.  Salzburg.  Styria.  and  <  'arinthia, 
bet  ween  7.">  and  !'.">;  in  ( 'arniola  and  the  Littorale. 
between  50 and  55;  in  <  'alicia,  20;  in  1  ►ahnatia,  1  •">: 
and  in  thi'  Ibikovina,  only  12  percent.  The  middle 
schools,  which  prepare  boys  for  the  higher  studies, 
are  either  gymnasia,  realschool$,or  realgymnasia. 
The  gymnasia  prepare  their  pupils  for  the  uni- 
versities, the  realschools  for  the  higher  technical 
schools,  and  the  realgymnasia  for  both.  In  1870, 
there  were  97  gymnasia  with  27.2*7  pupils.  24 
realgymnasia  with  3,210,  and  50  realschools  with 
1 3,229  pupils.  Of  universities  there  are  7:  those  of 
Vienna,  Gratz,  Tnnspruck.  Prague,  Cracow,  Ijem- 
berg,  and  <  Izernowitz.  They  all  contain,  like  the 
German  universities.  4  faculties,  except  l.emberg 
and  Czernowitz,  which  have  only  3.  The  number 

of  students,  in  the  winter  semester  of    L874 — 5, 

was.  at  Vienna 4,223, at  Gratz  930, at  Lnnspruck 
633,  at    Prague  2,011,  at  Lemberg  upwards  of 

L100,  and  at  Cracow  upwards  Of  1,000.  There 
are  seven  technical  high  schools:  2  at  Prague 
[1  German  and  1  Czechic),  and  1  each  at  Vienna, 

•  irat/..  I'ninn,  l.emberg.  Cracow,  and,  in  all,  about 

270  professors  and  3,000  pupils.  -Male  teachers' 
seminaries  were  first  established  in  accordance 
with  the  new  law  of  L869,  in  L870.  Of  these, 
there  were,  in  1  873,  40,  with  L45  principal  and 
207  assistant  teachers,  and  2,111   pupils,  of  whom 

L,093  were  Germans,  530  Czechs,  215  Coles.  9.'} 
Ruthenians,  L 28  Croats  or  Servians,  95  Italians, 

and  L5  Roumanians.  For  the  education  of  female 
teachers,  then'  are  21  seminaries,  with  105  prinei 
pal  and  111  assistant  teachers,  and  1  ,(><>7  pupils. 
The  number  of  special  schools  is  very  largei 
embracing  theological,  medical,  and  industrial 
Schools,  schools  for  navigation,  mining,  agricult- 


Al'TIIulMTY 


65 


ure.  forestry,  ami  the  fine  arts,  together  with 
military  institutions,  institutions  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  and  the  blind,  orphan  asylums,  infant  in- 
stitutions [creches  , 

The  most  important  educational  periodicals 
are  Der  Oestsrreichische  Schulbote  (since  1851) 
and  Zeitschrift  filr  GstreichiscJie  Gh/mnasien 
(since  1850). 

A  full  account  of  the  history  and  statistics' 
of  public  education  in  Austria  is  given  by  Dr. 
Picker,  in  Sciimid's  P&dagog.  Elncyctopadie,  \<  >1. 
v.  p.  242 — 566.  Sec  also  Hblfebt,  System  der 
tetreich.  VoOcsschule  (Prague,  L861),  a  collection 
of  all  the  laws  relating  to  the  public  school 
system ;  Schtmmer,  Statistik  der  LehranstaUen 
des  Sstreich.  Kaiserstaates  von  1851  —  L857, 
(Vienna,  1858).  The  latest  official  statdstics 
are  annually  published  in  the  Statistische  Jdhr- 
buch,  by  the  central  statistical  commission  of 
Vienna. 

AUTHORITY  (Lat.  auctoritas),  the  right 
to  conunanil.  or  the  persons  or  body  by  whom 
the  right  is  exercised  ;  sometimes  also,  in  matters 
pertaining  to  the  intellect,  the  power  to  influence 
or  exact  belief.  In  education,  the  term  has  espe- 
cially this  twofold  application:  (1)  to  the  disci- 
pline, or  management  of  children.;  (2)  to  their  in- 
struction. The  primary  authority,  both  in  re- 
spect  to  time  and  importance,  to  which  the  child 
is  subjected  is  that  of  the  parent  ;  and  for  several 
years  no  other  can  be  exercised  over  it,  except  in 
loco  parentis.  It  is  true,  the  state  extends  a  pro- 
tecting care  over  the  child  ;  but  only  by  an  exer- 
cise of  its  authority  over  the  parents,  requiring 
them  to  perform  their  proper  duties  as  the  nat- 
ural guardians  of  their  children.  When  the 
parents  neglect  oi  repudiate  these  duties  or  are 
guilty  of  acts  in  contravention  of  them,  the  state 
interposes  its  authority,  but  not  even  then  direct- 
ly, upon  the  child,  but  only  to  placd  it  under  the 
authority  of  those  who  will  better  care  for  its 
interests,  and  perform  for  it  the  natural  duties 
of  its  parents.  The  right  exercise  of  parental 
authority  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant elements  in  the  education  of  the  child. 
(See  Home  Education.)  If  the  child  from  its 
earliest  years  has  been  accustomed  to  recognize 
and  submit  to  the  authority  of  its  parents,  firmly 
but  judiciously  exercised,  were  will  be,  ordinari- 
ly, but  little  difficulty,  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
in  making  his  authority  effective.  The  child,  on 
entering  the  school,  feels  for  the  first  time  that 
it  is  under  an  authority  different  from  that  of  its 
parents,  to  which  it  has  previously  learned  to 
sui. mil  with  unquestioning  obedience.  Its  first 
imptdse  is,  perhaps,  to  refuse  submission  to  this 
new  authority  ;  and  the  influence  of  the  teacher 
over  the  child  will  greatly  depend  upon  the  man- 
ner i,i  which  obedience  is  enforced.  (See  Disci- 
pline.) In  the  authority  of  the  teacher,  as  well 
as  in  that  of  the  parents,  two  elements  arc  com- 
bined,— one  that  attracts  and  encourages,  and 
one  that  curbs  and  subdues.  Without  the  former, 
authority  is  arbitrary  and  violent:  without  the 
latter,  it  is  feeble  and  often  powerless.  In  oilier 
words,  the  authority  that  truly  educates  should 


be  founded  not  alone  upon  fear,  but  upon  love 
and  esteem  as  well.  The  authority  of  the  teacher 
is  not,  like  that  of  t  lie  parents,  based  upon  a  natural 
law,  but  is  delegated  either  by  the  parents  or  by 
those  who  stand  in  the  parental  relation  to  the 
child.  This  is  what  is  meant  when  it  is  said  that 
the  teacher  is  in  loco  parentis  ;  not  that  he  has 
exactly  the  authority  of  the  parent,  but  only  so 
far  as  it  is  not  limited  by  the  general  usages  of 
society,  or  by  special  contracts.  The  conscien- 
tious teacher  cannot,  for  a  moment. doubt  that  it 
is  his  duty  strictly  to  observe  these  limits  ;  since, 
by  willfully  overstepping  them,  he  must  either 
break  a  contract,  or  violate;!  most  sacred  trust  ; 
and,  in  either  case,  his  authority  will  be  either 
weakened  or  destroyed. 

When  schools  arc  controlled  by  boards  of  edu- 
cation or  boards  of  trustees,  such  constituted 
authorities  stand  to  the  children  in  place  of  the 
parents,  in  respect  to  school  education ;  and  the 
teachers  become  simply  the  agents  of  the  school 
board,  and  can  only  exercise  an  authority  limited 
by  the  rtdes  of  such  board.  The  limits  of  the 
authority  delegated  to  teachers  by  the  appointing 
power,  vary  considerably  in  different  places, 
some  school  boards  reserving  to  themselves 
certain  powers  or  functions  which  others  confer 
upon  the  teacher.  It  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  all  persons  concerned  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  child  should  co-operate  harmoni- 
ously ;  since  nothing  tends  so  much  to  weaken 
the  force  of  authority  in  the  mind  of  the  child  as 
to  notice  a  conflict  among  those  under  whose 
control  it  is  placed.  Father  and  mother,  parent 
and  teacher,  teacher  and  school  board,  should,  at 
any  rate,  as  far  as  the  child  is  aware,  agree  ab- 
solutely; since  the  less  children  know  of  any  differ- 
ence of  opinion  between  their  custodians,  the 
more  cheerfully  will  they  respect  and  submit  to 
the  principle  of  authority  in  general. 

Many  cases  will  arise, both  in  the  family  and  in 
the  school,  in  which  children  will  refuse  submis- 
sion to  the  authority  of  their  educators  ;  and  hence; 
the  mode  of  enforcing  authority  becomes  a  mat- 
ter of  serious  importance.  Authority,  of  course, 
implies  a  control  of  the  will  of  those  over  whom 
it  is  exercised;  and  the  means  by  which  this  is 
to  be  obtained  will  differ  according  to  the  dis- 
position and  habits  of  the  child,  and.  to  a  coin 
siderablc  extent,  also  according  to  the  character  of 
the  educator  himself.  A  violent .  irascible,  morose, 
or  capricious  parent  or  teacher  will  have  a  con- 
stant conflict  with  the  child,  and  will  never  be  able 
to  establish  his  authority,  to  whatever  extent,  for 
the  time  being,  he  may  compel  a  seeming  obedi- 
ence. Authority  is  thus  described  by  an  eminent 
teacher: — "H  is  not  mere  legal  form,  nor  the 
instrumentalities  for  executing  it.  that  constitutes 
authority.  It  is  a  power  in  the  individual  him- 
self, independent  of  all  circumstances,  and  rising 
in  its  own  majesty  above  all  mere  conventionali- 
ties. It  is  a  power  difficult  to  describe,  but 
which  -end-  out  its  .streams  of  influence  al 
the  teacher's  pathway.  It  exists  in  the  man.  de- 
manding, securing,  and  retaining  cheerful  obedi- 
ence." Authority  should  not  be  exercised  as  such; 


66 


AUTHORITY 


"  the  right-feeling  parent,"  says  Herbert  Spencer, 
"  like  the  philanthropic  legislator,  will  not  rejoice 
in  coercion,  but  will  rejoice  in  dispensing  with 
coercion."  [Sec  Mm:  w.  EDUCATION.)  In  this  connec- 
tion, arises  the  question  of  the  propriety  of  corpo- 
ral punishment  to  enforce  authority  in  the  family 
or  school.  All  educators  are  agreed,  that  the  use 
of  physical  force,  if  at  all  sanctioned,  should  be 
only,  as  a  dernier  ressort,  brought  in  when  every 
other  means  of  coercion  has  failed;  some,  how- 
ever, condemn  the  "  use  of  the  rod "  utterly. 
Locke  assents  to  it  only  in  cases  of  extreme  ob- 
stinacy. "  The  teacher,"  says  D.  P.  Page,  "  has 
the  right  to  establish  authority  by  corporal  in- 
fliction; and  thus  to  save  the  school  and  also 

save  himself It  is  his  duty  to  establish 

authority,  pea  eably,  indeed,  if  he  may, — forcibly 
if  lie  must."  (See  Corporal  Punishment.)  In 
the  exercise  of  authority,  both  parent  and  teacher 
should  faithfully  consider  the  influence  they  are 
exerting  over  the  future  character  of  the  child. 
As  Locke  says,  ••  Every  man  must  some  time  or 
other  lie  trusted  to  himself  and  his  own  conduct  ; 
and  that  he  is  a  good,  a  virtuous,  and  able  man, 
must  he  made  so  within."  In  the  family  and 
school,  as  in  the  great  world  beyond,  authority 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  lie  exercised  without- 
being  felt.  Richter  justly  remarks,  "The  best 
rule  in  polities  is  said  to  be  -[ins  trap  tjouverner'', 
it  is  also  true  in  education." 

The  principle  of  authority  has  an  important 
application  to  the  mental  as  well  as  the  moral 
education  of  children.  In  the  earliest  stages  of 
intellectual  instruction,  the  child  must  receive 
most  of  the  information  imparted  to  it  on  the 
authority  of  its  teacher;  but  modern  principles 
and  methods  require  that,  even  from  the  first,  as 
far  as  possible,  the  child  should  learn  for  itself 
by  the  exercise  of  its  perceptive  and  conceptive 
faculties,  and  not  merely  on  the  authority  of  its 
tcaehei-s.  .Much,  however,  must  be  imparted. 
that  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the  chihl's  under- 
standing and  experience;  ami,  consequently, 
there  will  he  a  wide  range  for  the  operation  of  the 
teacher's  authority.  It  will,  of  course,  be  greater 
or  less  in  proportion  to  his  personal  influence  in 

Other  respects,  and   particularly  in  proportion  to 

the  confidence  fell  by  his  pupils  in  bis  wisdom 
and  attainments.  In  some  instances, as  exem- 
plified in   the   history  oi    religious  orders  and 

creeds    and    of     the    schools  of    philosophy  and 

ice.   the  authority  of  eminent   teachers  has 
i   been  so  greal  as  to  exert  an  influence  for 

many  centuries  over  thousands,  or  even  millions, 
of  intellects.  Such  was  the  intellectual  authority 
of  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle. and  other  leaders 
of  ancienl  Bchools  of  philosophy.  Teaching  too 
much  by  authority,  and  failing  to  appeal  suili- 

cicntlv  to  the  r,  I    judgment  of  the  pupil 

is  an  error  to  be  carefully  avoided  :   since  it  must 

exert  a.  disastrous  influence  upon  the  student's 
habits  of  thought  and  acquisition.  With  all 
due  deference  to  the  philosopher  of  Samos,  who 


was  content  to  have  his  disciples  depend  upon 
the  Ipse  dixit  Pi/thagaras,  his  example  cannot 
be  wisely  imitated  by  the  teachers  of  our  time. 
Every  one  must  learn  to  form  his  own  opinions. 
carefully,  dispassionately,  after  due  investigation, 
and  a  proper  consideration  for  the  conclusions 
and  experience  of  other  minds;  but  still  they 
must  lie  his  own.  The  teacher  should  infuse  into 
the  minds  of  his  pupils  an  intellectual  independ- 
ence, —  not  a  skeptical  ipiestioning  of  every- 
thing, but  a  thoughtful  investigation  of  the  why 
and  the  wherefore,  a  diligent  balancing  of  the 
weight  of  testimony,  and  a  habit  of  inquiring 
into  the  ultimate  reasons  of  things,  as  far  as  they 
can  be  adduced.  This  will  impart  coneentrative- 
ness  and  activity  of  mind,  and  call  into  exercise 
the  judgment  and  reflection  upon  whatever  is 
presented  to  the  attention,  whether  in  Study, 
reading,  or  conversation.  The  pupil  thus  in- 
structed would  soon  realize  the  force  and  beauty 
of  that  tine  sentiment  of  Emerson  :  "  1  had 
better  never  sec  a  book  than  be  warped  by  its 
attraction  clean  out  of  my  own  orbit,  and  made 
a  satellite  instead  of  a  system."  Montaigne 
strongly  condemned  the  prevalent  modeof  teach- 
ing by  authority.  '■  Let  the  tutor,"  says  he, 
"make  his  pupil  examine  and  thoroughly  sift 
every  thing  he  reads,  and  lodge  nothing  in 
his  head  upon  simple  authority  and  upon  trust 
....  \a'\  him  know  that  he  does  know."  lious- 
seau  also  severely  criticised  the  pedagogy  of  his 
time,  for  basing  the  science  of  education  on  the 
principle  of  authority.  He  demanded  thai  n.  ■ 
pupil  should  not  know  any  thing  merely  because 
it  was  told  him  by  the  teacher,  but  because  he 
understood  it.  lie  should  not  learn  the  science, 
but  discover  it.  "  If."  said  he.  "you give  him 
;m  authority  instead  of  a  reason,  he  will  never 
think  independently,  but  will  always  be  the  foot- 
ball of  tin' opinions  of  others."  This  is  an  ex- 
treme view,  as  every  teai  her  of  experience  must 
know.  The  authority  of  the  teacher  cannot  be 
eliminated  in  intellectual  education  ;  since  to  do  so 
would  put  the  undeveloped  understanding  of  the 
pupil  on  an  equality  with  the  mature  and  devel- 
oped intellect  of  the  instructor:  neither  can  its 
just   limits  be  definitely  fixed.     The  disposition 

to  accept  the  statements  of  the  teacher  as  truths, 

when  not  fully  understood,  should  be  cultivated. 

Modesty  is  often  as  requisite  and  as  becoming  in 
thoughl  as  in  morals.    The  great  principle  to  be 

kept  in  view — and  it  is  to  the  credit  of  Kousseau 
that  he  so  clearly  perceived,  and  so  emphatically 

enunciated  it   -  is.  that  authority  should  not  have 
its  aim  within  itself,  but  that  its  object  should  be 

to  develop  the  faculties  of  the  pupil,  so  that  he 

may  fully  understand  as  true  and   right,  what    he 

has  received  on  the  authority  of  the  teacher. — 
See  Montaigne,  Essais  (Cotton's  translation, 
edited  by  \V.  Ilazlitt) ;  Locke,  Tlioughte  con- 
cerning Education;  Rousseau,  Emue  on  tie 
VEducation;  Eerbert  Spencer,  Education: 
dual,  Moral,  and  Physical. 


BACCHANTS 


BACON 


67 


BACCHANTS  (Lat.  Bacchantes)  is  a  term 
applied  in  mediaeval  times  to  those  university 
students  who  had  not  yet  finished  their  first 
year's  studies,  and  being  taxed  for  drinking  pur- 
poses by  the  older  students,  were  thus  drawn 
into  revels  and  debauchery.  Later,  this  name 
was  riven  to  those  idle,  dissolute  students  who 
traveled    about     the    country.  Collecting    money, 

ostensibly  to  enable  them  to  pursue  their  studies. 
iietimes  they  were  accompanied  by  pupils, 
whom  they  compelled  to  steal  and  beg  for  them. 
(See  A  B  C-Sh00TERS.)  So  numerous  were  these 
itinerant  scholars,  that  organizations  of  them 
existed  with  constitutions  and  rituals;  and  some- 
times these  bodies  were  supplied  with  board  and 
lodging  by  the  cities  in  which  they  located  them- 
selves. These  practices  ceased  almost  entirely 
with  the  Reformat  ion,  but  we  find  traces  of  them 
in  Germany  and  England  down  almost  to  the 
present  century.  Burkard  Lingg  and  Thomas 
Platen  were  Bacchants,  whose  autobiographies  in 
German  are  still  extant. 

BACHELOR  (Lat.  Baccalaureus),  a  term  ap- 
plied to  one  who  has  reached  a  certain  grade  in  a 
college  or  university  education  ;  as,  Bachelor  of 
Arts  (A.  B.,  or  B.  A.),  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law 
(B.  C.  L.),  Bachelor  of  Divinity  (B.  D.),etc.  The 
word  as  thus  used  is  of  uncertain  etymology.  It 
was  introduced  into  the  University  of  Paris  by 
Pope  Gregory  IX..  in  the  13th  century,  and  ap- 
plied as  a  title  to  those  students  wdio  had  passed 
certain  preliminary  examinations,  but  were  not 
prepared  for  admission  into  the  rank  of  master, 
teacher,  or  doctor.  Afterwards,  it  was  adopted 
by  other  European  universities,  to  indicate  the 
lowest  academical  honor,  as  it  is  now  used  both 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  (See  Arts,  and 
Degrees.) 

BACON-,  Francis,  Viscount  St.  Albans 
and  Baron  Verulam,  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
of  English  philosophers,  was  born  in  London, 
Jan.  22.,  1  .".id,  ami  died  April  1).,  1626.  Little  is 
known  of  his  early  education,  but  from  the  social 
position  of  his  father.  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  he 
must  have  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  the  best  in- 
struction that  could  have  been  obtained.  Be 
was  matriculated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1573;  and.  after  going  abroad  for  a  time,  he 
returned  and  commenced  the  study  of  the  law 
in  15811.  He  was  soou  called  to  the  bar.  and  in 
L590,  his  reputation  was  so  great,  that  he  was 
le  ''counsel  extraordinary''  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, lie  afterwards  served  in  parliament,  wh  in 
he  showed  so  much  spirit,  that  on  receiving  the 
royal  rebuke  for  a  certain  speech,  which  he  had 
delivered,  he  uobly  replied,  that  "  he  spoke  in 
di-eharge  of  his  conscience,  and  his  duty  to  God, 
to  the  queen,  and  his  country."  As  an  orator. 
he  was  much  commended  by  his  contemporaries. 
Ben  Jonson  said  that  while  he  was  speaking, 
"the  fear  of  every  man  that  heard  him  was  Lest 
he  should  make  an  end.''  The  earl  of  Essex 
had  been  his  friend  and  benefactor ;  but  when 


that  rash  and  unfortunate  nobleman  was  under 
trial.  Bacon,  evidently  from  fear  of  the  queen's 

displeasure,  spoke  .severely  against    him.  and  was 

instrumental  in  securing  his  conviction.  This  has 
subjected  him  to  much  obloquy,  as  being  guilty 
of  meanness  and  ingratitude.  After  the  acces- 
sion of  James  1..  Bacon  rose  rapidly  in  the  royal 
favor;  his  professional  practice  became  very  la 
and  lucrative,  besides  which  he  held  the  office  of 
nie\  general  which  yielded  him  £6,000 per 
annum.  In  L616,  he  was  made  lord  high 
chancellor,  ami,  besides,  received  the  title  of 
Baron  Verulam;  and,  in  1621,  he  obtained  the 
additional  title  of  Viscounl  St.  Albans.  At  this 
time,  he  stood  upon  the  highest  pinnacle  of  polit- 
ical preferment  and  literary  fame  ;  for  he  had 
just  published  his  greatest  work,  the  Novum 
Organum.  From  this  lofty  position  he  suddenly 
fell,  accused  and  condemned  of  taking  bribes 
from  those  whose  cases  were  before  his  court. 
Mis  own  words  to  the  House  of  Lords,  when  the 
facts  had  been  disclosed  by  an  investigation,  were, 
''  I  do  plainly  and  ingenuously  confess  that  1  am 
guilty  of  corruption,  and  do  renounce  all  defense, 
and  put  myself  upon  the  grace  and  mercy  of 
your  lordships."'  He  was,  accordingly,  sentenced 
to  pay  a  fine  of  £40,000,  and  to  suffer  imprison- 
ment in  the  Tower  during  the  king's  pleasure 
(1(121).  He  was,  however,  released  from  confine- 
ment in  two  days,  and  the  fine  was  subsequently 
remitted.  He  never  regained  the  position  he 
had  so  disgracefully  lost,  but  spent  the  few  re- 
maining years  of  his  life  in  a  studious  and  liter- 
ary retirement.  Between  the  career  of  Bacon  as 
a  politician  and  his  career  as  a  philosopher  there  is 
a  marked  contrast.  -1  lad  his  life.''  says  Macaulay, 
"been  passed  in  literary  retirement,  he  would,  in 
all  probability,  have  deserved  to  be  considered, 
not  only  as  a  great  philosopher,  but  as  a  worthy 
and  good-natured  member  of  society.  But 
neither  his  principles  nor  his  spirit  were  such  as 
could  be  trusted,  when  strong  temptations  were 
to  be  resisted,  and  serious  dangers  to  be  braved.'' 
His  desire  to  keep  up  a  grand  establishment,  to 
make  a  brilliant  figure  in  society  by  the  princely 
character  of  his  entertainments,  his  equipage,  and 
all  the  other  fascinations  of  luxury,  caused  ex- 
penditures far  beyond  his  means,  which  he 
endeavored  to  meet  by  unlawful  gains.  His 
philosophical  views  were  in  one  sense  entirely 
consistent  with  his  character.  They  were  prac- 
tical :  tiny  aimed  to  make  science  minister  to  the 
worldly  wants  of  mankind.  The  si  holastic  learn- 
ing of  the  universities  which  he  had  inveighed 
against  shortly  after  leaving  Cambridge,  was,  he 
perceived, nothing  hut  antiquated,  profitless  word- 
learning,  lie  wished  to  incite  to  the  discovery 
of  new  truth,  that  it  might  "mix  like  a  living 
spring  with  the  stagnant  waters."  "Two  words," 

says    Macaulay.   "form    the  key  of  the  Baconian 

doctrine — utility  and    progress.    The   ancient 

philosophy  disdained  to  be  useful,  and  was  eon- 
tent  to  be  stationary.    It  dealt  largely  in  theories 


68 


BACON 


BAHRDT 


of  moral  perfection,  which  were  so  sublime  that 
they  never  could  be  more  than  theories ;  in  at- 
tempts to  solve  insoluble  enigmas  ;  in  exhorta- 
tions to  the  attainment  of  unattainable  frames  of 
mind.  It  could  not  condescend  to  the  humble 
office  of  ministering  to  the  comfort  of  human  be- 
ings." Bacon  held  that  all  knowledge  must  be 
obtained  by  a  careful  and  unprejudiced  induction 
from  facts.  I  fence  the  importance  of  experiment ; 
for  without  experiment  man  may  indeed  stumble 
on  t lie  discovery  of  truth,  but  by  experiment  in- 
ventions are  made.  "  Bacon,"  says  Kuno  Fischer, 
••is  the  philosopher,  not  simply  of  experience, 
but  of  invention.  Bis  only  endeavor  is  philosoph- 
ically to  comprehend  and  fortify  the.  inventive 
spirit  of  man.  From  this  point  alone  is  his  op- 
position to  antiquity  to  be  explained."  Bacon's 
career  commenced  at  a  time  when  a  great  in- 
tellectual revolution  was  already  in  progress. 
The  Aristotelian  philosophy  so  called,  which  was 
indeed  a  perversion  of  Aristotle's  teachings,  and 
the  senseless  attempt  to  employ  the  syllogism  as 
an  instrument  of  discovery,  had  already  disgusted 
a  large  number  of  active  minds,  as  being  utterly 
barren  of  fruit.  As  Macaulay  remarks,  -  Before 
the  birth  of  Bacon,  the  empire  of  the  scholastic 
philosophy  had  been  shaken  to  its  foundation. 
Antiquity,  prescript  ion.  the  sound  of  great  nanus 
had  ceased  to  awe  mankind."  Bacon's  mind  was 
so  constituted  as  to  sympathize  at  once  with  this 
changed  condition  of  things;  and  throwing  the 
weight  of  his  vast  intellect  against  the  already  tot- 
tering fabric,  he  precipitated  its  fall.  As  Aristotle 
analyzed  the  method  of  deductive  reasoning, so 
Bacon  explained  the  principles  and  method  oil  in- 
duction, proving  it  to  lie  the  great  instrument .  or 
organon,  for  the  discovery  of  truth  and  the  im- 
provement of  the  condition  of  humanity.     The 


full  title  of  his  great  work  is  Nornm  Organum^ ^Quarreled  with  his  patron,  his  connection  with 

this  institution  lasted  only  one  year;  but  having 
been  appointed  superintendent-general  at  Diirk- 
heiin.  he  established,  in  May  1777.  a  new philan- 
ihropin  in  the  neighboring  castle  at  Heideeheim. 
This  attempt  was  likewise  unsuccessful,  and  the 
new  philanthropin  on  the  brink  of  ruin,  when 
Bahrdt   was  suddenly    summoned    before    the 


sive  Indicia  Vera  de  Tnterpretatione  Natural 
et  Regno  Hbminis.  [The  New  Organon,  or 
True  Directions  concerning  the  Interpretation  of 

Nature  ami  tin-  Kingdom  of  Man.)  The  kej  to 
the  whole  philosophy  is  contained  in  the  first  of 
the  aphorisms  of  which  it  is  composed  :  "  Man. 
being  the  servant  and  interpreter  of  nature,  can 
do  and  understand  so  much,  and  so  much  only, 
as  he  has  observed,  in  fact  or  in  thought,  of  the 

course  of  nature  :   beyond  this  he   neither  knows 

anything  nor  can  do  any  thin-.''  Previous  to 
the  publication  of  this  work,  he  had  published 
The  Advancement  of  Learning  (1605),  which 
was  the  germ  of  De  Augmentis  Scientiarum, 
published  in  W'.'j:;.  These  and  other  works. 
published  or  proposed  by  him,  were  to  constitute 
an  Tnstauratio  Magna— &  grand  re-establish- 
ni  nt  not  only  of  the  true  method  of  scientific 
investigation  but  of  science  itself , in  all  its  varied 
departments.  Modern  discovery  and  invention 
are  to  a  great  extent  the  offspring  of  this  splendid 

gift    of   human   -cuius.       Bacon's    most    popular 

work  was  the  Essays,  originally  published  in 
L597,  but  afterwards  enlarged  and  improved. 

Dugald  Stewart    has  said  of   this  work.  "  It  may 

be  icad  from  beginning  to  end  in  a  few  hours. 
and  yet  after  the  twentieth  reading,  one  seldom 


fails  to  remark  in  it  something  overlooked  before." 
In  his  essay  on  Education,  Bacon  refers  all  its 
efficacy  to  custom,  or  habit:  "  Certainly  custom 
is  most  perfect  when  it  beginneth  in  young  years: 
this  we  call  education  ;  which  is.  in  effect,  but  an 
early  custom."  But  Bacon's  contribution  to  edu-*"? 
cation  does  not  consist  in  any  particular  precepts 
concerning  it  or  any  special  treatment  of  that  sub- 
ject ;  but  in  the  general  effect  of  his  philosophical- 
views,  in  setting  free  the  human  mind  from  errors 
and  prejudices,  and  placing  it  on  the  direct  road 
which  leads  to  scientific  truth.  The  best  edition 
of  Bacon's  works  is  that  edited  by  Spedding, 
Ellis,  and  Heath. vols. i. — xv.(London  andBoston,  . 
1858—1861).  In  this  is  contained  the  life  of 
Bacon  by  William  Rowley,  !>.!)..  his  chaplain. — 
See  also  Macaulay's  Essays,  s.  v.  Bacon;  Hep- 
worth,  Personal  History  of  Lord  Bacon  (Lon- 
don. L859);  Remusat,  Bacon,  sa  vie  et  son  in- 
fluence (Paris.  1857);  Kino  Fischer,  Francis 
Bacon  von  Verulam  (2d  edit.,  Leipsic,  1875), 
which  has  been  translated  into  English  by  John 
Oxenford  (London,  1857);  American  Journal 
of  Education,  vol.  rv.  (1829),  passim. 

BADEN.     See  Germany. 

BAHRDT,  Carl  Friedrich,  a  German 
professor  and  scholar,  was  born  in  1741,  and 
died  in  L792.  As  professor  of  theology  at 
the  universities  of  Leipsic,  Erfurt,  and  Giessen, 
he  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  foremost  rep- 
resentatives of  the  theological  rationalism  which 
prevailed  at  that  time.  As  his  dissolute  life 
and  his  fondness  for  violent  theological  quar- 
rels made  his  position  as  professor  of  theology 
impossible,  he  eagerly  accepted,  in  177."),  the 
management  of  a  philanthropin  founded  by 
llerr  v.  Salis  at  Marschlins.  in  the  Swiss  canton 
of  Orisons.     (See  Philanthropin.)     As  he  soon 


Reichshofrath  (Imperial  Court  Council)  for 
teaching  doctrines  not  in  accord  with  any  of  the 
three  churches  recognized  in  the  empire,  and. 
without  any  trial,  deprived  of  all  his  offices.  The 
unfairness  of  this  treatment  gained  for  him  a 
great  deal  of  sympathy,  and  from  the  Prussian 
government  an  appointment  as  professor  at  the 
university  of  Halle:  but  in  consequence  of  the 
unsteadiness  of  his  habits,  he  held  this  posi- 
tion likew  ise  only  a  short  time,  and  lost  with  it 
the  esteem  of   nearly  all  who  knew  him.     I'ahr  It 

was  one  of  the  most  gifted  men  of  his  age,  and 
but  for  his  total  want  of  moral  character,  would 
undoubtedly  have  risen  to  great  eminence,  both 

as  an  educational  w  liter  and  a  practical  educator. 

lie  founded  two  educational  periodicals, entitled 
Literarisches  Gorrespondem-  und  TnteUigenzblati 
(1776)  and   Pddagogisches  Wochenblatt  (1778), 

which  clearly  indicate  the  rare  talent  of  the  editor, 
but  neither  of  which  survived  the  first  year  of 


BALDWIN  UNIVERSITY 


BALTIMORE 


69 


its  existence.  The  disrespect  which  was  generally 
felt  for  Bahrdt,  greatly  injured  the  entire  school 
of  PhilanthropinistB.  I  le  published  an  autobiog- 
graphy,  entitled  Dr.  Bahrdt's  history  of  his  life, 
his  opinions  and  //is  vicissitudes  (4  vols.,  Bruns- 
wick, 1790),  which  is  of  considerable  value  for 
the  information  it  gives  of  the  educational  move- 
ments of  those  times.  -See  Letsbb,  KaaiFried- 
rich  Bahrdt  (2d  edit.,  Neustadt,  L870). 

BALDWIN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Berea, 
Ohio,  was  established  in  L846  as  Baldwin  Insti- 
tute, for  the  education  of  both  sexes,  by  the 
North  Ohio  conference  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal church.  Ten  years  afterward,  it  was  char- 
tered as  a  university  under  its  present  name. 
Its  design  is  to  provide  the  means  of  a  thorough 
general  education,  or  to  afford  to  students  a  com- 
plete scientific  basis  for  the  various  industrial 
pursuits.  It  has  a  scientific  and  a  classical  de- 
partment, in  each  of  which  there  are  preparatory  i 
and  collegiate  classes.  There  is  also  a  college  of 
pharmacy  connected  with  the  institution.  It 
received  a  valuable  endowment  in  quarry  land 
from  John  Baldwin,  after  whom  it  was  named. 
Its  successive  ]  >r<  sidents  have  been  J<  >hn Wheeler, 
D.D.,  from  L856  to  L871  :  W.D.Godman,  D.D., 
from  L871  to  1ST.");  and  A.  Schuyler.  LL.  D., 
from  L875.  The  number  of  students  in  the  in- 
stitutiou,  in  1875 — 7(>,  was  180.  The  tuition  is 
free. 

BALTIMORE.  The  first  attempt  to  pro- 
vide the  means  of  education  for  the  lower  classes 
in  this  city  was  the  establishment,  in  1820,  of  a 
school  on  the  Lancasterian  system.  \n  1825,  an 
act  was  passed  by  the  legislature,  which  author- 
ized the  establishment  of  public  schools  in  Balti- 
more, and  empowered  the  corporate  authorities 
to  levy  a  tax  for  their  support.  In  1828,  a  board 
of  six  school  commissioners  was  organized  ;  and, 
the  next  year,  three  schools  were  opened,  and  269 
pupils  enrolled.  The  first  school-house  was 
erected  in  1830,  hired  built  lings  having  previously 
been  used.  In  1839,  the  number  of  pupils  en- 
rolled had  increased  to  1.126  ;  and  the  mayor 
and  city  council  requested  the  commissioners  to 
establish  a  high  school.  The  request  was  promptly 
complied  with,  and  the  school  opened  the  same 
year.  This  had  the  effect  not  only  to  raise  the 
grade,  but  to  increase  the  efficiency,  of  the  com- 
mon schools;  for,  the  next  year  (1840),  there 
were  nine  schools  in  operation,  with  1  ,834  pupils. 
Since  that  time  the  growth  of  the  system  has 
been  rapid.  In  1874,  there  were  122  schools, 
and  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled  was  -_'!)d08,of 
whom  there  were  2.'i.."i<>*2  in  average  attendance. 
The  first  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
was  Rev.  J.  N*.  McJilton,  who  served  for  about 
twenty  years,  acting,  from  L849to  1866, as  treas- 
urer of  the  board  as  well  as  superintendent  of 
the  schools,  lie  was  succeeded,  Feb.  I.,  L868, 
by  William  \\.  Creery;  and  after  his  death, 
-May  1..  1st."),  the  present  incumbent,  Prof. 
Henry  E.  Shepherd,  was  elected  to  the  position. 

School  Statistics.  —  For  the  year  ending 
Sept.  30.,  1875,  the  following  statistics  were 
reported : 


Number  of  schools 125 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 12,689 

Average  daily  attendance 24,918 

Number  of  teachers 7<>t; 

Number  of  months  schools  were  open.      lo 

Amount  paid  for  teachers'  salaries $426,719.75 

do         do    for  school  buildings 167,363.78 

do  do    for  books  and  stationery.. ..  .     51,767.49 

do        do   for  colored  schools 45,496.78 

do        do   for  other  expenses 25,601.02 

Total  expenditures $71<i,!in*.h2 

The  school  age  is  from  6  to  18  ;  and  the  num- 
ber of  children  in  the  city  between  those  ages 
was  reported,  in  the  census  of  1870,  as  77.737. 
School  System.  —  'I  lie  system  consists  of  a 
school  board  of  twenty  members— -one  for  each 
ward  of  the  city:  a  city  superintendent,  and  as- 
sistant superintendent:  acity  college;  two  female 
high  schools;  a  Saturday  normal  class;  1!)  male 
and  20  female  grammar  schools;  61  primary 
schools;  10  evening  schools,  of  which  4  are 
colored  ;  and  11  day  schools  for  colored  children. 
The  Commissioners  of  Public  Schools,  con- 
stituting the  school-board,  are  appointed  by  the 
two  branches  of  the  city  council  assembled  in 
convention,  one  commissioner  being  selected  from 
each  ward.  Their  term  of  office  is  one  year,  or 
until  a  new  board  is  appointed.  This  board  ap- 
points a  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
whose  term  of  office  is  four  years,  unless  sooner 
removed  by  the  board.  It  also  has  authority  to 
employ  teachers  and  determine  their  salaries,  to 
prescribe  the  courses  of  study  and  the  books  to  be 
used  in  the  schools,  and  to  make  all  needful  reg- 
ulations for  the  management  of  the  same. 

The  studies  prescribed  for  the  primary  schools 
are  spelling,  definition  of  common  words,  read- 
ing, writing,  geography,  the  primary  rules  of 
arithmetic,  drawing,  and  music.  The  studies  for 
the  male  grammar  schools  are  spelling,  etymol- 
ogy, reading,  writing,  composition,  grammar, 
geography,  history  of  the  United  States,  history 
of  .Maryland,  natural  philosophy,  arithmetic,  al- 
gebra, drawing,  music,  and  single-entry  book- 
keeping. For  the  female  grammar  schools  the 
same  studies  are  prescribed,  except  algebra  and 
book-keeping. 

Examination  and  Qualification  of  Teachers. 
— Applicants  for  the  situation  of  teachers  in  the 
public  schools  must  pass  a  written  examination 
before  the  committee  on  examinations  of  the 
board.  The  regular  time  for  such  examinations 
is  the  second  Saturday  in  November  and  May  of 
each  year;  and  a  certificate  is  given  to  each  suc- 
cessful candidate,  showing  the  result  and  the 
grade.  The  following  are  the  studies  for  each 
position  and  grade  : 

T.  For  any  situation  in  the  city  college  or  for  prin- 
cipal of  a  female  high  school,  the  studies  required  to 
be  taught. 

II.  For  tir-t  assistants  of  a  female  liiirli  school,  arith- 
metic, algebra,  geometry,  history,  natural  philosophy, 
chemistry,  and  moral  philosophy, 

III.  For  am  other  situation  in  a  female  high  school, 
the  studies  which  the  candidate  would  be  required  to 
teach  if  appointed. 

IV.  For  principal  and  first  assistant  of  a  male  gram- 
mar school,  arithmetic,  algebra,  etymology,  geogra- 
phy, grammar,  history,  orthography,  natural  philos- 
ophy, and  music. 


70       BALTIMORE  CITY  COLLEGE 

V.  For  principal  and  fust  assistant  of  a  female 
grammar  school,  grammar,  modern  geography,  his- 
tory, etymology,  orthography,  arithmetic,  and  music. 

VI.  For  principal  of  a  primary  school,  grammar, 
modern  geography,  arithmetic,  history  of  the  United 
States,  orthography,  and  music. 

VII.  For  lower  assistants  in  a  grammar  or  primary 
school,  grammar,  arithmetic,  orthography,  modern 
geography,  and  music. 

In  addition  to  these,  all  teachers  must  pass  an  ex- 
amination in  geometry  and  physiology  before  receiv- 
ing a  certicate  of  any  grade. 

Two-thirds  of  the  questions  in  each  branch  must  be 
answered  in  order  to  pass  the  candidate  for  any 
grade. 

No  person  is  eligible  to  any  position  ;is  teacher 

in  any  of  the  schools  under  the  following  a 

Professor  in  city  college  or  principal  of  a 
male  grammar  school 21  years. 

First  assistant  in  male  grammar  school 19  years. 

Principal  of  female  grammar  school 20  year-. 

Principal  of  a  primary  school '.'<)  years. 

First  assistant  in  female  grammar  scl I  ....is  years. 

Assistant  m  female  high  school is  years. 

Second  assistant  in  grammar  or  primary 
school 17  years. 

Industrial  Education.—  Voluntary  instruction 

in  the  domestic  and  industrial  branchesof  female 
education  is  given  by  the  teachers  in  several  of 
the  grammar  and  primary  schools.  This  was 
commenced  at  the  requesl  of  the  president  of  the 
school  board,  and  embraces  sewing,  knitting,  em- 
broidery, and  some  oilier  useful  branches,  one 
afternoon  of  each  week  being  set  apart  for  the 
instruction.  The  results  have  been  highly  ap- 
proved, as  affording  an  accomplishment  of  greal 
practical  value  both  in  the  home-circle  and  a-  a 
means  of  support. 

Training  of  Teachers. —  The  normal  class. 
established  Sept.  12.,  L 874,  is  designed  to  afford 
to  newly  appointed  teachers  of  the  city  schools 
instruction  in  the  theory  ami  practiceof  teach- 
ing. It  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  superin- 
ten 'lent  of  public  instruction.  The  State  Nor- 
mal School  is  Located  at  Baltimore,  besides  which 
there  is  a  normal  school  for  the  instruction  of 
colored  teachers.     (See  M  vryl  wi>.i 

BALTIMORE  CITY  COLLEGE.  This 
institution  is  under  the  care  of  the  commission- 
ers of  public  schools  of  Baltimore,  and  forms  a 
pari  of  the  common  school  system  of  that  city. 
It  was  originally  established  as  the  Central  High 
School,  with  16  pupils;  bu1  has  graduated  more 
than  500  .students.  The  number  on  the  roll 
Oct.  31.,  L874,  was  400,  and  the  number  of  in- 
structors was  II.  t  Jandidates  for  admission  must 
pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  spelling,  writ- 
ing, grammar,  geography,  arithmetic, and  algebra 
through  simple  equations.  The  curriculum  em 
braces  the  English, French,  German,  and  Latin 
languages  (Greek  optional),  history,  writing,  and 
book  keeping,  arithmetic,  algebra,  g netry,  trig- 
onometry, analytical  geometry,  calculus,  physiol- 
ogy, chemistry,  physical  geography,  natural  phi- 
losophy, astronomy,  psychology,  logic,  rhetoric. 
moral  philosophy,  political  economy,  and  the  con- 
stitution   Of   the   I    nited  Slates.      'I  lie  lull  course 

is  four  years.  Boys  fourteen  years  of  age, 
whether  pupils  of  the  public  schools  or  not.  may 
be  admitted  on  passing  the  required  examination. 


BAPTISTS 

A  handsome  and  spacious  edifice  for  the  accom- 
modation of  this  institution  was  completed  in 
L875. 

BALTIMORE  FEMALE  COLLEGE, 
at  Baltimore,  Md.,  was  founded  in  1849,  and  was 
under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
<  'hutch  from  that  date  to  18G8,  when,  by  an  act 
of  the  legislature,  tlie  Hoard  of  Trustees  became 
a  permanent  corporation  ;  and  the  Board  is  now 
composed  of  Methodists,  Episcopalians,  and  Pres- 
byterians. The  number  of  students  in  the  in- 
stitution is  (1876)  about  100;  Nathan  C.Brooks, 
LL.  D.,  has  been  the  president  of  the  College  since 
its  foundation.  It  has  an  endowment  of  $2,500 
from  the  State  of  Maryland, but  tuition  fees  con- 
stitute its  chief  support.  While  its  course  of 
higher  education  has  been  general,  it  has  trained 
and  sent  forth  L57  teachers,  most  of  whom  are 
occupying  positions  of  n sj  io]  isibility  in  academics, 
high  schools,  and  colleges. 

BAPTISTS,  a  denomination  of  Christians 
distinguished  by  the  denial  of  baptism  to  infants, 
and  by  the   restriction  of  that   rite   to  those 

who  therein  profess  personal  faith  and  regenera- 
tion. They  baptize  byimmersion  only,  and  in  the 
form  of  their  church-government  are  congrega- 
tional. In  i  Ingland,  they  are  known  as  General  and 
Particular,  the  former,  which  is  by  a  lew  years 
the  older  denomination  in  that  country,  being 
Arminian,  and  the  latter, which  composes  the  far 
greater  part  of  the  denomination,  being  Calvin- 
istic,  in  theology.  They  are  likewise  distinguished 
as  Close -Communion  and  Open  -  Communion, 
the  larger  part  of  the  denomination  in  England 
being  Open-Communion.     Baptists  came  to  this 

country  with  the  first  settlements.  In  Rhode 
[stand,  their  churches   are    its   old  as  the  colony; 

and  before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century 

they   had    gathered   churches    in    Iloston,  in   the 

neighborhood  of  Philadelphia,  and  at  Charleston. 

Their  rapid  growth  commenced  about  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  At  the  time  of  the 
Revolution,  they  are  supposed  to  have  had  about 
25,000  communicants.  In  L876,  they  have  more 
than  1,800,000.  The  great  body  are  known  by 
the  appellation  Baptists ;  lesser  bodies  are  know  u 
as  l-'ree-W  ill.  or  lately  as  free.  Seventh-Day,  Six 
Principles,  and  Old  School.  All  these  last  con- 
stitute a  fraction  only  of  those  who  bear  the 
ric  name.  The  Disciples,  or  Campbellites, 
followers  of    Uexander  Campbell,  are  a   I. 

ion,   distinguished  by   peculiar  theological 
views.     In  this  country,  the   Baptists,  meaning 

1>\  this  the  chief  denomination  SO  tailed,  are 
Close-Communion;  that  is,  believing  that  no 
baptism  is  regular  which  is  not  the  baptism  of  a 
believer  and  by  immersion,  and  that  a  regular 
baptism  is  to  preach  participation  in  the  Lord's 

Supper,  they  restrict  their  communion  to  the 
members  of  their  own  churches. 

Several  of  the  ministers,  in  the  rise  of  the 
Baptist  denomination  in  England,  were  univer 
sity  graduates;  bul  thai  source  hopelessly  failing 
with  the  Restoration,  the  Baptists  are  found. 
with  other  denominations,  taking  measures  for 
the  e  I uca t ion  of  a  ministry  by  means  strictly  their 


BAPTISTS 


71 


own.  The  first  resort  was  to  private  tuition,  and 
Mr.  John  Tombes,  at  one  tune  preacher  in  the 
Temple  church,  London,,  was  the  teacher  of 
young  ministers.  In  1675  and  in  L689,  concerted 
action  was  taken  in  the  denomination  in  this 
direction.  Edward  Jewell  of  Bristol,  dying  about 
L686,  left  a  legacy  which  provided  for  instruction 
to  candidates  for  the  ministry,  and  became  after 
the  lapse  of  thirty  years  the  foundation  of  a  school, 
known  still  later  as  the  Bristol  College.  With 
tlic  growth  of  the  denomination  several  other 
colleges  arose,  which  according  to  the  "Baptist 
Hand-Book  for  1876''  (London.  1876)  were 
located  in  the  following  places  :  liawdon  near 
Leeds  (founded  at  Horton,  1804,  removed  to 
Rawdon  1859);  Pontypool,  (founded  at  Aber- 
gavenny. 1807,  removed  to  Pontypool,  1836)  ; 
Regents  Park.  London  (founded  1810;  removed 
tn  Regents  I 'ark.  1856);  Haverfordwest  (found- 
ed 1839)  :  Chilwell,  near  Nottingham  (founded 
1797,  removed  to  Chilwell,  1861);  Pastor's  Col- 
lege, Metropolitan  Tabernacle,  London,  (founded 
!);  Llangollen,  or  North  Wales  (founded 
1862);  Manchester  Baptist  Theological  Institu- 
tion (founded  1866) ;  The  Last  End  Training 
Institute  for  Home  and  Foreign  Missions,  Lon- 
don i  founded  1873).  All  these  colleges  are  un- 
derstood to  be  for  the  education  of  ministers 
only. 

In  the  American  colonies,  the  denomination 
had  not  grown  to  sufficient  magnitude  in  the 
Seventeenth  century  to  undertake  any  denomi- 
national work  in  education.  In  the  earlier  years 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  appear  their  first 
graduates  from  American  colleges.  Down  to 
and  including  1776,  the  number  of  their  college- 
bivd  ministers,  as  far  as  can  now  be  ascertained, 
was  19,  of  whom,  however,  two  were  not  gradu- 
ates. They  had  an  equal  or  larger  number  whose 
education  was  not  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  a 

College  course. 

Notices  of  attempts  towards  the  education  of 
their  ministry  under  denominational  auspices, 
appear  early  in  the  history  of  the  Philadelphia 
Association, — the  benefactions  to  Harvard  Col- 
lege of  Mr.  Hollis,  a  London  Baptist,  having 
i  a  stimulus  in  that  direction.  Similar  meas- 
ures were  taken  in  1755  in  the  Charleston  As- 
sociation. In  1756  was  opened  the  Academy  at 
Hop 'well,  X.  J.,  which  was  the  cradle  of  Rhode 
Zsli  nd  College,  now  Brown  University,  organized 
in  1764.  Academics  had  been  opened  and 
sustained  for  many  years  by  individual  teachers, 
in  the  half  century  following  the  establishment 
of  Brown  University,  but  no  general  movement 
in  the  direction  of  education  occurred  till  about 
the  time  of  the  organization  of  the  denomination 
for  the  work  of  missions.  In  this  organization 
education  was  embraced.  To  this  date.  1812 — 20, 
must  be  referred  efforts  to  establish  theological 
schools  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York  City,  at 
Waterville,  Maine,  and  at  Hamilton,  X.  V..  and 
the  rise  of  several  societies  to  give  pecuniary  aid 
to  young  men  preparing  for  the  ministry.  The 
Philadelphia  movement  became  merged  in  the 
founding  of  Columbian  College,  Washington   !>. 


C;  the  New  York  movement  in  the  rise  of  the 
institution  at  Hamilton,  now  known  as  Madison 
University,  but  having  in  alliance  with  it  a  the- 
ological seminary;  and  the  Waterville  movement 
in  the  establishment  of  the  college,  now  known 
as  Colt  University.  With  the  close  of  that 
decade  commenced  the  rapid  establishment  of 
colleges  and  universities  under  the  auspices  of 
the  denominations  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
(Georgetown  College,  Ky.,  bears  the  date  of  1S29; 
Denison  University,  Ohio,  |s:il  ;  Shurtleff  Col- 
lege, HI.,  1832;  Wake  Forest  College,  N.C.,1834; 
Franklin  College, Ind.,  1834;  Mercer  University, 
Ga.,  1837  ;  Richmond  College.  Ya..  1840;  How- 
ard College,,  Ala.,  1843;  Baylor  University, 
Texas,  18  15  :  University  at  Lewisburg,  I 'a.,  1847; 
William  Jewell  College,  Mo.,  1849;  University 
of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1850  ;  Mississippi  College, 
1850;  Furman  University,  S.  < '..  1851  ;  Mossy 
Creek  College,  Tenn.,  1853";  Central  University, 
Pella,  Iowa.  1853;  Kalamazoo  College,  Mich., 
1855  ;  Bethel  College.  Ky..  1856  ;  McMimmlle 
College,  Oregon,  1858;  University  of  Chicago, 
HI.,  1859;  Waco  University,  Texas,  1861 ;  Yas- 
sar  College,  N.  Y.,  1861  :  University  of  Des 
Moines,  Iowa,  1865;  La  Grange  College,  Mo., 
1866;  Concord  College,  Xew  Liberty.  Ey.,1866; 
Louisiana  Baptist  College.  Mo.,  1869;  California 
( 'ollege,  1871 ;  Monongahcla  College,  Pa.,  1871 ; 
Southwestern  University,  Tenn.,  1874.  Of  the 
later  Colleges,  those  which  have  risen  to  chief 
reputation  and  strength,  are  in  the  Xorth, 
Rochester,  Madison  and  Denison,  and  in  the 
South,  Richmond.  Yassar,  the  chief  college  in 
the  United  States  for  young  women,  should  be 
ranked  with  Baptist  institutions  only  from  the 
fact,  that  the  founder,  an  adherent  of  the  denomi- 
nation, made  the  majority  of  its  trustees  Baptists, 
charging  them,  however,  to  make  it  Christian 
and  unsectarian,  which  they  have  done.  Several 
of  the  colleges  in  the  above  list  are  very  weak, 
and  some  hold  the  title  doubtfully.  According 
to  the  Baptist  Year-book  of  1876,  the  total 
amount  of  property  held  by  the  Paptist  colleges 
is  |8,045,146.  This  must  be  accepted  as  a  proxi- 
mate statement  only,  and  is  in  part  probably 
exaggerated.  Brown  University  has  a  very 
valuable  library  of  45,000  volumes,  several  have 
libraries  from  9,000  to  12,000  volumes ;  Brown 
University  has  a  library  fund  of  about  $27,000, 
and  the  University  of  Rochester  of  $25,000. 
The  total  number  of  students  in  L875  -.6  was 
t,985,  of  whom  1,092  were  females.  These  num- 
bers, however,  are  of  uncertain  significance,  be- 
cause in  some  cases  professional,  and  in  many 
cases  preparatory  students  are  included.  The 
curriculum  of  these  colleges  varies  in  character, 
hut  corresponds  in  that  respects  to  the  vary- 
ing character  of  American  colleges  in  general. 
Some  of  them  take  rank  with  colleges  of  the 
first   class. 

There  are  in  the  United  States  six  Paptist 
theological  seminaries  of  the  highest  grade,  be- 
sides departments  of  theology  in  four  or  more 
colleges.  Of  these  seminaries.  Hamilton  wad 
founded  in  bs2n,  Xewton  in  L825,  Rochester  in 


72 


Rvw.Arr.n 


BARNARD 


-out  hem  in  1859,  Chicago  in  1867,  and 
Groan  in  L868.  In  these  seminaries,  there  were 
in  1875 — 76,  362  students,  of  whom  probably 
about  ;{'ki  were  in  the  compfefr 
courses  designed  for  graduates  of  colleges,  are  as 
high  and  as  thoi  )  are  known  to  theolqg 

inarii-s. 

There  are  likewise  in  the  United  States  about 
fort  imies,  or   institutions  of  that  grade 

having  other  Dames,  which   are  ts  under 

Bai  •  pices,  holding  property  of  the  estimat- 

ed value  of  82,000,000.  Among  these  academies 
or  other  institutions,  are  those  established  under 
the  protection  and  patronage  of  the  American 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  at  Was 
Richmond,  Raleigh,  Columbia,  Angusta,  N 
ville.  and  New  Orleans,  for  the  education  of 
colored  preachers  and  teachers.   T.  jtitu- 

tioi.  _ 1 1  in  their  infancy,  are  perform] 

very  important  and 

There  hare  been  three  epochs  of  remarkable 

.rk  of  American 
Baptists  the  middle  of  the 

-  century,  had   for  its   fruit  the  foundii  a 
Hopewell  Academy  and  Brown  University.  I  be 
md,   contempora  nary 

movement.  the  movement  h 

-  the  prolific  of  all  the  later  colli  . 

and  seminaries.     'I  he   third 
the  year   L870,    n  hen   the  ional  ed 

tional  convention  of  tfa  •  Ba]  Id  under 

the  auspices  of  the  Amei  Educatii 

-  in  Brooklyn,  N.T.      A  remark. 
impulse    \v  ition   to  the 

founding   and    endowment    of   academies,    for 
which    purp  .     i  im-  of  money  I 

since  been  raised.     From  that  time,  di-. 
of  education. d  questions   in    the   denomination 
have  been  marked  b       _  I  breadth 

and  force,  the  number  oi  students  in  colleges  and 
seminaries  i  id  the  raid. 

money  for  the  endowment  of  institutions  of  learn- 
ing has   becom  iltaneous  and  unive 

effort.       A  aecond    educational    convention 

held   in    Philadelphia   in    1872.      In    L873,  the 
American  Baptist   Educational   Commission  re- 
commended  the  celebration  of  the  Centennial  of 
natron  by  a  common  movement  for  the i 
>f  funds  for  ional  pu  rod  that 

work  is  now  pro< 
The    Baptists   have    had  distinguished 

of    whom  among   the  dead.  rrai 
\\  :i\  land  and  I  [oratio  I!.  Flacketl  may  be  named 
as  pre-eminent.   '  »f  the  chief  benefactors  of  edu- 
■n.  like  he  dead,  may  be  named, 

•  II.  Thom. i  .  I  lollis.  \  i.  ■  rwn, 

and  Vfal  The  list  of  living  names 

and   honorable,  were  there  suffi- 

•  enumeration. 
BARBAULD,  Anna  Laetitia.  an  I 
wri'.  noted   for   her  excellenl 

read  mg   children. 

born  in  I  7  13,  and  di  25.     I  hr  father 

John  Aikin,  a  I  nitarian   minis  the 

principal  of  in  Iaxv 

his  children.     In  1  77  l( 


married  the  Rev.  Rochemort  Barbauld,  with 
iiool    for  el.-ven  years.      Her 

r  noted  educational  publications  are  Early 
Lemons  for  Children,  H&mnu  in  ['rose,  and 
the  pieces  which  die  contributed  for  /.  ,■«•  <// 

Home,  published  by  her  brother  Or.  John  Aikin. 
Her  n.  _■    are    numerous  and 

varied.     Mrs.  BarbaukTs  books  for  children  are 
among  the  best  of  their  class,  and  1.  med 

their  popularity  to  the  present  time,    of  tl 
and  their  authoress.  Dr.  Knox  remarks.  ••  A  poetess 

ur  own  tin.  irkahly  distinguished  by 

her  taste  and  t  Ended  to  compose 

little  books  for  the  initiation  of  children  in  read- 
g  and   they  seem   admirably  adapted   to  effect 
her  laudable  purposi  -  ucatum, 

by  VicEsnrus  Kifoi.)      Her  writing!  were  col- 
lected   and   edited    by  her   met  krnn 
London,  1825).    The  same  lady  also  public 
.1  Legacy  for  Young  I.              ond.,  1826),  com- 
piled fr          [rs.  Barbauld'a  posthun 

BARNARD,  Frederick  Augustus  Porter, 
LL.  I'..  waa  born    at  Sheffield,    W 
1809.     He  graduat  ale  College  in  I  - 

-    tutor    then-    i!       -         and.  ntly, 

her    in    the  ['or    the  d   dumb 

at  Hartford,  and  in  that  of  New  York.     I 

7   to    1848,  he    V, 
and  natural  phi.  m  the    n. 

han  I   natural 

history  till  I854,in  which  year  he  took  orde 
tant   Rpiacopal  <  hurch.     He 

•  ■r  of  mathemal  ural   philosophy,  and 

civil  engineering  in  the  univ  usippi 

from  L854  to  1861,  being  also  president  of  I 

tution  from  1856  to  1858,  and  chancellor 
from  1  358  to  1861,  when    hi  _       I.      In   I 

he  accompanied  the  expedition  to  observe 

in  Labrador,  and  in  the 
lected  president  of  the  Ameri 

AsBOi  iation  for  the  Advancement  of  Science.    He 
one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Nati< 
demy  oi    -  ted  in  1 863.     In 

;     (  he  was  in  <       \       \  chart-printing  and 
lithography  in  the  L'nited 
He  waa  elected  president  of  Columb 
-    I.  which  office  he  still    i  1876)  holds,  and  in 

nited   .-tat.-  COIIIIIli.-.-io)l- 

to  the    i  rition.      Dr.   Barnard  i.-i 

I'-mtier  of    various  learned  in  the 

('nited  trope.      During  his 

idence   in    the    South,    he    was    actively 

in  promoting  public  education.     He  hat  been 
a   i  ontributor    to    the      '  m   Journal 

Education  and  to  .-mi.i.im  w-  .1-  •/<•  I, 

nf  >  ,,,/  Arte.     Among  his  pubheati 

u  hich  have  related  chief!  tad  edu- 

cational  may  be  mentioned  :   1 

on  .!  -  \natytic  Grammar  "-itlt. 

I     .•  ■  rtii  '  hich  originated 

,ii  the  principal  institutions. 
he  deaf  and  dumb  : 

s  Inch  attracted  much  attention; 
Education  Art 

( '„:■ 
Coast    & 


BARNARD 


BASEDOW 


73 


3);   Vndtdatory   Theory  <f    Light  (LS62)\ 
.1/  tchinery  and  Processes  qftihe  Industrial  Arts. 
■to,  (1868);  an<l  Metric  System  <>/  Weights  and 
1/    sures  i 1  871  I. 

BARNARD,  Henry,  LL.  !>..  was  born  in 
Hartford,  t  't..  in  I  81 1 .  I  [e  graduated  from  Yale 
College  in  1830  with  honor,  his  course  having 
been  marked  by  diligence  and  success  in  the 
classics  and  an  unusual  devotion  to  English 
literature.  The  next  five  years  were  devoted 
chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  law.  joined  to  a  dili- 
gent reading  of  the  besl  English  and  classical 
authors.  During  this  period,  he  taught  Bchool 
for  a  time,  and  toward  its  close  spent  some 
months  in  traveling  through  the  western  and 
southern  portions  of  the  United  States.  In  L835, 
be  visited  Europe,  and  traveled  extensively  on 
tool  through  England,  Scotland  and  Switzer- 
land, devoting  his  attention  chiefly  to  the  social 

0 lition  of    the   people.     On   his  return,  after 

an  absence  of  eighteen  months,  he  was  elected  to 

the  Connecticut  legislature  and  represented  his 
native  city  in  that  body  for  three  years.  There, 
various  measures  relating  to  the  social,  intellect- 
ual, and  moral  condition  of  the  people  engaged 
his  attention,  embracing  the  education  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  Mind,  the  care  of  the 
poor  and  insane,  the  reorganization  of  county 
prisons,  the  establishment  of  public  libraries,  and 
the  completion  of  the  geological  survey  of  the 
state.  His  great  work  was  the  originating  and 
securing  the  passage  of  an  "Act  to  provide 
for  the  better  supervision  of  common  schools," 
which  created  a  board  of  commissioners,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  investigate  the  condition  of  the 
schools,  and  to  endeavor  to  improve  them  by  ad- 
dresses, lectures,  correspondence,  the  publication 

of  a  journal,  and  the  recommendation  of  appro- 
priate measures.  Mr.  Barnard  was  a  member 
and  secretary  of  this  commission  for  four  years. 
until  it  was  abolished  by  adverse  political  action 
in  L842.  In  this  capacity  the  duties  of  the  hoard 
devolved  chiefly  on  him;  besides  which  he  edited 
the  Connecticut  Common  School  Journal,  and 
made  four  annual  reports,  which  were  marked  by 

it  ability  and  were  highly  commended.  After 
tit  teen  mouths  spent  in  a  tour  of  the  United  States 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  materials  for  a  His- 
tory of  public  schools  and  other  means  <>f  pop- 
ular education  in  the  United  Slates,  be  was  ap- 
pointed commissioner  of  public  schools  in  Rhode 
Island,  an  office  which  he  had  been  instrumental 
in  creating.  In  five  years  he  organized  an  ex- 
cellent system  of  popular  education,  and  on  re- 
tiring from  office,  in  consequence  of  ill  health, 
in  1849,  he  received  the  unanimous  thanks  of  the 
state  legislature.  During  this  period  he  published 
several  volumes  relating  to  the  schools  of 
Rhode  Island,  and  edited  (1845  9)  the  Jour- 
mil  i if  the  Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruction. 
From  lv>n  to  L854,  he  was  principal  of  the 
newly  established  <  ionnecticut  state  normal  school 
and  state  superintendent  of    common  Bchools, 

in  editing  the  Common  School  Journal.  In 
L855,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Education, 


and.  in  1 8 56, he  commenced  the  publication  of  the 
American  Journal  <f  Education.     From   ls">7 

to  lv">'.t.  he  was  chancellor  of  the  university  of 
Wisconsin,  and  in  1865  —  n'  president  of  St. 
John's  College,  Annapolis,  Md.  Upon  the  organ- 
ization of  the  United  States  bureau  of  educa- 
tion, in  L867,  for  the  establishment  of  which  he 
had  labored,  he  was  appointed  the  liist  com- 
missioner and  held  the  office  till  L870.  Dr.  Bar- 
nard has  done  much  toward  the  improvement  of 
school  architecture,  the  organization  of  teachers' 
institutes,  and  the  establishment  of  high  and 
normal  m1i.mi1>.  Among  his  works  are,  School 
Architecture  (1839),  of  whichl30,000  copies  were 
sold:  Normal  Schools  (1851 1;  National  Education 
'in  Europe  (1854),  which  was  Baid  by  the  West- 
minster Review  to  group  "  under  one  view  the 
varied  experience  of  nearly  all  civilized  countries"; 
Educational  Biography  (1857);  Reformatory 
Education  (1857);  ObjecLTeaching  (1860); 
and  Military  Schools  (1862). 

BASEDOW,  Johann  Bernhard,  the  found- 
er of  the  Philanthropin,  was  horn  in  Hamburg, 
in  17'_'.'>.  His  early  youth  was  gloomy  and  un- 
happy, owing  to  the  excessive  severity  of  his 
father  and  the  habitual  melancholy  of  his 
mother.  While  still  a  hoy.  he  ran  away  from 
his  paternal  home,  and  entered  the  service  of 
a  country  physician  in  Holstein.  Having  re- 
turned to  Hamburg,  upon  the  urgent  entreaties 
of  his  father,  he  entered  tin'  Johanneum,  where 

he  became  noted  among  hisscl [-mates  for  his 

foolish  tricks.  In  1711.  he  went  to  the  gymnasium 
of  I  [amburg,  where  Reimarus,  the  famous  author 
of  the  Wolfenbvitel  Fragments,  was  among  his 
teachers.  While  there,  he  had  to  support  him- 
self by  giving  private  lessons  and  writing  occa- 
sional poems;  but  a  large  portion  of  the  money 
which  he  earned  was  spent  in  debauchery, and 
his  own  studies  were  conducted  without  system 
or  perseverance.  From  1 7 1 1  to  1 7  H'..  he  studied 
theology  and  philosophy  at  the  university  of 
Leipsic.  He  was  very  irregular  in  attending  the 
lectures:  and  the  Wolffian  philosophy,  which  at 
that  time  predominated,  brought  him,  as  be  Bays 

himself.  ••  into  a  state  of  half-way  between  Chris- 
tianity and  naturalism.''  In  I  7  19,  he  was  engaged 
by  Herr  von  Quaalen,  in  Holstein,  as  private 
tutor  for  his  children  ;  and  while  in  this  position, 
Worked    out    for    his    pupils    a    new     method   of 

studying  languages, an  account  of  which  he  has. 

given  in  a  Latin  dissertation,  entitled  "  />-   inusi- 

tiitti  i'/  optima  honestioris  juventutis  erudiendce 
methodo"  (Kiel.  17.V2).  Herr  von  Quaalen,  who 
was  much  pleased  with  the  results  of  Basedow's 
teaching,  procured  for  him.  in  L 753,  the  chair  of 
ethics  and  fine  arts,  and  subsequently  that  of 
theology,  at  the  Ritterakademie  (Knights'  Acad- 
emy) at  Soroe.  On  account  of  the  unorthodox 
views  expressed  in  his  work  On  i>ru< 
philosophy  for  nil  ranks,  he  was  obliged,  in  1 761 . 

to  remove  to  the   gymnasium  of    Altona      II 

two  other  heterodox  publications,  Philalethiaaiid 
Methodical  Instruction  in  both  Natural  and 
Biblical  Religion,  involved  him  in  a  severe  con- 
troversy  with   several    theologians,  among  oth 


74 


BASEDOW 


BATES  COLLEGE 


Senior  Gotze  of  Hamburg,  and  caused  him  and 
lu's  family  to  be  excluded  from  the  Communion. 
In  1767,  he  conceived  a  comprehensive  plan  for  a 
radical  reform  of  public  education,  and  soon  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  the  support  of  the  Danish 
minister  Bernstorff,  who  relieved  him  from  the 
duties  of  his  position,  and  granted  him  a  salary 
of  eight  hundred  thalers.  In  1768,  he  pub- 
lished the  Address  to  the  Philanthropists  and 
Men  of  Property ',  upon  Schools  and  Studies, 
and  their  Influence  upon  the  Public  Weal  (  Vbr- 
stellung  an  Menschenfreunde  etc.)  with  the 
plan  of  an  elementary  work  on  human  knowl- 
edge. He  applied  to  many  princes,  governments, 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  freemasons'  lodges,  and 
other  learned  men  and  societies,  to  aid  him  in 
t\w  publication  of  the  elementary  work  which  be 
proposed;  and  the  success  of  these  applications 
was  so  great,  that. in  1771  (Contributions  amount- 
ing to  more  than  $10,000  had  been  received.    As 

tin'  first  part  of  the  proposed  Elementarwerk, 
Basedow  published,  in  L770,  Methodenbuch  (book 
of  methods),  of  which  a  second  edition  appeared 
in  1771,  and  a  third  in  177.'!.  The  chapter  on 
Education  of  Princes,  was  omitted  in  the  second 
edition  of  the  work,  and  having  been  revised 
"  with  a  care  worthy  of  th  i  subject,"  it  was  pub- 
lished in  1771,  as  a  separate  work,  under  the 
title  of  Agafhocrator.  Prince  Albert  of  Dessau 
sent    the  author,  in  return  for  a  copy  of   this 

book,  10(1  thalers;  and  the   emperor  Joseph  II.. 

a  medal  with  his  portrait.  At  the  same  time, 
Basedow  received  from  the  ruling  prince  of  Des- 
sau, Leopold  Frederic  Francis,  a  call  to  Dessau, 
to  carry  out  his  plan  of  a  large  reformatory  edu- 
cational institution.  Having,  accordingly,  re- 
moved to  Dessau,  he  published  then1,  in  177  1. 
his  long  expected  Elementarwerk,  in  4  vols., 
illustrated  with  one  hundred  plates,  mostly  en- 
graved by  Chodowiecky.  The  object  of  this  hook 
is,  as  Basedow  himself  remarks.  (I)  Elementary 
instruction  in  the  knowledge  of  world  and  things  ; 
(2)  An  original  method, founde  1  upon  experience. 
Of  teaching  children  to  read  without  weariness  or 
loss  of  time  I  Natural  knowledge  ;  (  I)  Knowl- 
edge of  morals,  the  mind,  and  reasoning;  (5)  A 
thorough  and  impressive  method  of  instruction 
in  natural  religion,  with  a  perfectly  impartial  ac- 
count of  dogmatic  articles  of  belief;  and  (6)  A 
knowledge  of  social  duties,  of  commerce,  etc." 
This  work  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Mangels- 
dorf,  and  into  French  by  I  [uber. 

The  foundation  of  the  educational  institution 
which  became  famous  in  history  as  the  Philan- 
thropic was  laid  in  Dessau,  Dec.  'J7..  1771. 
The  prince  of  Dessau  gave  the  building,  a 
garden,  and  $12,000.  The  object  of  the  in- 
stitution was  i"  supply  a  model  school  in 
which  the  principles  of  the  Elementarwerk 
could  be  applied  in  practical  methods.  Poor 
pupils  were  received  at  reduced  rates,  under  the 
name  of  famulants.  In  I77">.  the  number  of 
boarders  was  nine,  and  of  famulants  six.    Many 

of  the    prominent    scholars   and   educators  of   the 

time,  as  Cant,  Oberlin,  Nicolai,  and  Zolhcoffer, 
took  a  profound  interest  in  this  novel  institution. 


which,  as  Basedow  promised,  was  to  be  free  from 
sectarian  bias  and  to  lie  carried  on  without  a  re- 
sort to  corporal  punishment  ;  gymnastic  exercises 
were  to  be  afforded  and  the  work  uf  learning  was 
to  be  made  "  three  times  as  short,  and  three 
times  as  easy  as  it  usually  is."  The  expectations 
raised  by  Basedow's  enthusiastic  announcements 
and  promises  wire,  however,  not  realized.  As 
early  as  Dec,  1774.  Basedow  was  obliged  to 
transfer  the  supreme  management  of  the  institu- 
tion to  Campe,  under  whom  the  number  of 
pupils  rose  to  50.  For  a  short  time,  Basedow 
was  again  placed  at  the  head  of  the  institution: 
but,  in  177S,  he  had  finally  to  leave  it.  In  1784, 
the  periodical  of  the  PhUanlhropin,  entitled  Ped- 
agogical Conversations  il>i''  padagogischen  Un- 
terhaUungen)  was  discontinued:  and.  from  that 
time,  the  institution  declined  rapidly  and  was 
soon  entirely  abandoned.  The  teachers,  however, 
were  scattered  through  all  parts  of  Germany,  ap- 
plying in  various  ways  the  principles  of  the 
founder.  Basedow  devoted  the  last  years  of  his 
life  to  writing  theological  and  educational  works. 
lie  died,  duly  25.,  L790,  at  Magdeburg.  His  last 
words  were,  "  I  desire  to  be  dissected  for  the 
benefit  of  my  fellow-men."  Like  Rousseau, 
Basedow  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  discus- 

sion  of  new  educational  theories;  and  he  re- 
sembled Rousseau,  too.  in  being  entirely  unfitted 
for  a  practical  educator.  There  was  much  in 
his  method  of  teaching  that  appeared  strange, 
eccentric,  and  even  farcical:  but.  on  the  other 
hand,  those  who  most  severely  criticise  his  defects, 
rea  lily  acknowledge  that  his  life-long  labors  in 
behalf  of  education  were  not  in  vain.  His  pur- 
pose vas,  without  doubt,  honest  and  unselfish. 
Like  Rousseau,  he  labored  ardently,  and  with 

considerable  success,  for  the  removal  of  many  un- 
natural restraints,  which,  at  that  time,  were  so 
common.  Physical  education,  according  to  his 
system,  was  attended  to  in  a  manner  quite  original 

at  that  time:  and  the  favorite  principle  of  Base- 
dow that  the  scholars  should  barn  with  love, and 
nol  with  repugnance,  had  a  most  beneficenl  in- 
fluence upon  the  practical  methods  of  other 
educational  institutions.  See  Lai  her,  Ge- 
schichte  tier  Padagogik,  vol.  n.  (translated  in 
Barnard's  German  Educational  Reformers); 
Max  Muller  (grandson  of  Basedow)  in  AUge- 
meine  Deutsche  Biographie,  art.  Basedow; 
Meyer,  CJiaracter  und  Schriften  Basedow's 
(2  vols.,  Hamburg.  1791  -1792);  Quick,  Edu- 
cational Reformers  (London.  1868,  and  Cin- 
cinnati, L874). 

BATES  COLLEGE,  at  Lewiston,  Me.,  was 
established  in   L863,  by  the  Live   Baptists,  and 

named  in  honor  of  Benjamin  I''.,  bales  of  boston. 

w  ln>  contributed  $200,000  to  its  endowment.  It 
has  handsome  grounds,  three  tine  college  build- 
ings, ami  a  president's  residence.  The  value  of 
its  grounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus  is  about 

$200,000.      In   L874,'it  had  a  corps  of  S  instruct- 
ors, and    100    students    in   the    different    coll. 
classes,  of  whom  .'!  were  females.      Nine  different 
schools  and  academies  ad  as  preparatory  schools 
for  this  college.    There  is  here  an  endowed  schol- 


BAVARIA 


BELGIUM 


75 


arskip  for  a  lady  student,  supposed  to  be  the  first 
instance  of  such  an  appropriation  in  any  of  the 

Colleges  of  this  country.  There  are  ten  state 
scholarships,  giving  tuition  to  ten  students,  to  be 
selected  by  the  governor;  and  in  awarding  these 
scholarships,  preference  is  required  to  be  given  to 
the  children  of  those  who  have  fallen  in  defense 
of  their  country,  and  always  to  those  who  are 
indigent  and  meritorious.  There  is  a  professor- 
ship of  mental  and  moral  philosophy,  named 
after  Asa  Reddington,  LL.  1.).,  of  Lewiston,  who 

re  a  large  amount  toward  its  endowment. 
The  Cobb  professorship  of  logic  and  Christian 
evidence  was  named  in  honor  of  J.  L.  II.  Cobb, 
of  Lewiston,  who  contributed  the  chief  portion 
of  the  funds  for  its  endowment.  The  various 
libraries, — college,  theological,  and  societies',  con- 
tain about  9,000  volumes.  The  president  of  the 
institution  is  (1876)  Rev.  0.  B.  Cheney,  D.  D. 
The  annual  tuition  fee  is  $36. 

BAVARIA.     See  Germany. 

BAYLOR  UNIVERSITY,  at  Independ- 
ence, Tex.,  was  founded  in  L845  by  the  Baptists.  It 
bad,  in  L874,  a  corps  of  5  instructors.  2  endowed 
professorships,  81  students,  and  a  library  of  about 
3,000  volumes.  It  has  a  theological  as  well  as  a 
collegiate  department.  The  value  of  its  grounds, 
buildings,  etc.  is  estimated  at  $35,000  ;  its  endow- 
ment is  about  $16,000.  Rev.  Win.  C.  Crane, 
D.  D.,  LL.  I).,  is  (1876)  the  president.  The  an- 
nual tuition  fee  is  from  $30  to  ■Slid. 

BEACH  GROVE  COLLEGE,  at  Beach 
Grove,  Tenn.,  was  founded  in  1868.  It  had,  in 
187-1.  a  corps  of  5  instructors,  and  106  students 
hi  its  preparatory,  and  18  in  its  collegiate  depart- 
ment. Its  grounds,  college  buildings,  and  ap- 
paratus are  valued  at  $30,000.  M.  Parker,  A. 
It.,  is  (1876)  the  president.     It  is  non-sectarian. 

BEBIAN,  Roch  Ambroise  Auguste,  a 
noted  teacher  of  deaf-mutes,  was  born  on  the 
island  of  Guadeloupe,  in  1 789,  and  died  there  in 
1  8  •'!  1.  He  was  godson  of  the  abbe  Sicard,  so 
1  mil  for  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  instruc- 
tion of  deaf-mutes,  and  under  him  was  prepared 
for  the  task  which  he  afterwards  assumed.  After 
the  publication  in  1S17,  of  his  h'xxo/'  sur  les 
aourds-muets  et  sur  le  langage  naturel,  he  was 
appointed  a  professor  at  the  royal  institution; 
but  the  jealousy  and  opposition  excited  toward 
him  by  his  zeal  for  innovation  and  reform,  com- 
1  him  to  resign,  in  1825,  after  which  he  re- 
turned to  Guadeloupe.  His  Eloge  historiqw 
Jhtbbe  de  !  Epee  obtained  a  prize  from  the  acad- 
emy. Bisother  important  publications  are,  Mimo- 
graphie,  ou  Essai  d'ecriture  mimique  (1822), 
and  Manuel  d'enseignement  pratique  (1827). 

BEDE,  or  Becla,  styled  the  venerable  Bede, 
a  celebrated  Saxon  ecclesiastic  and  scholar,  and 
the  earliest  English  historian,  was  born  in  Dur- 
ham, England,  about  677,  and  died  in  7."».">.  He 
possessed  an  excellent  character,  was  humble, 
diligent,  and  truly  pious ;  and  rose  to  great  emi- 
nence in  the  church  through  his  learning  and 
literary  ability.  His  biography,  written  by  his 
pupil  Cuthbert,  says  of  him,  that  having  been 
brought  by  his  relations,  in  his  seventh  year,  to 


the  abbot  Benedict  Biscop,  in  Wearmouth,  he 
devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  stmly  of  the  Script- 
ures, and  occupied  his  spare  time  in  learning, 
teaching,  and  writing.  He  spent  his  entire  life 
in  the  monastery  of  Wearmouth  in  study  and 
teaching,  and  acquired  a  wide  reputation  both  as 
an  instructor  and  a  scholar.  Many  students 
came  from  afar  to  hear  him  ;  and  others,  who 
could  not  come  in  person,  requested  of  him,  by 
letter,  explanations  of  difficult  biblical  passages. 
Of  his  method  of  teaching,  nothing  is  recorded; 

but  it  consisted,  without  doubt,  of  lectures  to  the 

students.    There  is  no  doubt  that  he  possessed 

an  attractive  delivery,  and  the  excellence  of  his 
diction  may  be  seen  from  his  literary  works. 
His  studies  were,  by  no  means,  confined' to  theol- 
ogy, but  extended  to  every  science,  as  we  see 
from  Ids  work  on  orthography  and  his  works  De 
arte  metrica,  Liber  de  schematis  et  irqpis  sacrce 
scripturae,  and  De  natura  rerum,  the  latter 
treating  of  physics,  astronomy,  and  geography. 
The  greatest  of  his  works,  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  English  Nation,  written  in  Latin 
{Historia  Ecclesiastica  Gentis  Anglorum),  was 
translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by  King  Alfred, 
and  is  still  the  best  authority  for  the  period  on 
which  it  treats.  Bede's  complete  works,  as  far 
as  extant,  have  been  published  by  Dr.  Giles 
(London,  1843 — 1844).  A  new  English  trans- 
lation appeared  in  1871. — See  also  Weight,  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica  Literaria,  vol.  i.  (London, 
1842). 

BELGIUM,  a  kingdom  of  Europe,  has  an 
area  of  11,373  sq.  m..  and  a  population,  in  1^7.'!. 
of  5,253,821.  Almost  the  entire  population  be- 
longs nominally  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  number  of  Protestants  is  variously  estimated 
at  from  10,000  to  26,000;  that  of  the  Jews  at 
2000.  The  influence  of  the  Catholic  Church  on 
legislation  is  greater  than  in  any  other  country 
of  Europe,  and  the  Catholic  party,  which  aims  at 
shaping  the  legislative  functions  of  the  national 
assembly  in  accordance  with  the  heads  of  the 
( 'hureh.  has  controlled  the  destinies  of  the  nation 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  time  which  has 
elapsed  since  the  establishment  of  Belgian  inde- 
pendence. The  Belgians  are  almost  equally 
divided  into  two  nationalities,  the  blemish,  a 
branch  of  th  i  race,  and  the  Walloon, an 

offshoot  of  the  French.  The  Flemings  are 
estimated  at  about  49,8  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion, and  prevail  in  the  provinces  of  Hast  Flan- 
ders (92,4  per  cent  of  the  total  population),  Ant- 
werp (92,4  p.  a),  Limburg  (88,8  p.  a).  West 
Flanders  (88,0  p.  a),  and  Brabant  (56,1  p.  a), 
while  the  Walloons  have  a  majority  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Liege  (89.6  p.  c),  llainauit  (95.8  p.  a), 
Namur  (99.1  p.  a),  and  Luxemburg  84.7  p.  i 
The  country  constituting  the  present  kingdom  of 
Belgium  formed  part  of  the  great  Carlovingian 

empire,  utter  the  dissolution  of  which, the  Scheldt 

formed  the  boundary  between  France  and  Ger- 
many. Subsequently  it  was  united  with  Bur- 
gundy, conjointly  with  which  it  was  inherited  by 
the  kings  of  Spain.  The  peace  of  Ctrccht  (1713) 
gave   it  to  Austria,  from  which,  in  1 71)4.  it  was 


76 


BELGIUM 


conquered  by  the  French.  On  Xapoleon's  abdi- 
cation in  L814,  it  was  united  with  Holland,  with 
which  it  remained  until  1S,'{0,  when  a  successful 
revolution  established  its  independence.  The 
first  schools  after  the  introduction  of  Christian- 
ity were  connected  with  convents  and  collegiate 
churches,  and  some  of  them,  as  the  schools  of 
Liege.  Gemblours,  Dornick,  Ghent,  etc.,  achieved 
a  high  reputation.  Elementary  schools  were 
established  in  many  places  by  the  monastic  order 
of  the  llicronymites  or  Hieronymians.  During 
the  rule  of  the  I  hikes  of  Burgundy,  the  famous 
university  of  Louvain  was  founded  (in  1426), 
which  soon  occupied  a  trout  rank  among  the  high 
schools  of  Europe,  and  at  one  time  was  attended 
by  6000  students.  I  hiring  the  Dutch  rule,  a 
thorough  system  of  inspection,  reports,  and  full 
publicity,  was  instituted;  a  normal  school  was 
established  at  Liege  in  lslT.  and  in  1822  all  per- 
sons were  forbidden  to  exercise  the  functions  of 
a  school-master  in  the  higher  branches  of  public 
schools  who  were  not  authorized  by  a  central 
hoard  of  examination.  On  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, the  efforts  of  the  Dutch  government  to  re- 
press the  use  of  the  French  language  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  produced 
an  intense  and  general  dissatisfaction, and  became 
one  of  the  | iriniary  causes  of  the  revolution  of 
L830,  and  the  permanent  separation  of  Belgium 
from  Holland.  The  overthrow  of  the  hate  1 
Dutch  rule  was  naturally  followed  by  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  educational  laws  introduced  by  the 
Dutch  government.  In  the  place  of  the  strict 
control  of  the  entire  educational  system  by  the 
state,  the  most  absolute  freedom  of  instruction 
was  now  introduced.  The  cl  argy  founded  a 
number  of  schools,  which  remained  under  the 
exclusive  control  of  the  church,  while  the  Liberal 
party  supported,  in  opposition  to  the  church 
schools,    the    public    school    system.      In    1836,  a 

compromise  between  church  and  state  was  ar- 
rived at.     The  government  gave  to  the  clergy  an 

influence  Upon  the  state  schools,  while  the  church 
Subjected  all  its  schools  which  received  Support 
from  the  commune,  the  government,  or  public 
funds,  to  the  inspection  of  the  state.  Since  L865, 
the  educational  question  has  been  the  subject  of 
a  very  animated  controversy  between  the  Liberal 
and  the  Catholic  parties.  The  Liberals  founded 
an  association  called  Ligue  de  I'enseignemeni, 
which   aimed   at    emancipating   the  state  schools 

from  the  influence  of  the  church. 

Primary  instruction  is  based  on  the  law  of 
Sept.  23.,  1842.  This  law  provides  that  every 
commune  (the  smallest  territorial  and  civil  suh- 
di\  ision  of  the  state)  must  have  at  least  one  public 

elementary  school,  unless  the  instruction  of  all  the 

children  is  sufficiently  provided  for  to  the  satis- 
faction "1  the  government,  in  private,  endowed,  or 
denominational  schools.    Tin'  elementary  school 

must  he  free  In  tin    poor,   and    may  I"'  made  free 

to  all  by  vote  of  i he  communal  council.  The 
primary  school  must  give  instruction  in  religion 
and  morals,  in  writing,  in  the  mother-tongue  of  the 
children  (French  or  Flemish),  and  in  arithmetic. 
The  law  provides  for  a  superior  elementary  school 


in  every  large  city.  In  ISoO,  this  class  of  schools 
was  changed  into  secondary  schools.  The  schools 
are  managed  by  the  communal  council,  and  the 
expenses  required  for  their  support  are  included 
in  the  local  taxes.  The  teachers  are  chosen  by 
the  communal  council  from  among  candidates 
who  have  for  at  least  two  years  pursued  the  stud- 
ies of  a  normal  school.  They  must  receive  a 
certificate  of  qualification  from  a  board  consist- 
ing of  a  lay  and  a  clerical  member,  the  former 
appointed  by  the  state  and  the  latter  by  the  ec- 
clesiastical authorities.  The  communal  council 
may  suspend  the  teacher  for  three  months,  the 
provincial  inspector  may,  on  consultation  with 
the  communal  council, dismiss  him.  The  inspec- 
tion of  primary  schools  is  exercised  both  by  the 
state  government  and  the  ecclesiastical  author- 
ities. The  king  appoints  a  cantonal  inspector 
for  each  canton,  and  a  provincial  inspector  for 
each  of  the  nine  provinces.  The  cantonal  in- 
spector is  appointed  for  the  term  of  three  years, 
lie  must  visit  each  school  of  his  district  at  least 
twice  a  year,  and  report  to  the  provincial  inspect- 
or. The  latter  must  visit  each  school  at  least 
once  a  year,  and  report  to  the  minister  of  the  in- 
terior. All  the  provincial  inspectors  assemble 
once  a  year  as  a  central  commission,  under  the, 
presidency  of  the  minister  of  the  interior.  'I  he. 
bishops  also  appoint  cantonal  and  diocesan  in- 
spectors, and  must  once  a  year  report  to  the 
minister   of  the  interior  on    the   state   of  moral 

and  religious  instruction.     In  the  Protestant  and 

Jewish  schools  a  dele-ate  of  the  consistory  super- 
intends the  religious  instruction.  The  govern- 
ment annually  publishes  a  list  of  text-books  that 

may  be  used.  From  this  list  each  teacher  can 
make  his  selection.  'I  here  is  no  special  ministry 
of  public  instruction,  but  all  educational  matters 
are  assigned  to  the  minister  of  the  interior,  with 
a  separate  bureau.  Tin'  state  has  established  two 
normal   schools  for  primary  teachers,  a    Flemish 

sel I  at  Lierre,  and  a  Walloon  school  at  Nivelles. 

'I  here  are.  besides, seven  normal  departments  an- 
nexed to  higher  primary  schools,  and  seven  epis- 
copal normal  schools,  which  have  been  placed  by 

the  bishops  under  government  Supervision.  'I  he 
courses  of  instruction  in  the  state  normal  schools 
are  for  three  veal's,  and  in  the  episcopal  schools 
for  four.  The  pupils  tire  usually  required  to 
board  and  lodge  upon  the  school  premises* 
Teachers'  conferences,  generally  occupying  only 

one   day.   and    never  more  than   three,  are   held 
quarterly  during  vacations. and  conducted  by  the 
provincial  and  cantonal  inspectors. 
Secondary  instruction  was  re-organized  in  1  s.»<i. 

The  secondary  schools  are  of  two  grades.  The 
higher  grade,  known  as  athenceums,  includes  two 
sections,  One  tor  classical  instruction  which  cor- 
responds to  the  German  gymnasium,  and  is  for 
six  years,  and  one  tor  industrial  instruction, 
corresponding  to  the  realschoolot  Germany,  and 

being  tor  four  years.  The  superintendence  of  sec- 
ondary instruction  belongs  to  a  general  inspector 
and  two  special  inspectors.     The  law   of   1850 

provides   for  a   council   of  secondary   instruction 

[conseil  de  perfectionnement),  consisting  of  at. 


BELGIUM 


BELL 


77 


[east  8  ;'.nd  not  more  than  10  members.  The 
higbesl  grade  of  instruction  is  that  dispensed  by 
the  universities.  Of  these,  there  are  four.  Two, 
those  of  Ghent  and  Ldege,  belong  to  the  state; 
one,  that  of  Louvain,  to  the  l>ishops;  and  one, 
that  of  Brussels,  to  an  association  of  liberals. 
Ghent,  Ldege,  and  Brussels  have  each  four  facul- 
ties; Louvain  has  five.  There  is  a  council  of 
superior  studies  (conseil  de  perfectionnement  de 
Venseignement  supirieur),  consisting  of  the  2 
rectors  and  8  professors  of  the  state  universities 
(1  from  eaeli  faculty),  the  school  inspectors,  and 
gome  private  individuals.  Industrial  instruction 
is  given  in  institutions  of  three  grades;  higher 
instruction,  in  the  special  schools  of  arts,  and 
manufactures  and  mines,  attached  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Liege,  in  those  of  civil  engineering, 
and  of  arts  and  manufactures,  annexed  to  the 
University  of  Ghent,  and  in  the  superior  in- 
stitute of  commerce  at  Antwerp;  intermediate 
instruction  in  the  industrial  departments  at- 
tached to  all  the  athenaeums  and  high  schools ; 
primary  instruction,  in  the  industrial  schools  for 
workmen.  The  latter  are  very  numerous,  lace- 
making  alone  being  taught  in  586  schools.  There 
is  a  military  school  for  training  officers  of  all 
arms,  regimental  schools  for  the  instruction  of  ig- 
norant  soldiers,  and  a  school  for  the  education  of 
soldiers'  children.  There  are  2  veterinary  schools, 
3  conservatories  of  music,  72  schools  of  drawing, 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  a  national 
observatory,  2  schools  for  deaf-mutes,  1  for  the 
blind,  6  for  orphans,  and  3  for  young  criminals. 

Education  in  Belgium  is  not  compulsory,  and 
the  number  of  children  receiving  no  kind  of  in- 
struction is  still  large.  Of  the  conscripts  there 
were,  in  18-45,  31)1  out  of  1000,  who  could  neither 
read  nor  write ;  in  1863,  302. 

The  salaries  of  primary  teachers  were  fixed  by 
a  law  of  1863  as  follows:  (1)  in  schools  with 
more  than  100  scholars,  minimum  salary  1,050 
francs;  (2)  in  schools  with  from  60  to  100  schol- 
ars, 950  francs;  (3)  in  schools  with  less  than 
60  scholars,  850  francs.  The  chief  town  of  every 
province  has  a  special  savings-bank  for  teachers 
(caisse  de  prevoyance),  into  which  every  teacher 
is  required  annually  to  pay  a  certain  fixed  amount 
from  his  salary,  and  which  also  receives  contribu- 
tions from  tin'  provinces,  the  state,  and  private 
individuals.  Every  teacher  who  is  sixty  years 
old  and  has  served  thirty  years  is  entitled  to  a 
life  pension.  The  full  pension  of  teachers  is  also 
paid  to  their  widows  and  to  their  orphans  till  the 
latter  have  reached  their  Kith  year. 

Of  the  four  universities  of  I  ielgium,  the  free 
Catholic  University  of  Louvain  had,  in  1872, 
the  largest  uumbefof  students  (901);  the  free 
iMberal)  University  of  Brussels  had  583;  the 
State  University  at  Liege  436,  and  the  State 
University  of  Ghent  210;  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Pine  Arts  at  Antwerp,  1576  students.  The 
Conservatory  of  Music  at  Brussels  was  attended 
by  675  pupils,  that  of  liege  by  789.  The  number 
of  teachers  in  the  primary  schools,  in  1 S7-1,  was 
10,629,  of  whom  7.032  were  laymen,  and  3,5'.i7 
members  of  religipus  orders  and  clerics.    The 


latter  class  has  increased  since  1851  by  1 .098,  the 
former  only  by  624.  The  schools  for  adults  num- 
bered L99.957  pupils,  9,219  more  thaninl848, 
being  ;5.98  per  cent  of  the  population.  The 
aggregate  expenditures  made  for  primary  instruc- 
tion, in  L874,  were  as  follows:  national  govern- 
ment, 6,643,415  francs;  provinces  1.5s  1. 010  fr. ; 

c mimes  5,863,561  fr. ;     total   L4,090,986  fr. 

To  what  extent  illiteracy  still  prevails  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that,  in  1874,  of  43,311 
men  who  were  drafted  for  the  militia.  8, 727  could 
neither  read  nor  write.  1,976  could  only  read, 
15,726  could  read  and  write.  L 6,228  had  a  higher 
education,  and  of  651  the  degree  of  instruction 
was  unknown. —  See  Barnard,  National  Edu- 
cation, part  ii.,  p.  .'569  to  401;  Juste,  Histoire  de 
V  instruction  publique  en  Belgique  (1840)  ;  Raj>- 
portstriennaux,publiesparle  gouvernement  sur 
Venseignement  des  trois  degres;  Annuaire  stati- 
stique  de  la  Belgique. 

BELL,  Andrew,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  edu- 
cationist, the  author  of  the  system  of  mutual 
or  monitorial  instruction  sometimes  called  the 
Madras  system,  was  born  at  St.  Andrews.  Scot- 
land, in  1  753,  and  died  at  Cheltenham,  England, 
in  1832.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  St.  Andrews,  went  to  America,  and  after  a 
short  residence  there,  returned  and  took  orders  in 
the  Episcopal  Church,  in  1787.  he  embarked 
for  India,  and  on  his  arrival  at  Madras,  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  the  English  garrison,  and  also 
superintendent  of  the  school  then  recently  estab- 
lished for  the  education  of  the  orphan  children 
of  British  soldiers.  Finding  great  difficulty  in 
obtaining  the  assistance  of  competent  teachei-s 
iu  this  arduous  work,  he  resorted  to  the  expedi- 
ent of  conducting  the  school  by  means  of  the 
pupils  themselves.  This  method  was  partly 
suggested  to  his  mind  by  his  seeing,  on  one  of 
his  morning  rides,  the  children  of  a  Malabar 
school  sitting  on  the  ground  and  writing  with 
their  fingers  iu  sand.  He  immediately  intro- 
duced this  method  of  teaching  the  alphabet  into 
his  school,  and  finding  the  ushers  averse  to  the 
innovation,  gave  the  A-B-C  class  to  a  boy  whom 
he  selected  as  especially  fitted  for  the  task.  Tin's 
boy,  whose  name  was  John  Erisken,  and  who 
was  probably  the  first  monitor  in  English  educa- 
tion, was  the  son  of  a  soldier,  and  then  about 
eight  years  old.  The  success  of  this  lad  induced 
Dr.  Bell  to  extend  the  experiment.  He  appointed 
other  boys  to  teach  the  lower  classes  :  and  soon 
afterwards  applied  his  system  of  monitors  to  the 

whole  school  (1791).  This  was  continued  under 
his  superintendence  till  his  return  to  Europe,  in 
L796.  (See  Monitorial  System.)  After  his 
arrival  in  England,  he  drew  up  a  full  report  of 
his  school,  which  was  published  in  London,  in 
1797,  under  the  title  of  An  Experiment  in 
Education,  madeatthr  Malr  Asy/iutl.  Madras; 

suggesting    a    System  by   which   a    School   or 
Family  may  teachitself  under tkesuperintt  ndence 
of  the  Master  or  Pare/it.    This  pamphlet  at 
tracted  little  attention,  until,  through  the  effo 
of   Joseph  Lancaster,  the  monitorial  system  of 
instruction  invented  by  him  was  introduced  into 


78 


BELL 


BELLES-LETTRES 


the  schools  of  the  Dissenters.  A  controversy  as 
to  the  respective  merits  of  the  systems  of  Bell 
and  Lancaster  then  sprung  up.  the  friends 
and  adherents  of  each  claiming  for  it  not  only 
superiority  in  merit,  but  priority  of  invention. 
The  idea  of  mutual  instruction  was,  however, 
not  new.  Indeed,  it  is  as  old  as  Lycurgus  ;  and 
Lancaster  was  too  candid  a  man  to  claim  an  ab- 
solute originality  for  his  plan.  Tn  his  first  pam- 
phlet, published  in  1803,  he  says  :  ••  I  ought  not 
to  close  my  account  without  acknowledging  the 
obligations  1  lie  under  to  Dr.  Bell;  I  much  re- 
gret that  I  was  not  acquainted  with  the  beauty 
of  his  system  till  somewhat  advanced  in  my 
plan.  If  1  had  known  it,  it  would  have  saved 
me  much  trouble  and  some  retrograde  move- 
ments." This  controversy  was  as  much  sectarian 
as  educational,  as  the  rival  systems  were  favored, 
the  one  by  the  Dissenters,  and  the  other  by  the 
Church  of  England,  [t,  however,  served  a  use- 
ful purpose,  in  giving  an  impetus  to  the  prog 
of  education.  In  L811,  a  society,  called 
National  Society,  was  formed  for  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  in  connection  with  the  Church 
of  England,  on  Dr.  Bell's  plan;  and  Dr.  Bell 
was  appointed  to  superintend  the  enterprise,  a 
duty  which  engrossed  much  of  his  time  and  ef- 
forts until  his  death.  By  this  means,  the  Madras 
system  obtained  an  introduction  not  only  in 
England,  but  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  as  well 
as  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States.  For  the 
purpose  of  bringing  it  to  the  notice  of  educators 
on  the  continent,  I>r.  Bell  made  an  exteusb  ■ 
tour,  in  the  course  of  which  he  visited  the  schools 
of  Pestalozzi  and  Fellenberg,  with  the  former  of 
whom  he  was  quite  charmed.  "  lie  has  much 
that  is  original,"  he  remarked,  "  much  that  is  ex- 
cellent. If  he  had  a  course  of  study  —  if  he 
were  to  dismiss  his  masters,  and  adopt  the 
monitorial  system  and  the  principle  of  emu- 
lation, he  would  be  super-excellent."  In  the 
mean  time,  the  analogous  system  of  Lincaster 
had  been  carried  into  effect  in  numerous  schools 
established  by  an  association  of  Dissenters,  styled 
The  British  and  Foreign  School  Society;  and 
much  active  rivalry  existed  between  the  two  so- 
cieties. [Sec  Lancaster,  Joseph.)  During  his  hie. 
Dr.  Bell  received  several  lucrative  offices  in  tin' 
Church,  from  which  he  was  enabled  to  amass  a 
large  fortune.  The  whole  of  this,  amounting  to 
£120,000,  he  bequeathed  to  various  towns  in  his 

native  country  for  the  endowment  of  schools,  lie 
founded  Madras  College,  at  St.  Andrews,  and  a 
Lectureship, at  Edinburgb  1  rniversity, on  the  prin- 
ciples of  teaching,  and  on  the  monitorial  system. 
( in  Ins  death,  in  I  B32,  he  was  buried  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey,  the  highest  dignitaries  of  the  Church 

and  many   distinguished    noblemen    attending   as 

mourners.  An  eleganl  monument  marks  his 
resting-place,  with  an  inscription  in  which  he  is 

characterized  as  the  ••  Author  of  the  Madias 
System."  See  Soi  iimv.  Life  of  lh>-  "Rev.  An- 
drewBell,  D.J).  (Lend.,  L 844);  the  Edinburgh 
Review,  voL  xxxm.;  Lettch,  Practical  Educa- 
tionists mill  their  Systems  of  Teaching  (Cla^- 
gow,  lb"i'>). 


BELLES-LETTRES  is  a  French  expres- 
sion for  polite  Iiterature,i.  e.,  books  and  language 
in  so  far  as  they  are  shaped  by  the  idea  of  beau- 
ty. It  has  been  used  in  English  to  designate  a 
somewhat  vague  class  of  studies  connected,  more 
or  less  nearly,  with  the  mastery  of  literature  on 
its  esthetic  side.  Some  of  the  colleges  in  the 
United  States  have  had  a  professor  of  belles- 
lettres.  He  lias  taught  rhetoric  and  elocution 
mainly:  hut  poetry,  drama,  prose  fiction,  criti- 
cism, classical  philology,  the  humanities  in  gen- 
eral, are  all  in  his  province.  Blair's  Rhetoric  was 
long  widely  used  as  a  text-book  in  this  branch  ; 
and  several  editions  of  it  are  still  kept  in  print. 
—  Esthetics  (the  science  of  beauty)  and  philol- 
ogy have,  of  late  years,  made  great  advance,  and 
new  textdiooks  are  needed  to  set  forth  modern 
methods  of  studying  literature  and  language,  so 
as  to  understand  their  beauties.  The  elements 
of  the  study  should  be  taught  early.  In  the 
kindergarten  or  other  infant  school,  the  children 

should  be  taught  to  admire  and  examine  beau- 
tiful objects,  to  notice  the  qualities  which  give 
them  beamy,  to  name  the  objects  and  the  qual- 
ities :  they  should  be  told  anecdotes  in  which 
beautiful  persons  do  beautiful  acts,  and  the 
words  expressive  of  beauty  should  be  spoken 
with  tones  and  gestures  which  may  give  them 
lively  associations  and  a  permanent  place  in  the 
memory;  passages  of  verse  or  rhythmical  prose 
in  which  beautiful  thoughts  are  fittingly  ex- 
pressed, and  of  which  the  teacher  is  fond,  should 
be  repeated  till  they  are  caught  by  the  pupils. 
Such  passages  may  be  among  the  noblest  of  our 
literature.  It  is  not  necessary  that  they  should 
be  wholly  comprehended  by  the  Learners.     They 

may  be  regarded  as  music,  producing  compar- 
atively vague  intellectual  processes,  but  quick- 
ening powerfully  the  emotional  clement  of  es- 
thetic culture.     Language  and  literature  should 

had  the  youth  of  cultured  races  to  a  more  rapid 
development   than    the    natural    growth   of   the 

understanding.  Beautiful  and  noble  words  thus 
learned  by  heart  will  serve  as  molds  in  which 
the  expanding  intellect  may  How  and  form.  This 
early  oral  instruction    may  be    happily  aided  l>\ 

Learning  to  read  in  illustrated  books,  in  which 

beautiful  pictures  are  made  to  interpret  and  en- 
force the  thought.  Some  of  the  magazines  for 
children    afford   such  aid  in  a  <_mod    form  :   such 

as  The  Nursery  (Boston);  St.  Nicholas  (N.Y.). 
Children  taught  in  this  way  will  be  ready  to 
pursue    the   study   of   belles-lettres  when   they 

have  learned  to  read  with  ease.  The  simplest 
method    used    in    our   schools  is   the    reading  in 

class  of  selections  of  characteristic  works  of  the 
most  admired  authors  in  our  own  and  other 
classic  Languages.  Textdiooks  of  selections  for 
this  purpose  are:  lb  dson's  Textrbooh  of  Poetry, 
lb  oso\'s  Text-book  of  Prose  (Boston);  Under- 
wood's British  Authors ;  Undeewood's  Amer- 
ican Authors  (Boston);  Typical  Selections  from 
the  best  English  Authors  from  the  I6ih  to  the, 
\'Mh  Century  (Clarendon  Press,  Oxford);  most 
scries  of  School  Readers  have  a  class  book  of 
literature,  and  some  of  them  are  well  selected 


BELLES-U<;TTRKS 


19 


and  arranged.  The  kind  of  beauty  earliest  appre- 
ciated is  that  of  adventure.  Short  stories  please; 
such  as  fables  and  parables.  The  style  must  be 
simple,  the  movement  rapid.  Lyrics  or  orations 
expressing  tender  or  noble  feelings  come  next. 
The  appreciation  of  epic  and  romantic  narrative 
will  grow  rapidly;  minute  delineation  of  char- 
acter, the  drama,  and  the  modern  novel  will  then 
follow,  ami  finally  descriptions  of  works  of  art, 
Bcenery,  and  nature.  The  liking  for  ornate  lan- 
guage, figures  of  speech,  rhythmical  effects,  and 
other  arts  of  style,  generally  needs  special  culti- 
vation to  make  it  strong  in  young  leaders. 
Whatever  be  the  passages  chosen  to  read,  the 
teacher  aiming  to  give  instruction  in  belles- 
lettres  will  direct  the  attention  of  the  class  to 
beautiful  thoughts,  figures,  and  expressions,  and 
will  have  them  read  with  .care  and  expression, 
so  as  to  bring  out  the  thought  and  feeling 
of  each  passage.  He  may  also  mention  criti- 
cisms which  have  been  made  on  the  passage, 
tell  of  occasions  on  which  it  has  been  quoted  or 
imitated,  quote  similar  passages  in  other  authors 
or  the  same  author,  and  have  parts  committed 
to  memory.  In  such  studies,  more  is  caught 
than  taught.  The  teacher  must  feel  the  beauties 
and  communicate  the  feeling  by  looks  and  tones. 
Pupils  who  read  with  expression  should  also  be 
used  to  heighten  the  interest  of  the  exercise.  A 
single  good  reader  will  often  stimulate  a  whole 
class.  Comment  and  criticism  should  be  mainly 
used  for  pointing  out  beauties,  and  exciting  ad- 
miration for  them.  Appreciative  reading,  com- 
ment, and  memorizing  may  thus  be  made  a  de- 
lightful introduction  to  literature,  leading  natur- 
ally to  further  study  in  two  main  directions, — ■ 
the  historical  and  the  philosophical.  The  historical 
is  the  easier  in  its  beginnings.  Courses  of  lectures 
on  the  history  of  literature,  and  text-books  giving 
material  for  historical  and  biographical  study  in 
connection  with  selections  for  reading,  are  to 
be  had.  Cleveland's  Compendium  of  English 
Literature  (\.  Y.)  includes  the  most  eminent 
authors  from  Sir  John  Mandeville  to  Cowper. 
The  same  author  has  published  similar  works  on 
the  Literature  of  the  VMli  Century,  and  on  Amer- 
ican Literature  (N.  Y.).  Somewhat  like  them 
are  Shaw's  History  and  Specimens  of  English 
Literature  (edition  by  Backus,  N.  Y.)  ;  and 
Chambers's  Manual  of  English  Literature. 
Larger  works  for  the  teacher  and  for  reference 
are  <  Ihambers's  Cyclopaedia  of  English  Literature 
(N.Y.);  and  DuvcKiNCx's  Cyclopaedia  if  Amer- 
ican Literature  I  Phila.);  and  indispensable  to  the 
thorough  teacher  is  Allibone's  Dictionary  of 
Authors  (Phila.),  which  is  a  great  store-house  of 
biography,  bibliography,  and  criticism  gleaned 
•from  many  sources,  and  quoted  at  length.  With 
these  aids,  the  student  of  belles-lettres  must  be 
led  to  point  out  how  each  successive  beauty  in 
the  passages  which  are  read  is  related  to  the 
character,  education,  and  times  of  the  author; 
and  by  well-directed  study  he  may  acquire,  in 
time,  clear  ideas  of  the  representative  works  of 
literary  art  in  the  great  eras  of  history, — first  of 
English  history,  then  of  the  history  of   other 


nations.  This  will  require  the  reading  of  many 
more  books  than  can  usually  be  read  in  school. 
The  teacher  should,  however,  see  that  many  are 
read.  This  can  best  be  done  by  requiring  writ- 
ten exercises  of  such  a  kind  as  to  assure  him  of 
the  fact  without  taking  much  of  his  time.  He 
may  have  brief  outlines  of  stories  handed  in, 
as,  of  some  of  the  Canterbury  Tales;  or  the  gist 
of  the  critical  views  of  some  author  on  a  partic- 
ular point,  as  Coleridge's  in  regard  to  Hamlet;  or 
the  brief  mention  of  ten  of  the  most  interesting 
passages  in  a  book;  as,  in  the  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
(1 )  The  Slough  of  Despond,  ('!)  The  Interpreter's 
House,  (3)  The  Fight  with  Apollyon,  and  so  on. 
Or  he  may  ask  for  biographical  facts  on  which 
works  of  art  are  based  ;  as,  what  events  in  Mil- 
ton's life  suggested  passages  in  Paradise  Lost. 
Writing  should  also  be  freely  used  to  stimulate 
original  production  ;  imitative  production  is,  to 
be  sure,  what  is  to  be  expected  of  the  young  stu- 
dents of  belles-lettres  ;  but  they  should  use  their 
pens  freely,  in  such  a  way  as  the  authors  they  ad- 
mire or  their  own  powers  may  prompt.  If  they 
show  signs  of  talent,  the  teacher  should  encourage 
them.  The  meters  of  the  poets  may  easily  be 
imitated;  and  it  is  only  by  practice  in  production 
that  the  secrets  of  style  are  attained  or  thoroughly 
understood.  The  student  of  belles-lettres  will 
soon  learn  that  the  English  is  only  one  among 
many  classic  literatures.  He  will  wish  to  become 
acquainted  with  Homer,  Virgil,  and  Dante  as 
well  as  with  Milton ;  with  Boccacio  as  well  as 
Chaucer;  Goethe  as  well  as  Shakespeare.  He  will 
wish  to  learn  Greek,  Latin,  Italian.  French,  Ger- 
man. (See  the  articles  on  these  and  other  lan- 
guages.) No  literature  can  be  mastered  without 
mastering  the  language  in  which  it  was  original- 
ly  written  ;  but  much  may  be  done  by  transla- 
tions. Several  text-books  of  such  selected  trans- 
lations are  available  :  Longfellow's  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe  (Phila.)  ;  Elton's  Specimens 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Poets  (Phila.)  ;  Weight's 
The  Golden  Treasury  of  ancient  Greek  Poetry 
(Oxford)  ;  Ramage's  Beautiful  Thoughts  from 
Greek  Authors;  same  from  Latin  Authors;  from 
German  andSpanish;  from  French  and  Italian 
(London)  ;  Angel's  French  Literature  (Phila.); 
Berard's  Spanish  Art  and  Literature  (Phila.) ; 
Botta's  Universal  Literature  (Boston);  and  The 
Hebrew  Poetry  in  the  English  Bible.  But  in 
order  to  render  this  historical  study  as  valuable 
as  possible,  it  should  be  accompanied  with  the 
critical  study  of  literary  works  relating  to  the 
principles  of  art,  or  the  laws  of  beauty.  Such 
study  requires  a  knowledge  of  descriptive  rhet- 
oric and  prosody,  and  of  the  technical  terms  of 
esthetic  criticism;  so  that  the  students  may  be 
able  to  classify  and  name  the  facts  which  come 
before  them,  and  talk  of  them  with  perspicuity. 
They  should,  for  example,  when  set  to  study  a 
In  autiful  passage,  recognize  the  rhetorical  forms 
which  occur  in  it,  such  as  similes,  metaphors, 
personification,  etc ;  if  it  is  poetry,  they  should 
recognize  the  poetical  forms,  such  as  the  meter, 
with  its  management  of  the  feet  and  caesuras,  of 
rhyme  and  alliteration  ;  they  should  be  able  to 


80 


BELLES-LETTRES 


BENEDICTINES 


apply  the  ideas  of  order,  proportion,  form,  ex- 
pression, and  the  like,  to  single  beautiful  pas- 
sages, or  to  whole  works  of  art.  This  presup- 
poses the  study  of  the  science  of  beauty.  (See 
Esthetic  Culture.)  The  most  effective  general 
theory  of  the  beautiful,  for  use  in  study  of  this 
kind,  is  that  which  looks  to  variety  in  unity  to 
explain  all  eminent  beauty.  Take,  for  example, 
Shakespeare's  Julius  Gcesar  for  study.  On  read- 
ing the  first  scene,  let  the  class  point  out  the 
variety  (1)  among  the  characters, — as  between 
the  tribune  and  the  populace,  between  the  loud 
and  the  gentle  tribune,  between  the  simple  car- 
penter and  the  punning  cobbler,  and  the  like: 
(2)  in  the  action, — the  meeting,  the  haranguing. 
the  dispersing  of  the  crowd  :  (3)  in  the  mode  of 
thought, — now  comic,  now  tragic,  foolery  and  elo- 
quence; (4)  in  the  language,  part  prose,  part 
verse,  cobbler's  puns,  tribune's  tropes,  and  t  lie  like. 
This  simly  of  variety  directs  attention  to  all  the 
particulars  of  beauty,  the  elements  by  which  the 
sensibilities,  always  craving  novelty,  are  kept 
pleasurably  excited.  After  these  elements  have 
been  faithfully  collected,  let  the  pupils  seek  for 
the  unity  by  which  all  this  variety  is  made  to 
gratify  the  reason.  Let  them  point  out  the  central 
thought  in  the  play  :  give  an  outline  of  the  plot 
by  which  the  thought  is  developed;  and  then 
show  how  each  scene  is  necessary  to  bring  out 
the  thought,  and  how  each  character,  each  event, 
each  particular  beauty, is  fitted  for  its  place,  and 
contributes  to  the  one  end.  Teachers  may  find 
such  an  examination  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 
in  Addison's  papers  in  the  Spectator.  Topics 
and  questions  to  guide  in  such  study,  are  mi- 
nutely given  in  March's  Method  of  Philological 
Stud//  of  the  English  Language  (N.Y.).  Fqr 
other  aids,  especially  for  editions  of  particular 
authors,  see  English,  tiik  Study  of. — The  beau- 
ty of  language  is  not  all  included  in  the  study 
of  it  as  combined  in  connected  discourse.  In 
single  words,  also,  when  we  examine  their  ety- 
mology and  history,  much  poetry  is  to  be  found. 
This  is  an  interesting  department  of  belles-lettres, 
and  the  study  of  essays  in  it  is  a  favorite  one 
with  most  good  teachers  of  language  and  liter- 
ature. Among  these,  may  be  mentioned,  Trench, 
Ou  the  Study  of  Words ;  and  Glossary  of  En- 
glish  Words;  and  Db  Yerk,  Studies  in  English 
(\.  Y.,  18G7).  These  books  afford  many  hints 
which  the  teacher  may  use  to  enliven  the  study 
of  literature.  Teachers  should  also  be  familiar 
with  critical  essays  on  art.  and  introduce  them 
to  the  acquaintance  of  their  pupils;  these  consti- 
tute a  part  of  belles-lettres.  Such  are  lb  skin's 
Lectures  071  Art,  Of  which  selections  have  been 
made  foi  reading  (\.  Y.):  WinCKELMANN'S  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Art  (Boston);  Lessing's  Laoc- 
oon  |  Boston);  ■'  imeson's  Sacred  and  Legendary 
Art  l  to  I  'ii  i.  To  these  may  be  added  similar 
books  oi  criticism  on  literary  art  ;  such  as  those 
of  DeQi  incey,  Lowell,  Emerson  ;  II  irt'b Spen- 
ser and  the  Fairy  Queen  V  V..  IHTu  Bud- 
son's  Shakespeare  (Boston,  L851 — 6);  White's 
Shakespeare's  Scholar  |  V  Y.,  1854);  Bchlbg 
Lectures  on  Literature  (I'hila.). 


BELOIT  COLLEGE,  at  Beloit,  Wis.,  was 
founded  by  the  ( 'ongregationalists,  in  1845.  In 
1 ST-4,  it  had  a  corps  of  11  instructors,  146  stu- 
dents in  the  preparatory,  and  (if)  in  the  collegiate 
department,  and  a  library  of  about  9,000  volumes. 
Its  productive  funds  amount  to  $120,000,  and 
the  value  of  its  grounds,  college  buildings,  and 
apparatus,  to  $90,000.  The  president  of  the  in- 
stitution is  (1876)  the  Bev.  A.  L  Chapin,  I>.I). 

BENEDICTINES,  Schools  of  the.  The 
monastic  order  founded  by  St.  Benedict  of  Nun-da, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  0th  century,  occupies  a 
prominent  place  in  the  early  history  of  education 
in  Christian  Europe.  Parochial  and  communal 
schools  could  not  thrive  well  at  a  time  when  the 
people  at  large  felt  no  desire  for  education,  when 
the  number  of  teachers  was  so  small,  and  when 
the  few  schools  that  were  established,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  parish  churches,  had  to  suffer  so 
much  from  constant  wars.  The  education  offered 
by  the  Benedictine  order  was,  at  first,  intended 
only  for  boys  Avho  were  to  enter  upon  a  monastic 
life.  According  to  the  fundamental  rule  of  the 
order,  the  separation  of  the  monk  from  t lie  world 
should  begin  as  early  as  possible.  Boys,  called 
jui,  ri  oblati,  were  admitted  when  only  five  years 
of  age.  The  discipline  was  strict.  The  rod  was 
u>fi\  to  punish  offenses  against  punctuality  and 
order,  and  deficiencies  in  recitations:  more  serious 
offenses  were  sometimes  punished  by  the  scourge. 
Latin  was  a  prominent  part  of  the  instruction, 
and  almost  exclusively  the  language  of  conversa- 
tion. Beading,  writing,  and  the  singing  of  psalms 
were  the  prominent  subjects  of  instruction  ;  but 
the  course  also  included  rhetoric,  dialectics,  arith- 
metic, astronomy,  geography,  natural  science. and 
medicine.  Special  attention  was  given  to  history, 
as  is  proved  by  the  numerous  annals  and  chron- 
icles issued  from  the  Benedictine  convents.  As 
few  schools  outside  of  the  Benedictine  convents 
could  lie  found,  which  offered  equal  opportunities 

for    the   education  of  children,  the   monks   were 
soon  requested  to  admit  also  boys  not  devoted  to 
monastic  life.    These  applications  came  especially 
from   noble  and    wealthy  families,  and  wen 
numerous    that    it    was  SOOll   found    necessary   to 

provide  special  rooms,  and  probably  also  special 

courses  of    instruction,    for   each    class   of    boys 

(scholce  interiores  and  exteriores).  —  The  in- 
struction in  the  elementary  branches  was  im- 
parted by  a  teacher  called  ScholosticUS /  in  the 
larger    schools    and    for    lusher  studies,    learned 

monks,  called  magistri,  wen-  appointed,  under 

whose  direction  other  monks,  called  SenioreS, 
acted  a-  assistant  teachers.  Many  convents  of 
tin'  Benedictine  nuns  had  similar  schools  for 
girls,  though  they  were  not  so  numerously  at- 
tended as  those  of  the  monks.  Sometimes  these 
Schools    of     the    convents    also    admitted     boyB. 

With  the  decay  of  the  Benedictine  order  these 

schools  declined.  Convent  education,  after  the 
I'.'tli    Century,    did     not     retain     the    ascendency 

which  it  had  formerly  enjoyed;  and  when-  it  was 
still  preferred,  it  passed  toa  large extenl  into  the 

hands  of  other  monastic  orders.  (Sec  Co.wKNT 
Schools.) 


BENEKE 


BENGEL 


81 


Among  the  most  famous  schools  of  the  Bene- 
dictines,  were  Monte  Casino.  Bobbio,  Koine,  and 
Milan,  in  Italy:  Toms,  Corbie,    Fleury,  which  at 
onetime  hail  5,000 students,  Clermont,  Ferrieres, 
Fontenay,  Reims,  Aniane,  Marmoutier,  'Lobbes, 
in   Prance  and   Belgium;    St.  Gall,  Reichenau, 
Fulda,    Fiit/.lar,    Hersfeld,    Mayence,    Treves. 
Prum,    Lorsch,   Weissenburg,    Ratisbon,   Salz- 
burg.   Korvei,    in    Germany  and    Switzerland. 
In   England,  St.  Peter's  Convent  at  Canterbury 
bad  a  wide-spread  reputation,  through  Theodore 
of   Tarsus   and   his   companion    Hadrian.     The 
double  convent  of    Wearmouth   and    Yarrow, 
Which  was  founded  in   673  by  Benedict  Biscop, 
gave  to  western  teachers  the  learned  and  illustrious 
B  de.  (SeeBEDE.)    York,  which  owed  its  celebrity 
to   Egbert   and    Adelbert,   counted  among    its 
pupils  the  celebrated   Alcuin.     (See   Alcuin.) 
Though    the    prominent    influence  which    the 
Benedictines,  at  the  beginning  of  the  middle  age, 
exercised  upon  the  education  of  Catholic  Europe, 
was  never  recovered,  they  still  continue  to  con- 
duct a  number  of  educational  institutions.     At 
present  (1876),  they  have  a  number  of  colleges 
and  gymnasia  in  the  United  States,  in  Austria, 
Switzerland,  and  several  other  countries. 

BENEXE,  Friedrich.  Eduard,  an  ingenious 
I  rerman  writer  on  the  art  of  education,  was  born 
at  Berlin,  Febr*.  17..  1798.  He  studied  theology 
and  philosophy  at  the  universities  of  Halle  and 
Berlin,  and  finally  decided  to  devote  himself 
wholly  to  philosophy  in  order  to  reform  it.  He 
became  a  lecturer  (privatdocent)  on  philosophy 
at  the  university  of  Berlin  in  1820,  and,  placing 
himself  wholly  upon  the  stand-point  of  empiri- 
cism and  denying  the  possibility  of  a  priori  cogni- 
tions, at  once  boldly  attacked  the  system  of  Hegel 
who  at  that  time  was  all-powerful.  The  Prus- 
sian government,  in  1822,  deprived  him  of  the 
right  of  lecturing  at  the  university,  because 
as  the  minister  of  public  worship,  Alten- 
stein,  personally  explained  to  him,  a  philosophy 
which  did  not  derive  everything  from  the  ab- 
solute, could  not  be  recognized  as  a  philosophy 
at  all.  Beneke  removed,  in  1824,  to  the  university 
of  Gottingen,  whence  he  returned,  in  1827,  to 
Berlin,  where  he  was  appointed  after  the  death 
of  Hegel,  in  1832,  extraordinary  professor  of 
philosophy.  He  suddenly  disappeared,  March  1., 
1854,  and  a  year  later  his  corpse  was  found  in  the 
canal  at  Charlottenburg.  It  has  never  been  ascer- 
tained whether  he  committed  suicide,  or  whether 
his  death  was  caused  by  an  accident.  Most  of 
the  numerous  works  of  Beneke  are  of  a  philosoph- 
ical character ;  as  an  educational  writer,  he 
became  first  known,  in  1835,  by  a  work,  entitled 
Theory  of  Education  and  Instruction  (Erzie- 
hungs-  und  Vhterrichtslehre),  which  made  a 
profound  impression  among  teachers  and  friends 
of  education.  The  system  of  education  pro- 
posed by  him  is  based  exclusively  on  psychology, 
and  he  claims  for  it  the  character  of  a  wholly 
empirical  science.  He  found  many  enthusiastic 
admirers,  one  of  whom,  Dressier  (in  Hergang's 
Realenct/clopddie,  i,  p.  2(14),  says  of  him:  All 
former  achievements  in  the  province  of  pedagogy 
6 


were  surpassed  by  Beneke.  Through  him  the 
education  of  man  has  gained  a  character  which 
was  formerly  unknown  —  certainty  of  success. 
Previous  successes  were  accidental,  but  the  psy- 
chology of  Beneke  has  given  us  a  power  over 
nature  which  does  not  fall  behind  the  power  ex- 
ercised by  physicists  and  chemists.  The  number 
of  adherents  of  this  system  is  small,  though  the 
genius  of  Beneke  is  universally  acknowledged. 
Among  (he  other  educational  works  of  Beneke, 
one  published  in  L836,  and  entitled  Our  Uni- 
versities and  what  they  need,  attracted  great 
attention. 

BENEVOLENCE,  good-will,  general  and 
habitual  kindness  of  disposition  in  our  feelings, 
not  only  toward  each  other,  but  toward  the  lower 
animals,  is  a  trait  of  character  which  should  re- 
ceive a  careful  cultivation  in  the  education  of  the 
young.  Children,  in  general,  are  not  naturally 
benevolent.  Their  undeveloped  sympathies,  their 
active  propensities  and  love  of  sport,  and  their 
proneness  to  what  is  called  by  phrenologists  "  de- 
structiveness",  incline  them  to  acts  of  selfish- 
ness and  cruelty.  In  order  to  check  this  tendency, 
their  sensibilities  should,  as  much  as  possible,  be 
aroused  ;  they  should  not  be  subjected  to  harsh 
or  inconsiderate  treatment,  and  they  should  not 
only  read  and  hear  stories  that  awaken  their 
sympathies,  but  should  be  made  to  observe  ob- 
jects of  compassion  that  require  their  active  aid  ; 
and  they  should  be  incited  and  encouraged  in 
every  possible  way  to  self-sacrifice  in  relieving  the 
sufferings  of  others.  In  their  conduct  toward 
each  other,  they  should  be  habituated  to  lay 
aside  their  resentments,  to  forgive  injuries,  to  put 
the  kindest  and  most  considerate  construction 
upon  the  acts  of  their  companions,  and  to  dismiss 
from  their  minds  all  suspicions  and  jealousies,  as 
well  as  all  distrust  that  is  not  based  upon  indis- 
putable facts.  The  quarrels  of  children  may  for 
this  purpose  become  the  means  of  wholesome 
discipline  in  instruction  ;  since  the  disputants 
themselves  may  be  made  to  feel  the  desirability 
of  mutual  forbearance,  and  their  associates,  by 
being  brought  in  to  aid  in  reconciling  them,  may 
be  impressed  with  the  beautiful  character  of  the 
peace-maker.  In  the  treatment  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals by  children,  there  is  much  occasion  for  this 
kind  of  training  ;  and  the  skillful  teacher  will  not 
fail  to  make  use  of  the  numerous  incidents  of 
school  life  to  impress  this  virtue  upon  the  child's 
character.     (See  Moral  Education.) 

BENGEL,  Johann  Albrecht,  a  celebrated 
German  theologian  and  educator  in  Wurtenibere, 
was  born  in  1(>87,  and  died  in  1752.  lie  is 
chiefly  famous  as  a  theological  writer,  being  well 
known  as  one  of  the  most  prominent  representa- 
tives of  German  pietism,  lie  was,  from  1713  to 
1711.  a  very  successful  teacher  at  a  theological 
seminary  at  Penkendorf,  and  while  there  intro- 
duced many  educational  reforms.  The  course  of 
studies  which  he  drew  up  for  his  school,  in  con- 
cert with  his  colleagues,  attracted  great  attention. 
From  an  educational  point  of  view,  his  writings 
are  valuable  as  illustrating  the  peculiar  position 
which  pietism  occupies  in  the  history  of  German 


82 


BENTLEY 


BIBLE 


pedagogy.  ITis  life  was  written  by  his  son-in- 
law.  Ch.  Burk.  —  See  also  Palmer,  Eoangeiische 
Pddagogik. 

BENTLEY,  Richard,  considered  the  best 
classical  scholar  England  has  ever  produced,  was 
born  at  Oulton,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1662,  and 
died  at  Cambridge  in  1  742.  lie  was  educated 
,-it  Cambridge  University,  but  subsequently, while 
tutor  of  the  son  of  Dr.  StUlingfleet,  he  pursued 
his  classical  studies  at  Oxford.  His  most  cele- 
brated work  was  his  Dissertation  on  the  JEpisUes 
of  Phalaris,  in  which,  in  controversy  with  the 
most  eminent  scholars  and  literary  men  of  bis 
time,  he  proved  that  the  Epistles  were  spurious. 
"This  was,"  says  I  lolland,  "the  first  gnat  literary 
war  in  England;"  and  Bentley  showed  such  pro- 
found scholarship,  acute  criticism,  and  masterly 
logic,  that  he  not  only  vanquished  his  opponents, 
but  achieved  for  himself  a  reputation  throughout 
Europe.  In  1700,  he  was  appointed  Master  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  which  he  con- 
tinued till  his  death ;  but  his  arrogance  and  rapaci- 
ty involved  him  in  the  mosl  bitter  and  protracted 
quarrels  and  lawsuits,  and  at  one  time  came  near 
ignominiously  depriving  him  of  his  position.  Ho 
published  critical  editions  of  many  classical 
authors,  of  great  merit  and  value  among  which 
his  Horace  was  the  most  elaborate  and  the  most 
popular.  II is  edition  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost 
(I  732)  was,  however,  quite  unworthy  of  his  fame. 
His  edition  of  1 1 omer  he  did  not  live  to  complete. 
Bentley  did  a  most  valuable  service  not  only  to 
classical  scholarship,  but  to  historical  criticism, 
the  latter  of  which  he  established  on  a  new  basis. 
While  as  an  official  he  was  arbitrary,  exacting, 
and  severe,  in  private  life  he  was  courteous  and 
amiable.  —  See  T.  II.  Monk,  Life  of  Bentley 
(1830);  Hakti.ky  Coleridge.  Lives  of  Northern 
Worthies  (edited  by  his  brother,  London,  1852); 
I>k  Quincey,  Essays  on  Philosophical  Writers, 
vol.  ii.  (Boston,  L85  l.i 

BEREA  COLLEGE,  at  Berea,  Ky.,  was 
founded  in  1858.  It  supplies  the  means  of  edu- 
cation to  students,  both  white  and  colored,  male 
and  female.  In  L875,  it  had  1  I  instructors  and 
271  students;  of  the  latter,  157  were  males  and 
1 1  I  females;   L26  white,  and  1  l">  colored.  Of  the 

colored  students,  f>7  were  females.  It  includes  a 
] preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department.  All 
the  female  sttiileiits  are  included  in  a  ladies'  de- 
partment, under  the  special  supervision  of  a  lady 
principal.  No  separate  course  of  study  is  ar- 
For  females, but  both  sexes  recite  together 
whenever  their  studies  are  the  same.     There  is 

also  a    normal   department  with  a  special   course 

for  teachers;  also  a  commercial  course.  The 
college  is  well  supplied  with  apparatus  and  has 
a  library  of  nearly  2,000  volumes.  The  college 
buildings  are  spacious  and  elegant,  particularly 

the  ladies'  Mall,  erected  in  1st.'!.  Rev.  E3.  li. 
Pairchild  (1875)  is  the  president  of  the  institu- 
tion.   Tli  •  annual  tuition  I.  e  18  $1  It. 

BERNHARDI,  August  Ferdinand,  one 
of  th  '  mosl  eminent  schoolmen  of  Prussia  in  the 

beginning  of  this  century,  was  born  in  L769, 
iu    Merlin,    and    died    in    L820.       He    became  a 


teacher  in  the  Fried 'rich  Wefd&r  Gymnasium,  in 
Merlin,  in  1791,  and  director  of  the  same  in- 
stitution in  1808.  In  the  same  year,  he  gave 
I  'estalozzi's  method  of  teaching  arithmetic  a  trial, 
enlarged  the  exercises,  and  finally  introduced 
it  into  his  school.  His  success  as  director  of 
the  gymnasium  was  remarkable,  the  number  of 
pupils  increasing  from  !>7  in  1808, to 4(H)  in  1812. 
Many  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  Prussia 
proceeded  from  his  school.  He  found  no  time 
for  the  publication  of  large  works:  but  some  of 
his  essays  and  Lectures  have  been  published  under 
the  title  of  A  view  of  the  Organization  of  the 
Learned  /Schools.  The  programmes  edited  by 
him  in  1809, 1810, and  1811,give  his  views  upon 
the  Number, importance,  and  relation  of  the  sub* 
jecis  taught  in  a  gymnasium,  also  on  Hie  First 
principles  of  method,  «dA  on  the  First  principles 
of  discipline.  In  later  essays,  published  from 
Is]  |  to  1816,  he  gave  a  fuller  exposition  of  the 
proper  course  of  studies  for  a  gymnasium  ;  and 
the  ideas  which  he  developed  in  regard  to  this 
subject,  have  gained  for  him  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  best  writers  on  the  German 
gymnasia. 

"  BETHANY  COLLEGE,  at  Bethany,  W. 
A'a..  was  established  in  1841  by  the  Rev.  Alex- 
ander Campbell,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Map- 
fists,  called  Disciples.  This  institution  had.  in 
1873,  a  corps  of  9  instructors,  and  123  students 
in  the  collegiate  department.  Its  productive 
funds  amount  to  $60,000,  and  the  value  of  the 
college  property.  —  grounds,  buildings,  etc,  is 
estimated  at  $250,000.  The  president  of  the 
college  is  (1876)  W.  K.  Pendleton. 

BETHEL  COLLEGE,  at  Uusselville.  Ky., 
was  founded  by  the  Bethel  Baptist  Association 
of  South-western  Kentucky,  in  Is  pi.  as  a  high 
school;  and.  hi  L856,  it  was  chartered  as  a  cot 
lege.  Its  successive  presidents  have  been  M.  T. 
Mlewitt  to  1861  :  h'ev.  Geo.  Hunt,  from  L863  to 
1864  :  Prof.  J.  W.  Rust,  from  1864  to  1868; 
Noah  K.  Davis.from  1868  to  1873.  The  die. 
cipline  of  the  college  is  now  under  the  direction 
of  Leslie  Waggener,  as  chairman  of  the  faculty. 
In  the  winter  of  1861 — 2,  the  college  buildings 
were  used  as  a  hospital  by  the  Confederate  fores 

lying  at  Bowling  Green.  The  endowment  funds 
amount  (1875]  to  #85,000,  besides  which  it  has 
a  beneficiary  fund  of  about  $8,000,  and  its  real 
estate,  in  addition  to  the  college  buildings  and 

-rounds,  is  valued  at  $85,000.  It  contains 
schools  of  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  natural 
science,  English,  mental  science,  biblical  knowl- 
,  and  theology ,  in  which,  in  1874 — 5,  there 
were  about  350  students;  of  whom  !»7  were  in 
the  collegiate  department.  The  school  of  English 
is  very  complete,  affording  to  its  students  a 
knowledge  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  language,  as  a 
basis  for  a  critical  knowledge  of  English  gram- 
mar and  literature.  The  tuition  fee  18  $60  per 
annum. 

BIBLE  (Qr.  (kf3Ma,  books),  the  sacred  scrip- 
tures of  the  Christians.  All  churches  which 
recognize  Christ  as  their  founder,  whatever  may 
be  their  denomination,  tierce  in    regarding  tho 


BIBLE 


83 


Bible  as  the  divinely  inspired  book  which  con 
tains  the  tenets  of  Christian  belief  and  of  Chris 
tian  ethics.    The  Bible  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
called  the  Old  and   the  New   Testament.    The 
former  is  regarded  as  holy  writ,  not  only  by 

Christians,  but   also  by  the  .lews.     'There   is  not 

an  entire  agreement  in  regard  to  the  number  of 
books  constituting  the  Old  Testament.  Several 
books  are  regarded  by  the  Catholic  Church  as 
belonging  to,  and  partaking  of,  the  inspired 
character  of  the  Scriptures,  which  Protestants 
generally  regard  as  a  class  of  works  highly 
venerable  and  useful,  but  not  of  divine  origin. 

The  Catholic  Church    calls    these  books   delltcro- 

eanonical, the  Protestants  apocryphal,  or,  collect- 
ively.the  Apocrypha.  The  X  sw  Testament  is  the 
same  in  the  Catholic*  Church  as  in  Protestant 

churches  ;  but  one  ( 'hristian  sect,  the  Abyssinian 
Church,  recognizes,  in  addition  to  the  books  ac- 
cepted by  both  Catholics  and  Protestants,  a 
number  of  others  as  a  part  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

Catholics  and  Protestants,  though  accepting  the 
same  books  as  the  sources  of  divine  truth,  differ 
widely  in  the  interpretation  of  their  contents. 
Most  of  the  biblical  Protestants  regard  the  Bible 
as  the  only  source  of  Christian  faith,  and  main- 
tain that,  whatever  differences  of  opinion  may 
exist  in  regard  to  some  particular  doctrines, 
the  great  fundamental  truths  of  Christianity  are 
set  forth  in  it  so  clearly,  as  to  supersede  fully 
the  need  of  any  other  standard  of  faith.  The 
Catholic  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  holds  that 
the  Bible  was  not  given  by  God  to  man  to  be  the 
only  guide  for  the  formation  of  his  religious  be- 
lief, but  that,  for  that  purpose,  an  infallible 
church  was  instituted,  whose  office  it  is  to  ex- 
plain to  the  faithful  the  true  meaning  of  the 
Bible. 

From  the  different  position  which  these  two 
large  denominations  of  Christians  assume  in  re- 
gard to  the  Bible,  it  follows  that  they  must  teach 
a  different  way  of  using  it.  Thus,  the  Protestant 
churches  consider  it  a  matter  of  prime  import- 
ance that  every  child  should  become  acquainted 
with  the  Bible  as  the  only  infallible  source  of  the 
pure  word  of  <  rod,  and  should  learn,  as  soon  as 
possible,  to  read  and  understand  it  ;  while  the 
Catholic  Church  enjoins  upon  its  members  to 
keep  constantly  in  mind,  in  reading  the  Bible, 
that  only  the  infallible  church  possesses  the  key 
to  its  true  meaning.  The  Protestant  churches 
earnestly  desire  that  the  Bible  should  be  placed  in 
the  hands  of  every  Christian:  and  they  have, 
therefore,  founded  in  all  Protestant  countries 
Bible  Societies,  designed  to  carry  out  this  object, 
and  thus  have  already  fully  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing the  Bible  the  most  widely  circulated  book  in 
the  world.  The  Catholic  Church  prefers  the  use 
of  annotated  Bibles,  or  of  selections  from  the 
Bible,  to  that  of  the  Scriptures  without  note  and 
comment.  .  When,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
Albigenses  translated  the  Bible  into  their  ver- 
nacular languages,  and  referred  their  members  to 
the  text  of  the  Bible  as  contradicting  the  teach- 
ings of  the  church,  the  synod   of  Toulouse,  in 


l'J'J!».  forbade  laymen  to  read  the  Bible  in  the 
vernacular  language ;  and,  in  modern  times,  the 
efforts  of  the  Bible  societies  have  been  repeatedly 
condemned  by  the  popes.  In  Protestant  coun- 
tries, the  reading  of  the  Bible  has  been  a  very 
prominent  agent  in  the  development  of  public 
education.    The  Bible  having  become,  through 

Luther   and    other    Reformers    of    the    sixteenth 

century,  the  principal  book  for  the  church  and  the 

home-circle,  the  instruction  of  children  in  this 
book  continued  for  a  long  time  to  lie  the  chief 
object  of  popular  education.  Children  were 
taught  to  read  in  order  that  they  might  lie  able 
to  peruse  the  bible  ;  ami  instruction  in  the  dog- 
matic tenets  of  the  Church,  as  well  as  instruc- 
tion in  history,  geography,  and  other  branches, 
was  secondary  to  the  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. In  process  of  time,  the  relation  of  Bible 
reading  to  other  branches  of  education  became 
greatly  modified  :  but,  wherever  public  schools 
still  have  a  distinctively  Protestant  character,  the 
reading  of  the  Bible  is  retained  as  a  special 
branch  of  instrnction.  Protestant  educators  dif- 
fer in  regard  to  the  question,  whether  it  is  pref- 
erable to  place  the  entire  Bible,  or  only  editions 
specially  abridged  for  the  use  of  children  [school- 
bibles),  into  the  hands  of  the  pupils.  Both  vie w> 
have  found  able  advocates ;  but  the  use  of  the 
entire  Bible  has  thns  far  been  favored  by  the 
legislation  of  most  of  the  Protestant  states  of  Eu- 
rope. On  the  other  hand,  educators  have  generally 
agreed  in  recommending  to  teachers  not  to  re- 
quire the  entire  Bible  to  be  read  consecutively 
by  the  pupils  ;  but  to  leave  out  those  portions 
which  are  either  inappropriate  or  too  difficult  for 
children. 

The  Catholic  Church  is  opposed  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Bible  without  note  or  comment 
into  schools,  and  substitutes  for  it  the  use  of  bib- 
lical historic^  and  selections  from  the  Bible. 
Recent  Catholic  works  on  education  express  the 
wish,  that  to  the  reading  of  suitable  selections 
from  the  Bible  greater  prominence  should  be 
given  than  has  heretofore  been  the  case.  See 
Rolfus  &  Pfister,  Real-Encyclopddie  des  V.r- 
ziehungs-  tnnl  Unterrichtswesens  nach  k>itlio- 
lischen  Principien,  art.  Bibel. 

Bible  Question. — In  the  United  States,  the  pub- 
lic schools  are  of  an  undenominational  character, 
being  intended  to  receive  children  of  all  kinds  of 
religious  belief  or  unbelief.  The  question  whether 
the  reading  of  the  Bible  is  to  be  retained  in 
the  public  "schools,  has  been  and  still  is  the  sub- 
ject of  animated  discussion  and  agitation.  The 
decision   of  this   question   is   mostly  left  to   the 

local  boards  of  education,  which  may  prescribe, 

allow,  or  forbid   the    reading  of  the  bible.     The 

legislation  of  several  of  the  states  of  the  I  Fnion  pro- 
rides,  however,  that  no  ordinance  shall  be  passed 
by  any  local  board  of  education  forbidding  the 
use  of  the  Bible.  The  majority  of  the  Protes- 
tant churches  still  favor  the  reading  of  the 
Bible,  though  some  of  the  most  prominent  eler 
gynien  have,  of  late,  taken  the  ground  thai 
would  be  unjust  to  request  the  children  of  Cath- 
olics, Jews,  or  Non-Christians  to  take  part  in  re 


84 


BIBLE  HISTORY 


BLACKBOARD 


ligious  exercises  to  wliich  their  parents  object. 
The  Catholics  and  Jews,  together  with  all  the  op- 
ponents of  Christianity,  generally  demand  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  Bible  from  the  schools.  In  the 
city  of  Cincinnati,  a  resolution  by  the  board  of 
education  forbidding  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in 
the  public  schools,  led,  in  1869,  to  a  legal  contest 
which  lasted  four  years.  The  superior  court  of 
<  I'neinnati,  in  1870,  decided  against  the  board  of 
education ;  but  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio,  in 
June  1873,  reversed  this  judgment,  and  sus- 
tained the  Cincinnati  board  of  education.  The 
school  board  of  Chicago,  in  1875,  followed  the 
example  of  Cincinnati,  and  forbade  the  reading 
of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools.  The  question 
has  also  been  vehemently  agitated  in  the  city  of 
New  York. — .See  The  Bible  in  the  Public  Schools; 
Arguments  in  tl/»  case  of  Joint  I).  Minor  et  al. 
ccrs/is  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  Oity  of 
Cincinnati  et  al.  (Cincinnati,  1870)  ;  Bournk, 
History  of  the  l'nl>lir  School  Society  (X.  Y., 
1870) ;  Boesk,  Public  Education  in  the  Oity  of 
New  York  (New  York,  1869);  T.  II.  Huxley, 
The  School  Boards,  in  Critiques  and  Addresses 
(London,  and  X.  Y..  1*7.'!):  Gbtmke,  Use  of  the 
Bible  in  Common  Education,  in  Amer.  Annate 
of  Education,  vol.  in.  (1833),  and  The  Bible  as 
a  Class  Book,  in  Addresses  (1831.) 

BIBLE  HISTORY,  or  Biblical  History. 
Tlic  connected  history  of  the  events  narrated  in 
the  Bible  is  in  many  schools,  both  Protestant  and 
Catholic,  a  part  of  the  prescribed  religious  in- 
struction. The  method  of  teaching  it  greatly 
varies  according  to  the  age  of  the  scholars. 
While  children  of  the  primary  grade  are  taught 
only  the  most  notable  events  of  sacred  history. 
in  language  adapted  to  their  age,  more  advance  I 
students  are  introduced  into  a  full  understanding 
of  the  Bible.  In  the  compilation  of  text-books 
for  this  study,  the  authors  have  sometimes 
endeavored  to  give  the  whole  narrative  as  much 
as  possible  in  the  words  of  the  Bible,  so  as  to 
make  the  book,  in  fact,  an  abridgment  of  the 
Bible.  Others  have  deemed  it  better  to  pay  less 
attention  to  retaining  the  words  of  the  Bible, 
and  to  look,  in  the  first  place,  to  making  the  sub- 
ject as  interesting,  attractive,  and  intelligible  to 
children  as  possible.  Germany,  where  Biblical 
history  (Jiib/ische  (lesehichte)  is  generally  adop- 
ted as  a  pari  of  the  course  of  instruction  in 
public  schools  of  various  grades,  has  a  very  ex- 
tensive literature  on  the  subject,  including  many 
manuals  for  teachers.  Of  scientific  theology, 
Bible  history  forms  an  essential  part,  and  is  di- 
vided, like  the  Bible  itself,  into  two  sections,  the 
history  of  the  Old,  and  the  history  of  the  New 

Testament.    1*  tonus  the  connecting  link  between 

exegetical  and  historical  theology,  explaining,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  contents  of  the  Bible,  and.  on 
the  other  hand, treating  and  elucidating   them 

the  same  as  any  other  historical  Subject, 

Bible  history  may  also  be  viewed  as  a  history 
of  the  volume  containing  the  sacred  writings  of 
the  Christian  church.  Lb  tlus.sense.it  treats  of 
the  origin  ot  the  several  hooks  composing  the 
Bible,  and  oi  then-  collection  in  the  canon.     The 


works  treating  of  this  subject  are  generally  en- 
titled  Introductions  to  the  Bible;  but  a  number 
of  prominent  theologians,  rejecting  this  title  as 
unsuitable,  have  treated  of  this  subject  under 
the  heading,  History  of  the  Bible,  or  History  of 
the  Biblical  Revelation.  The  most  noted  works 
of  this  class  are:  Reiss,  Die  Geschichte  d*>r  heii. 
Schriften  des  iY.  T.  (1853,  3d.  edit.  1860);  Gue- 
ricke,  Gesdmmtgeschichte  des  N.  T.  (Leip.,18.">4j: 
Haneberg,  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  der  bibli- 
schen  Offenbarwng  (liatisbon,  1850). 

BIRCH,  as  the  name  of  the  tree  from  which 
rods  or  twigs  were  formerly  obtained  for  the  in- 
fliction of  corporal  punishment,  is  often  used  as 
denoting  this  species  of  punishment ;  and  the 
tree  is  frequently  referred  to  in  connection  with 
school-keeping  in  the  olden  time.  Shakespeare 
speaks  of  the  "threatening  twigs  of  birch":  and 
Mienstone,  in  The  Schoolmistress,  thus  refers 
to  the  tree  and  its  connection  with  school-man- 
agement : 

"And  all  in  sight  doth  vise  a  birchen  tree, 
Which  Learning  near  her  little  dome  did  stow, 
Whilom  a  twig  of  small  regard  to  see, 
Though  now  so  wide  its  waving  branches  flow, 
And  work  the  simple  vassals  mickle  woe; 
For  not  a  wind  might  curl  the  leaves  that  blew, 
But  their  limbs  shudder'd,  and  their  pulse  boat  low, 
And  as  they  look'd,  they  found  their  horror  grew, 
And  shajied  it  into  rods,"  and  tingled  at  the  view.'' 

Doubtless,  the  toughness  and  elasticity  of  the 
1\\  igs  of  the  birch  made  them,  before  the  intro- 
duction of  the  rattan,  very  useful  implements 
for  the  purpose  of  school  chastisement.  (See 
Corporal  Punishment.) 

BLACKBOARD,  an  important  piece  of 
school  apparatus  now  in  use  in  all  classes  and 
grades  of  schools.  It  is  generally  constructed  of 
wood,  and  is  either  attached  to  the  wall  of  the 
room,  or  made  to  stand  on  an  easel  or  revolve  in 
a  frame.  Instead  of  blackboards,  wall  slates  are 
now  very  frequently  used,  which,  although  much 
more  expensive,  are  to  be  preferred  on  account 
of  their  durability.  Sometimes,  a  portion  of  the 
wall  itself  is  painted  black,  or  covered  with 
liquid  slating,  for  this  purpose  :  and  at  the  pres- 
ent time  a  kind  of  slated  cloth  is  manufactured, 
which  being  attached  to  the  wall  answers  every 
purpose  of  a  blackboard. 

The  blackboard  tor  the  use  of  the  teacher  in 
giving  his  instruction  or  explanations  to  the 
whole  school  or  class,  should. for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience, be  placed  near  his  desk  and  in  front  of 
the  pupils.  It  is  a  great  advantage  also  to  have 
sufficient  blackboard  surface  to  admit  of  its  use 
by  all  the  pupils  of  a  class,  or  by  sections  of  it. 
This  is  especially  desirable  in  higher  instruction: 
but  even  in  elementary  district  schools  will  he 
found  to  be  quite  desirable.    Borne  id'  the  pupils 

id  a  school  can  lie  employed  in  writing,  drawing, 
or  working  out  arithmetical  problems  on  the 
blackboards, while  others  are  engaged  in  oral  rec- 
itation. There  is  scarcely  any  branch  of  in- 
struction, or  any  kind  of  teaching,  from  the  ob- 
ject lesson  of  the  primary  school  to  the  lecture 
of  the  college  professor,  in  which  the  use  of  the 
blackboard  is  not  found  to  be  almost  indispcu- 


BLACKBURN   UNIVERSITY 


BUND 


85 


aable.  In  teaching  mathematics,  it  has  an  espe- 
cial value.    Scarcely  a  teacher,  at  the  present 

day,  in  the  most  remote  country  school-house, 
would  think  of  teaching  arithmetic  without  a 
blackboard.  But  it  is  a  most  important  aid 
also  in  teaching   writing,  drawing,  geography, 

grammar,  composition,  history,  and  music:  in- 
deed, in  every  thing  that  admits  of,  or  requires, 
an  ocular  demonstration  addressed  to  a  large 
Dumber  of  pupils.     Blackboard  drawing  can  be 

made  very  instructive  and  interesting,  particu- 
larly when  crayons  of  different  colors  are  used. 
In  some  schools  this  kind  of  drawing  is  carried 
to  great  perfection.  Map-drawing,  or  rapid 
map-sketching,  on  the  blackboard,  is  also  very 
useful  in  teaching  geography.  Recitations  on 
this  subject  may  be  conducted  by  this  means. 
One  of  the  pupils  draws  the  outline  of  the  state 
or  country  which  is  the  subject  of  the  lesson ; 
another  fills  in  the  rivers  ;  the  next,  the  cities. 
etc.,  till  the  map  is  complete.  As  the  study  of 
maps  depends  so  largely  on  the  proper  and  at- 
tentive use  of  the  eye.  this  method  of  blackboard 
instruction  cannot  fail  to  be  quite  effective. 

Blackboard  illustration  will  also  prove  very 
effective  in  the  oral  teaching,  by  a  series  of  les- 
sons or  lectures,  of  abstract  subjects  other  than 
mathematics,  such  as  logic,  metaphysics,  mental 
and  moral  philosophy,  etc.  By  this  means  the 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  subject,  with 
their  exact  logical  relations,  are  presented  to  the 
mind  through  the  eye,  and  a  much  stronger, 
dearer  and  more  durable  impression  is  thus 
male.  For  an  excellent  example  of  this  kind 
of  teaching,  see  M.vrk  Hopkins,  An  Outline 
Study  of  Man  (New  York,  1876).  See  also 
W.  A.  Alcott,  Slate  and  Blackboard  Exercises; 
Wickersham,  School  Economy  (Philadelphia, 
1868). 

BLACKBURN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Carlin- 
ville.  111.,  was  organized  in  18(i7,  by  the  Presby- 
terians. It  has  a  preparatory,  a  collegiate,  an 
eclectic,  a  scientific,  and  a  theological  course,  to 
which  both  sexes  are  admitted  on  equal  terms, 
and  receive  the  same  honorary  degrees  on  the 
completion  of  the  course  pursued.  There  were, 
in  1873,  257  students,  of  whom  141  belonged  to 
the  preparatoiy  and  11(>  to  the  collegiate  depart- 
ment :  and  the  corps  of  instructors  numbered  1  .'5, 
exclusive  of  4  endowed  professorships.  The  value 
of  its  grounds,  buildings,  etc.  is  $90,000  :  and  its 
productive  endowment  $90,000.  The  president 
of  the  institution  is  ( 1  k 7 r.  j  Rev.  J.  W.  Barby, 
D.I>.     The  annual  tuition  fee  is  $25. 

BLIND,  Education  of  the:  The  blind 
constitute,  in  every  country,  a  numerous  class  of 
atHicted  persons  for  whom  special  instruction  is 
needed.  Blindness,  or  loss  of  sight,  is  either  con- 
genital, or  is  caused  by  accident  or  disease  oc- 
curring after  birth.  The  statistics  of  different 
countries  show  that  the  number  of  blind  persons 
in  all  lias  been  quite  huge;  ami.  in  modern 

times,  this  has  led  to  considerable  effort  with  the 
view  to  afford  to  these  unfortunates  the  means 
of  education,  not  only  for  their  mental  improve- 
ment, but  to  train  them  to  independent  support, 


so  that  they  may  be  lifted  out  of  the  pauper  class, 
and  be  enabled  to  earn  a  respectable  livelihood. 

There  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  number  of 
blind  persons  as  compared  with  the  population 
in  different  countries.  Tims,  according  to  the 
census  of  1870,  the  total  number  of  blind  persons 
in  the  United  States  was  20.320,  or  1  in  I !»()()  of 
the  population.  In  England  and  Wales,  the 
proportion  is  reported  as  I  to  1,037:  in  France, 
1  to  938;  in  Greece  and  Turkey,  1  to  800;  in 
Iceland,  1  to  300  ;  and  in  Egypt.  1  to  200.  In 
all  countries,  the  number  of  males  among  the 
blind  exceeds  that  of  the  females:  and.  in  the 
United  States,  about  one  half  of  the  blind  are 
over  48  years  of  age.  The  proportion  of  those 
born  blind  to  those  who  become  so  after  birth  is 
quite  small. 

The  ancients  appear  to  have  had  a  certain  de- 
gree of  reverence  for  the  blind,  to  some  of  whom 
they  attributed  the  gift  of  prophecy;  but  it  was 
not  until  the  Middle  Ages  that  any  provision  was 
made  for  their  care  and  protection  :  and  it  was 
reserved  for  modern  times  to  afford  them  the 
means  of  education.  The  Hospice  des  Quinze- 
Vingts  (Hospital  for  the  300),  in  Paris,  founded 
by  Louis  IX.  in  12G0,  is  supposed  to  be  the  first 
public  asylum  established  for  the  blind,  the  ob- 
ject of  the  French  king  being  to  provide  a  re- 
treat for  the  soldiers  of  his  army  who  had  lost 
their  eyes  in  Egypt,  during  the  crusade  which  he 
led  against  the  Moslems.  This  institution  still 
exists,  and  has  an  annual  income  of  $80,000.  It 
is,  however,  as  it  was  originally,  only  an  asylum, 
affording  no  means  of  instruction ;  indeed,  it  was 
not  until  the  16th  century  that  any  processes 
were  devised  for  this  purpose.  But  little  was  ac- 
complished in  this  direction  till  1784,  when  Va- 
lentin Hatiy,  incited  by  the  example  of  the  abbe 
de  LEpe'e  in  connection  with  the  education  of 
deaf-mutes,  commenced  his  exertions  to  find  an 
efficient  method  for  teaching  the  blind.  Having 
succeeded  with  a  few  individuals,  by  the  use  of 
raised  letters,  he  opened  a  small  school,  which  in 
1791  was  taken  under  the  patronage  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  afterward  became  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution for  tin-  Blind.  He  subsequently  founded 
institutions  for  the  blind  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
at  Berlin.  About  the  same  time,  similar  insti- 
tutions were  established  in  England  and  Scot- 
land ;  and,  after  the  example  of  that  at  Berlin, 
in  many  of  the  cities  of  (Jermany.  There  are 
now  1(>  public  institutions  for  the  blind  in  Eng- 
land, the  oldest  of  which  is  the  School  for  the 
Wind,  in  Liverpool,  founded  in  1791  ;  4  in  Scot- 
laud,  of  which  the  Asylum  for  Industrious 
Wind,  in  Edinburgh,  was  founded  in  1793  ;  and 
4  in  Ireland,  the  oldest  being  the  Richmond 
National  Institution,  in  Dublin,  founded  in  1810. 
In  London.  23  private  institutions  have  been 
established  by  charitable  endowments.  France 
has  13  schools  for  the  blind,  besides  the  Hospice 
drs  Quinze -Vingts.  There  are  between  thirty 
and  forty  institutions  for  the  blind  in  (Jcrniam  , 
of  which  the  oldest  is  that  commenced  at  Berlin, 
in  1806,  by  Hatty.  The  Netherlands,  Belgium, 
and  Switzerland    have  similar  institutions.     In 


86 


BLIND 


the  Netherlands,  they  are  supported  entirely  by 
voluntary  subscription.  In  Belgium,  an  asylum  for 
the  blind  is  said  to  have  been  founded  at  Bruges 
in  L305;  but  the  first  school  was  opened  at  Brus- 
sels in  lS.'J.'b  hi  Spain,  there  are  two  institutions 
for  the  blind,  one  at  Madrid,  and  the  other  at 
Barcelona-  There  are  also  institutions  of  the 
kind  in  Italy,  and  a  school  for  the  instruction  of 
the  blind  at  Rio  Janeiro,  commenced  in  L854. 
The  first  institution  for  the  blind  in  the  United 


States — the  Perkins  Institution  at  Boston,  was 
chartered  in  1829,  but  not  opened  till  August, 
1832.  It  was  named  after  Col.  Thomas  II. 
Perkins,  who  gave  his  mansion  for  its  accom- 
modation. It  was  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Samuel  '<'.  Howe  until  his  death  in  1876.  The 
New  York  Institution  for  the  Blind  was  opened 
March  L5.,  L832.  The  following  table  of  statis- 
tics has  been  compiled  from  the  Report  of  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  for  1875. 


Institutions  for  the  Blind  in  the  United  States. 


5 
-    .= 

tU-9 

0  »  « 

"2        i.  •  c 
A  a «    *  S  a 

.-  -  •--     •_  -  - 

NAME. 

LOCATION 

Control 

^  =  c 

t   p   SB 

°.«8 

£  ~  z 

'     -   ~        Z   u  c3 

State 

*      1 

*>             P    -  — 

0 

Inst,  for  Deaf  and  Dumb,  ami  Blind.  Talladega,  Ala... . 

1866 

40 

2 

$18,000 

$40,000 

fast,  for  Education  of  the  Blind. . . .  Little  Hock.  Ark.. . 

1859 

State 

107 

13 

7,703 

30,000 

Inst,  for  Deaf  and  Dnmb,  and  Blind.  Oakland,  Cal 

1860 

State 

S4 

3 

36,000 

100.000 

Georgia  Academy  for  the  Blind Macon,  Ga 

1862 

1  Corporation. 

144 

11 

13,000 

7;,  .ooo 

Insi.  lui'  the  Education  of  tin-  Blind.  Jacksonville,  111. . . 

1849 

State 

506 

29 

31.IKKI 

166,000 

[nst.  for  the  Education  of  the  Blind.  Indianapolis,  Ind.. 

1st: 

State 

52] 

25 

32,500 

525, i 

towa  <  iollege  for  the  Blind Vinton,  Iowa 

1853 

Stale 

317 

28 

26, 

.-,011.0(10 

Kansas  State  Blind  Asylum Wyandotte,  Kan.. . 

1867 

State  

65 

11 

9,(100 

40,00(1 

Asylum  forthe  Education  ofthe  Blind  Louisville,  Ivy 

1842 

State 

358 

20 

19,380 

100.000 

Inst,  for  the  Educati 1  the  Blind.  Baton  Rouge,  La... 

1871 

State 

63 

0 

8,000 

250,000 

Just,  tor  the  Instruction  of  the  Blind  Baltimore,  Md 

1853 

Corporation. 

173 

16 

22,000 

255,000 

Inst,  for  Colored  Blind   and  Deaf-M.  Baltimore,. -Md 

is?'.' 

Corporation. 

IS 

7 

10,000 

2(1.(100 

Perkins  Enst.  and  Mass.  Asylum. . . .  Boston,  Mass 

1832 

Corporation. 

SMI 

is 

30,000 

354,716 

Jnst.  for  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Blind.  Flint,  Mich 

1853 

Trustees.  ..  . 





51,872 

376,316 

Inst.  I'ni-  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Blind. 

Faribault,  Minn. .  . 

1866 



32 

4 

.-,.(i(!(i 

2."., 000 

ls.",'J 

State 

275 

6 
23 

10,000 
21,000 

10,000 
200,000 

Inst,  for  the  Education  of  the  Blind. 

Is.",  1 

State 

338 

State  Institution  for  tin'  Blind 

Batavia,  X.  Y 

1868 

State 

29 

3 

25,000 

70,000 

N.  V.  Institution  for  the  Blind New  York.  X.  Y... 

1831 

( lorporation. 

1,172 

60 

62,600 

324,500 

fast  for  the  Deaf, Dnmb, and  Blind  Raleigh,  ST.  G 

1851 

State 

L50 

6 

40,000 

.-,0,0(10 

Inst,  for  Education  of  the  Blind ....  Columbus,  0 

1837 

State 

siis 

50 

60,785 

500,000 

1873 

State 

12 

3 

2,000 

__ 

In-t.  for  Instruction  of  the  Blind... .  Philadelphia,  Pa.  . 

Im::; 

1  orporation. 

ss.-, 

63 

39,000 

201,000 

Inst,  for  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Blind.  Spartanburg,  S.  C. 

1849 

State 





— 

r,o,ooo 

Tennessee  School  for  the  Blind Nashville,  Tetm.. . 

1S44 

Cot]  Miration. 

17.". 

9 

I.->. 

60,000 

Texas  Institute  for  the  Blind Austin,  Tex 

L856 

State 

— 

10 

10,660 

4. ".,000 

Inst,  for  Deal  and  Dumb,  and  Blind.  Staunton, Va   . 

1839 

State 

208 

5 

40. 1 

1 7.-i,ooo 

[net.  for  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Blind.  Romney,  W.  Va 

1870 

State 

29 

3 

25  000 

70.000 

Janesville,  Wis.. . . 

1850 

State 

236 

21 

83,000 

85,000 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
are  29 institutions, either  exclusively  forthe  edu- 
cation of  the  blind,  or  for  that  of  the  Mind  and  the 
deaf  and  dumb;  and  that,  since  L832,  when  the 

New  York  and  Boston  institutions  went  into 
operation,  about  7..">H<>  blind  persons  have  re- 
ceived instruction  ;  also, that, in  L874,  the  amount 
of  state  and  municipal  appropriations  forthe 
supporl  of  these  institutions  was  upward  of 
$740,000,  and  that  the  amount  of  money  invested 
in  grounds,  buildings,  etc.,  belonging  to  them,  is 
more  than  $4,500,000.  It  is  an  interesting  fact 
also  that  22  of  these  establishments  arc  purely 
state  institutions. 

Methods  of  Instruction. —  An  institution  for 
the  blind  should  comprehend  three  schools, or  de 
partruents;  namely,  the  literary  department,  or 
.school  proper,  the  school  of  music,  and  the  in- 
dustrial school.  'This  organization  is  essential, 
in   older   to  give   the   general    instruction    which 

every  child  needs,  and  also  such  special  training 
as  blindness  renders  necessary.  In  the  literary 
department,  the  course  of  instruction   includes 


the  branches  which  are  usually  taught,  in  the 
common  and  high  sd Is,  to  the  seeing;  the  prin- 
cipal difference  being  in  the  apparatus  and  meth- 
ods of  teaching  em  ployed.  Instead  of  the  black- 
board, wall-maps,  slate  and  pencil,  and  pen  and 
ink.  there  are  employed  topographical  maps,  em- 
bossed Bonks,  slates  with  movable  type  to  repre- 
sent  numerals  and  algebraic  signs, geometrical 

cards  with  figures  in  relict,  metal  tablets  for  tan- 

gible  writing,  according  to  the  New  York  point 
system,  also  for  the  New  Fork  system  of  alpha- 
betic writing1  and  musical  notation. 

The  first  efforts  to  instruct  the  blind  found 
expression  in  an  attempt  to  teach  them  how  to 
read  by  means  of  the  fingers.     Many  alphabets 

in  relief  have  been  devised.  But  all  may  Be  in- 
cluded in  two  classes:  (1)  Those  composed  of 
line-,  forming  the  ordinary  capital  or  small  let- 
ters in  their  original  form,  or  iii  some  modifica- 
tion of  it  ;  (2)  Those  in  which  the  letters  are 
formed  of  raised  points,  or  dots,  in  no  respect 
resembling    the   ordinary  letters,  and   called   the 

point  alphabet.    These  can  Be  Both  printed  and 


BLIND 


87 


written  in  B  tangible  form.  The  use  of  line  let- 
ter text-books  in  classes  is  very  limited,  from  the 
fact  that  a  classification  according  to  reading 
ability  differs  entirely  from  that  based  upon 
mental  capacity  and  attainments.  For  this 
reason,  the  instruction  in  each  of  the  depart- 
ments is  chiefly  oral. 

The  instruction  of  the  Mind  in  music  is  of 
paramount  importance.  It  develops  and  refines 
the  taste,  promotes  general  culture,  affords  con- 
stant and  inexhaustible  enjoyment,  as  well  as 
the  means  of  respectable  support.  The  musical 
course  of  instruction  comprises  voice  lessons. 
part  and  chorus  singing,  lessons  and  practice  in 
piano  and  organ  playing,  and  a  thorough  course 
of  teaching  and  training  in  the  tuning  of  pianos. 
Blind  organists  teachers  of  the  piano,  and  piano- 
tuners  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
One  of  the  best  tuners  employed  by  Steinway  & 
Sons,  the  celebrated  piano-forte  makers  of  New 
V. irk.  is  totally  blind.  Heretofore,  tins  depart- 
ment of  instruction  has  been  exclusively  oral ; 
but  there  is  now  in  press  a  piano  instruction 
book,  in  the  N<  w  Yorkpoint  system  of  musical 
notation,  by  which  the  blind  pupil  may  learn  by 
finger-reading  from  the  printed  or  written  page. 

The  importance  of  mechanical  training,  in 
comparison  with  other  branches  of  instruction. 
in  the  education  of  the  blind,  is  a  matter  of  vital 
interest.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  instruction 
in  trades  is  of  the  first  importance  ;  others  give 
it  simply  a  place  co-ordinate  with  other  depart- 
ments of  teaching  :  while  still  others  attach  the 
chief  importance  to  such  branches  as  lead  to 
those  employments  in  which  skilled  manual  oper- 
ations are  required.  The  latter  position  cannot 
be  maintained,  since  in  all  such  operations  the 
guidance  of  the  eye  is  more  or  less  essential  to 
perfection  and  dexterity  of  manipulation;  from 
which  fact  it  is  obvious  that  purely  mechanical 
pursuits  are  not  necessarily  the  best  adapted  to 
those  who  are  deprived  of  sight.  This  being  so, 
it  is  a  great  mistake  to  rest  the  education  of  the 
young  blind,  and  the  prospects  of  their  future 
usefulness  and  welfare,  exclusively  upon  such 
employments.  The  true  plan  is  to  give  manual 
pursuits  such  a  place  in  the  scheme  of  education 
as  is  required  by  the  conditions  which  blindness 
imposes.  The  training  of  the  young  blind  in 
one  or  more  industrial  occupations  should  be 
rigidly  enforced,  not  because  such  employments 
furnish  the  only,  the  best,  or  the  most  available 
means  of  future  support,  but  because  such  train- 
ingand  discipline  of  the  head  and  the  hand  in 
work  are  necessary  to  the  proper  education  of 
every  pupil.  Thus,  manual  training  is  made  the 
means  to  an  end.  hut  not  the  end  itself.  Male 
pupils  are  taught  to  make  brooms,  mats,  mat- 
tresses, and  brushes  ;  to  put  cane  bottoms  into 
•  hairs:  and  to  perform  Other  handicraft  labors. 
Female  pupils  arc  taught  to  sew.  knit,  and  cro- 
chet, to  use  the  sewing  and  knitting  machine, 
and  to  work  a  great  variety  of  articles  useful 
and  ornamental. 

Government  <///</  Discipline. — From  necessity. 
the  pupils  board   and   lodge  at  the  institution  ; 


and.  consequently,  the  government    is  twofold: 

(1)  that  of  a  large  ami  well-ordered  family;  and 

(2)  that  of  a  thoroughly  organized  school.  The 
rules  are  such  only  as  are  necessary  to  secure  the 
easy  and  effective  performanceof  the  many  kinds 
of  work  which  are  carried  on  in  the  different 
departments.  In  all  well-regulated  schools,  the 
male  and  female  pupils  are  effectually  separated 

except  during   the    hours  of  instruction,  and  all 

communication  is  prohibited.    The  co-education 

of  the  sexes  is  common  to  all  schools  for  the 
blind  in  this  country,  except  those  of  Boston 
and  Philadelphia.  The  institutions  are  not  de- 
nominational, each  pupil  being  permitted  to  at- 
tend the  particular  church  and  Sunday  school 
which  are  chosen  by  parents,  guardians,  or 
friends.  Discipline  is  maintained  in  the  New 
York,  Boston,  and  some  other  schools,  entirely 
by  moral  means,  no  recourse  being  ever  had  to 
corporal  punishment. 

Systems  of  Printing  and  Notation. — Tangible 
letters  were  first  constructed  in  the  18th  cent- 
ury; afterward,  the  noted  blind  pianist.  Theresa 
von  Paradis,  of  Vienna,  represented  musical 
notes  with  pins  on  a  cushion,  from  which  her 
friend  Haiiy  conceived  the  idea  of  embossing 
letters  on  paper.  The  first  book  in  relief  print- 
ing was.  it  is  believed,  Dairy's  Estui  sur  I'edu- 
cation  des  aveugles  (Paris,  1 78<>j.  The  first 
book  in  English  printed  in  relief  was  issued  by 
James  Gall. of  Edinburgh,  in  1827:  and  two  years 
afterward,  he  introduced  relief  printing  in  Lon- 
don. His  alphabet  consisted  of  the  ordinary 
English  lower-case  letters  reduced  to  straight 
lines  and  angles.  In  1832,  Dr.  Fry  obtained  the 
prize  offered" by  the  Society  of  Arts  in  Scotland 
for  the  best  alphabet  and  method  of  printing 
for  the  blind.  This  alphabet  consisted  of  the 
Roman  capitals  .simplified,  and  was  nearly  the 
same  as  that  used  formerly  in  Philadelphia.  A 
stenographic  alphabet,  invented  by  Mr.  Lucas,  of 
Bristol,  England,  is  used  in  some  of  the  schools 
of  that  country.  A  few  years  later,  a  phonetic 
alphabet  was  invented  by  Mr.  Frere  and  intro- 
duced into  some  of  the  English  schools.  In  Is  17. 
a  simplified  alphabet,  the  letters  of  which  con- 
sisted of  lines,  was  invented  by  Mr.  Moon.  This 
alphabet  has  been  used  in  many  schools.  The  al- 
phabet forming  the  system  of  tangible  point- 
printing,  was,  about  1839,  introduced  into  the 
imperial  institution  for  the  blind  in  Paris,  by  M. 
Braille;  and  has  been  extensively  used  in  the 
schools  of  France,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium.  A 
system  of  point  writing  and  printing  has  been  de- 
vised by  William  B.  Wait,  superintendent  of  the 
New  York  Institution  for  the  Blind,  and  is  now 
used  in  nearly  all  the  American  institutions.  This 
system  has  also  been  applied  to  musical  notation. 
Systems  of  notation  in  raised  characters  have  also 
been  invented  by  Rousseau,Guadet,andMahoney. 
See  Reportsof  TJ.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  L872,  -3,  and  I  ;  Proceedings  of  the  .1 
ciation  of  American   Instructors  of  the  Blind 

|\V.  15.  Wait.  Cor.  Sec.):  also  the  publications 
of  the  American  Bible  Society,  and  of  the  Ameri- 
can Printing-House  for  the  Blind. 


88 


BLOCHMANN 


BOLIVIA 


BLOCHMANN,  Karl  Justus,  an  eminent 
German  educator  and  pupil  of  Pestalozzi,  the 
founder  and  for  many  years  the  director  of  a 
celebrated  educational  institute,  called  after  him 
Blochmtuni'schrx  lnstihtt,  was  born  in  178(i,  and 
died  in  185").  He  studied,  from  1805  to  1809, 
at  the  university  of  Leipsic,  theology  and  peda- 
gogy, and  at  the  same  time  endeavored  to  ac- 
quire a  practical  experience  as  a  teacher.  In 
1809,  he  went  to  Switzerland  and  became  an  in- 
structor in  Pestalozzi's  school,  where  he  remained 
eight  years.  He  then  returned  to  Germany,  and 
became  vice-director  of  the  Friecbrieh  August 
School,  in  Dresden.  In  order  to  be  fully  able  to 
carry  out  his  pedagogical  views,  he  opened  his 
own  school  in  1 824,  which  was  united  with  the 
Vitzthum  Grymnasium  in  L829 ;  and  he  received 
from  the  Saxon  government  the  license,  very 
rarely  granted  to  private  institutions,  to  give  to 
its  pupils  certificates  of  preparation  for  the  uni- 
versity. I  [e  retained  control  of  these  two  schools 
until  1 85] ,  when  he  transferred  their  administra- 
tion to  his  son-in-law.  Dr.  Bezzenberger.  .V  large 
number  of  prominent  <  let-mans,  including  several 
princes,  have  received  their  education  in  this  in- 
stitution, which  ceased  to  exist  Oct.  16.,  1861. 
Though  a  pupil  and  admirer  of  Pestalozzi,  Bloch- 
mann  differed  from  his  master  in  the  importance 
which  be  assigned  to  the  religious  element  in 
education.  While  Pestalozzi  strongly  sympa- 
thized with  the  liberal  movements  in  Prot- 
estant theology,  Blochmann  was  firmly  devoted 
to  the  strictest  orthodoxy. 

BLUE -COAT  SCHOOL.  See  Christ's 
Hospit  \i.. 

BOARD  OF  EDUCATION.  See  School 
Board. 

BOARDING-SCHOOL,  a  school  in  which 
the  pupils  receive  board  and  lodging  as  wTell  as 
instruction.  Boarding-schools  are  generally  the 
property  of  private  individuals;  but  sometimes 
they  belong  to  associations  or  religious  de- 
nominations. Their  management  is  independent 
of  any  control  by  the  state.  In  some  countries, 
the  government  does  not  allow  any  one  to  keep 
a  boarding  or  any  other  private  school,  who 
does  not  hold  a  teacher's  license  ;  in  others,  as  in 
the  United  States,  the  establishment  of  private 

Schools  is  entirely  free.  The  demand  for  schools 
of  this  kind  appears  to  be.  in  most  countries,  very 
extensive.  In  small  towns  ami  in  country 
districts,  the  public  school  frequently  appears  to 
educated  parents  as  not  fitted  for  the  instruction 
of  their  children ;  partly,  on  account  of  the  un- 
pleasant associations  to  which  the  children  are 
exposed,  partly,  because  the  .course  of  study 
appears  to  be  insufficient.  Even  in  large  towns 
ami  cities  where  there  is  no  want  of  good 
public  schools,  a  large  Dumber  of  parents  are 
found  who  prefeT  boarding-schools  to  the  best 
public  schools.  Fashion  has  sometimes  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  the  attendance  of  pupils  at 
boarding-schools;  and  a  school  that  once  has  a 
well-established  reputation  in  wealthy  circles  of 
society,  may  be  expected  to  receive  numbers  of 
pupils   for  no  other  reason   than   because  it  is 


fashionable.  A  consideration  which  induces  many 
parents  of  even  moderate  means  to  send  their 
children  to  boarding-schools,  is  the  expectation 
that,  in  such  schools, more  attention  can  be  given 
to  individual  teaching  than  in  public  schools, 
and  that  especially  children  of  small  intellectual 
capacities,  as  well  as  those  who.  in  consequence 
of  the  delicacy  of  their  health,  are  less  regular 
in  their  studies,  will  receive  special  attention. 
In  other  families,  it  is  not  the  expectation  of  a 
superior  method  of  instruction  which  causes 
children  to  be  sent  to  boarding-schools,  but  the 
belief  that  there  they  will  be  under  better  and 
more  constant  educational  influence  than  the 
paternal  roof  can  afford  them. 

As  boarding-schools  are  entirely  independent 
of  public  school  boards,  there  is  the  greatest 
possible  variety  in  their  courses  of  instruction. 
Moreover,  since  the  financial  success  of  these  in- 
stitutions depends  upon  the  number  of  pupils 
secured,  the  proprietors  generally  find  it  necessary 
not  oidy  to  receive  pupils  at  any  time  of  the 
year,  but  to  provide  special  instruction  for  every 
pupil,  of  whatever  grade  or  capacity.  The  inev- 
itable consequence  of  this  is,  that  the  classifi- 
cation, in  the  majority  of  these  schools,  is  unsat- 
isfactory. Very  great  danger,  moreover,  arises 
from  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  children  of 
evil  habits  are  often  received  into  such  insti- 
tutions, the  parents  hoping  that  the  teachers  of 
these  schools  will  be  more  successful  in  reforming 
such  pupils  than  public-school  teachers.  The 
greatness  of  the  danger  which  an  association 
with  children  of  this  class  involves,  for  all  the 
pupils  of  tin'  institution,  cannot  lie  overestimated, 
and  is  certainly  not  sufficiently  appreciated  by 
many  of  those  who  have  the  charge  of  boarding- 
schools.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  has 
been  strongly  and  justly   urged   that    instructors 

of  superior  qualifications  often  find  in  this 
class  of  schools  an  excellent  and.  it  may  be, 
the  only  opportunity  of  turning  their  peculiar 
talents  to  the  use  of  mankind.  Many  of  the 
greatest  educators  that  ever  lived,  would  never 
have  been  able  to  test  their  theories  practically. 
if  they  had  not  been  at  the  head  of  private 
boarding  institutions.  The  boarding-school  un- 
doubtedly offers  to  educational  reformers  a  grand 
field  of  usefulness,  and  the  more  the  public-school 
system  suffers  in  any  particular  place  from  the 
incompetency  of  school  boards,  or  the  more,  in 
large  cities,  the  standard  of  the  public  schools  is. 
depressed,  the  more  strongly  will  the  demand  for 
private  and   boarding  schools  make  itself  felt. 

Nearly  all  hoarding  schools  alsoadmit  pupils  who 
attend  only  for  instruction  {day-8chokars)\  and 
very  commonly  they  also  provide  board  for  chil- 
dren of  resident  parents  Uic^boarders). 

BOLIVIA,  a  republic  of  South  America, 
having  an  areaof  500,880  sq.  m.,and  a  population, 
in  L865,of  L ,831 ,585,  exclusive  of  about  250,000 
Bavage  Indians.   The  civilized  population  cona  ts 

of  native  whites,  for  the  most  part  descendants  of 
the  Spanish  settlers,  mestizos  OT  Choice  iinived 
white  and  Indian  I.  mulattoes,  zambOS  (mixed 
Indian  and  Degro),  and  Indians  in  a  domesticated 


BONET 


BOOK-KEEPING 


89 


state.  About  three-fourths  of  the  total  popula- 
tion is  of  Indian  descent.  Nearly  the  entire 
population  of  the  country  belongs  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  'The  exercise  of  other  relig- 
ious denominations  is  not  prohibited;  but  un- 
restricted toleration  cannot  be  saitl  to  exist  in 
Bolivia.  In  a  concordat  concluded  with  the 
Pope  in  1851, the  Bolivian  government  promised 
to  support  missions  among  the  savage  tribes, 
hut  a  considerable  number  of  them  still  remain 
pagan  and  uncivilized.  The  national  language 
is  the  Spanish,  but  several  Indian  tribes,  espe- 
cially the  Avinaras  and  the  Quichuas,  continue 
to  speak  their  own  language. 

The  territory  of  Bolivia,  after  its  conquest  by 
the  Spaniards,  formed  a  part  of  the  viceroyalty 
of  Peru  till  L 780,  when  it Vas  united  under  the 
name  of  Chareas  with  the  new  viceroyalty  of 
La  Plata.  The  declaration  of  independence  and 
the  establishment  of  the  republic  of  Bolivia  took 
place  in  L825.  Since  then,  the  country  has  been, 
almost  without  interruption,  a  prey  to  civil  wars. 

The  condition  of  education  is  as  yet  very  un- 
satisfactory. There  is  a  special  minister  of  public 
instruction,  under  whom  the  chiefs  of  the  three 
universities  of  Chuquisaca  (Sucre),  La  Paz,  and 
Cochabamba  administer  the  educational  affairs 
of  the  country.  The  university  of  Chuquisaca, 
named  after  St.  Francis  Xavier,  and  founded  by 
the  Jesuits,  was  reformed  in  1845  and  endowed 
with  faculties  of  law  and  medicine.  It  possesses 
an  excellent  library.  The  archiepiseopal  seminary 
is  devoted  to  educating  priests,  but  its  pupils 
are  at  liberty  to  prepare  for  any  other  vocation. 
The  subjects  taught  in  the  seminary  comprise 
Latin,  mathematics,  physics,  philosophy  (logic, 
ethics,  and  metaphysics),  theology,  and  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  law.  There  is  also  in  Chuquisaca 
a  high  school,  called  Colegio  de  Junin,  in  which 
grammar,  mathematics,  mechanics,  logic,  and 
ethics  are  taught.  The  universities  of  La  Paz 
and  Cochabamba  educate  lawyers  almost  ex- 
clusively. There  is,  however,  also  a  medical 
school  at  La  Paz  and  a  colegio  superior  de  cien- 
oias  y  artes  in  La  Paz,  and  Cochabamba.  In  the 
entire  reptiblic,  there  are  24  similar  colegios,  of 
which  8  are  colegios  de  ciencias  with  about  1070 
pupils,  and  10  colegios  de  artes  (a  kind  of  real- 
schools).  There  were,  hi  1846,  only  4  female  in- 
stitutions of  a  higher  grade,  with  68  pupils.  The 
number  of  primary  schools,  public  and  private, 
according  to  the  latest  reports,  is  about  800,  with 
'J  1 ,000  pupils.  The  school-books  are  to  a  large 
extent  translations  from  the  French.  —  See 
Schmid,  Real-Encychp.,  art.  S'udauierira;  d'Ou- 
bigky,  Description  geogrdfica,  kistdrica,  y  esta- 
(Mstica  de  Bolivia  (2  vols.,  Paris.  L835). 

BONET,  Juan  Pablo,  one  of  the  earliest 
instructors  of  deaf-mutes,  was  born  in  Aragon. 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  1  6th  century.  Though 
Pedro  Ponce,  a  Spanish  Benedictine  monk,  who 
lived  about  fifty  years  before  Bonet,  had  em- 
ployed a  method  of  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb 
by  means  of  an  alphabet  of  manual  signs,  to 
lionet  is  attributed  the  credit  of  originating  a 
similar  iiiet hod.  since  he  could  have  had  no  in- 


formation of  Ponce's  invention.  Bis  plan  is 
fully  explained  in  his  work,  Reduction  de  las 
letras  y  artes  para  ensefu.tr  a  hablar  a  los  mudos 
(Madrid.  1620),  which  was  the  first  formal 
treatise  on  this  branch  of  special  instruction.  He 
used  the  articulation  system  to  some  extent,  but 
also  made  use  of  a  manual  alphabet,  which  was 
almost  exactly  the  same  as  the  single-hand  alpha- 
bet now  in  use.  lionet  was  secretary  to  the 
constable  of  Castile,  and  taught  a  brother  of  his 
patron,  who  had  become  deaf  when  only  two 
years  of  age.  This  young  man  was  introduced 
to  prince  Charles  of  England  during  the  visit  of 
the  latter  to  Spain,  in  L623  ;  and  it  was  stated 
by  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  one  of  the  prince's  escort, 
that  he  could  not  only  understand  an  ordinary 
conversation,  but  could  himself  speak  with  re- 
markable distinctness.     (See  Deaf-Mutes.) 

BONNYCASTLE,  John,  an  eminent  En- 
glish teacher  and  mathematician,  and  the  author  of 
many  excellent  elementary  works  in  various  de- 
partments of  mathematics,  was  born  at  White- 
church,  England,  and  died  at  Woolwich,  in  1821. 
He  was  for  more  than  forty  years  a  professor  of 
mathematics  at  the  Royal  Academy  at  NVool- 
wich.  His  chief  publications  were  Introduction 
ft>  Mathematics  (1782),  Elements  of  Geometry 
(1789),  Treatise  on  Trigonometry  (1806),  and 
Elements  of  Algebra  (1813).  The  last  of  these- 
works  has  been  highly  commended,  and  exten- 
sively used  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  Eng- 
land. He  also  published  the  History  of  Math- 
ematics, &  translation  of  Bossut's  Essai  sur  l'J/i.<- 
ioire  generate  des  Maihematiques  (Paris.  1810). 

BOOK-KEEPING,  a  system  of  recording 
the  transactions  of  a  business  so  as  to  exhibit,  in 
a  plain  and  comprehensive  manner,  its  condition 
and  progress.  The  usual  method  of  such  a  record 
comprises  (1)  a  history  of  the  transactions  at  the 
date  and  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence,  in  a 
book,  called  the  day-book,  and  (2)  the  classifying 
of  results  in  a  book  called  the  ledger.  This  clas- 
sification consists  in  arranging  upon  opposite- 
sides  of  separate  statements,  or  accounts,  all 
items  of  purchase,  sale,  receipt,  expenditure,  in- 
vestment, withdrawal,  production,  cost,  etc., 
which,  in  any  way,  affect  the  business.  The  ac- 
counts taken  together  should  thus  be  adequate  to 
express  all  that  one  may  need  to  know  of  the 
progress  of  the  business  and  its  condition  at  any 
time.  The  simplest  form  of  record, by  day-book 
and  ledger  only,  here  explained,  is  applicable 
merely  to  a  very  limited  business.  En  the  more  ex- 
tended and  complicated  enterprises,  various  con- 
current or  auxiliary  books  are  required,  their 
number  and  character  depending  upon  the  na- 
ture and  peculiar  operations  of  the  business.  In. 
even  the  simplest  kinds  of  book-keeping,  it  is 
customary  to  use  an  intermediate  book  between 
the  day-book  and  ledger,  called  the  journal,  the 
office  of  which  is  to  state,  or  separate,  each  trans- 
action so  as  to  simplify  its  transfer  to  the  ledger. 

The  only  competent  system  of  book-keeping  is. 
that  known  as  double  entry,  eo  called  from  the 
fact  that  the  complete  record  of  any  transaction 
requires  at  least  two  entries  in  the  ledger 


90 


BOOK-KEEPING 


on  the  debit  or  debtor  side  of  some  account,  and 
one  on  the  credit  or  creditor  side  of  sonic  other 
account.  The  terms  debit  and  cn-dil  (meaning 
debtor  and  creditor,  and  usually  marked  Dr. and 
Or.)  arc  for  the  most  part,  used  arbitrarily. 
They  are  really  significant  only  when  applied  to 
personal  accounts;  hut  their  uniform  application 
to  all  accounts  is  a  matter  of  great  convenience. 
The  charm  and  utility  of  the  double-entry  system 
consist  in  the  philosophical  adjustment  of  math- 
ematical facts  to  the  most  exacting  requirements 
of  finance,  and  in  the  tests  afforded  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  work  at  any  point.  The  simple 
principles  underlying  the  system  may  be  suc- 
cinctly stated  thus:  (1)  All  financial  resources, 
or  items  of  wealth,  are  measurable  by  the  money 
Standard;  (2)  The  sum  of  all  the  resources  of  a 
concern,  thus  measured,  less  the  sum  of  all  its 
liabilities,  is  its  real  or  present  worth:  (.'{)  All 
increase  or  diminution  in  wealth  comes  from 
one  of  two  sources;  namely,  the  receiving  of 
more  or  less   for  an   article  than  its  cost,  or  the 

appreciation  or  depreciation  of  the  value  of  an 
article  while  in  possession;  ill  The  immediate 
result  of  all  gains  or  losses  is  the  adding  to,  or 
taking  from,  the  net  worth  of  the  concern; 
and.  consequently,  the  net  gain  or  net  loss  of 
a  business  during  any  specified  time  must 
agree   with   the   increase  or  diminution   of  its 

net  worth  for  the  same  period.  The  foregoing 
propositions  may  he  said  to  be  self-evident  facts  ; 
but  they  are  important  facts  nevertheless,  and 
such  as  any  competent  presentment  of  business 
affairs  must  recognize  and  enforce;  and  this  is 
just  what  double-entry  book-keeping  does. 

The  science,  or  philosophy,  of  the  system  is 
shown  in  the  ledt/i'r,  which,  as  before  stated,  con- 
sists of  accounts.  An  account  is  a  collection  of 
homogeneous  items  pertaining  to  some  part  of 
the  l>u>incss.  such  as  the  receipt  and  disburse- 
ment of  money  [cask),  the  purchase  and  sale  of 

goods,  the  issue  and  redemption  of  notes,  the  in- 
curring and  liquidating  of  personal  indebted- 
ness, etc.  All  accounts  are  alike  in  their  struct- 
ure, each  having  a  title,  more  or  less  significant, 

and  two  Bides,  with  the  items  on  one  side  exactly 
Opposite    in    effect    to    those    on    the    other;     and 

like  plus  and  minus  quantities,  each  canceling 

the  other  to  the  extent  of  the  lesser  side,  the 
preponderance,  or  excess,  of  cither  side  being  the 
true   Bhowing    ami    significance   of    the   account. 

Thus,  the  debit  or  let'  hand  side  of  the  cash  ac- 
count contains  the  items  of  cash  received]  a.i  1 
the  credit  orright-han  I  si  le,  the  items  of  cadb.  dis- 
bursed; the  difference  or  balance,  which. if  any. 

must     be    ill     faVOr  Of    the    debit     side  will    be  t  he 

anion  hi  of  cash  on  hand.  A  gain,  the  debit  of  mer- 
chandise account  contains  the  items  of  the  cost 
of  goods  purchased  ;  and  the  credit  side,  the  items 
oi  avails  of  goods  sold,  or  what  the  separate  sales 
have  produced  ;  the  difference  or  balance,  when  all 

the  facts  are  shown,   being  the    preponderance  of 

production  over  cost,  or  of  cosl  over  production,  as 
the  case  may  be  in  other  words  the  net  gain  or 
net  loss.  All  transactions  which  mark  the  prog- 
ress of  the  business,  having  in  them  the  element 


of  gain  or  loss,  must  occur  between  the  two 
classes  of  accounts  represented  by  cash  and  mer- 
chandise— the  one  taking  cognizance  of  measur- 
ing financial  worth,  the  other  indicating  its  in- 
crease or  diminution.  (The  mere  exchange  of 
one  fixed  value  for  another, such  as  the  canceling 
of  a  personal  indebtedness  by  receiving  or  pay- 
ing cash,  should  be  called  a  liquidation  rather 
than  a  transaction  .-  for  although  it  requires  a 
complete  record,  the  same  as  the  buying  and  sell- 
ing of  goods,  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  prog- 
res-,  of  the  business,  having  in  it  no  element  of 
gain  or  loss.)  The  real  transactions  of  the  busi- 
ness being,  therefore,  divided  between  these  two 
classes  of  accounts,  we  have  in  the  one  class — 
such  as  merchandise — the  indication  or  state- 
ment of  all  the  separate  gains  and  lo.-ses  which 
have  occurred,  and  in  the  other — such  as  cash — 
the  complete  measure  of  the  net  resources,  or 
real  wealth:  the  two  together  establishing  the 
satisfactory  concurrence  of  canst'  and  effect,  or 
assertion  and  proof.  Thus,  the  accounts  of  as- 
sertion or  cause  indicate  a  net  gain  or  net  loss, 
while  those  of  proof  or  effect  show  correspond- 
ingly increased  or  diminished  net  worth. 

The  peculiar  methods  or  forms  of  recording 
business  affairs  are  so  various — owing  to  the 
great  variety  of  manipulation  or  processes,  as 
also  to  the  difference  in  the  estimates  of  a  com- 
petent record,  that  they  cannot  be  pointed  out. 
The  general  conception  of  the  purpose  and 
sphere  of  book-keeping,  however,  may  be  stated 
as  compassing  such  a  record  of  affairs  as  will 
enable  the  proprietor  to  know,  at  any  time,  the 
extent  of  his  wealth  and  of  what  it  consists. 
Of  course,  if  the  real  worth  of  a  business  man 
can  be  ascertained  at  any  time,  the  increase  or 
diminution  between  any  two  periods  may  readily 
lie  obtained. 

Book-keeping  by  the  double-entry  system  has 
been  in  vogue  since  the  latter  part  of  the  L5th 
century.  It  was  originally  practiced  in  Venice, 
and  is  even  now  known  as  the  Italian  method. 
The  first  treatise  on   the  subject  was  written  by 

I, ilea  di  Borgo,  and  published  at  Venice  in  1  195. 
A  German  treatise,  written  by  Johann  Gottlieb, 

was  published  at  Nuremberg  as  early  as  L53]  : 
and  m  England,  in  L 543,  Hugh  Oldcastle  pub- 
lished a  work  on  this  subject  under  the  fanciful 
title  ^1  profitable  Treatyce  in  learn  In  know  the 
good  order  of  the  kepying  of  tic  famous  ree- 
onynge,  called  in  Latin,  dare  et  habere,  and  in 
Englyshe,  Debitour  mid  Creditour.  M  ua'a 
Book-keeping  Modernized  was  in  very  general 
use  <luring  most  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but 
was  superseded  bj  Benjamin  Booth's  Complete 
System  of  Book-keeping  t  I  to,  London.  1789). 
The  more  modern  publications  upon  this  subject 

are  very  numerous  :   and  the  most  recent  of  them 

embody  many  important  modifications  ami  im- 
provements in  the  system,  some  of  which  are 
rendered    necessary   in  order  to  apply   it    to    the 

processes  and  methods  of  commercial  transactions 

at  present  in  vogue. 

Book-keeping  constitutes  an  important  branch 

of  instruction  in  all  commercial  acnools  and  busi- 


BOOK-MANUAL 


BOUUI 


91 


ness  colleges,  in  some  of  which  it  is  pursued  by 
both  sexes.  It  is  also  taught  sometimes  in  con- 
nection with  arithmetic  and  penmanship,  in  the 
higher  classes  of  the  common  schools,  and  quite 
uniformly  in  the  evening  schools  in  most  of  the 
cities  of  the  Union.  This  branch  of  school  in- 
struction, however,  is  often  opposed  on  the 
ground  that  it  can  only  be  acquired  in  connec- 
tion with  the  actual  practice  of  the  counting- 
room.  The  objection  is  not  well  founded;  for 
while  it  is  obvious  that  no  theoretical  instruc- 
tion, in  this  or  any  other  art,  can  supersede  the 
necessity  of  actual  practice,  yet  that  instruction 
performs  an  important  function  in  laying  the 
foundation,  in  the  mind  of  the  student,  for  such 
practical  information  ami  expertness  as  are  sub- 
sequently to  he  attained.  In  many  business  col- 
leges, for  the  purpose  of  obviating  this  objection, 
exercises  are  resorted  to  that  nearly  approximate 
to  the  o] tcrations  of  actual  business.  Thus  the 
students  of  certain  colleges  carry  on  business 
correspondence  with  those  of  others  situated  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States;  make  and 
receive  formal  consignments  of  merchandise,  buy 
and  sell  exchanges  upon  the  different  sections  of 
the  I'nion  and  <  ana  la.  and  in  this  way  learn  the 
business  peculiarities  of  different  places.  To  insure 
a  complete  training,  the  functions  of  the  students 
are  constantly  changed.  The  one,  for  instance, 
who  holds  the  position  of  bill-clerk  and  collector 
to-day,  is  a  book-keeper  to-morrow,  shipper  the 
next  day,  etc.  By  this  diversity  the  exercises  are 
not  only  male  more  effective,  but  more  interest- 
ing and  impressive.     (See  Business  Colleges.) 

BOOK-MANUAL,  a  series  of  directions  as 
to  the  method  in  which  the  reading-book  should 
be  held  by  pupils  when  they  are  receiving  class 
instruction.  Minute  regulations  for  the  distri- 
bution of  books  to  the  pupils  of  a  class  as  well 
as  for  their  proper  manipulation  while  the  lesson 
is  given,  have  been  devised,  and  in  some  schools 
are  strictly  enforced.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a 
regular  and  uniform  method  of  this  kind  not 
only  saves  the  book  from  injury  occasioned  by 
improper  handling,  but  also  contributes  to  the 
formation,  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils,  of  a  love 
and  habit  of  order  and  propriety,  which  they 
will  apply  to  other  things.  Indeed,  it  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  apparently  unimportant  and 
trivial  things  that  the  teachei  needs  to  exercise 
the  greatest  care,  if  he  would  educate  his  pupils 
in  this  direction  ;  since  such  things  being  of  fre- 
quent occurrence, habits  are  more  readilyformed 
by  the  constant  repetition  which  they  require 
than  in  any  other  way.  The  following  minute 
directions  were  prepared,  some  years  ago,  for  the 
schools  of  New  York  City,  and  were  for  many 
years  in  use.  They  are  still  employed  by  many 
teachers,  those  referring  to  book-monitors  being 
usually  omitted;  since  at  the  present  time  each 
pupil  of  the  class  is  generally  supplied  with  a 
hook  of  his  own.  The  distribution  of  books  for 
a  given  exercise  is  still  often  necessary,  and  heme 
all  the  rules  hold  good  : 

I.  The  pupil  should  stand  erect,  his  heels  near  to- 
gether, toes  turned  nut.  and  his  face  directed  toward 
the  teacher. 


IF.  The  book-monitor  should  stand  at  the  head  of 
the  class,  with  the  pile  of  bunks  to  be  distributed 
across  his  Wt  arm,  with  the  backs  from  him, and  with 
the  top  of  the  page  to  the  right  hand. 

ill.  The  book-monitor,  with  the  right  hand,  hands  a. 
hunk  to  each  pupil  in  succession,  who  should  receive 
it  in  his  rigid  hand  with  the  back  of  the  booh  to  the 
left,  and  then   pass  it    into  the   left   hand,  iii  whirl,   he 

should  hold  it  with  the  hark  upward,  until  a  farther 
order  is  given. 

IV.  When  the  page  is  given  nut, the  book  should  be 

turned  by  the  thuml the  side  ;  and,  while  held  with 

both  hands,  turned  with  the  bark  downward,  the 
thumbs  meeting  across  the  leaves  at  a  point  judged  to 

be  nearest  the  place  to  be  found.  On  opening  the 
book,  the  left  hand  slides  down  to  the  bottom,  and 
thence  to  the  middle,  when  the  thumb  and  little  finger 
are  made  to  press  on  the  two  opposite  pages,  if  the 
page  is  thus  found,  the  pupil  stands  holding  the  hook 
in  his  left  hand,  and  lets  his  right  hand  fall  by  his 
side. 

V.  But  if  the  pupil  has  opened  short  of  the  page  re- 
quired, the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  is  to  be  placed 
tear  the  upper  corner  of  the  page,  while  the  forefinger 
lifts  the  leaves  to  bring  in  view  the  number  of  the 
page.  If  he  finds  he  has  nnt  raised  enough,  the  fore- 
finger and  thumb  hold  those  already  raised  while  the 
second  finger  lifts  the  leaves,  and  brings  them  within 
the  grasp  of  the  thumb  ami  linger.  When  the  required 
page  is  found,  all  the  ringers  are  to  be  passed  under 
the  leaves,  ami  the  whole  turned  at  once.  Should  the 
pupil,  mi  the  contrary,  have  opened  too  far,  and  be 
obliged  to  turn  back,  he  places  the  right  thumb,  in 
like  manner,  on  the  left  hand  page,  and  the  leaves  are 
lifted  as  before  described. 

VI.  Should  the  book  be  ofd,  or  so  large  as  to  make 
it  wearisome  to  the  pupil,  the  right  hand  may  sustain 
the  left  iii  holding  it. 

VII.  While  reading,  as  the  eye  rises  to  the  top  of 
the  right  hand  page,  the  right  hand  is  raised  ;  and  with 
the  forefinger  under  the  leaf,  the  hand  is  slid  down 
to  the  lower  corner,  and  retained  there  during  the 
reading  of  this  page.  This  also  is  the  position  in  which 
the  book  is  to  be  held  when  about  to  be  closed ;  in 
doing  which,  the  left  hand,  being  carried  up  to  the 
side,  supports  the  book  firmly,  while  the  right  hand 
turns  the  part  it  supports  over  on  the  left  thumb.  The 
thumb  will  then  be  drawn  oat  from  between  the  leaves, 
and  placed  on  the  cover;  and  then  the  right  hand  will 
fall  by  the  side. 

VIII.  When  the  reading  is  ended,  the  right  hand  re- 
tains the  book,  and  the  left  hand  falls  by  the  side.  The 
book  will  then  be  in  a  position  to  be  handed  to  the 
book-monitor,  who  should  receive  it  in  his  right  hand, 
and  place  it  on  his  left  arm,  with  the  back  towards 
the  body.  The  books  will  then  be  in  the  most  suitable 
situation  for  being  passed  to  the  shelves,  or  drawers, 
where,  without  being  crowded,  they  should  be  placed 
with  uniformity  and  care. 

See     Mm  mil   (if    PvbUc    School  Society  (New 

York,  1840) :  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education 

of  the  CiU i  of  New  York  (1855). 

BORGI,  Giovanni,  called  the  "founder  of 
ragged  schools."  was  born  in  Rome  about  I7.'!">. 
and  died  about  L802.  lie  was  a  poor  artisan, 
who  took  a  compassionate  interest  in  vagrant 
children,  lie  commenced  his  benevolent  work 
by  taking  a  number  of  these  children  to  his 
home,  providing  them  with  food  and  clothing. 
and  apprenticing  them  to  trades.  Knlisting  the 
active  interest  of  others,  he  was  able  to  hire  a 
suitable  building,  in  which  considerable  numbers 
could  be  accommodated  ami  taught ;  thus  estab 
lishing  what  was  afterwards  called  in  Scotland 
and  Kngland  a  "ragged  school."  The  institution 
founded  by  Borgi  was  continued  after  his  death 
and  found  an  earnest  patron  in  Pope  Pius  VI 1 
(See  Bagged  Schools.) 


92 


BOSTON 


BOSTON,  the  capital  and  metropolis  of 
Massachusetts,  having  a  population,  in  L875,  of 
341,919.  The  origin  of  the  public-school  system 
of  Boston  is  found  in  the  following  order  adopted 
by  the  freemen  of  the  town,  on  the  13th  of  April, 
"1035:  "Likewise  it  was  then  generally  agreed 
upon,  that  our  brother  Philemon  Purmont  shall 
be  entreated  to  become  schoolmaster  for  the 
teaching  and  nurturing  of  children  with  us." 
The  school  thus  set  up  has  been  perpetuated  to 
the  present  day,  and  has  long  been  known  as  the 
Public  Latin  School,  whose  chief  function,  during 
the  whole  period  of  its  existence,  has  been  the 
fitting  of  boys  for  Harvard  College.  This  was 
the  only  public  school  in  the  town  until  1682, 
when  it  was  voted,  in  town  meeting,  "that  a 
committee  with  the  selectmen  consider  and 
provide  one  or  more  free  schools  for  the  teach- 
ing of  children  to  write  and  cipher  within  this 
town."  Afterward,  schools  were  established  for 
teaching  reading  and  spelling.  These  reading  and 
writing  schools  have  been  gradually  developed 
into  the  present  grammar  schools.  Pupils  were  not 
admitted  to  these  schools  until  they  were  seven 
years  of  age.  Girls  were  not  admitted  to  the 
grammar  school  until  17s!)  ;  and,  during  the  next 
forty  years,  they  were  permitted  to  attend  only 
half  t lie  year,  from  April  to  October.  Tn  1818, 
primary  schools  were  established  to  fit  pupils  of 
both  sexes  for  the  grammar  schools,  to  which 
children  four  years  old  and  upward  were  ad- 
mit ted.  In  1821,  a  school  similar  to  the  German 
real  school,  and  named  the  English  High  School, 
'•was  instituted,  with  the  design  of  furnishing  the 
young  men  of  this  city,  who  are  not  intended  for 
a  collegiate  course  of  study,  and  who  have  en- 
joyed the  usual  advantages  of  the  other  public 
schools,  with  the  means  of  completing  a  good 
English  education."  A  normal  school  for  qualify- 
ing female  teachers  for  the  public  schools  of  the 
city  was  established  in  1852,  in  which  a  two 
years'  course  of  training  was  provided.  The  plan 
of  this  school  was  soon  nnnlilied  by  extending  its 
course  of  study  to  three  years,  and  by  including 
in  its  curriculum  all  the  branches  usually  taught 
in  high  schools.  In  1ST2,  this  twofold  institu- 
tion, which  bore  the  name  of  the*  Jirls'  1  [igh  and 
Normal  School,  was  separated  into  two  distinct 
schools,  a  normal  school  for  girls  and  a  high 
school  for  girls.  By  the  annexation  of  adjacent 
municipalities,  during  the  past  eight  years,  live 
mixed  high  schools  have  been  added  to  the  free 
public  schools  for  secondary  instruction.  Ele- 
mentary evening  schools,  and  day  schools  for 
newsboys  and  bootblacks  (licensed  minors),  were 
established  in  L868;  an  evening  high  school,  in 

1869;  a  scl I  for  deaf-mutes,  in  1869;  evening 

industrial  drawing  schools,  in  1870;  a  kindergar- 
ten, in  1  870.  The  public  Bchoi  Is  were  originally. 
and  for  more  then  a  .century  and  a  half,  managed 

by  the  selectmen  of  the  town,  the  clergy  being 
invited  bj  them  to  \  isil  the  schools,  especially  on 
public  occasions.    From  I  789,  until  the  adoption 

of  the  'ity  charter,  in   1822,  they  were  controlled 

by  a  board  composed  of  the  select  men  and  twelve 

committee  men.  annually  elected  iu    town   meet- 


ing. Under  the  charter,  the  selectmen  were  re- 
placed by  the  eight  aldermen.  From  1835  until 
1 855,  the  school  board,  called  the  Grammar 
School  Board,  consisted  of  twenty-four  com- 
mittee men,  two  being  elected  annually  by  the 
people  in  each  ward,  with  the  mayor  and  the 
president  of  the  common  council,  ex  officio.  Up 
to  this  time,  the  primary  schools  had  been  under 
the  management  of  a  board,  appointed  annually 
by  the  Grammar  School  Board,  consisting  of  one 
member  for  each  school  or  teacher,  the  number 
being  at  first  3l>.  but  increased  finally  to  190. 
I'uring  the  past  twenty  years,  the  school  system 
of  public  schools  has  been  in  charge  of  one  board, 
consisting  originally  of  7-4  members,  6  being 
elected  in  each  ward  by  the  people,  to  hold  office 
for  three  years,  the  mayor  and  president  of  the 
common  council  being  also  members.  By  the 
annexation  of  municipalities  above  mentioned, 
the  number  of  members  was  ultimately  in- 
creased to  11G.  This  board  was  discontinued  at 
the  beginning  of  1870  ;  and,  in  its  place,  a 
board  was  constituted  consisting  of  the  mayor, 
and  24  members  elected  by  the  people  on  a 
general  ticket,  to  hold  office  for  three  years. — 
'I  he  office  of  superintendent  of  schools  was  estab- 
lished in  1851.  The  first  incumbent  was  Nathan 
Bishop,  who  was  succeeded  by  John  D.  .Phil- 
brick,  who  held  the  office  for  nearly  18  years, 
retiringin  L874.  The  old  board  did  not  fill  the 
vacancy;  and  Mr.  Philbrick  was  re-elected  to  the 
office  by  the  new  board  in  1876.  Under  the  new 
system  of  supervision,  the  school  board  is  author- 
ized to  elect  aboard  of  six  supervisors.  The  follow- 
ing persons  were  elected  to  this  board:  Lucretia 
('rocker.  George  M.  Folsom,  Samuel  W.  Mason, 
William  Nichols.  Kllis  Peterson, and  Benjamin F. 
Tweed. The  superintendent  ia,exqfficio,a  member 
and  the  chairman.  The  principal  duties  assigned 
the  board  of  supervisors  are  those  of  examining 
candidates  for  teachers,  of  examining  the  schools, 
in  detail,  twice  in  each  year,  and  of  conducting  the 
annual  examination  of  the  pupils,  in  the  different 
grades  of  schools,  who  are  candidates  for  grad- 
uating diplomas. —  Besides  this  board  of  super- 
visors, there  is  a  general  director  of  music,  and 
another  of  drawing,  each  having  several  assist- 
ants. -For  the  purposes  of  supervision,  the  city 
IS  divided  into  nine  territorial  divisions,  each 
division  comprising  from  four  to  seven  territorial 
districts,  and  each  district  containing  one  gram- 
mar school    and    several    primary  schools.      'I  he 

master  of  the  grammar  school  is  the  principal  of 
the  district,  having  the  supervision  of  all  the 
schools  situated   therein.     There  are  no  primary 

principals.  Each  division  is  under  the  charge  of  a 
committee  composed  of  three  or  five  members  of 

the  school  board.  There  is  also  a  standing  com- 
mittee iii  charge  of  the  high  schools. 

School  System. — Besides  a  normal  school  for 
girls,  with  a  course   for  study  and  training  for 

one  year,  to  which  pupils  arc  admitted    only   on 

passing  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  usual 

high-School  studies,  there  are  8  high  school.: 
namely,  •">  large  central  schools,  the  Latin  and 
the  English  high  School  for  boys,  and  the  girls" 


BOSTON 


93 


high  school,  and  5  others  for  both  sexes,  located 
in  recently  annexed  districts.  These  schools 
(187C)  contain  2,180  pupils,  taught  by  50  male 
teachers  and  48  females,  whose  annual  salaries 
amount  to  $180,251.33.  There  are  :')()  grammar 
schools,  with  23,971  pupils,  taught  by  96  male 
teachers,  and  oil  females;  the  greater  part  of 
these  schools  are  unmixed.  In  the  primary 
grade,  for  children  from  5  to  Byearsof  age,  there 
arc  18,665  pupils,  taught  by  414  teachers.  The 
whole  number  of  pupils  belonging  to  the  day  and 
evening  schools  is  49,423.  The  aggregate  annual 
salaries  of  the  teachers  of  the  grammar  and  pri- 
mary schools  amount  to  $993,932.95.  The  spe- 
cial schools  are,  2  for  licensed  minors.  1  for  deaf- 
mutes,  1  kindergarten,  14  elementary  evening 
schools,  1  evening  high  school,  and  0  evening 
schools  for  industrial  drawing.  These  schools 
arc  taught  by  177  teachers,  whose  annual  salaries 
amount  to  8  12,82  1.64.  The  whole  number  of  reg- 
ular and  special  teachers  employed  in  the  day  and 
evening  schools  is  1,296;  and  the  whole  amount 
of  their  salaries  is  $1,217,008.92  ;  incidental  ex- 
penses, including  salaries  of  officers,  §507,364.69; 
total  current  expenses,  $1,724,373.61.  The  amount 
expended  during  the  year,  besides  this,  for  school- 
houses  and  sites,  was  §356,669.74.  The  cost  per 
Bcholar  for  tuition,  based  on  the  average  number 
belonging  to  the  day  schools,  is  §26.30;  for  inci- 
dentals, §10.55  ;  total  cost  per  scholar,  §36.85. 
In  1875,  the  whole  number  of  school-houses  owned 
by  the  city  was  144,  which,  with  their  sites,  were 
valued  at  Ss,500,000.  The  revenue  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  schools  is  derived  exclusively  from 
an  annual  tax  on  all  the  personal  and  real  prop- 
erty in  the  city,  which  is  levied  by  the  city 
council.  There  is  no  legal  restriction  to  the 
amount  that  may  be  levied  for  schools.  The  school 
sites  are  purchased,  and  the  school  buildings  are 
erected,  by  the  city  council;  but  the  plans  of  the 
buildings  and  the  sites  must  be  first  approved 
by  the  school  board,  who  have  the  authority  also 
to  determine  the  amount  to  be  expended  for  the 
salaries  of  teachers.  Tuition  is  gratuitous  in  all 
the  schools ;  drawing-books,  writing-books,  and 
stationery  are  furnished  gratuitously  to  all  pu- 
pils ;  and,  to  indigent  children  text-books  are 
also  furnished  at  the  public  expense. 

Salaries.— The  salary  of  the  superintendent  is 
$4,500  ;  of  members  of  the  board  of  supervisors, 
$4,000  each ;  of  head-masters  of  high  schools, 
$4,000;  of  masters  of  grammar  schools  and  mas- 
ters in  high  schools.  §3.200;  submasters  in  gram- 
mar and  high  schools,  §2.600  ;  of  ushers  in  gram- 
mar and  high  schools.  $2,000  ;  of  head-assistants 
[females)  in  grammar  schools.  §  1 ,200;  of  assistants 
(female)  in  high  schools  §1  .lit  II I  to  SI  .50(1;  of  assist- 
ants (female)  in  grammar  schools,  and  teachers  in 
primary  schools,  s^OO  ;  of  supervisors  of  music 
and  drawing,  §3.300  each  ;  and  their  assistants, 
§2,500.  The  city  is  divided  into  14  truant  dis- 
tricts, each  having  a  truant  officer,  with  a  salary 
of  §1,200.  Habitual  truants,  pupils  who  have 
absented  themselves  from  school  several  times 
without  permission  from  their  parents  or  teach- 
ers, and  absentees,  legally  described  as  "  children 


found  in  streets  and  public  places,  not  attending 
schools  and  not  engaged  in  a  lawful  occupation," 
are  sentenced  to  a  reformatory  for  one  or  two 
years.  This  plan  of  dealing  with  truants  dates 
from  1S50,  and  it  has  proved  an  efficient  agency 
in  promoting  good  attendance  at  school.  Chil- 
dren growing  up  without  education  or  salutary 
control,  by  reason  of  orphanage,  or  the  neglect, 
crime,  drunkenness,  or  other  vice  of  parents,  on 
complaint  of  the  truant  officers,  may  he  sent  to 
an  institution  assigned  by  the  city  for  the  pur- 
pose, where  they  arc  hoarded  and  educated. 

Private  Schools  <t>nl  other  Institutions.  —  In 
1874,  the  whole  number  of  pupils  in  private  tui- 
tion-paying schools  (excepting  commercial  "col- 
leges"), whether  incorporated  or  not,  below  the 
college  grades,  was  3,ss7.  There  were,  besides, 
about  5,000  pupils  in  free  denominational  schools 
(Roman  Catholic).  The  aggregate  number  of  pri- 
vate schools  is  93,  with  358  instructors.  There  are 
14  orphan  asylums,  with  37  instructors  and  1,344 
pupils;  5  business  colleges,  with  19  instructors 
and  717  pupils  ;  1  school  of  pharmacy,  with  3 
professors  and  75  students;  2  schools  of  dentist- 
ry, with  15  professors  and  40  students;  1  college 
(The  Boston  College,  R.  C),  with  8  professors  and 
1  15  students;  1  university  (The  Boston  Univer- 
sity, Methodist),  with  a  school  of  liberal  arts,  and 
several  professional  schools;  1  school  of  theology, 
with  7  professors  and  94  students ;  1  school  of 
law,  with  14  professors  and  08  students;  2  schools 
of  medicine,  with  35  professors  and  195  students; 
1  polytechnic  school  (Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology) ,  with  36  professors  and  356  students ; 
1  normal  art  school  (state),  with  8  professors  and 
200  students ;  1  museum  of  fine  arts,  value  of 
collections  §100,000,  value  of  buildings,  etc., 
§400,000;  1  museum  of  natural  history,  having 
10,000  volumes;  value  of  collections,  §100,000,  of 
buildings.  §138,000;  14  public  libraries,  456,427 
volumes,  232,900  pamphlets;  value  of  buildings, 
§1 ,026,700;  Sunday-schools,  157,  with  4,450  teach- 
ers, 43,540  scholars,  and  83,700  volumes  in  lib- 
raries. There  are  two  conservatories  of  music, 
and  numerous  smaller  music  schools.  One  of  the 
most  important  educational  institutions  in  Boston 
is  the  Lowell  Institute,  established  in  1839  by 
the  munificence  of  John  Lowell,  to  provide  for 
"regular  courses  oifree  public  lectures  upon  the 
most  important  branches  of  natural  and  moral 
science,  to  be  annually  delivered  in  the  city  of 
Boston."  The  fund,  in  January,  1873,  was 
§642,711.32 ;  the  expenses  for  1872  were 
§31,912.47,  the  number  of  free  lectures  delivered 
during  the  year  being  264.  Two  drawing-schools, 
and  the  school  of  industrial  design  in  connection 
with  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
are  maintained  by  the  fund.  The  Institute  is 
managed  by  one  trustee,  a  kinsman  of  the 
founder.  No  printed  document  or  report  has 
ever  been  issued  by  the  Institute.  The  Boston 
City  Free  Public  Library,  which  was  opened  in 
1853,  and  is  supported  by  taxation  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  public  schools,  has  six  branches, 
and  contains  306,287  volumes;  the  annual  ex- 
pense of  maintaining  it  is  about  §130,000. 


94 


BOSTON  COLLEGE 


BOSTON  UNIVERSITY 


BOSTON  COLLEGE,  at  Boston,  Mass., 
was  founded  in  L863  by  the  Fathers  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  by  whom  it  is  conducted.  Its 
object  is  to  impart  a  religious,  classical,  and 
scientific  education.  The  course  begins  with  a 
••class  of  rudiments,"  and  extending,  in  success- 
ive  years,  through  three  "  classes  of  grammar,"  a 
••  class  of  poetry,"  and  a  "  class  of  rhetoric."  into 
a  seventh  year  of  philosophy  and  chemistry.  As 
in  must  of  the  colleges  of  this  fraternity,  classical 
studies  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  all  the  classes 
of  the  entire  course.  In  1874,  there  was  a  corps 
of  16  professors  and  other  instructors,  with  1  5 
collegiate,  and  143  preparatory  students.  The 
value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  etc..  is  $200,000, 
an. I  it  has  a  library  of  about  4,000  volumes. 
Rev.  Robert  Fulton.  S.  J.,  is  (-1876)  the  presi- 
dent of  tlie  institution.  The  annual  tuition  fee 
is  sen. 

BOSTON  UNIVERSITY,  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  was  founded  by  the  munificence  of  Isaac 
Rich,  who  bequeathed  tor  that  purpose  the 
greater  part  of  his  estate,  amounting  to  Dearly 

12,000,000.  The  first,  however,  to  suggest  and 
advocate  its  establishment,  was  the  late  Lee 
Claflin,  father  of  a  recent  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, whose  views  found  an  earnest  supporter 
in  Jacob  Sleeper.  Hence,  these  three  persons 
are  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  institution, 
although  Mr.  Rich  was  its  most  munificent 
patron.  Its  charter  was  obtained  from  the  legis- 
lature of  Massachusetts  in  1st;!),  its  plan  of 
organization  is  unique  and  comprehensive,  in- 
cluding (1)  Preparatory  Departments;  (2)  Col- 

hycs  ;    (.'!)    Prnfi'sximtul  Schools;   and  (I)  School 

,,)'  all  Sciences  (Schola  Scholarum).  The  first 
of  these  are  designed  to  fit  students  for  the  col- 
leges :  the  second, to  prepare  them  for  the  higher 
industries  and  arts  of  civilization,  and  for  the 
study  of  the  learned  professions;  the  third,  to 
qualify  them  theoretically  and  practically  for 
professional  life  :  while  the  fourth,  including  and 
Supplementing  the  work  of  the  professional 
schools,  is  designed  to  he  a  universal,  or  non-pro- 
fessional school  of  elective  post-graduate  studies, 
with  special  degrees,  scholarships,  and  fellow- 
ships. 

Of  the  colleges  three  have  already  been  or- 
ganized: (1)  that  of  Liberal  Arts,  in  1873  ;  (2) 
that  of  Music,  in  IsT'J  ;    (.'!)  that  of  Agricuti 
supplied  by  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Ool- 

;it  Amherst,  associated  with  the  university 

in  I  875.  This  college  has  enjoyed  a  very  high  rep- 
utation  since   its  organization  in   L867  ;     and  by 

the  arrangemenl  made  with  the  Boston  I  Diver- 
sity, matriculants  in  the  latter,  who  desire  in- 
struction in  agriculture,  horticulture. and  related 
branches,  can  receive  it  in  the  College,  and  on 
completing  the  prescribed  course, can  receive  their 
degree  from  the  I  diversity  as  well  as  from  the 
College.     'I'he   '  qf  Liberal  Arts  answers 

to  what  is  called  in  some  American  universities 
tin-  Academic  Department.  Its  courses  of  in- 
struction qualify  studi  bs  for  tin'  degrees  oi 
bachelor  "t  arts,  bachelor  of  philosophy,  and 
bachelor  of  science.      The    College  of  Music  is 


1  designed  for  students  of  the  average  proficiency 
of  graduatesof  the  best  American  conservatories 
of  music ;  and  is  the  only  institution  of  its 
grade  and  kind  in  the  United  States.  The 
regular  courses  of  instruction  extend  through 
four  years,  and  include  (1)  a  course  for  vocal- 
ists :  (2)  a  course  for  pianists  :  (3)  a  course  for 
organists;  (4)  courses  for  orchestral  performers. 
All  these  courses  include  the  study  of  musical 
theory,  also  the  history  and  esthetics  of  music. 

The  professional  schools  include  that  of  theol- 
ogy, adopted  in  IsTl  ;  of  law.  opened  in  1872; 
of  medicine,  in  1873  ;  of  oratory,  in  1^7.'!.  The 
School  of  all  Sciences  was  established  in  1874. 
The  school  of  theology  was  formerly  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Theological  Seminary  of  Boston, 
which  was  organized  in  TS47.  A  school  of  fine 
arts  is  projected. 

A  fundamental  idea  with  those  who  organized 
the  university  was.  that  a  university  should  exist 
not  for  one  sex  merely,  but  equally  for  the  two  ; 
hence  the  most  ultra  principles  of  co-education 
are  carried  out.  Young  men  and  young  women 
are  welcomed  to  all  the  advantages  of  the  insti- 
tution on  precisely  the  same  conditions,  -not 
merely  to  the  bench  of  the  pupil,  hut  also  to  the 
chair  of  the  professor.  The  trustees  of  the  New 
England  Female   Medical  College,  said  to  he  the 

'  oldest  medical  college  for  women  in  the  world, 
by  a  special  act  of  the  legislature,  in  1  s 7. ">. trans- 
ferred all  its  properties  and  franchises  to  the 
Boston  Cniversity,  and  was  thus  merged  into  its 
broader  co-educative  school  of  medicine. 

Post-graduate  students  of  this  university,  de- 
siring to  fit  themselves  for  professorships  of 
Greek,  Latin,  modern  languages,  philosophy, 
history,   or  art.   enjoy    special    advantage's.      By 

virtue  of  an  arrangement,  effected  in  1875,  with 
the  authorities  of  the  National  University  at 
Athens,  and  those  of  the  Royal  Cniversity  at 
Rome,  any  member  of  the  School  of  all  Sciences, 

duly  recommended,  may  pursue,  without  expense 
for  instruction,  and  for  any  Dumber  of  years, 
select  or  regular  courses  of  study  in  any  depart- 
ment of  said  universities,  enjoying  all  the  lights 
and  privileges  of  university  citizenship;  and 
upon  returning,  and  passing  a  satisfactory  ex- 
amination in  tlie  work  accomplished,  can  receive 
a  degree  from  the  Boston  I'niversity.  The 
faculties  of   these  two  foreign   universities  are 

thus    co-operating   faculties  of  the   School  of  all 

Sciences,  which  is  designed  1 1 )  for  the  benefil  of 

bachelors  Of  arts,  philosophy,  or  science. of  what- 
soever college,  who.  with  little  or  no  direct  refer- 
ence to  fitting  themselves  for  a  professional  life, 
may  desire  to  receive  post-graduate  instruction 
in  this  university;  (2)  to  meet  the  wants  of  all 

graduates  in   theology,   law.   medicine,  or  other 

professional  course,  who  may  wish  to  supplement 
their  professional  culture  by  courses  of  study  in 

related  sciences,  arts,  and  professions.  This  school 

is.  thus,  like  the  studium  generate  of  the  middle 

ages,  the    crowning  and  unifying  department  of 

the  entire  university  organization. 

Thus  far.  this  comprehensive  plan  ha-  been 
successfully  carried  out  :  and  the  institution  has 


BOTANY 


95 


received  a  large  patronage  and  haa  accomplished 
much  work,  lu  L874 — 5, there  were  745  stu- 
dents belongingto  the  institution;  <>f  whom  268 
wciv  iii  the  preparatory  departments;  81, in  the 
colleges;  and  396  in  the  schools.  Of  the  entire 
number  in  the  colleges  and  schools.  L02  were 
females,  rts  graduates  from  the  schools  of  theol- 
ogy, law.  and  medicine  were  more  numerous 
than  those  from  the  corresponding-  schools  of 
Harvard  or  Yale.  Its  financial  condition  is 
prosperous,  notwithstanding  the  heavy  loss  which 
it  suffered  in  the  great  Boston  conflagration  of 
1872.  The  final  transfer  of  the  Rich  fund  does 
not  take  place  till  L882.  The  president  of  the 
university  is  William  F.  Warren.  S.T.  !>..  LL.  I  >.. 
elected  in  1873. — See  Boston  University  Tear 
Books,  edited  by  the  university  council,  vols,  i, 
ii.  and  in. 

BOTANY  (Gr.  loravri,  herb,  plant),  the  sci- 
ence of  vegetable  life,  treating  of  the  elementary 
composition,    structure,    habits,    functions,   and 

ssification  of  plants,  in  which  are  included 
herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees.  This  is  a  branch  of 
that  general  descriptive,  or  empirical  science, 
called  natural  history  :  being  based  upon  the 
facts  of  observation.  The  educative  value  of 
botany,  especially  in  the  early  stages  of  the 
mind's  development,  is  very  considerable, — far 
more  so,  indeed,  than  its  usual  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  school  education  would  indicate; 
since  it  is  generally  superseded  by  subjects  which 
seem  to  be  of  more  practical  importance  to  the 
pupil  in  his   after   life.     In  the  more  modern 

ems  of  elementary  education,  both  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe,  particularly  in  Germany, 
the  training  of  the  perceptive  faculties  by  the 
systematic  observation  of  objects  holds  a  very 
prominent  place,  indeed  is  considered  the  basis 
of  all  sound  mental  culture  ;  and  among  all  the 
objects  of  nature,  none  can  claim  precedence  in 
point  of  variety,  beauty,  and  interest,  for  this 
purpose,  over  those  of  which  botany  treats.  It 
has  been  well  said  by  a  writer  upon  this  subject, 
•As  the  love  and  observation  of  flowers  are 
among  the  earliest  phenomena  of  the  mental  life, 
so  should  some  correct  knowdedge  of  them  be 
among  the  earliest  teachings.''  The  facdity  with 
which  plants  maybe  collected,  handled,  and  ana- 
lyzed, as  well  as  their  general  attractiveness, 
makes  them  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  object 
teaching.  Bugs  and  beetles  are  often  quite  re- 
pulsive to  a  child,  bu^  where  is  the  girl  or  boy 
who  is  not  pleased  with  the  contemplation,  or 
the  manipulation,  of  leaves  and  flowers? 

For  the  purpose  of  this  kind  of  instruction. 
and  as  an  introduction  of  the  subject  to  young 
minds,  the  chief  point  is  to  direct  the  attention 
of  the  child  to  the  most  obvious  characteristics 
of  plants  and  of  their  parts,  as  leaves,  stems, 
roots,  flowers,  seeds,  etc.  They  should  be  set  at 
once  to  collect  specimens  for  themselves,  and  be 
shown  how  (1)  to  observe  them,  ('!)  how  to  state 
and  record  the  results  of  their  observations,  so 
that  they  may  acquire  a  knowledge;  of  the  words 
used  to  express  the  characteristic  peculiarities  of 
different  objects.     Here  will  be  afforded  a  wide 


range  for  the  exercise  of  comparative  observation, 
in  the  perception   of  both    resemblances    and 

differences,  lint  particularly  the  latter.  It  is  not 
requisite,  nay  it  would  he  injurious,  to  teach 
anything  of  classification  al  this  stage;  nor  in- 
deed is  it  necessary  that  the  child  should  know 
the  name  of  any  plant  the  whole  or  part  of 
which  is  under  observation.  Some  prefer  to 
teach  the  names:  since  the  child's  mind  ha 
cra\  ing  for  the  names  of  such  objects  as  interest 
it.  When  therefore,  the  name  is  asked  f or  by 
the  pupil, there  can  be  no  objection  to  the  teach- 
er's telling  it.  The  observation  and  description 
of  the  characteristics  are.  however,  the  essential 

points  to  be  insisted  upon,  for  this  purpose,  no 
plan  can  be  better  than  the  "  Schedule  Method," 
invented  by  Prof.  .1.  S.  Ilenslow.  of  Cambridge, 
England,  and  ingeniously,  as  well  as  exhaustively, 
applied  by  Miss  Youmans  in  her  elementary  text- 
books on  this  subject.  According  to  this  method, 
the  pupil  starts  with  an  observation  of  the  sim- 
plest characteristics,  as  the  parts  of  the  leaf — 
its  blade,  petioles,  stipules;  its  venation,  margin, 
etc.  The  general  appearance  of  these  may  be  at. 
first  represented  by  pictures,  but  only  to  enable 
the  learner  to  study  the  natural  objects,  which 
he  carefully  observes,  and  writes  the  characters 
in  his  schedule,  attaching  each  specimen  to  it,  as 
a  verification  to  the  teacher  of  the  accuracy  of 
his  observation.  (See  Yoimaxs's  First  Book  of 
Botany?)  It  will  be  easily  seen  that  by  a  con- 
tinuous application  of  this  plan,  the  pupil  will 
acquire  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  plants,  as  well  as  of  the  nomenclature 
of  the  science;  and.  moreover,  that  at  every  step 
his  observation,  and  his  judgment  too.  will  be 
thoroughly  exercised  and  trained,  in  order  to  be 
able  to  describe  the  minute  distinctions  of  form, 
structure,  color,  etc.,  that  are  subjected  to  his  dis- 
criminative attention.  This  process  harmonizes 
entirely  with  the  following  just  view  of  a  distin- 
guished educator  :  '"The  first  instruction  of 
children  in  the  empirical  sciences  should  mainly 
consist  in  exhibiting  to  them  interesting  objects 
and  phenomena;  in  allowing  them  to  look, 
handle,  and  ask  questions';  and  in  giving  oppor- 
tunity for  the  free  exercise  of  their  youthful 
imaginations.  A  teacher  may  guide  them  in 
their  explorations  of  the  neighborhood,  direct 
their  observations,  make  inquiries,  give  explana- 
tions, conduct  experiments,  call  things  by  their 
light  names  ;  but  he  must  be  careful  to  do  it  in 
such  a  maimer  as  not  to  check  their  play  of 
fancy  or  chill  their  flow  of  feeling.''  (See 
Wickbbsham's  Methods  of  Instruction.)  Bui  the 
young  pupil  is  not  to  be  kepi  constantly  at 
mere  observation. or  the  comparison  of  the  form, 
structure,  color,  etc.,  of  leaves,  flowers,  and  other 
parts  of  plants;  his  attention  may  be  called  to 
the  simple  facts  of  vegetable  physiology,  and  thus 
shown  "how  plants  grow"  and  "how  they  be- 
have," as  well  as  what  they  are.  The  elementary 
works  of  Prof.  Gray,  bearing  the  titles  above 
quoted  (How  Plants  Grow,  and  How  Plants' 
Behave),  and  Dr.  IIookkr's  Child's  Book  of  Nat' 
ure,  will  be  useful  auxiliaries  to  the  teacher  for 


96 


BOTANY 


this  purpose.  Such  information  as  the  circula- 
tion of  the  sap,  its  use,  the  functions  of  the  leaf, 
the  root,  the  flower,  and  the  seed,  communicated 
in  an  appropriate  style  and  explained  by  their 
analogy  with  other  things,  familiar  to  the  mind 
of  every  child,  will  properly  supplement  the 
knowledge  gained  by  the  pupil  through  his  own 
observations.  The  following  description  from 
the  Child's  Book  of  Nature,  will  illustrate  what 
is  meant  by  this  : 

' '  The  bark  is  not  all  one  thing.  It  is  made 
up  of  two  parts  ;  or  rather,  we  should  say,  there 
are  two  barks.  There  is  an  outer  bark  and  an 
inner  one.     The  outer  bark  has  no  life  in  it. 

It  is  this  outer  bark  that  gives  such  a  roughness 
to  the  trunks  of  some  trees,  as  the  elm  and  the 
oak.  This  outer  bark  is  a  coat  for  the  tree.  It 
covers  up  the  living  parts  so  that  they  shall  not 
be  injured.  It  does  for  the  tree  what  our  clothes 
do  for  our  bodies.  It  is  not  a  perfectly  tight 
coat.  It  has  little  openings  everywhere  in  it.  It 
would  be  bad  for  the  tree  to  have  this  coat  on  it 
tight,  just  as  it  would  be  bad  for  our  bodies  to 
have  an  India-rubber  covering  close  to  the  skin." 

In  such  a  simple  style  as  this,  and  with  the 
use  of  similar  illustrations,  much  interest  may 
be  awakened  in  the  child's  mind,  its  observing 
ami  reasoning  faculties  quickened,  and  a 
love  of  natural  objects  infused,  which  independ- 
ently of  the  practical  use  of  the  knowledge 
gained,  will  constitute  a  mental  culture  of  the 
highest  value  and  prove  a  life-long  blessing  to  its 
possessor.  If.  after  this  elementary  instruction, 
it  is  deemed  important  that  the  science  should 
be  studied  as  such,  the  pupil  must  be  gradually 
trained  in  classification,  for  which  the  founda- 
tion will  have  been  laid,  in  this  branch  of  study. 
as  in  all  other  departments  of  natural  history, 
the  mental  processes  to  be  successively  performed 
are:  (1)  Observation,  with  the  view  to  compar- 
ison and  analysis  ;  (2)  Classification  ;  (3)  Induc- 
tion, or  the  discovery  of  principles,  so  as  to  em- 
body the  observed  facts  into  a  science  ;  and  (4 ) 
Application  of  the  scientific  principles  to  new 
facts.  The  elementary  exercises  already  described 
conduct  the  pupil  through  the  first  stage  only  ; 
but  the  scientific  study  does  not  begin  until  the 
third,  and  is  not  completed  till  he  has  become 
practiced  in  the  fourth.  The  observation  of 
common  characters  in  plants  will  necessarily 
lead  the  mind  of  the  pupil  to  perceive  the 
method  and  the  value  of  classification  :  but  such 

exercises  need  not  lie  very  protracted,  since  it  is 
natural  even  to  a  child  I"  generalize  and  classify. 

He  will  soon  be  prepared  for  the  methodical 

study   of    systematic    botany;    and   then    very 

properh  may  lie  supplied  with  a  good  text-book. 
Bui  the  pupils  must  only  use  it  as  an  auxiliary 
or  instrument,  in  the  study  of  nature.  Let  them 
.■-till  be  encouraged  to  collect  specimens,  to  notice 
as  fully  and  accurately  as  possible  their  peculiar 
ities.  and  to  describe  them    by  the   proper  terms. 

Borne  simple  means  of  drying  and  preserving 

plants  will  be  very  serviceable,  so  that  tin  school 
at  least  may  possi  tolerably  complete   her 

barium.  Magnified  and  colored  representations, 
such    as    those    supplied   by    Prang's   Natural 


History  Series,  and  especially  Henslow's  Botan- 
ical ('harts,  will  prove  a  great  aid  in  showing 
clearly  what  the  pupils  fail  to  make  out  in  the 
actual  specimens.  For  the  purpose  of  analyzing 
flowers,  etc.,  a  small  microscope  will  be  needed; 
one  that  can  be  so  used  as  to  leave  both  hands 
free  for  the  work  of  dissection,  is  greatly  to  be 
preferred.  This,  with  a  sharp  knife,  forceps, 
and  large  needles,  fixed  in  handles,  is  all  that  will 
be  needed.  Judgment  should  be  exercised  in 
the  selection  of  the  flowers  for  analysis.  The 
simpler  and  more  obvious,  as  the  Oruciferae, 
Rosacece, Leguminosce,  Ranunculacece,Violacece, 
and  Labiatce,  before  such  orders  as  the  Com- 
posilce,  Umbettiferce,  Juncacece,  and  <'///>ei-acece. 
The  grasses,  ferns,  mosses,  fungi,  etc.,  will  need 
to  be  studied  at  an  advanced  stage  of  the  course. 
The  artificial  keys  supplied  in  most  text- 
books should  be  used  with  judgment.  Students 
are  very  apt  to  become  absorbed  in  the  desire  to 
discover  the  names  of  plants  by  the  use  of  these 
devices,  as  if  that  were  the  end  of  the  study. 
But  while  there  is  no  doubt  that  much  progress 
can  be  made  by  the  verification  of  the  order  and 
species  of  a  plant,  in  this  way,  the  great  object 
to  be  attained  is, that  the  student  should  become 
so  well  versed  in  observing  and  describing  the 
peculiarities  of  plants,  and  in  their  classification, 
that  he  may  bj  able  to  place  them  at  once  where 
they  belong,  only  using  the  key  when  he  has 
come  across  a  specimen  which  belongs  to  some 
order  with  which  he  is  unacquainted. 

The  utility  of  botany  as  a  branch  of  school 
study  has  been  thoughtlessly  called  in  question. 
Its  value  as  an  educational  agent  has  already 
been  sufficiently  shown,  and  a  brief  consideration 
of  the  relations  of  vegetable  life  to  the  most 
important  interests  of  society  will  suffice  to 
demonstrate  its  exceeding  importance  as  a  branch 
of  knowledge.  The  agriculturist  is  greatly  at 
fault  who  knows  nothing  of  the  principles  of 
vegetable  physiology,  who  cannot  distinguish  the 
properties  and  characteristics  of  the  plants  that 
cover  his  domain  —  some  the  object  of  his  most 
tender  care  and  concern,  others  his  greatest  bane. 
The  florist  and  horticulturist  are  certainly  un- 
acquainted with  their  own  arts,  unless  they  are 
proficient  in  a  knowledge  of  the  structure, 
functions,  and  habits  of  plants ;  and  the  apoth- 
ecary and  physician  have  also  an  especial  need 
of  similar  information.  The  geographer  and  the 
geologist;  and  indeed  the  scientist,  in  every  de- 
partment, needs  tu  have  a  good  acquaintance 
with  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Says  Prof.  Ilen- 
fiw:  •■  In  geography , that  is.  physical  geography, 
the  concrete  natural  history  of  plants  becomes  a 

portion  Of  the  concrete  natural  history  of  the 
globe:  the  physiological  laws  are  involved  with 
physical  laws  of  climate,  soil,  etc..  in  the  ex- 
planation of  possible  distributions,  either  in  an 
abstract  point  of  view,  or  for  the  purpose  of 
practical  application;  while  the  systematic  classi- 
fications, and  the  natural  history  of  particular 
species,  become  the  only  guide  by  which  we  can 
attempt  to  trace  back  the  existing  conditions  of 
distribution  towards  their  origin,  and  thus  per- 


BOYVDOIN  C0LL1K 1  E 


ROYS 


97 


form  the  share  duo  to  botany;  in  the  historical 
connection  of  physical  geography  with  geology, 
of  which  it  is  properly  only  the  statical  part." 
Moreover,  to  the  clergyman,  the  lawyer,  the 
orator,  and  all  who  need  to  cultivate  and  employ 
tlie  art  of  persuasion,  involving  as  it  does,  too, 
the  art  of  elucidation,  few  subjects  present  so 
wi  le  a  field  for  familiar  and  impressive  illustra- 
tions as  the  domain  of  plants,  rich  not  only  in 
those  natural  flowers  which  are  pleasing  to  the 
eye,  but  also  in  those  flowers  of  speech,  which 
constitute  the  most  attractive  ornaments  of 
rhetoric  and  poetry.  The  traveler  and  explorer 
in  distant  lands,  who  is  a  botanist,  can  find  in 
the  flora  of  every  region  he  visits,  food  for  prof- 
itable instruction  and  research;  and  the  rural 
wayfarer,  who  has  fled  the  bustle  and  confusion 
of  city  life  for  relief  and  rest,  will,  in  a  knowledge 
of  this  science,  never  fail  to  realize,  at  every  step 
he  takes,  the  most  refreshing  enjoyment.  Surely 
no  stronger  plea  can  be  set  up  for  any  of  the 
branches  of  study  which  occupy  so  conspicuous  a 
place  in  the  educational  schemes  of  schools  and 
colleges,  those  alone  excepted  which  constitute  the 
indispensable  foundation  of  all  mental  improve- 
ment.—  See  Youmans,  Educational  Claims  of 
Botany  (N.  Y.,  1870),  First  Book  of  Botany  (N. 
Y..  1870),  and  Second  Book  of  Botany  (N.  Y., 
1873)  ;  Gray,  How  Plants  Grow  (N.  Y,  1858); 
F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  Early  Mental  Training,  and 
Henfrey's  lecture  on  the  Educational  Claim* 
of  Botanical  Science,  in  The  Culture  demanded 
by  Modern  Life,  edited  by  E.  L.  Youmans  (N.  Y., 
1867)  ;  Wickersham,  Methods  of  Instruction 
(Phil.,  1865) ;  How  to  Teach,  a  Manual  of  Meth- 
ods (X.Y.,1873). 

BOWDOIN  COLLEGE,  at  Brunswick, 
Maine,  the  oldest  and  most  prominent  literary 
institution  in  the  state,  was  chartered  in  1794, 
and  organized  in  1802.  It  was  named  in  honor 
of  Gov.  James  Bowdoin  of  Massachusetts.  The 
government  was  vested  in  a  board  of  trustees 
and  a  board  of  overseers,  which,  in  1801.  elected 
Joseph  McKeen,  D.  D.,  the  first  president  of  the 
College.  He  was  succeeded,  in  1807,  by  Jesse 
Appleton,  D.  D.,  who  served  till  1819,  when 
Rev.  William  Allen  was  elected  his  successor, 
and  continued  in  office  till  1839,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  Leonard  Woods,  D.  D.,  who  held 
office  till  1866.  In  1867,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Harris, 
S.  T.  D.,  was  elected  president,  and  was  succeeded, 
in  1871,  by  Joshua  L.  Chamberlain,  LL.  D., 
the  present  incumbent.  The  prevailing  religious 
denomination  is  the  Congregationalist.  Provision 
is  made  in  this  institution  for  a  scientific  course 
of  study,  distinct  from  the  regular  collegiate 
course,  during  the  last  two  years,  and  especially 
embracing  the  modern  languages,  natural  science, 
(leering,  mechanics,  and  drawing.  There  is 
also  a  post-graduate  course,  which  affords  in- 
struction in  (1)  Letters,  comprising  languages, 
ancient  and  modern  (including  the  oriental), 
with  the  literature  of  each  :  philology,  rhetoric, 
logic,  history,  elocution,  and  the  fine  arts ;  (2) 
Science,  comprising  higher  mathematics,  physics, 
natural  history,  and  chemistry,  in  their  uses  and 
7 


applications;  (3)  Philosophy,  comprising  psy- 
chology, metaphysics,  ethics,  esthetics,  and  pol- 
ities, the  latter  including  the  theory  of  govern- 
ment, constitutional  history,  principles  of  law, 
and  international  law.  The  first  leads  to  the 
degree  of  master  of  arts  (A.  M.);  the  second, 
to  that  of  doctor  of  science  (Sc.  D.)  ;  and  the 
third,  to  that  of  doctor  of  philosophy  (Ph.  D.). 
Graduates  who  have  completed  any  course  in 
the  post-graduate  studies  with  honor,  may  be 
appointed  fellows,  to  reside  at  the  college  with  all 
the  privileges  of  the  same  one  or  two  years 
further,  without  charge,  enjoying  facilities  for 
studies  still  more  advanced,  with  opportunities 
for  teaching  in  the  line  of  their  specialties. 
Much  attention  is  given  to  physical  culture,  a 
gymnasium  being  provided  with  the  most  ap- 
proved apparatus.  The  exercises  are  carefully 
directed  upon  physiological  and  hygienic  princi- 
ples, with  the  view  to  develop  the  bodily  powers, 
but  are,  at  the  same  time,  subservient  to  the 
discipline  of  the  mind.  Instruction  is  also  afforded 
in  military  science,  and  daily  exercises  in  drill 
are  given  by  an  officer  of  the  army  detailed  for 
that  purpose.  Since  1873,  these  drill  exercises 
have  been  optional,  the  students  electing  be- 
tween them  and  the  gymnasium.  Medical 
training  is  given  through  the  Medical  School  of 
Maine,  which,  by  an  act  of  the  legislature,  in 
1821,  was  placed  under  the  superintendence  and 
direction  of  the  trustees  and  overseers  of  Bow- 
doin College.  The  number  of  professors  and  other 
instructors  in  the  college,  in  1874,  was  15,  and  of 
students,  173,  exclusive  of  those  in  the  medical 
school.  The  value  of  the  grounds,  buildings,  and 
apparatus  is  about  $85,000,  and  its  productive 
funds  amount  to  $154,000.  The  college  and  so- 
ciety libraries  contain  about  31,000  volumes.  The 
roll  of  alumni  includes  some  illustrious  names. 
Here,  in  1825,  graduated  Henry  W.  Longfellow 
and  Nathaniel  Hawthorne ;  and  subsequently 
Franklin  Pierce,  Geo.  B.  Cheever,  John  P.  Hale, 
S.  S.  Prentiss,  and  Calvin  E.  Stowe.  Thomas  C. 
Upham,  D.  D.,  was  professor  of  mental  philos- 
ophy from  1824  to  1867 ;  and  H.  W.  Long- 
fellow held  the  position  of  professor  of  modern 
languages  from  1829  to  1835,  when  he  was  called 
to  a  similar  position  in  Harvard  College.  The  an- 
nual tuition  fee  is  about  $75.  There  are  ten  en- 
dowed scholarships,  yielding  from  $50  to  $60  per 
annum  and,  besides  these,  funds  donated  to  the 
institution,  amounting  to  about  $10,000,  from 
which  aid  is  liberally  afforded  to  indigent  students. 
BOYS,  Education  of.  In  the  education  of 
boys,  the  same  general  principles  are  to  be  ap- 
I  as  in  that  of  girls ;  and,  up  to  a  certain  age, 
in  their  school  education,  the  same  arrangements 
for  discipline  and  instruction  will  answer.  Edu- 
n.  however,  rightly  considered,  has  for  its 
object  to  aid  and  guide  the  development  of  the 
powers  or  faculties,  both  generic  and  specific, 
of  the  individuals  who  are  subjected  to  its  minis- 
trations; and,  consequently,  its  processes  should 
vary  with  the  character  of  the  facidties  which 
are  to  be  developed.  And  this  is  by  no  means 
the  whole.     Education  is  to  be  addressed  to  all 


98 


BOYS 


the  elements  of  character, — physical,  mental,  and 
moral.  There  are  propensities  to  restrain  and 
subdue  as  well  as  powers  to  bring  out  and  direct. 
There  are  tendencies  to  good  to  cultivate  and  en- 
courage: and  then-  are,  from  the  first, those  of  an 
opposite  character  to  repress  or  extinguish. 
There  is  not  only  the  intelligence  to  be  stimu- 
lated and  guided,  there  is  the  will  to  be  subdued, 
— to  be  made  subject,  not  only  to  the  authority 
of  the  educator,  lmt  to  the  conscience  of  the  edu- 
cated. Doubtless,  there  are  principles  sufficiently 
comprehensive  to  embrace  all  these  considera- 
tions, and  to  afford  a  safe  foundation  for  prac- 
tical methods  and  rules  sufficiently  minute  to 
reach  every  case,  however  peculiar  or  eccentric  : 
but  what  we  wish  here  especially  to  lay  down,  is 
th-  important,  fundamental  law.  that  education, 
claiming  to  be  scientific,  and  nota  nit  re  mechan- 
ical empiricism,  must  take  cognizance  of  all  these 
elements  of  human  character,  not  only  in  their 
average  condition  and  degree,  but  in  those 
marked  diversities  which  constitute  individual 
character.  (See  Education.)  According  to  this 
principle,  boys  and  girls  can  never  properly  be 
subjected  to  precisely  the  same  processes  of  edu- 
cation, because  their  natures  are  very  different, 
— physically,  mentally,  and  morally.  This  fact 
is,  however,  not  necessarily  in  t diet  with  co- 
education ;  indeed,  it  may  be  an  argument  in 
favor  of  it.  Children  of  both  sexes  may  be 
trained  in  the  same  family,  and  instructed  in  the 
ie  school  or  class;  but  the  wise  parent  and 
the  skillful  teacher  will  often  have  to  make  a 
careful  discrimination  in  his  treatment  of  them 
as  boys  or  girls. 

The  ancients  had  very  different  educational 
systems  for  the  two  sexes,  for  two  reasons :  ( 1 ) 
because  of  their  diverse  natures,  and  {'!)  because 
of  their  different  spheres  of  life.  Nearly  all 
that  we  read  of  ancient  education  concerns  boys; 
but  we  are  not  to  suppose,  for  this  reason,  that 
the  education  of  the  girls  was  overlooked.  That 
of  the  boys  was  public,  and  was  a  matter  of  pub- 
lic concern,  for  the  welfare  and  the  safety  of  the 
state  depended  upon  it:  but  that  of  the  girls 
exclusively  belonged  to  the  social  circle,  and  was, 
therefore,  strictly  private. 

In  the  Oyropd'tlin  of  Xenophon,  we  have  a 
beautiful  picture  of  the  education  of  boys  among 
the  Persians,  fictitious  in  some  particulars,  with- 
out doubt,  but  illustrative  of  ancient  manners 
and  views  as  to  the  objects  of  such  an  edu- 
'ii.  The  public  good  was  the  exclusive 
end  of  this    system:    ami    as    the    education  of 

the   future    citizens  for   their   duties  in   p 
and  war  was  the  mosl    important    concern  of 
the   state,  this  duty  was  not    left  to  the  parents. 

by  whom  it  might  be  oeglected  or  improperly 
performed,  bu1  was  the  subject  of  special  gov- 
ernmental regulations.  Boys  were  all  brought 
up  iii  common,  according  to  a  uniform  system. 

which    prescribed    the   kind    of    food,   the   times 

of  eating,  the  nature  and  duration  of  physical 

exercises,  and  the  modes  of  punishment.  By 
B    very    plain    and     simple    die!,    the    boys    were 

accustomed    to    strict   temperance;    and   such 


modes  of  bodily  exercise  were  employed  as  would 
inure  them  to  the  hardships  and  fatigues  of  war. 
Tn  their  schools,  the  chief  object  was  to  teach  the 
pupils  justice  and  virtue,  with  the  view  that  it  is 
much  easier  to  prevent  the  commission  of  crimes 
by  proper  early  education,  than  by  severity 
of  punishment  at  a  more  advanced  period  of 
life. 

The  Spartan  system  of  educating  boys  re- 
sembled  that  of  the  Persians  as  described  by 
Xenophon,  except  that  it  was  deficient  in  some 
of  the  finer  moral  elements;  and  in  its  physical 
characteristics  was.  perhaps,  more  severe.  (See 
Sparta.)  For  an  account  of  the  education  of 
boys  among  the  Athenians,  see  Athens.  ^\mong 
the  Romans,  the  education  of  boys  was  under 
the  guidance  of  the  father;  though  much  of  it, 
particularly  in  its  earliest  stages,  was  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  mother.  She  attended 
not  only  to  their  physical  wants,  but  took  pains 
to  form  their  language,  their  ideas,  their  moral 
sentiments,  and  their  religious  feelings.  Of  this 
we  have  an  example  in  Cornelia,  the  mother  of 
the  <  rracchi.  Later,  the  boy  was  furnished  with 
a  custos,  or  paedagogus,  who  sometimes  in- 
structed him  in  gymnastics,  or  accompanied  him 
to  the  exercises,  or  to  the  theatre,  being  responsible 
for  his  safety.  This  office,  in  a  Woman  family, 
was  performed  by  one  of  the  older  slaves,  and  its 
functions  continued  until  the  age  of  manhood  was 
reached.  Some  distinguished  Romans,  the  elder 
Cato  for  example,  taught  their  own  sons;  but 
usually  teachers  were  especially  employed  to  give 
instruction  in  reading,  writing,  calculation,  rhet- 
oric, etc.  A  teacher  of  this  kind  was  called 
hull  magister.  Youths  were,  for  the  space  of  a 
year,  exercised  in  arms  in  the  Campus  Martins, 
and  iii  swimming  in  the  Tiber.  (See  Rome.)  The 
most  celebrated  writer  on  the  education  of  boys 
among  the  Romans  is  Quintl'lian,  whose  great 
work  Fnsiitutiones  Oratorios,  although  designed 
to  explain  tin'  education  necessary  for  the  com- 
plete orator,  yet  treats  likewise  of  the  early 
training  ami  instruction  of  the  boy.  Thus  ho 
says:  ••  Many  are  opposed  to  t he  public  schools, 
for  the  reason  that  the  children  acquire  bad 
habits  there,  and  also  because  the  teacher  can 
bestow  more  attention  upon  one  than  upon 
many:  but  these  objections  against  the  good  old 
dations  are  not  valid,  since  there  are  also 
many  evils  connected  with  private  instruction; 

and.  moreover,  if  boys  were   not   early  rendered 

effeminate,  they  would  not  be  so  easily  corrupted 
in  the  public  schools.  The  instruction  in  tl 
schools  is  to  be  preferred,  especially  for  the  fu- 
ture orator,  in  order  that  he  may  accustom  him- 
self to  the  multitude,  and  be  Stimulated  by  com- 
petition." Quintilian  enjoined  particularly  uj)on 
the  teacher  to  make  himself  acquainted  with  the 
disposition  and  capacity  (natura  et  ingeniitm) 
of  his  pupils,  and  to  treat  every  one  according 

to   his   peculiar    traits.       Other    Woman    writ,  is 

treated  of  the  education  of  youth.  Varro  wrote 
Gapy8,atU  de  liberis  educandii, which, together 
with  most  of  this  author's  numerous  treatises, 
has  perished. 


BOYS 


BRAILLE 


99 


Tn  modern  times,  most  of  the  special  treatises 
cm  education  refer  particularly  to  the  training 
and  instruction  of  boys.  This  is  true  of  Mon- 
taigne, Milton,  and  Locke.  The  special  education 
of  urirls  has  engaged  the  attention  of  bul  few 
writers.  Very  many, therefore,  of  the  principles 
and  rides  laid  down  are  based  upon  the  peculiar 
disposition  and  character  of  boys.  Milton's  defini- 
tion of  education  is  limited  to  the  one  sex,  its 
scope  being"to  lit  a  man  to  perform  justly,  skill- 
fully, and  magnanimously  all  the  offices,  both 

private  and  public,  of   peace  and  war":  and  his 

various  directions  as  to  studies,  physical  exer- 
cises, etc.,  all  have  an  exclusive  application  to 
hoys,  w  ho  he  says,  among  other  things,  "  must  be 

also  practiced   in  all  the  locks  and  gripes  of 

Wrestling,  wherein  Englishmen  were  wont  to 
excel,  as   need   may  often   be   in   fight  to  tug,  to 

grapple,  and  to  close."  Fencing  he  particularly 
approves :  "  The  exercise  which  I  commend  first, 
is  the  exact  use  of  their  weapon,  to  guard,  and 
to  strike  safely  with  edge  or  point  ;  this  will 
keep  them  healthy,  nimble,  strong,  and  well  in 
breath,  is  also  the  likeliest  means  to  make  them 
grow  large  and  tall,  and  to  inspire  them  with  a 
gallant  and  fearless  courage,  which  being  tem- 
pered with  seasonable  lectures  and  precepts  to 
them  of  true  fortitude  and  patience,  will  turn 
into  a  native  and  heroic  valor,  and  make  them 
hate  the  cowardice  of  doing  wrong."' 

.Most  writers  on  education  have  recognized  the 
necessity  of  discriminating  between  the  sexes  in 
education.  "  From  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
year,"  says  Schwarz,  "the  two  sexes  require,  in 
almost  every  respect,  a  different  education.  The 
principal  concern  of  boys  are  the  studies  of 
school,  alternating  with  bodily  exercise.  Their 
amusements  are,  at  an  early  age,  of  the  more 
active  kind  :  chasing  the  butterfly,  and  scouring 
the  plain  with  other  boys;  at  a  later  age,  they 
should  engage  in  pedestrian  excursions  and  bold 
undertakings,  and  enjoy  the  cheerful  company  of 
their  equals;  taking  care,  however,  that  their 
playmates  be  of  the  proper  character,  and  that 
their  hearts  be  cultivated  for  what  is  noble  and 
generous.  This  vigilant  supervision  should  fol- 
low- them  to  the  latter  years  of  youth, and  guard 
them  against  all  bad  company.  Their  propensity 
to  imitate  their  older  associates,  which,  among 
other  evil  practices,  so  often  leads  to  the  early 
habit  of  smoking,  and  the  like,  should  be  en- 
listed on  the  side  of  what  is  good  and  praise- 
worthy, by  constantly  managing  their  entire 
education  in  accordance  with  sound  principles." 
The  same  writer  also  observes  very  justly  :  "  Al- 
though hoys  should  be  chiefly  educated  by  men. 
and  girls  by  women,  the  two  sexes  should  unite 
in  the  education  of  both  boys  and  girls.  The 
boy  requires  the  mild  and  gentle  treatment  of 
the  mother,  in  order  that  his  sensibility  may  not 
become  callous  ;  and.  besides,  he  will  always  need 
some  intercourse  with  persons  of  the  other  sex. 
both  young  and  adult,  as  it  is  found  in  families, 
because  otherwise  he  will  contrail  habits  of 
rudeness,  without  developing  a  susceptibility  for 
the  finer  feelings  of  humanity." 


The  requirements  of  modern  civilization,  as 
well  as  the  usages  of  modern  social  life,  appear 

to  dictate  a  separate  education  for  boys,  alter  the 

elementary  stages,  both  on  accounl  of  the  diver- 
sity in  the  mental  and  physical  constitution  of 
boys  and  girls,  and  because  of  the  difference  in 
the  spheres  of  life  which  they  are  to  occupy. 
Here,  however,  there  is  great  difference  of  opin- 
ion, many,  and  particularly  females  themselves 
contending  for  the  breaking  down  of  all  distinc- 
tions of  the  kind,  and  throwing  open  all  grades 
and  classes  of  educational  institutions, both  gen- 
eral and  technical,  to  both  sexes.  (See  Co-kim  - 
CATION.)  This  question  will  not  be  discussed 
here;  but  the  tact  simply  stated  that  many  of 
the  public  schools  in  the  United  States  have  an 
organization    especially   adapted    to    males,    and 

that,  among  private  seminaries,  this  rule  chiefly 
prevails.  Hoarding-schools,  with  arrangements 
for  gymnastic  and  other  physical  exercises,  and 
a  school  military  drill,  are  quite  common ; 
while  business  and  commercial  colleges  and 
schools  have  become  very  numerous.  (See  Bu- 
siness Colleges.)  These  institutions  aim  to 
give  a  training  which  will  fit  their  pupils  to  till 
their  future  positions  as  accountants,  merchants, 
or  business  men  in  any  capacity ;  and,  in  con- 
nection therewith,  impart  such  principles  of 
honor  and  integrity,  as  will  give  them  true  man- 
liness and  Christian  integrity.  Some  of  these 
institutions  are  open  to  girls  as  well ;  but  just 
as  there  are  seminaries  and  colleges  which  are 
for  females  exclusively,  so  there  are  likewise  in- 
stitutions especially  devoted  to  the  education  of 
boys.  —  See  Milton,  Of  Education;  Schwarz, 
Erziehungslehre  (Leipsic,  1829)  ;  Rousseau, 
Emile,  ou  de  l Ed 'wet it 'ion;  H.I.  Schmidt,  His- 
tory of  Education  (N.  Y.,  1842);  Hailman, 
History  of  Pedagogy  (Cincinnati,  1874.) 

BRAIDWOOD,  Thomas,  a  noted  teacher 
of  deaf-mutes,  was  born  in  Scotland  in  1715, 
and  died  at  Hackney,  near  London,  in  1806.  He 
kept  an  establishment  at  Dumbiedikes,  near 
Edinburgh,  which  was  the  first  regular  school 
for  deaf-mutes  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  this  in- 
stitution that  Dr.  Johnson  praised  so  highly,  and 
in  which,  as  recorded  by  Boswell,  he  gave  one  of 
his  sesquipedalia  verba,  to  test  the  skill  of  the 
pupils  in  articulation.  (See  Boswell's  Life  of 
Johnson.)  Subsequently,  Braidwood  kept  a 
school  at  Hackney,  near  London,  in  which  he 
continued  till  his  death,  and  which  was  after- 
ward maintained  by  his  widow  and  grand-chil- 
dren till  lslG.  He  kept  his  methods  of  instruc- 
tion secret  as  far  as  possible;  but  the  chief  tea 
tn  of  his  system  was  articulation  and  reading 
from  the  lip.  The  manual  alphabet  was  like- 
wise employed.  An  account  of  his  Edinburgh 
school  was  published  by  Francis  Green  of  Los- 
ton,  the  father  of  one  of  Braidwood 's  pupils,  in 
a    work   entitled   Vox  ocu/is  subjecta  (London, 

178::). 

BRAILLE,  Louis,  the  inventor  of  a  tan- 
gible point  system  for  the  instruction  of  the- 
blind,  was  born  near  Paris  in  1809,  and  died  in 
1852.    He  lost  his  sight  at  a  very  early  age,  and 


100 


BRAIN" 


BRAZIL 


was  instructed  in  the  institute  for  the  blind  at 
Paris.  He  was  highly  distinguished  for  his  in- 
telligence, and  the  rapidity  with  which  he  ac- 
complished himself  in  various  branches  of  knowl- 
edge, particularly  music  ;  and  besides  being  a 
skillful  player  upon  several  other  instruments, 
was  reckoned  among  the  best  organists  of  his 
time.  At  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Royal  institute  ;  and  while  in  that 
position  (about  1839),  devised  his  method  of 
writing,  based  on  the  point  system  of  ML  ( narles 
Barbier,  which  he  also  applied  to  musical  nota- 
tion. Le  systems  Braille  was  introduced  in  most 
of  the  continental  schools.  A  new  system  of 
tangible  point  writing  and  printing  has,  quite 
recently,  been  devised  by  William  B.  Wait, 
superintendent  of  the  New  York  institution  for 
the  blind,  in  which  the  letters  which  occur 
oftenest,  such  as  e,  </.  and  /.  are  represented  by 
the  smallest  number  of  points.  — See  Wait's 
New  Fork  System  of  Tangible  Musical  Notation 
a  ml  Point  Writing  mnl  Printing  (New  York, 
L873). 

BRAIN",  the  principal  organ  of  the  nervous 
system,  ami  the  fountain  of  nervous  energy 
to  the  whole  body.  It  is  the  seat  of  conscious- 
ness, feeling,  and  intellect,  ami  also  the  recipient 
of  all  impressions  made  on  any  part  of  the  nerv- 
ous system.  The  brain  being  the  organ  espe- 
cially concerned  in  education,  its  hygiene  is  an 
important  subject  for  the  attention  of  the 
teacher.  The  development  of  this  organ  is  very 
rapid.  The  average  weight  of  the  brain  in 
adults  is  about  48  ounces,  and  this  limit  is  gener- 
ally attained  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years.  No 
-organ  is,  from  the  time  of  birth,  so  regularly  and 
so  incessantly  exercised  as  the  brain.  During 
the  period  of  infancy,  nature,  herself  BUperinteni  I  > 
this  process ;  and  unless  her  cai'e  is  interfered 
wit li  through  the  ignorance,  folly,  or  neglect  of 
the  mother  or  nurse,  it  results  in  a  healthy 
growth  and  development.  When  the  age  of  in- 
fancy is  passed,  and  the  child  is  surrendered  to 
the  educator,  intelligence  and  skill  may  accom- 
plish much  benefit  in  regulating  the  cerebral  de- 
velopment :  or  a  want  of  skill  and  intelligence 
may  do,  and  often  does,  very  great  injury.  Ex- 
ercise is  the  natural  instrument  by  which  all  the 
bodily  organs  are  brought  to  a  maturity  of 
growth  and  strength,  and  by  which  they  are 
kept  in  a  condition  of  health.  In  applying  this 
principle,  the  teacher  should  see  that  the  exercise 
be  proper,  (1)  as  to  its  kind,  (2)  as  to  its  degree, 
(3)  as  to  its  direction  ;  and  in  all  these  respects, 
thai  ii  is  adapted  to  the  age  and  peculiar  phys- 
ical conduit f  the  child  to  be  educated.   The 

same  processwil]  not  answer  for  all.  The  teacher 
who  wishes  to  do  good,  whose   aim    is   really  to 

educate,  will  study  the  external  indications  of 

temperament,  of  bodily  health   and   disease,  and 

also  of  cerebral  structure;  and  will,  as  fai 
possible,  regulate  his  operations  accordingly.  The 
brain  i-^  exercised  both  by  thought  and  feeling ; 

being  the  seat  of  various  faculties,  both  mental 
and  moral,  its  activities  are  aroused  by  whatever 
is  addressed  to  the  intellect,  the  conscience,  the 


emotions,  or  the  propensities.  "  The  first  step," 
says  Combe.  "  towards  establishing  the  regular 
exercise  of  the  brain,  is  to  educate  and  train  the 
mental  faculties  in  youth  ;  and  the  second  is  to 
place  the  individual  habitually  in  circumstances 
demanding  the  discharge  of  useful  and  impor- 
tant duties."  The  healthy  development  of  the 
brain  may  be  prevented  ( 1 )  by  wrong  exercise, 
('_')  by  being  overtasked,  (3)  by  bad  physical  con- 
ditions. (4)  by  bad  moral  conditions.  Over- 
strained or  too  long  continued  attention,  excess- 
ive tasks  from  books,  committed  to  memory 
under  the  pressure  of  fear,  long  confinement  in 
close  rooms,  and  hence  the  want  of  properly 
oxygenated  air.  will  impair  the  functions  of  the 
brain,  and  lay  the  foundation,  not  only  of  future 
disease,  but  perhaps  of  future  imbecility.  So, 
too,  when  subjected  to  harsh  disci] .line,  to  un- 
kind treatment,  to  a  moral  atmosphere  vitiated 
by  the  irritability,  ill-humor,  and  moroseness  of 
the  ] talent  or  teacher,  the  brain  of  the  child 
loses  even  its  natural  or  normal  physical  condi- 
tion ;  and  its  growth  is  necessarily  morbid.  (See 
Physical  Education.) 

BRAZIL,  an  empire  of  South  America, 
having  an  area  of  .'!. '288,100  sq.  in.,  and  a  popula- 
tion, according  to  the  census  of  L872, of  9,700,187. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  important  states  of  the 
world,  being  exceeded,  in  extent,  only  by  the 
Russian,  British,  and  Chinese  empires,  and  by 
the  United  States ;  while,  in  regard  to  popula- 
tion, it  ranks  as  the  Kith  state.  The  established 
religion  of  the  empire  is  the  Roman  Catholic ; 
but  according  to  Art.  5.  of  the  constitution,  all 
other  religions  are  tolerated,  "with  their  domestic 
or  private  forms  of  worship,  in  buildings  erected 
for  this  purpose,  but  without  the  exterior  form 
of  temples."  No  person  can  be  persecuted  for 
religious  acts  or  motives.  The  number  of  Prot- 
estants is  estimated  at  about  30.000.  The  ma- 
jority of  them  are  Germans,  who  have  about 
20  churches  and  are  united  in  a  synod.  Besides 
the  German  Protestants,  there  are  Knglish  and 
French  Protestant  churches;  and  the  Presbyteri- 
ans of  the  United  States  haw  established  a  small 
number  of  congregations  among  the  native 
Brazilian  population.  The  national  language  is 
the  Portuguese.  The  number  of  German  and 
Swiss  colonies  was,  in  L869,  about  50,  with 
about  40,000  German-speaking  settlers.  The 
whites  number  probably  one  third  of  the  popula- 
tion, the  remaining  two-thirds  being  made  up  of 
mixed  races,  civilized  and  savage  Indians,  and 
Africans,  which  last  form  the  most  numerous 
unmixed  race  in  the  empire.  The  number  of 
Bavage  Indians  is  estimated  at  from  250,000  to 
500,000.  They  are  divided  into  a  large  number 
of  different  t lilies  and  speak  many  different 
dialects,  though  all  understand  the  lingoa geral, 
which  was  formed  by  the  priests, traders, and 
slave  hunters,  on  the  basis  of  the  Tupi-Quarani 
i  language  of  the  native  tribes  Tupi&aa  Guaranty 
The  Indians  being  found  unprofitable  as  slaves, 
recourse  was  had  to  the  importation  of  negroes 
from  Africa.  These  were  treated,  until  1850 
with  almost  unparalleled  cruelty,  though  eman- 


bba/ib 


m 


cipation  was  always  encouraged,  and  no  man  was 
debarred  by  his  color  from  reaching  any  position 
inchurch or  state.  A  law,  passed  Sept.  28.,  lsTl. 
provided  for  the  gradual  abolition  ot  slavery. 

Brazil  was  discovered  and  taken  possession  of 
for  the  king  of  Portugal,  in  L500,  and  from  that 
time  remained  under  the  control  <>t'  Portugal, 
with  a  short  interruption,  until  L822,  when  it 
was  declared  an  independent  empire,  and  Dom 
Pedro  L  was  proclaimed  its  first  emperor.  Ac- 
nmviing  to  the  constitution  of  L824,  public  ele- 
mentary instruction  is  gratuitous,  and  placed 
under  tiie  control  of  the  state.  Private  schools, 
like  all  others,  are  subject  to  the  superintendence 
of  the  state  government.  Public  instruction  is 
graded,  as  in  other  countries,  into  primary, 
secondary,  and  superior  or  scientific  instruction. 
Public  instruction,  like  ecclesiastical  affairs,  be- 
longs to  the  department  of  the  minister  of  the 
interior.  Secondary  and  primary  instruction, 
arc,  however,  chiefly  regulated  by  the  provincial 
assemblies,  and  placed  under  the  administra- 
tion of  the  presidents  of  the  provinces.  As  the 
Brazilian  provinces  enjoy  a  high  degree  of  self- 
government,  there  is  but  little  uniformity  in  the 
Organization,  but  generally  the  provinces  have 
modeled  their  schools  after  those  of  the  capital. 
As  long  as  Brazil  was  a  Portuguese  colony, 
little  was  done  for  public  instruction;  but  Dom 
Pedro  I.,  as  soon  as  he  had  ascended  the  throne, 
showed  great  interest  in  the  promotion  of 
public  education,  and  established  a  number  of 
new  schools.  Still  more  was  done  by  his  son  and 
successor,  Pedro  II.  (since  1831)  ;  but  the  provi- 
sions of  the  constitution  of  1824  were  never 
fully  carried  out  until  1851,  when  the  two  cham- 
bers passed  a  law  authorizing  the  government 
to  reorganize  the  systems  of  higher  instruction 
throughout  the  empire,  and  those  of  secondary 
and  primary  instruction  in  the  capital.  In  ac- 
cordance with  this  law,  the  minister  of  the  inte- 
rior, Pedreiro  de  Couto  Ferraz,  promulgated, 
Feb.  14..  1854,  the  organic  provisions  which  had 
been  drafted  by  De  Almeida  Roza,  and  which 
have  remained  the  basis  of  everything  that  has 
since  been  accomplished  in  Brazil  for  the  promo- 
tion of  public  instruction. 

Brazil  has,  like  Portugal,  public  schools  of 
the  first  and  second  (higher)  grade.  The  course 
of  instruction  in  the  former  embraces  religion, 
ethics,  reading  and  writing,  the  elements  of  the 
Portuguese  grammar  and  of  arithmetic,  with 
legal  weights  and  measures.  In  the  female  schools, 
instruction  is  also  given  in  embroidery  and  other 
kinds  of  needle-work.  In  the  schools  of  the  sec- 
ond grade,  the  gospels  are  read  and  explained, 
and  instruction  is  given  in  biblical  and  universal 
history,  geography,  especially  that  of  Brazil, 
arithmetic,  the  elements  of  geometry  and  en- 
gineering, drawing,  music  and  gymnastics.  The 
number  of  schools  is  as  yet  entirely  insufficient, 
and  as  the  salaries  paid  are  generally  very  small, 
there  is  a  great  want  of  competent  teachers. 
The  country  owes  many  important  reforms  to 
the  zealous  minister  of  the  interior.  Correa  de 
Oliveira  (1871 — L875),  who  has  announced  his 


intention  to  introduce  compulsory  instruction 
and  to  establish  two  national  normal  schools,  of 
which  there  is  as  yet  a  great  want,  as  the  few 
institutions  of  the  kind  existing  in  the  provinces 
can  be  regarded  as  only  a  small  beginning  of  real 
normal  instruction. 

Before  being  allowed  to  teach,  all  persons  have 
to  pass  both  a  written  and  an  oral  examination. 
Thequestions  for  the  former  are  arranged  by  the 
council  of  studies  at  the  beginning  of  every 
school  year.  This  council  consists  of  the  general 
inspector  of  schools,  of  the  two  rectors  of  the 
Gollegio  de  Pedro  //.,  and  four  elective  coun- 
cilors. There  are  also  5  assessors,  1  clerk  with  1 
assistants,  and  IT  delegates  of  parishes,  of  whom 
il  belong  to  the  city  ot  Bio  de  Janeiro. — Pupils 
are  admitted  into  the  public  schools  from  the  5th 
to  the  15th  year  of  age.  The  school  hours  are 
mostly  from  8  to  11  A.  M.,  and  3  to  5£  P.  M. 
The  schoobbooks,  which  must  be  approved  by 
the  inspector  general,  are  to  a  great  extent  trans- 
lations from  the  French  and  the  English;  among 
them  is  a  translation  of  Peter  Parley's  Universal 
History.  The  school  is  opened  every  day  with 
a  short  prayer.  Corporal  punishment  is  not 
permitted.  Every  school  is  annually  examined 
by  a  committee  consisting  of  a  delegate  of  the 
district  as  president,  the  teacher,  and  a  third 
person  appointed  by  the  inspector  general.  The 
rive  most  successful  scholars  receive  rewards, 
consisting  of  books.  The  president  of  the  com- 
mittee makes  a  report  on  the  examination  to  the 
inspector  general. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  minister  of 
public  instruction  to  the  legislature  for  1872,  the 
number  of  public  primary  schools  in  the  capital 
was  111,  with  6,149  scholars,  namely  3,900  boys 
and  2,249  girls.  The  number  of  public  primary 
schools  in  the  provinces  is  3,4  91 ,  namely  2,343  for 
boys,  and  1148  for  girls,  attended  by  106,705 
scholars,  namely  75,594  boys,  29,096  girls,  and 
2,015  whose  sex  is  not  stated.  The  number 
of  private  primary  schools  is  711,  with  19,162 
pupils.  The  total  sum  expended  annually  in  the 
provinces  for  public  instruction  was  3,362,687 
milreis  (about  $1,836,000). 

The  model  secondary  school  of  Brazil  is  the 
Colleyio  de  Pedro  II.  at  Rio,  which  was  organ- 
ized in  1854.  It  consists  of  2  separate  institu- 
tions, one  of  which  is  a  boarding  and  the  other  a 
day  school,  each  with  its  own  rector.  The  num- 
ber of  students  was  351 ;  of  whom  221  were  day 
scholars  and  130  boarders.  Besides  this  college, 
there  were  in  the  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  60  pri- 
vate secondary  schools, — 30  for  boys,  25  forgirls, 
and  5  for  both  sexes.  The  course  of  instruction 
in  these  institutions  varies  somewhat,  but  in 
most  of  them  the  following  subjects  are  taught: 
Portuguese.  Latin,  French,  English,  natural  phi- 
losophy, arithmetic  algebra,  geometry,  history, 
geography,  rhetoric,  and  poetry.  The  number 
of  public  secondary  institutions  in  the  provinces 
was  107.  with  2.9!)  1  scholars,  namely  2,916boys, 
and  7S  girls.  The  number  of  private  institutions 
was  12::.  with  an  attendance  n\  5,089  scholars. — 
3,852   boys    and    1.237    girls.      The   secondary 


:]-OU 


brum;  MAN 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA 


institutions  in  the  province  arc  under  the  control 
of  the  provincial  administration,  and  there  is  on 
tiiat  account  a  great  lark  of  uniformity  in  their 
courses  of  instinct  ion  and  their  entire  admin- 
istration. The  government  of  Brazil  intends, 
however,  to  establish,  as  soon  as  practicable,  state 
colleges  on  a  uniform  plan.  For  the  (ierinan 
colonies  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo  a  "Ger- 
man lyceurn"  has  been  established;  most  of  tin' 
secondary  schools  resemble,  however,  the  French 
lyceums. 

Brazil  has  as  yet  no  university  :  but  only  tun 
law  faculties  at  Recife  (Pernambuco)  and  Sao 
Paulo,  with  an  aggregate  number  of  542  students, 
and  two  medical  faculties  at  Rio  de.  Janeiro  and 

Bahia,  with  an  aggregate  number  of  868  stud 
The  establishment  of  a  complete  university  at 
Rio  de   Janeiro  is  projected,  and  is   urgently 
recommended   by  the  ministerof  public  inst rue 
tion  in  bis  annual  reports  to  the  legislature. 

Theological  faculties  are  connected  with  nearly 
all  the  episcopal  seminaries.  Of  other  special 
schools,  there  arc  at  the  capital  a  business  college 
(with  36  students  in  1872),  an  institution  for  the 
blind  (with  L 9  pupils),  an  institution  for  deaf- 
mutes  (with  1!)  pupils);  tli-  Central  School  (sci- 
entific school),  with  which  a  military  school  is 
connected,  a  naval  school  and  a  naval  artillery 
school,  an  academy  of  fine  arts  (with  187  stu- 
dents), a  conservatory  of  music  (with  139  stu- 
dents), and  an  imperial  lyceum  of  arts  and  in- 
dustry, belonging  to  the  society  for  promoting 
fine  arts,  a  sort  of  polytechnic  school  (with 
1,233  Btudents).  In  the  provinces,  there  are 
several  agricultural  and  industrial  schools. 

See  Lb  Rot,  in  Schmid's  Realencyclopadie, 
vol.  ix.,  pp.  8G9 — 920;  Kidder  and  Fletcher, 
Brazil  and  the  Brazilians  (8th  edit.,  Boston 
1866);  Aoassiz,  A  Jonrna/  in  Brazil  (ls(JS), 
"Waim'.ki  s.  Das  Kaiserreich  Brasilien  (Leipsic, 
1871);  Annual  reports  of  the  minister  of  public 
instruction  of  Brazil  to  the  legislature. 

BEIDGMAN,  Laura,  a  remarkable  blind 
deaf-mute,  born  at  Hanover.  N.  II.,  in  1829,  is 
particularly  noted  as  the  subject  of  a  very  suc- 
cessful course  of  training  and  inst  ruction,  by 
means  of  which  she  was  taught  to  read,  write, 
and  converse  with  others,  and  enabled  to  acqu 
a  knowledge  of  many  useful  branches  of  learn- 
ing, besides  becoming  highly  accomplished  in 
music.  She  lost  ber  sigh!  and  bearing  al  the 
age  of  two  years;  and  when  aboul  eight  years 
old,  b  icame  an  inmate  of  the  Perkins  institution 
for  ill-'  blind  in  Host  on.  then  under  the  care  of  Dr. 

Samuel  <  b  1 1  owe.  so  noted  lor  his  benevolence  and 

devoted  philanthropy.  Finding  that  she  possessed 
a  high  degree  of  intelligence,  he  resolved,  despite 
the  many  discouragements  of  the  case,  to  attempt 
ber  education.  Through  the  sense  of  touch,  he 
firel  associated,  by  constant   repetition,  objects 

with  their  names  in  relief  letters,  and  when  a 
few  of  these  were  learned  and  the  relation  thor- 
oughly  established,  be  taught  her  to  recognize 

the  separate   letters   composing   each    word,   and 

then  to  construct  the  words  herself  from  the  let- 
ters.    She  was  then  taught  the  manual  alphabet. 


and  its  use  in  naming  objects :  after  which, 
through  these  channels  of  communication,  she 
learned  the  qualities,  uses,  and  relations  of  ob- 
jects, as  well  as  their  names.  Subsequently,  she 
learned  to  write  and  to  play  upon  the  piano,  in 
which  she  became  very  skillful,  and  acquired  also 
a  dexterity  in  needle-work  and  in  the  perform- 
ance of  many  household  duties.  Her  moral  and 
religious  education  was  more  difficult;  but  this 
also  was  successfully  accomplished,  so  that,  in 
1873,  I>r.  Howe  could  say  of  her:  "  She  enjoys 
life  quite  as  much  as  most  persons  do.  She 
reads  whatever  books  she  finds  in  raised  print, but 
especially  the  Bible.  She  makes  much  of  her 
own  clothing:  and  can  run  a  sewing-machine. 
She  seems  happiest  when  she  can  find  some  per- 
son who  knows  the  finger  alphabet,  and  can  sit 
and  gossip  with  her  about  acquaintances,  the 
news,  and  general  matters.  Her  moral  sense  is 
well  developed."  This  case  possesses  peculiar 
value  iii  showing  what  can  be  accomplished  by 
a  devoted  teacher  despite  the  greatest  natural 
obstacles  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge;  and  is 
a  most  encouraging  example  of  the  result  of 
patience  n<\d  address  on  the  part  of  the  educator. 

—  See  I'.aknakd's  Ameri'-an  .Journal  of  Erfu- 
rt, vol.  xi.  s.  v.    Samuel  G.  Howe. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA,  a  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  having  an  area  of  about 
233,000  sq.  m..  and  a  population,  in  1871,  of 
8,576  whites,  462  negroes,  and  1548  Chinese; 
total,  10,586,  exclusive  of  Indians,  estimated  at 
35,000  to  40,000.  It  was  created  a  distinct 
colonial  government  by  an  act  of  parliament 
passed  .Vug.  2.,  1858.  In  1866,  Vancouver 
Island  was  united  with  British  Columbia  under 
one  government;  and. in  1871, British  Columbia 
was  admitted  into  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Although  a  common  school  ordinance  was 
passed  in  lSfi!)  and  amended  in  1870,  the  real 
foundation  of  the  educational  system  in  this  prov- 
ince was  the  public  school  act  of  1872.  This 
law  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Ontario  act.  and  its 
enactment  was  advised  by  the  superintendent. 
himself  a  teacher  trained  in  the  Toronto  normal 
school.  Amendments  were  made  to  the  first  act 
in  1873,  and  a  further  act  was  passed  in  1874. 

The  act  provides  for  an  annual  -rant  of  $40,000 
as  a  public  school  fund,  and  for  the  appointment 
by  the  government  of  six  persons,  to  hold  office 
during  its  pleasure,  as  a  board  of  education  :  also 
of  an  experienced  person  to  be  superintendent  of 

education,  who  shall  be  exoffieio  chairman  of  the 

board.      School   districts    arc    established    and 

altered  h\  the  government .  which  also  makes 
-rants  for  teachers'  .salaries,  the  erection  and  fur- 
nishing of  school  houses,  and  current  expenses, 
and   establishes  other  schools,  without  a  district. 

where  needed.  The  board  of  education  prescribes 
a  uniform  Beries  of  text-books  to  be  used,  and 

provides  for  their  supply  to  the  schools,  makes 
general  regulations,  examines  teachers  and  -rants 

certificates,  appoints  teachers  and    lixes  their 

salaries,  purchases  and  distributes  school  ap- 
paratus, and  may  establish  high  schools.  The 
superintendent   visits  each  school  once   a  year. 


BROOKLYN 


103 


a  instruction,  enforces  the  law,  suspends,  if 
necessary,  a  teacher's  license  till  the  meeting  of 

tin'  board,  -rants  temporary  certificates,  settles 
disputed  elections,  and  makes  an  annual  report. 
An  annual  meeting  for  the  election  of  trustees  is 
held  in  each  district  in  January.  There  are  three 
trustees,  of  whom  one  retires  at  the  annual  meet- 
ing, and  no  trustee  may  be  a  superintendent  or 
teacher.  The  trustees  appoint  the  place  of  and 
call  the  annual  meeting,  on  ten  days'  notice.  No 
uncertificated  teacher  can  be  engaged  in  a  public 
school.  All  public  schools  must  lie  conducted 
Upon  strictly  non-sectarian  principles,  no  religious 
dogma  or  creed  being  permitted  to  be  taught. 
•In  Iges,  clergymen,  members  of  the  legislature, 
and  others  interested  arc  visitors.  'The  compul- 
sory clause  provides  that  trustees  may  make  by- 
laws, with  the  sanction  of  the  superintendent,  for 
requiring  the  attendance,  at  some  school,  of  chil- 
dren between  the  ages  of  7  and  1  I  years,  with 
certain  limitations  as  to  distance,  etc.  The  act 
of  L874  provides  for  the  establishment  of  public 
boarding-schools.  Such  schools  are  managed  by 
three  trustees,  who  are  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor and  hold  office  during  bis  pleasure;  and 
these  officers  appoint  the  teachers.  The  teachers 
under  the  board  are  paid  on  the  following  scale: 
For  an  average  attendance  of  from  10  to  20 
pupils,  $50  a  month  :  from  20  to  90,  $60;  30  to 
40,  $70;  in  to  50,  $80.  When  the  average  ex- 
ceeds 50,  the  school  is  entitled  to  an  assistant. 
Teachers  whose  schools  are  far  inland  receive 
£10  a  month  more. 

The  estimated  number  of  children  of  school 
age  was,  in  1874,  about  2,240,  of  whom  1,245  at- 
tended school  some  portion  of  the  year  ;  this  was 
an  increase  of  711  over  1872.  in  consequence 
of  the  exceeding  sparseness  of  the  population, 
the  boarding  system  has  been  introduced :  and 
one  such  school  was,  in  1875,  in  successful  oper- 
ation. The  compulsory  clause  of  the  act  did 
not  work  successfully,  its  enforcement  being  op- 
tional with  the  local  authorities.  The  total  ex- 
penditure for  the  public  schools  for  the  year  was 
$35,287,  of  which  822,219  was  paid  for  teachers' 
salaries.  An  additional  sum  of  $6,657  was  ex- 
pended by  the  superintendent  in  supplying  books 
and  apparatus.  There  were  .'!li  teachers  in  the 
The  establishment  of  high  schools  at 
\  ictoria  and  New  Westminster  was  advocated 
by  Superintendent  John  Jessop  in  L875.  The 
rising  city  of  Nanaimo  has  a  school  of  a  higher 
grade  (St.  Paul's  School),  in  connection  with  the 
Episcopal  church.  It  was  originally  established 
in  L862,  but  was  (dosed  in  1870,  and  re-opened 
September  1874.  —  See  Marltng,  <'"><</,/,/  Edu- 
cational Directory  and  Yearbook  for  1876 
(Toronto,  1876.) 

BROOXLYN,  capital  of  K  ings  county,  Xew 
fork,  the  third  city,  in  population,  in  the  United 
tes.  It  is  claimed  for  Brooklyn  that,  in 
common  with  New  York,  it  has  the  honor  of 
being  the  seat  of  the  first  free  public  schools 
within  the  present  territory  of  the  United  States. 
Education  received  an  early  attention  in  the 
Puritan  colonies  of  Xew  England;  but  the  pu- 


pils of  their  schools  were  burdened  with  a 
portion  of  the  cost  of  instruction;  while,  in  the 
Dutch  colonies,  tuition  was  entirely  free.  The 
first  school-tax  levied  in  Brooklyn  [Breuckelen) 
amounted  to  oil  gilders,  equal  to  about  $20; 
and,  in  1661,  ('aid  de  Heauvois,  a  recent  emi- 
grant from  Holland,  was  appointed  (he  first 
school-master,  to  take  charge  of  the  school,  as 

well  as  to  act  as  court-messenger,  bell-ringer, 
grave-digger,  and  precentor  [voorzanger).  Other 
schools  were  established  within  the  next  few 
years.  After  the  conquest  of  the  New  Nether- 
lands by  the  English,  in  1664,  the  five  school 
system  was  abolished;  and  for  the  next  century 
and  a  half,  the  schools  were  supported  only  by 
their  patrons.  No  addition  to  the  number  of 
schools  appears  to  have  been  made  until  the 
commencement  of  the  revolutionary  period, when 
a  fourth  school  was  established,  which  was  after- 
wards organized  as  Public  School  No.  4.  Another 
school  was  established  soon  after  the  revolution. 
In  all  these  schools,  tuition  was  afforded  in  both 
English  and  Dutch  down  to  1800,  and  in  the 
Bushwick  and  Gowanus  school  still  later;  for  all 
the  schools  in  Brooklyn  up  to  this  period  were 
located  in  Dutch  neighborhoods,  and  were  almost 
exclusively  under  I  hitch  influence  and  patronage. 
As  early  as  1795,  the  legislature  made  an  appro- 
priation of  $50,000,  which  was  continued  annu- 
ally for  five  years,  for  the  encouragement  of 
the  schools,  and  in  1805  established  the  common 
school  fund.  Of  the  privileges  granted  by  these 
acts,  Brooklyn  did  not  avail  herself  till  1813, 
when  the  trustees  of  district  No.  1 ,  then  the 
whole  village,  were  elected.  On  May  (i.,  1816, 
Public  School  No.  1  was  opened,  the  sum  of 
$2,000  having  been  previously  levied  for  its 
support  upon  the  district,  which  then  contained 
552  children  not  attending  private  schools.  This 
school  was  conducted  upon  the  Lancasterian  or 
monitorial  system.  Prior  to  1843,  the  government 
of  the  schools  in  Brooklyn  was  vested  in  the  trust- 
ees of  each  school  district,  of  which  at  that  time 
there  were  ten  in  the  village  of  Brooklyn,  and  two 
in  the  town  of  Bushwick.  in  that  year,  the  legisla- 
ture passed  an  act  empowering  the  common 
council  to  appoint  two  or  more  suitable  persons  to 
represent  each  of  the  school  districts,  who  together 
with  the  mayor  and  county  superintendent, 
should  form  the  board  of  education  of  the  city 
of  Urooklyn.  The  appointment  of  three  persons 
from  some  of  the  districts,  with  the  addition  of 
the  mayor  and  the  superintendent,  made  the 
board  consist  of  28  members.  In  L850,  the  law 
was  changed,  fixing  the  number  of  members  at 
.'!.'!.  at  least  one  to  reside  in  each  school  district, 
and  giving  their  exclusive  election  to  the  com- 
mon council. 

On  the  consolidation  of  the  cities  of  Brooklyn 
and  Williamsburg,  by  an  act  of  the  legislature 
passed  April  17.,  1854,  the  composition  of  the 
board  was  again  changed.  The  law  required  the 
common  council  to  appoint  such  additional  mem- 
bers as  the  proportional  increase  of  the  inhabi- 
tants might  demand.  In  pursuance  of  this 
provision,  the  number  of  members  constituting 


104 


BROOKLYN 


the  board  was  fixed  at  45,  of  whom  13  should 
reside  in  the  Eastern  District  (Williamsburgh). 
This  number  was  sanctioned  by  a  direct  legis- 
lative enactment  in  1862.  By  a  subsequent 
enactment,  in  1868,  the  members  were  divided 
into  three  classes,  holding  office  for  one,  two.  and 
three  years,  respectively  ;  and  the  mayor  is  now 
required  to  nominate  to  the  common  council  15 
members  each  year,  and,  if  the  same  shall  not  be 
confirmed  within  twenty  days,  he  may  appoint 
absolutely.  In  1853,  S.  S.  Randall  was  elected 
city  superintendent  ;  but  he  served  only  a  short 
time,  being  succeeded  the  same  year  by  J.  W. 
Bulkley.  who  continued  to  hold  the  office  till 
1873,  when,  in  pursuance  of  a  law  passed  that 
year,  he  was  made  associate  superintendent,  with 
Thomas  \Y.  Field,  who  was  elected  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction. 

School  Statistics. — The  growth  of  the  system. 
since  1854,  has  been  steady  and  rapid.  In  L855, 
the  number  of  schools  was  'Ml  with  312  teachers 
and  an  average  attendance  of  pupils  of  13,380. 
Ten  years  afterward,  the  number  of  schools  was 
38,  the  number  of  teachers  5  15.  and  the  average 
attendance  22,610;  in  1874,  the  number  of  schools 
increased  to  49,  the  number  of  teachers  to  1,099, 
and  the  average  attendance  to  40,193.  The 
following  items  are  reported  for  the  year  1875  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 86,723 

Average  daily  enrollment 50,022 

\\ erage  daily  attendance 45,248 

Number  oi  teachers 1,121 

Number  of  months  schools  were  open         10 

Amount  paid  for  teachers'  salaries $1171 . Ids. Is 

do       do    for  school  buildings :;7<i.'j-js.r,!> 

do       do   for  bonks  and  stationery. . .        6,616.61 

do        do    for  colored  schools 11,164.78 

.do        do    for  other  expenses 434,221.42 

Total  expenditure $l,4!t:S,339.58 

School  System. — The  system  consists  of  a  board 
of  education  of  45  members,  a  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  and  an  associate  superintendent. 
The  city  is  divided  into  .'51  districts,  containing 
34  grammar  and  intermediate  school  buildings, 
11  separate  primary  schools  and  1  colored  schools; 
making  the  total  number  of  the  district  schools 
49;  liesiiles  which  there  are  16  evening  schools, 
(2  for  colored  pupils),  1  evening  high  school,  and 
9  corporate,  or  orphan  asylum,  schools.  Most  of 
the  grammar  departments  of  the  schools  are  for 
both  sexes.  The  school  age  is  from  5  to  21.  The 
members  of  the  board  of  education  are  appoint- 
ed for  three  years  by  the  common  council,  on 

the   nomination  of   the   mayor,  one-third    of  the 

board  retiring  each  year.  The  board  elects  the  su- 
perintendent ami  associate  superintendent,  whose 
term  of  office  is  three  years,  appoints  teachers 
and  determines    their   salaries,    prescribes  the 

course  of  instruction  for  the  schools  and  the 
books  to  be  used  therein,  and  makes  all  needful 
regulations  tor  the  management  of  the  same.  It 
has  the  power  to  purchase  sites  and  erect  school- 
houses  with  the  consent  of  the  common  council  to 

purchase  text-books  for  use  in  the  schools,  and  to 

sell  or  donate  them  to  the  pupils.     Each  school 

is  under  the  particular  charge  of  a  local  commit- 
tee of  the  board  of  education. 


The  course  of  instruction  includes  six  grades 
for  tlie  primary  departments  and  six  for  the 
grammar  departments.  The  studies  prescribed 
for  the  former  are  reading,  spelling,  arithmetic 
as  far  as  long  division,  elementary  geography, 
and  writing;  in  the  latter,  in  addition  to  these 
studies,  English  grammar  and  composition, 
higher  geography  and  arithmetic,  etymology, 
the  history  of  the  United  States,  astronomy,  pen- 
manship, drawing,  and  book-keeping,  together 
with  natural  philosophy  and  algebra  as  optional 
studies.  Under  the  direction  of  the  local  com- 
mittee and  the  superintendent,  a  supplementary 
ci  mrse. including  higher  branches,  may  be  pursued. 
This  grade  is,  in  fact,  an  academic  course  in  all 
respects  except  the  study  of  Latin.  Vocal  music 
is  taught  in  all  the  grades.  Each  grade  of  study 
occupies  one  half  of  the  school  year,  or  about 
5  months.  There  is  no  high  school  or  colleg 
connected  with  the  system ;  but  the  board  of 
education  has  at  its  disposal  99  free  scholarships, 
in  colleges  and  seminaries  for  the  benefit  of  pub- 
lic-school pupils,  the  average  value  of  each  of 
which  is  about  $100. 

Examination  and  Qualification  of  Teachers. 
—  The  grade  of  scholarship  of  each  teacher  is 
fixed  by  the  superintendent,  after  examination 
in  one  of  the  classes  designated  A,  B,  and  C. 
As  most  of  the  appointments  are  made  from  the 
supplementary  classes,  the  certificates  graded  B 
or  0,  are  those  usually  granted  at  first.  Those 
of  grade  ('  license  to  teach  any  primary  grade; 
those  of  B,  any  below  the  fourth  grammar  grade. 
Certificates  of  the  highest  grade  (A)  are  con- 
ferred upon  those  only  who  have  presented  evi- 
dence of  superior  efficiency  as  well  as  superior 
scholarship. 

No  provision  exists  for  the  instruction  of 
teachers  other  than  that  afforded  by  the  supple- 
mentary classes  of  the  grammar  schools. 

Private  Seminaries  and  Schools.  —  The  pri- 
vate educational  institutions  of  Brooklyn  are 
very  numerous,  and  many  of  them  quite  cele- 
brated for  their  efficiency  and  high  grade  of 
scholarship.  The  Packer  Collegiate  institute, 
incorporated  in  1853,  is  a  female  seminary  of 
high  reputation.  It  was  named  after  William 
S.  Packer,  from  whose  widow  the  institution 
received  a  large  endowment.  It  has  a  corps  of 
about  40  instructors,  between  700  and  800  stu- 
dents, and  a  library  of  nearly  5.000  volumes.  It 
has  also  a  large  number  of  free  and  endowed 
scholarships.  The  Brooklyn  Collegiate  and 
Polytechnic  Institute,  for  males,  was  founded  in 
L854,  with  a  capital  stock  subsequently  in- 
creased to  SI OO.oiii).  It  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  a  board  of  17  trustees.    In  1874,  it  had 

a  corps  of  30    instructors,  and    605    students,  of 

whom   136  were  in  the  collegiate  department. 

The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  and  appa- 
ratus was  estimated  at  $164,000, and  its  receipts 
from  tuition  fees  amounted  to  about  $63,000. 
The  Adelphi  Academy, incorporated  in  1869,  is 

also  an  institution  of  a   high  grade  of  efficiency. 

In  L 874, its  corps  of  instructors  numbered  29, 

and  the  whole  number  of  students  was  546.  The 


BROWN 


BUCHTLL  colli;*;!'] 


105 


value  of  its  grounds, buildings, etc.  was  $160,000, 
and  its  annual  income  from  tuition  feea  was  about 
sin.iiiii).  The  institution  is  non-sectarian.  For 
(he  early  history  of  education  in  Brooklyn,  see 
D.T.  Pratt,  Annate  of  Public  Education  in  the 
state  of  New  York  ( Albany,  I  872);Stile3,  Hist  wry 
of  the  <  Hty  of  Brooklyn  (3  vols,  N.Y.,  I  864— '70.) 

BROWN,  Goold,  an  eminent  American 
grammarian,  was  born  in  Providence,  11.  L,  in 
1791,  and  died  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  in  L857.  He  was 
a  teacher  for  more  than  twenty  years  in  the  city 
of  New  York.  His  Institutes  of  English 
Grammar  (N.  Y.,  1823),  and  First  Lines  of 
English  Grammar  (N.  I.,  1823) .have  been  more 
extensively  used  in  the  schools  of  this  country 
than  any  other  grammatical  tert-books.  The 
edition  of  these  works  with  Kiddle's  Analysis 
nf  Sentences  has  still  a  very  wide  circulation. 
Qoold  Brown's  Grammar  of  English  Gram- 
niirrs  (X.  Y,  1851)  is  probably  the  most  exten- 
sive and  complete  treatise  on  the  subject  ever 
published.  This  work  contains  a  very  valuable 
catalogue  of  works  on  English  Grammar.  See 
10th  edition  with  index, by  Samdel  W.  Berrian 
(X.  V..  1871). 

BROWN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Providence, 
R.  I.  formerly  called  Rhode  Island  College,  was 
founded  in  1 7(14,  through  the  instrumentality  of 
the  association  of  Baptist  churches  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  by  the  aid  of  certain  prominent  Bap- 
tists of  Newport.  A  charter  was  obtained  in 
1764,  one  of  the  provisions  of  which  was,  "  that 
into  this  liberal  and  catholic  institution  shall 
never  be  admitted  any  religious  tests;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  all  the  members  hereof  shall  for- 
ever enjoy  full,  free,  absolute,  and  uninterrupted 
liberty  of  conscience  ;  and  that  the  public  teach- 
ing shall,  in  general,  respect  the  sciences,  and 
that  the  sectarian  differences  of  opinions  shall 
not  make  any  part  of  the  public  and  classical  in- 
struction." Of  the  12  members  of  the  board  of 
fellows,  having  the  government  of  the  college,  8, 
including  the  president,  must  be  Baptists ;  and 
of  the  board  of  36  trustees,  22  must  be  Baptists, 
5  Friends,  4  Congregationalists,  and  5  Episcopa- 
lians, representing  the  proportion  of  each  denom- 
ination in  the  colony  at  the  time  of  the  char- 
ter. The  first  president  of  the  college  was  the 
Bev.  James  Manning,  D.  D.,  who  served  till 
1791.  During  this  period,  the  seat  of  the  college 
was  fixed  at  Providence;  and,  during  a  part  of 
the  Revolutionary  period,  the  operations  of  the 
institution  were  suspended,  the  college  building 
being  occupied  by  the  state  militia,  and  by  the 
troops  of  Rochambeau.  The  Rev.  Jonathan 
Maxcy,  I  >.  I  >..  was  the  second  president,  who 
served  from  17!U  to  1802,  when  he  resigned,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Asa  Messer,  l>.  I>., 
who  held  the  position  till  1826.  During  his  in- 
cumbency, in  I  si)  |.  the  name  of  the  institution 
was  changed  to  Brown  University,  in.  honor  of 
Nicholas  Brown,  from  whom  it  had  received  the 
most  munificent  donations.  Dr.  Messer  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1x27  by  the  Lev.  Francis  Wayland, 
D.  D.,  LL.  !>.,  who  resigned  in  L855,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  the   Rev.  Lamas  Sears.  D.D.,  LL.  !>.. 


who  served  till  18(17,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
Lev.  Alexis  Caswell,  Q.D.,  LL.  D.  In  January, 
1x72,  he  was  succeeded  by  the  presenl  incumbent, 
the  Lev.  E.  G.  Robinson,  I>.  !>..  LL.  I).  The  in- 
stitution has  five  college  buildings  and  a  mansion 
for  the  president.  Its  situation  is  commanding 
and  salubrious,  the  inclosed  college  grounds  cover- 
inga  space  of  1  <*>  acres.  The  value  of  its  grounds, 
buildings,  and  apparatus  is  estimated  at 
$1,500,000;  the  amount  of  its  productive  funds, 
including  scholarships,  is  stated  (1876)  as 
$662,555.  The  average  amount  of  scholarship 
funds  exceeds  950,000. 

In  addition  to  the  classical  and  scientific 
courses,  there  have  been  established  departments 
of  practical  science,  including  (1)  chemistry, 
applied  to  the  arts,  (2)  civil  engineering,  and  (3) 
agriculture.  This  is  for  the  benefit  of  students 
who  wish  to  prepare  themselves  for  such  pursuits 
as  especially  require  the  knowledge  of  the  mathe- 
matical and  physical  sciences,  and  their  applica- 
tions to  the  industrial  arts.  There  are  two  parallel 
courses  of  instruction  for  the  degree  of  bachelor — ■ 
of  arts,  and  of  philosophy,  each  extending  through 
a  period  of  three  years.  The  one  is  largely  com- 
posed of  classical  studies,  the  other  substitutes, 
for  them  a  larger  amount  of  scientific  studies. 
Arrangements  are  made  by  which  students  have 
daily  exercises  in  the  gymnasium.  The  univer- 
sity library  contains  4:>,<K)()  volumes,  the  greater 
part  of  which  has  been  collected  within  the  last 
thirty  years.  It  is  especially  rich  in  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  history,  antiquities,  bibliography, 
and  patristics.  Through  means  supplied  by  the 
munificence  of  John  Carter  Brown,  a  fire-proof 
building  for  the  library  is  in  process  of  construc- 
tion, with  accomodation  for  150,000  volumes. 
There  is  also  a  valuable  museum  of  natural 
history,  containing  about  .'55,000  specimens. 

The  corps  of  instruction  includes  17  professors 
and  other  instructors ;  and  the  whole  number  of 
students  in  the  university,  in  1875 — 6,  was  255. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  $75  per  annum.  Among 
the  various  forms  of  aid  offered  to  students,  there 
are  about  100  scholarships.  There  are  58  scholar 
ships  of  $1000  each,  the  income  of  which  is 
given,  under  the  direction  of  a  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  corporation,  to  meritorious  stu- 
dents needing  pecuniary  aid. 

BTJCHTEL  COLLEGE,  at  Akron,  Ohio, 
was  founded,  in  1872,  by  the  Universalists,  in 
order  to  afford  to  students  of  both  sexes  equal 
opportunities  for  a  thorough  practical  and  liberal 
education.  The  full  curriculum  embraces  a  com- 
plete college  course  of  four  years,  a  thorough 
philosophical  course  of  two  years,  a  normal  c<  »urse, 
and  a  preparatory  course.  The  corps  of  instruct- 
ors,  in  1 874, included  1 5  professors  and  other  in- 
structors; and  the  whole  number  of  students  was 
212,  of  whom  1 12  were  in  the  collegiate  depart- 
ment. The  value  cf  the  college  grounds,  build- 
ings, and  apparatus  is  estimated  a1  $250,000,and 
its  productive  fund  amounts  to  about  .925,000. 
The  Rev.S.H.McCollester,A.M.,  is  (1876) _  the 
president  of  the  institution.  The  annual  tuition 
fee  is  $30. 


106 


BUFFALO 


BUFFALO,  a  large  and  flourishing  city  in 
western  New  York,  having  a  population,  ac- 
cording to  the  state  census  of  1875,  of  134.. 573. 

Educational  History. — The  first  school-district 
embraced  the  village  of  Buffalo,  in  which  the 
first  school-house  was  built  in  180G.  The  first 
school  tax  appears  to  have  been  levied  in  1818, 
for  the  purpose,  probably,  of  rebuilding  the 
school-house,  burned,  with  the  rest  of  the  village, 
in  1813.  In  1822,  Millard  Fillmore  taught  the 
village  school.  At  the  time  of  the  incorporation 
of  the  city  (1832),  there  were  C  districts,  each 
having  one  small  school-house  and  one  teacher. 
In  1836 — •",  a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the 
appointment  by  the  common  council  of  a  super- 
intendent; from  which  event  dates  the  beginning 
of  the  school  system.  In  1838,  the  7  school-dis- 
tricts were  divided  into  lf>,  and  a  resolution  was 
adopted  to  establish  a  common  school  in  each, 
with  departments  according  to  its  needs  and 
numbers,  and  a  "  Central  School,  where  all  the 
higher  branches  necessary  to  a  complete  English 
education  could  be  pursued;"  and.  in  all  these 
schools,  education  was  to  b  i  entirely  free.  In  1839, 
live  new  and  commo  lions  school-houses  were 
built.  In  L853-4,  important  changes  were  made 
in  tiir  city  charter,  by  which,  and  by  ordinances 
of  the  city  council  in  pursuance  of  the  .same,  the 
sm  received  its  present  organization.  In 
1*73.  Superintendent  Larned  endeavored  to 
secure  the  passage  of  a  law  creating  a  board  of 
c  lueation,  to  have  the  management  of  the 
schools;  but  the  measure  met  with  but  little 
popular  favor,  and  did  not  prevail. — The  city 
superintendents  have  been  as  follows:  Under 
election  for  one  year  by  the  common  council, 
R.W.  Haskins,  \.  I*.  Sprague,  and  0.  G.  Steele, 
successively,  daring  1837;  Oliver  (J.  Steele.  1838, 
-39,  -45,  and  -51  ;  Daniel  Bowen,  1840,  -46, 
and  19;  Silas  Kingsley,  1841;  Samuel  Cald- 
well, 1842  and  -43  ;  Ettas  S.  Ilawlev.  18  II,  -47, 
and  -48;  Henry  K.  Viele,  1850;  Victor  M.  Bice, 
-52  and  53  ;  under  the  new  law,  electing  for 
two  years,  Ephraim  F.  Cook.  1854—5  and'ls.V, 
—7 ;  Joseph  'Warren,  1858—9 ;  Sandford  B. 
Hunt,  L860— 61  ;  John  B.  Sackett,  L862— 3; 
Henry  1).  Garvin,  L864— 5 ;  John  S.  Fosdick, 
1866  7;  Samuel  Slade,  1868— 9;  Thomas  Loth- 
rop,  L870 — 71  :  Josephus  N.  Larned,  1S72— 3; 
William  S.  Rice,  1874—5,  and  re-elected  for  the 

term  which  expires  I  >cc.  31.,  1  B77. 

School  System. — By  the  charter  of  1853 — 4, 
the  schools  are  under  the  control  of  the  com- 
mon council,  an  1  arc  free  to  all  persons  between 

the  ages  of  5  and  20  years.  Colored  children 
are  admitted  to  any  of  the  schools,  but  one 
Colored  school  must  Ik-  maintained.  The  cost  of 
sites  and  school  houses  must  lie  assessed  on  the 

property  of  Bchool  -  districts ;  bu1  all  other  ex- 
panses are  pail  out  of  the  general  fund  or  by 
tax.    The  Central    High  School  is  entitled  to 

share    in   all   appropriations   to   academies;  and 

the  districts  participate  in  the  apportionment  to 
public  schools. — The  superintendent  of  education 
La  elected  on  general  city  tickel  for  two  years. 
He  is  the  chief  executive  officer  of  the  depart- 


ment of  education  ;  and  his  duties  are,  to  recom- 
mend courses  of  study,  to  hire  teachers,  who  are 
subject  to  bis  directions  ;  under  direction  of  the 
city  council,  to  contract  for  lots,  houses,  and 
supplies,  and  to  carry  into  effect  all  provisions 
relating  to  education. — The  course  of  study  is 
divided  into  ten  grades,  and  embraces,  besides 
the  common  branches,  drawing,  composition, 
vocal  music,  and,  in  some  schools,  German. 

"Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts  is  35;  of  schools  with  one  de- 
partment, 14;  with  two  departments,  11  ;  with 
three,  17  ;  of  night  schools,  7.  The  principal 
items  of  school  statistics  for  the  year  ending 
Dec.  31.,  187(3,  are  as  follows  : 

Whole  number  of  children  enrolled  (estimated)  40,000 

No.  of  pupils  registered  in  day  schools 23,000 

No.  of  pupils  registered  in  night  schools 1,121 

Xo.  of  teachers  em  ployed 420 

Receipts  from  school  fund. . .    $77,552.27 
"        by  tax 237,597.73 

Total $315,150.00 

Total  expenditures $313,750.00 

Of  the  42  principals  employed,  33  are  males. 
with  salaries  ranging  from  $550  to  SI  .450;  and 
'.)  arc  females,  with  salaries  ranging  from  8550 
to  $800.  The  salaries  of  assistants  range  from 
$400  to  $650.  The  amount  paid  for  salaries  is 
$275,000. 

In  the  ( 'entrai  School,  the  courses  of  study  are 
a  shorter  English  course,  requiring  two  years, 
and  an  English  and  a  classical  course,  each  re- 
quiring three  years.  The  Regent's  examination 
in  full  admits  to  the  two  regular  courses.  In 
187(i,  there  were  in  attendance  159  boys  and  220 
girls;  and  the  number  of  teachers  was  14,  the 
amount  of  whose  salaries  was  815,750.  The  state 
normal  school  at  Buffalo  was  opened  in  1871. 
The  common  council  appropriated  845,000, 
and  the  supervisors  of  the  county,  an  equal  sum, 
for  the  erection  of  a  building,  on  a  site  com- 
prising 5  acres,  given  for  the  purpose  by  Jesse 
Ketehum,  for  the  nominal  sum  of  8-1.5(10.  Pupils 
are  admitted,  at  1  (i  years  of  age,  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  local  school  officers,  and  after 
passing  an  examination  in  the  common  English 
branches. 

Parochial  Schools. — There  are  15  parochial 
schools  for  instruction  in  common  branches,  in 
connection  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  2 
colleges,  and  several  convent  and  Sisters'  schools. 

In  the  first,  during  the  year  ending  Dec.  31.. 
L876, there  were  7.!>7f>  pupils,  taught  by  98  teach- 
ers. Canisius  College  is  conducted  by  Jesuit 
Fathers,  assisted  by  lay  teachers:  in  L876,  it  had 
1  Hi  students.  St.  Joseph's  College  is  under  the 
charge  of  Christian  Brothers,  with  300  pupils. 

Private  Schools. — The  Buffalo  Female  A.cad- 
emy  was  organized  in  L851.  It  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  hoard  of  trustees,  and  hasa  collegiate  de- 
partment, academic  departments,  and  a  primary 
department,  other  schools  are.  the  Beathcote 
school  for  hoys. and  the  Buffalo  Classical  School, 

the  latter  a  school  of  lone,  standing.  Besides 
these,  then'  are  numerous  other  schools.  ( 'atholic 
ami  Protestant,  both  for  boys  and  for  girls. 


BUGEXIIAGEN 


BUREAU  OF  EDCCATION         107 


BUGENHAGEN,  Johann,  one  of  the 
leaden  of  the  German  reformation  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  was  born  in  1485,  at  Wollin  in 
Pomerania,  and  died  in  L558.  NV\t  to  Melanch- 
fchon,  be  was  the  most  prominenl  educator  among 
the  fathers  of  German  Protestantism.  When 
onlv  is  wars  of  age,  In1  was  placed  at  the  bead 
of  the  school  of  Treptow,  which  soon  became 
BO  famous  that  it  attracted  scholars  from  various 
countries  of  northern  Europe.  In  L517,  he  was 
called  by  the  abbot  of  Belbuck  to  assume  the 
office  of  teacher  of  theology  to  his  convent. 
Alter  joining  the  reformation,  he  was  for  some 
rears  professor  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg; 
but  from  1536  until  his  death,  his  time  was  chiefly 
devoted  to  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  various  .  mnt  i  -  In  connection  with 
every  Protestant  church,  he  endeavored  to  estab- 
lish a  Protestant  school,  and  he  is  believed  to 
have  thus  done  more  for  tfte  spread  of  education 
in  Prot  -tint  Germany  than  even  Luther  him- 
self. The  church  established  by  him  in  the 
duchy  of  Brunswick  served  as  a  model  fora  large 
Dumber  of  others.  The  church  constitution  of 
this  duchy,  drawn  up  by  him  in  1528,  provides 
for  the  establishment  of  two  Latin  schools  for 
boys,  each  with  three  teachers,  of  two  German 
s  hools  for  boys,  and  four  girls'  schools.    The  in- 

iction  given  in  these  schools  consisted  chiefly 
in  teaching  the  catechism  and  singing;  but  in  the 
girls' schools,  biblical  history  was  an  essential 
branch.  The  poor  were  to  be  aided  as  much  as 
possible  to  obtain  admission  into  these  schools, 
and  the  heads  of  the  parish  were  to  exercise  a 
careful  supervision  over  the  education  of  all  the 
children.  In  the  villages  and  towns,  the  sexton 
was  expected  to  give  instruction  to  the  lowest 
classes.  To  aid  this  work  of  teaching,  Bugen- 
hagen  translated  the  Bible  into  Low  German, 
very  closely  following  the  High  German  trans- 
lation of  Luther. 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION,  National, 
an  office  in  the  Department  of  the  Interior  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  organized  in 
pursuance  of  an  act  of  congress  approved  March 
2.,  lSI>7.  This  office  had  its  rise  in  the  need, 
Ion,'  felt  by  leading  educators,  of  some  central 
agency  by  which  the  general  educational  statistics 
of  the  country  could  be  collected,  preserved,  con- 
densed,  and  properly  arranged  for  distribution. 
In  February,  1866,  a  m  -mortal  was  presented  to 
the  House  of  Representatives,  asking  for  the 
establishment  of  a  national  bureau  of  education. 
This  memorial  emanated  from  the  National  As- 
sociation of  State  and  City  School-Superintend- 
ents, aiid  enumerated  the  following  as  the  means 
by  which  the  proposed  bureau  coiil  1  promote  the 
interests  of  education  :  "(1)  By  securing  greater 
uniformity  ami  accuracy  in  school  statistics,  and 
so  interpreting  them  that  they  may  be  more 
widely  available  and  reliable  as  educational  tests 
and  measures;  (2)  By  bringing  together  the  re- 
sults of  school-systems  in  different  communities, 
s.  and  countries,  and  determining  their  com- 
parative value  :  (3)  By  collecting  the  results  of 
all  important   experiments   in   new  and  special 


methods  of  school  instruction  and  management, 
ami  making  them  the  common  property  of  school- 
officers  and  teachers  throughout  the  country;  (I) 
By  diffusing  among  the  people  information  re- 
specting the  school-laws  of  the  different  states ; 
the  various  modes  of  providing  and  disbursing 
school-funds  ;  the  different  classes  of  school-officers 
and  their  relative  duties:  the  qualifications  re- 
quired of  teachers,  the  modes  of  t  heir  examina- 
tion, and  the  agencies  provided  for  their  special 
training;  the  best  methods  of  classifying  and 
grading  schools,  improved  plans  of  school  houses, 

together  with  modes  of  heating  and  ventilation. 
etc., —information  now  obtained  only  by  a  few 
persons  and  at  great  expense,  but  which  is  of  the 
highest  value  to  all  intrusted  with  the  manage- 
ment of  schools  ;  (5)  By  aiding  communities 
and  states  in  the  organization  of  school-systems 
in  which  mischievous  errors  shall  be  avoided, and 
vital  agencies  and  well-tried  improvements  be 
included;  (61  By  the  general  diffusion  of  correct 
ideas  respecting  the  value  of  education  asaquiek- 
ener  of  intellectual  activities,  as  a  moral  renova- 
tor, as  a  multiplier  of  industry  and  a  consequent 
producer  of  wealth,  and.  finally,  as  the  strength 
and  shield  of  civil  liberty."  The  act  establishing 
the  bureau  prescribes  that  its  operations  shall  be 
the  •■  collecting  of  such  statistics  and  facts  as  shall 
show  the  condition  and  progress  of  education  in 
the  several  states  and  territories,  and  the  diffus- 
ing of  such  information  respecting  the  organiza- 
tion and  management  of  school-systems  and 
methods  of  teaching  as  shall  aid  the  people  of 
the  United  States  in  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  efficient  school  -  systems  and 
otherwise  promote  the  cause  of  education." 

Henry  Barnard,  LL.  D.,  was  the  first  commis- 
sioner of  education,  appointed  in  pursuance  of 
this  law  ;  and  under  him  the  Bureau  was  organ- 
ized and  put  in  operation.  Two  reports  were  is- 
sued by  him,  that  of  1867 — 8,  and  a  special  re- 
port on  the  District  of  Columbia ;  but  for  several 
reasons,  chiefly  the  want  of  congressional  co-oper- 
ation and  support,  the  operations  of  the  Bureau, 
during  this  period,  were  neither  extensive  nor  of 
considerable  importance.  On  the  17th  of  March, 
1870,  Dr.  Barnard  retired,  and  was  succeeded  by 
John  Eaton,  Jr..  the  present  incumbent,  during 
ax  years  of  whose  administration,  the  Bureau 
has  accomplished  a  vast  amount  of  work.  Be- 
sides the  five  annual  reports,  from  1870  to  1874, 
it  has  issued  twenty-seven  circulars  of  informa- 
tion, containing  important  summaries  of  intelli- 
gence relating  to  the  condition  of  education  in 
foreign  countries,  or  upon  other  interesting  edu- 
cational topics. 

The  relation  of  the  Bureau  to  the  educational 
authorities  of  the  country,  which  are  exclusively 
under  state  control,  is  entirely  ancillary.  Its  office 
is  to  aid  by  dispensing  information,  not  to  direct. 
It  has  no]  lower  to  demand  information;  but  is  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  the  courtesy  of  the  state 
and  city  authorities  and  officials  in  affording  proper 
replies  to  its  interrogatories.  'The  extent  of  its 
operations  in  gathering  information  will  be  ap- 
parent from  the  following  statement  extracted 


108       BUI?  MAT  OF  EDUCATION 


BCRGHER  SCHOOL 


from  a  recent    "Statement,"   issued   under   the 
authority  of  the  Bureau  itself  : — 

"  The  field  for  exploration  it  presents  embraces 
the  thirty-seven  states  and  eleven  territories.  To 
make  the  exploration  thorough,  the  bureau  must 
examine  every  school  law,  and  mark  whatever 
change  or  amendment  may  be  made,  including 
the  charters  of  city  boards  of  education,  with 
their  rides  and  ordinances.  It  must  sift,  for 
things  deserving  general  attention,  the  reports  of 
every  state-,  county-,  and  city-superintendent  of 
the  public  schools  that  may  be  sent  to  it.  It 
must  get  at  the  work  not  only  of  the  public  high 
schools,  but  also  of  the  private  academies  and 
special  preparatory  schools.  It  must  look  through 
the  annual  catalogues  and  calendars  of  a  long  list 
of  colleges  and  universities;  schools  of  divinity, 
law,  medicine,  and  science;  reformatories,  and 
institutions  for  the  training  of  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
the  blind,  and  the  feeble-minded—  selecting  from 
each  wdiat  is  worthy  to  be  noted  in  the  way  of 
either  improvement  or  defect.  And,  besides  all 
this,  it.  must  keep  its  eyes  wide  open  to  ob- 
serve the  growth  of  libraries,  museums,  schools 
of  art  or  industry,  and  other  aids  to  the  proper 
training  of  the  people;  must  see  what  the  edu- 
cational journals  say  as  to  school-matters  in  their 
several  states;  must  note  what  maybe  worth  pre- 
serving in  the  utterances  at  teachers'  associations 
and  gatherings  of  scientific  men  ;  and  must  keep 
up, with  reference  to  all  these  things,  an  incessant 
correspondence  with  every  portion  of  the  country. 
In  fact,  its  correspondence  reaches,  more  or  less 
directly,  to  the  48  states  and  territories,  to  206 
cities,  132  normal  schools  or  departments,  I  1 1 
business  colleges,  54  kindergarten,  1,455  acad- 
emies, 103  schools  especially  engaged  in  prepar- 
ing pupils  for  the  colleges,  240  institutions  for 
the  higher  training  of  young  women,  383  colleges 
and  universities,  73  schools  of  science,  115  of 
theology,  37  of  law.  and  98  of  medicine;  with 
58f)  libraries.  26  art  museums, 
natural  history.  Ill  institutions 
tion  of  deaf-mutes,  28  for  the 
feeble-minded,  4(10  for  orphans, 
reformation  of  misguided  youth.'' 

The  diffusion  of  information  by  the  Bureau 
takes  a  wide  range,  embracing  not  only  full  and 
statistical  information  in  regard  to  the  progress 
and  condition  of  education  in  the  United  States, 
but  as  to  the  " ministries  of  instruction  in  the 
several  European  states,  as  to  the  useful  sugges- 
tions in  foreign  educational  reports  and  journals, 
and  as  to  the  systems  of  training  in  the  universi- 
ties, gymnasia,  real-scl Is.  schools  of  architec- 
ture and  drawing,  and  the  various  institutions 
of  primary  education  in  every  civilized  com- 
munity or  state."    Tin'  mode  of  disseminating 

this  intelligence  is,    il  )     By  mi  ii  mil  reports^  each 

giving  abstracts  of  the  various  classes  of  instruc- 
tion (such  as  primary,  secondary,  superior,  pro- 
ional  and  special),  with  lists  and  statistics  of 
noticeable  institutions  and  estimates  of  progress 
or  retrogression  in  various  lines;  (2)  By  occasional 
circulars  of  information  (of  which  27  have  been 
lied  up  io  L876) ;  and  (3)  By  written  answers 


53  museums  of 
for  the  instruc- 
blind, 0  for  the 

and  45  for  the 


\  to  inquiries  on  school  matters  addressed  to  the 
commissioner.  The  amount  of  intelligence  con- 
veyed, by  these  means,  with  respect  to  educational 
systems,  school  laws,  and  important  institutions, 
j  is  such  as  has  never  previously  been  made  gener- 
ally accessible  in  the  United  States,  and  such, 
certainly,  as  no  single  state,  much  less  any  single 
individual  or  private  association,  coidd  have 
obtained,  without  an  expenditure  which  it  would 
have  probably  been  either  unable  or  unwilling  to 
!  incur. 

While  there  is  a  very  emphatic  and  general 
opposition  in  the  United  States  to  the  establish- 
ment of  any  national  system  of  education,  or  to- 
j  conferring  upon  the  general  government  the 
right  to  interfere  in  any  way  with  the  state 
systems,  there  has  nevertheless  been  generally 
manifested  a  full  appreciation  of  the  value  of 
the  Bureau  of  Education  as  now  constituted, 
and  a  cordial  disposition  to  supply  the  Commis- 
sioner with  the  fullest  replies  to  his  inquiries  for 
information,  as  well  as  with  copies  of  all  edu- 
cational documents  issued  under  state  or  city 
authority.  In  bringing  about  this  very  desirable 
state  of  things,  of  course,  the  manner  in  which 
the  affairs  of  the  Bureau  have  been  administered 
has  had  much  to  do.  It  would  he  easy  by  an 
injudicious  course  to  bring  about  an  antagonism 
that  would  most  effectually  prevent  any  further 
progress. 

An  educational  library  of  probably  unsur- 
passed richness  is  another  of  the  valuable  fruits 
of  the  work  of  the  Bureau.  This  is,  in  part, 
composed  of  choice  collections  bearing  on  the 
history  and  art  of  education  in  this  country  and 
abroad;  in  part,  of  the  accumulations  made  in 
the  process  of  annual  examination  into  the  con- 
dition of  public-school  instruction,  the  state  of 
academies  anil  colleges,  and  the  rise  and  work  of 
professional  and  special  schools.  This  library.it 
is  said,  for  purposes  of  practical  investigation,  is 
superior  to  any  other  educational  library  in  exist- 
ence, except,  perhaps,  the  one  at  Vienna.  With  its 
vast  accumulations  from  year  to  year,  its  value 
as  a  library  of  reference  is  constantly  increasing. 
—  See  Reports  of  U.S.  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, INTO — I:  also  XulioiKil  Bureau  of 
Education;  its  History,  Work,  and  Institutions, 
a  pamphlet  by  Alex.  Shtras,  !>.!>.,  prepared 
under  the  direction  of  the  <  'ommissioner  of  Hdu- 
cation  i  Washington,  L875). 

BURGHER  SCHOOL  (Ger.  Burgerschule), 
a  name  given  to  many  public  schools  of  a  higher 

grade  in  the  towns  of  Germany,  designed  to  ed- 
ucate the  children  of  citizens  for  a  practical  busi- 
ness lite.  Formerly,  the  course  of  instruction  in 
the  town  schools  embraced  the  ancient  languages; 
and  the  study  of  Latin,  in  particular,  was  fre- 
quently, even   as  late  as  the  eighteenth   century, 

regarded  as  the  most  important  part  of  the  entire 
course.     In  the  last    quarter  of  the  eighteenth 

century,  a  radical  reform  began  gradually  to  lie. 
effected.  Teachers  and  school  authorities  investi- 
gated the  comparative  usefulness  of  the  different 
branches  of   instruction  for  all  those  classes  ol 

towns-people    who    did    not     follow    one   of     tin; 


BURLINGTON  UNIVERSITY 


BUSINESS  COLLEGES 


109 


learned  professions,  and  the  conclusion  generally 
bed  was,  that  natural  science,  geography, 
history,  and  similar  Btudies  are  of  very  much 
higher  advantage  to  the  future  citizen,  than  a 
knowledge  of  Latin.  The  organization  of  the 
town  schools  was  gradually  changed,  in  accord- 
ance with  these  principles;  and,  on  Jan.  '2..  L804, 
the  first  B&rgersckiue  was  opened  at  Leipsic. 
Since  that  time,  a  large  number  of  flourishing 
i  ils  bearing  this  name  have  sprung  up  in  the 
large  cities.  In  the  further  development  of  the 
school  system  of  Germany,  the  term,  as  a  dis- 
tinctive name,  has  to  a  great  extent  been  dropped, 
and  the  schools  formerly  thus  designated  consti- 
tute, under  various  names,  the  higher  division 
of  the  Vblksschulen.  The  name  hdhere  B'tir- 
'••  is  identical  with  the  more  common 
1!  .   (See  Real  School,  and  Germany.) 

BURLINGTON  UNIVERSITY,  at  Bur- 
lington, Iowa,  was  founded  by  the  Baptists,  in 
1852.  In  1875 — 6,  it  had  (i0  students,  and  a  corps 
of  8  professors  and  other  instructors.  The  value 
of  its  grounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus  is  about 
840,000;  its  endowment  fund,  about  $20,000. 
Prof.  L.  E.  Worcester  has  been  the  president  of 
the  institution  since  1872.  The  annual  tuition 
fee  is  812. 

BUSBY,  Richard,  D.  D.,  one  of  the  most 
noted  of  English  pedagogues,  was  born  in  Lutton, 
Northamptonshire,  in  1(306,  and  died  in  1695. 
He  was  educated  in  the  Westminster  School 
and  Oxford  University ;  and,  in  1 640,  was  ap- 
pointed head-master  of  Westminster,  in  which 
position  he  continued  for  more  than  fifty  years. 
It  was  here  that  he  achieved  his  great  fame  as 
the  most  successful  school-master  of  his  age,  and 
the  most  imperious  one  too,  for  his  frequent  and 
excessive  use  of  the  rod  or  birch  has  made  his 
name  proverbial.  Within  his  school  he  was  the 
most  arbitrary  of  despots ;  and  it  is  said  that 
when  the  king  entered  his  school-room,  he  would 
not  remove  his  hat,  being  unwilling  that  the  boys 
should  deem  any  one  his  superior.  When  taxed 
with  the  severity  of  his  punishments,  he  pointed 
to  the  many  illustrious  and  learned  men  whom 
he  had  educated  in  his  school,  among  whom  at 
one  time  he  could  number  no  less  than  sixteen 
bishops.  Dr.  South,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
his  pupils,  was  at  first  a  very  dull,  obstinate,  and 
intractable  scholar  ;  but  Dr.  Busby  discerned  his 
latent  genius,  and  used  his  utmost  efforts  to  bring 
it  forth,  in  the  doing  of  which  the  rod  was  by  no 
means  spared,  and  the  master  lived  to  enjoy  his 
pupils  fame  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  pulpit 
orators  of  his  time.  Dr.  Busby's  works  as  an 
author  were  confined  to  some  text-books,  which 
he  compiled  for  the  use  of  schools. 

BUSINESS  COLLEGES,  as  now  existing 
in  the  United  States,  are  the  product  of  individual 
effort  directed  to  the  supplying  of  a  public  want. 
As  distinct  institutions,  they  are  the  outgrowth 
of  the  past  thirty  years,  although  schools  and 
private  classes  for  instruction  in  the  commercial 
branches  —  particularly  book-keeping  and  pen- 
manship— have  been  in  vogue  for  a  much  longer 
time.  Thirty  years  ago,  most  of  this  kind  of  in- 


struction was  given  by  a  few  private  teachers  in 
the  large  cities  (who  generally  united  the  duties 
of  teacher  with  those  of  public  accountant),  and 
by  itinerant  professors  who  traveled  from  place  to 
place,  teaching  special  classes  for  a  limited  num- 
ber of  lessons  at  low  rates.  These  teachers  or 
professors  were  often  authors  of  books  or  of 
systems  claiming  pre-eminence  over  the  ordinary 
school  methods;  and  by  confining  themselves  to 

the  work  in  which  they  excelled,  they  undoubt- 
edly accomplished  much  good.  The  utility  of 
this  practical  training  was  readily  apparent,  and 
as  a  matter  of  self-protection  no  less  than  of  self- 
respect, the  established  schools, public  and  private, 
were  induced  to  recognize  the  importance  of  these 
useful  branches,  and  to  supply  instruction  therein 
in  more  liberal  measure.  There  sprung  up  also, 
in  the  large  cities  and  villages,  schools,  making 
the  practical  studies  a  specialty,  and  calling 
themselves  commercial  or  mercantile  colleges. 
Home  of  them  were  organized  under  state  char- 
ters and  authorized  to  issue  diplomas  in  due  form. 
•  These  institutions  placed  themselves  before  the 
public  as  professional  schools,  assuming  the  same 
relations  to  the  future  business-man  as  those 
which  already  existed  between  the  medical,  law, 
and  theological  schools,  and  the  members  of  those 
various  professions. 

Among  the  pioneers  in  this  work,  may  be 
mentioned  R.  M.  Bartlett  of  Cincinnati,  Peter 
Duff  of  Pittsburgh,  James  Arlington  Bennett 
of  New  York,  and  George  N.  Comer  of  Boston. 
As  there  was  no  unity  of  action  among  these 
teachers  and  no  means  of  measuring  their  indi- 
vidual efforts,  either  absolutely  or  relatively,  it  is 
impossible  to  say  what  was  the  prescribed  course 
of  study  adopted,  or  to  what  extent  the  various 
schools  made  good  the  claim  to  their  chosen  title. 
But  the  respect  in  which  they  were  held  by  the 
community,  and  the  fact  that  they  supplied  in  a 
good  measure  preliminary  training  which  had 
heretofore  been  obtainable  only  in  counting- 
houses,  is  presumptive  evidence  that  they  deserved 
the  recognition  and  support  which  they  received. 
The  time  required  for  a  full  course  of  study  in 
these  pioneer  schools  varied,  according  to  the 
capacity  of  the  student,  from  three  weeks  to  three 
months  ;  wdiereas.  the  reputable  business  colleges 
of  to-day  do  not  pretend  to  graduate  their  stu- 
dents in  less  than  from  one  to  two  years.  These 
facts  alone  must  be  accepted  as  evidence  of  a 
substantial  increase  in  the  body  of  learning  which 
makes  up  the  college  course.  Not  only  have 
the  main  studies,  —  book-keeping,  penmanship, 
and  arithmetic,  been  materially  enlarged  and 
intensified,  but  other  not  less  important  branches 
have  been  added,  the  purpose  and  effect  of  this 
being  to  give  form  and  symmetry  to  the  training, 
and  to  meet  the  increased  demand  for  broadly 
educated  accountants  and  clerks.  Among  the 
branches  which  have  been  added  are  political 
economy,  including  civil  government ;  commercial 
law  ;  correspondence,  embracing  the  elements  of 
English  composition  and  practical  grammar;  pho- 
nography and  modern  languages,  particularly 
German,  French,  and  Spanish.  Some  institutions 


110 


BUTTMANN 


CALIFORNIA 


have  also  made  a  prominent  feature  of  telegraphy. 
But  the  feature  which  attracts  most  attention. 
both  from  its  novelty  and  its  usefulness,  per- 
tains to  the  practical  methods  of  applying  in- 
struction under  the  guise  of  real  business  opera- 
tions. This  plan  embraces  the  organizing  of  the 
advanced  students    into  business  communities,  so 

adjusted  in  their  workings  as  to  represent   the 

varied  interests  anil  intercourse  which  exist  in 
the  outside  world.  Thus,  certain  members  are 
established  as  merchants,  others  as  agents  or 
brokers,  others  as  manufacturers,  others  as  im- 
porters and  jobbers,  others  as  bankers,  etc.:  each 
in  his  turn  serving  in  these  several  relations,  and 
all  together  performing  the  functions  of  a  work- 
ing community.  Not  only  is  this  method  carried 
on  in  the  separate  schools,  but  some  of  the  most 
prominent  among  them  in  the  larger  cities  have 
established  a  system  of  intercommunication  by 
which  the  work  is  widely  extended  through  postal 

correspondence.  Thus  representative  merchandise 
is  really  shipped  by  the  members  of  one  school 
to  those  of  another,  drafts  ate  drawn,  remittances 
made,  extended  business  settlements  effected. and. 
in  fact,  all  the  minute  details  of  a  varied  business 
are  carried  on.  As  will  be  seen,  this  extended 
correspondence  and  co-operation  give  the  best 
opportunity  for  effective  criticism  and  discipline, 
and  may  be  made  as  completely  the  rehearsal  of 
the  future  business  man  for  his  life-work,  as  is 
the  clinical  practice  of  the  medical  college  or  the 
moot-court  of  the   law  school. 

The  business  colleges  of  America  differ  in 
important  respects  from  those  of  European  coun- 
tries. The  commercial  colleges  of  Germany 
and  France  are  less  professional  in  their  design 
and  less  practical  in  their  operations.  In  France 
particularly,  the  commercial  schools  are  under 
government  patronage  and  direction,  and  aim  to 
Supply  not  only  well-trained  clerks  for  the  civil 
service,  but  educated  sailors  and  scieut ilic  ship- 
builders as  well.  The  course  of  study  covers 
three  years,  and  is  definitely  prescribed  by  the 


government.  The  American  business  schools, 
on  the  other  hand,  having  no  public  recognition, 
except  ;is  the  result  of  individual  work — with  no 
official  supervision  to  inspire  or  control  their 
actions,  are  as  various  in  their  methods  ami  their 
degrees  of  excellence  as  are  other  purely  business 

enterprises.      And  there    is  little  doubt  that,  like 

other  business  enterprises,  they  will  continue  to 
meet  the  increasing  demand  for  faithful  work, 
until  they  shall  become  as  much  a  part  of  our 
educational  system  as  are  the  classical  and  pro- 
fessional schools  and  colleges,  whose  purposes  and 
scope  are  more  definitely  fixed  in  the  public  mind. 
'I  he  report  for  1 874  of  the  I '.  S.  ( lommissioner 
of  Education  showed  that  then' were  L38of  these 
institutions  in  the  diff erenl  Btatesof  the  Union, 

in  126  of  which  there  were  "'77  instructors,  and 
'_'  students,  of  whom  2,867  were  females. 
BUTTMANN,  Philipp  Karl,  a  German 
professor  of  classical  literature,  was  born  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Main,  in  17(1-1.  and  died  in 
Berlin,  in  1829.  After  completing  his  studies 
at  the  university  of  Gbttingen,  he  was  for  a  time 
tutorof  the  princes  of  Anhalt-Dessau,  became,  in 

L789,  assistant  secretary,  and  in  L796  secretary 
of  the  royal  library  of  Berlin,  in  L800  professor 
at  the  Joachimsthal  Gymnasium,  and  in  1  si  1 
librarian  and  member  of  the  academy  of  science. 
He  was  also,  from  L803  to  I -I  "J.  editor  of  the 
Spener'sche  Zeitung.  Buttmann  is  the  author 
of  three  *  beek  grammars,  two  of  which,  prepared 
for  the  gymnasia  (Griechische  Grammatik.  Ber- 
lin, 1792,  22d  edit..  L869,  Griechische  Schul- 
grammatik,  Berlin,  181(i.  17th  edit..  L875),  have 
had  for  many  wars  an  almost  exclusive  sway  in 
many  learned  institutions.  Both  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English  He  also  published  Lexilogus, 
an  explanation  of  Greek  words,  especially  for 
Homer  and  llesiod  (Berlin,  1818 — L825,  EngL 
transL,  3d  ed.,  London,  L846);  Muihologus,  a  col- 
lection of  essays  on  the  legends  of  antiquity 
(Berlin,  L828— 1829),  and  editions  of  several 
Greek  and  Latin  classics. 


CADET.  Pee  Military  Schools,  and  Naval 
Schools. 

CADETS'  COLLEGE,  (lie  name  of  a  de- 
partment of  the  Royal  Military  College  at  Sand- 
hurst, England.  Its  objects  are,  to  give  a  sound 
military  education  i"  youths  intended  for  the 

army,  and  to  facilitate  the  obtaining  of  commis- 
sions when  the  education  is  completed.  Appli- 
cation for  admission  is  made  to  the  commander 

in  chief,  who,  mi  the  production  of  satisfactory 
Certificates    and    references,   gives    permission   to 

place  the  name  of  the  youth  applying  on  the  list 
of  candidates.  The  age  for  admission  is  between 
16  and  l!>.  The  course  for  admission  includes 
English  composition,  modern  languages,  math- 
ematics, geography,  history,  the  natural  and  e\ 

perimental  Sciences,  and  drawing.  After  exami- 
nation, the  candidates  are  reported  to  the  com- 
mander in  chief  in  the  order  of  merit ;  and  those 


who  have  the  highest  standing  are  admitted  as 

cadets  as  soon  as  vacancies  occur  in  the  college. 
When  admitted,  they  study  for  two  years  a  great 
variety  of  subjects  connected  with  military  sci- 
ence and  practice:   and  when  the  course   is  C - 

pleted,  the  cadets  are  eligible  to  the  reception  of 

commissions  in  the  cavalry  and  infantry,  a  cer- 
tain number  of  which  are  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  college. 

CALIFORNIA  was  a  part  of  the  territory 
which  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  at  the 
close  of  the  .Mexican  war.  It  was  admitted  into 
the  Onion  as  a  state  Sept.  I'..  1850. 

Educational  History.— The  foundation  of  the 

school  system  of  the  state  Wafi  laid  by  the  consti- 
tutional convention  at   Monterey,  in  1849,  by  a 
provision  tor  appropriating  for  school  pur):, 
the  proceeds  to  be  derived  from  the  sale  ot  the 

500,000  acres  of  land. granted  by  Congress  to  new 


CALIFORNIA 


111 


states,  for  the  purpose  of  infernal  improvements. 
This  measure  was  carried  after  a  sharp  struggle, 
and  by  one  vote.  The  constitution  also  provided 
far  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  ami 
empowered  the  Legislature  to  provide  for  a  system 

minion  schools, to  l>e  kept  open  at  least  three 

months  in  the  year.     The  first  legislature,  of 

1849      50,  took  no  action  on  school  matters:  but, 

in  1850  1,  the  second  state  legislature  passed  a 
crude  law  providing  for  the  apportionment  of  the 
state  school  moneys,  pro  rata,  to  sectarian  and  re- 
ligious as  well  as  tO  public  Scl Is.      In  L852 — 3, 

Hon.  Frank  Soule"  drafted  and  secured  the  pas- 
of  a  more  complete  school  law.  which  re- 
mained in  force  until  Is.")."),  when  Hon.  I ».  \l. 
Ashley  secured  the  passage  of  a  revised  law 
which  contained  stringenl  provisions  against  the 
apportionment  of  public  moneys  for  the  support 
of  sectarian  schools.  This  law  was  not  materially 
changed  until  L 864,  when  the  state  superintend- 
ent secured  the  passage  of  important  financial 
amendments  which  more  than  doubled  the  school 
revenue.  Among  these  provisions  was  the  levy- 
ing of  a  state  tax  of  five  cents  on  the  hundred 
dollars. 

A  state  normal  school  was  organized  in  1862, 
and  was  located  in  San  Francisco.  In  1866,  "an 
act  to  provide  for  a  system  of  common  schools." 
drafted  by  the  state  superintendent,  was  passed 
under  the  title  of  the  Revised  School  Law. 
This  law  remains,  with  a  few  unimportant 
changes,  on  the  statute  books  at  the  present  day. 
In  1869,  the  state  university  was  established  at 
Berkeley,  near  Oakland.  In  1874,  the  state-tax 
was  increased  so  as  to  yield  a  revenue  of  ST 
per  unit  of  the  school  census, — a  revenue  which, 
in  lsT.">.  amounted  to  SI. 100.000. 

The  first  public  school  was  opened  in  San 
Francisco,  Dec,  1849,  by  John  C.  Pelton,  after- 
wards city  superintendent  of  San  Francisco.  In 
1866,  the  whole  state  attained  to  a  free-school 
system.  rate-bills  being  abolished  by  law.  Pre- 
vious to  this  time,  most  of  the  countiy  schools 
eked  out  their  limited  amount  of  school  moneys 
by  monthly  rates  of  tuition.  The  total  amount 
of  money  expended  for  public  school  purposes 
from  1S.">1  to  1S75  was  $20,000,000. 

Slate  Superintendents. — The  following  is  a  list 
of  the  state  superintendents:  (1)  John  <i.  .Mar- 
vin, from  1851  to  1854;  (2)  Paul  K.  Hubbs, 
from  1854  to  1857;  (3)  Andrew  J.  Moulder, 
from  1H5T  to  1S63  ;  (4)  John  Swett,  from  L863 
to  1868;  i'm  (>.  P.  Fitzgerald,  from  1868  to 
1872;  (6)  I  bury  X.  Bolander,  from  1872  to 
187<i ;  (V)  Ezra  S.  Carr,  the  present  incumbent, 
who  entered  upon  his  duties  in  1876. 

School  System. — The  schools  of  the  state  are 
under  the  supervision  of  a  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  county  superintendents,  and 
city  superintendents,  all  elected  by  popular  vote. 
The  state  board  of  <j<hi<:<ttio>t  is  composed  of  the 
governor,  the  state  superintendent,  and  six  county 
superintendents,  all  being  members  ex  officio, 
and  has  power  to  adopt  a  uniform  series  of  text- 
books, to  issue  life  diplomas,  to  adopt  a  course  of 
studies  for  the  schools  of  the  state,  and  to  make 


rules  and  regulations  for  the  government  of  the 
schools.      The  city  boards    of    <<iur<itini>    are 

elected  by  the  people  directly,  under  special  city 
charters  and  local  school  laws.  Besides  these, 
there  are  boards  of  district  school  trustees,  chosen 

at  special  school  elections,  for  the  term  of  three 
years,  one  trustee  being  elected  annually.  There 
are  boards  of  examination  for  the  state,  for  the 

counties,  and  for  the  cities.  The  state  hoard  of 
examination  is  composed  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent and  four  professional  teachers  appointed 

by  him.  at  a  salary  of  $200  a  year,  and  has  power 

to  prepare  questions  for  the  state,  city,  and 
county  examinations,  and  to  issue,  on  the  result 
of  such  examinations,  educational  diplomas, 
valid  for  0  years,  ami  first,  second  and  third 
grade  certificates,  valid  for  4,  3,  and  2  years,  re- 
spectively. The  cowMy  boards  of  examination 
are  composed  of  the  county  superintendent,  and 
from  3  to  5  professional  teachers,  holding  first 
grade  certificates,  appointed  by  the  county  super- 
intendent, for  the  term  of  two  years,  at  a  compen- 
sation of  $3  a  day.  and  traveling  expenses.  They 
are  authorized  to  hold  quarterly  county  examina- 
tions, and  to  issue  first,  second,  and  third  grade 
certificates,  valid  for  3  years,  2  years,  and  1  year, 
respectively.  The  city  boards  of  examination 
are  composed  of  the  city  superintendent  and  four 
professional  teachers,  holding  educational  diplo- 
mas, and  elected  by  the  city  board  of  education. 
Their  powers  are  similar  to  those  of  the  state 
and  county  boards.  All  boards  of  examination 
must  be  composed  exclusively  of  professional 
teachers. 

The  schools  must  be  kept  open  at  least  six 
months  in  the  year  to  secure  the  state  apportion- 
ment, and  to  all  children  from  5  to  21  years  of 
age.  Separate  schools  may  be  established  for 
colored  children  at  the  option  of  the  local  boards. 
The  daily  school  sessions  must  not  exceed  six 
hours,  and,  for  primary  children  under  8  years 
of  age.  must  not  exceed  4  hours.  For  district 
school  libraries,  there  is  an  allowance  of  $50  a 
year,  out  of  the  state  apportionment,  to  be  ex- 
pended by  the  trustees.  No  sectarian  or  deno- 
minational doctrines  can  be  taught  in  the  schools. 
There  is  a  compidsory  education  law,  but  no  pro- 
visions for  properly  enforcing  it. 

The  school  re  re/me  consists  of  the  annual  in- 
terest of  the  state  school  fund,  invested  in  6  per 
cent  and  7  per  cent  bonds.  This  fund  amounts 
to  $1,737,500,  and  the  annual  interest  to$97,560* 
There  is  a  state  tax  sufficient  to  raise  $7  for  each 
child  between  the  ages  of  5  and  17,  as  shown  by 
the  last  preceding  school  census,  amounting,  in 
L875,to  $1,100,000;  a  county  school  tax.  at  a 
rate  not  less  than  $3  per  unit  of  the  school  census; 
nor  exceeding  50  cts.  on  each  hundred  dollars  of 
the  county  assessment  roll.  The  amount  raised 
from  the  county  and  city  school  tax  in  ls7.">  was. 
$1,115,000.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  district 
school  tax,  submitted  to  local  vote,  for  building 
purposes,  or  for  maintaining  schools,  not  to  ex- 
ceed, in  any  one  year,  SI  on  each  §100. 

There  is  no  supervision  by  school  inspectors. 
County  superintendents  are  required  to  visit  and 


112 


CALIFORNIA 


examine  every  school  once  a  year,  but  this  is 
merely  nominal.  Each  school  district  has  a 
board  of  three  trustees  ;  and  incorporated  cities 
have  special  boards  of  education,  as  well  as  city 
superintendents. 

The  salaries  of  teachers  are  as  follows :  Aver- 
age monthly  salary  of  male  teachers  §84.93 ; 
of  female  teachers,  368.01. 

The  course  of  instruction  as  prescribed  bylaw 
for  the  public  schools,  must  include  the  follow- 
ing branches  of  study  :  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  the  history  of 
the  United  States,  physiology,  natural  history, 
drawing,  and  music.  There  is  a  course  of  study 
adopted  by  the  state  board  of  education  ;  but  as 
there  is  no  way  to  enforce  it,  but  little  attention 
is  paid  to  it  in  the  country  districts.  Each  city 
has  its  own  special  course.  In  San  Francisco, 
German  and  French  are  taught  in  a  part  of  the 
primary  and  grammar  departments.  The  high 
schools  have  the  usual  course  of  study  in  order 
to  prepare  pupils  for  admission  to  the  state  uni- 
versity. 

Educational  Condition. — The  total  number  of 
school  districts  in  the  state  is  1579.  The  number 
of  schools  in  each  of  the  three  grades  is  as 
follows :  state  university,  1  ;  high  schools,  14 ; 
first-gTade  (grammar)  schools,  875 ;  second-grade 
(intermediate)  schools,  770 ;  third-grade  (pri- 
mary) schools,  545 ;  total  number  of  schools, 
2,205. 

Besides  these,  there  are  public  evening  schools 
in  San  Francisco,  free  to  men  and  boys,  and  kept 
open  10  months  in  the  year.  These  schools  are 
graded,  with  special  classes  in  book-keeping  and 
drawing.  The  number  of  teachers,  in  1875,  was 
25;  of  pupils,  1,100. 

The  following  are  the  principal  items  of  the 
school  statistics  for  1875  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 130,930 

Average  daily  attendance 78,027 

Number  of  teachers,  males 1,033 

"      "         "         females 1,660 

Total  receipts $3,390,359. 

Total  expenditures $2,658,241. 

Normal  Instruction.  —  The  State  Normal 
School  was  organized  in  1861,  at  San  Francisco, 
but  in  1870  was  removed  to  San  Jose.  The 
building  was  erected  at  a  cost  of  $250,000. 
This  school  is  open  to  both  sexes,  and  is  entirely 
free.  The  number  of  students  in  L875  was  240, 
mostly  young  women;  the  number  of  instructors 
was  9.  The  annual  cost  of  the  school  is  about 
$20,000.  The  total  number  of  graduates,  from 
its  foundation  to  1876,  was  378. 

Secondary  Instruction.  There  are  14  high 
schools  in  the  state,  of  which  2  are  located  in 
San  Francisco,  one  for  girls,  and  one  for  boys. 
There  is  one  in  each  of  the  following  cities :  Oak- 
land, Sacramento,  Stockton,  Lob  Angeles,  San 
Jost''.  Vallejo,  Petaluma,  tirass  Valley,  Nevada. 
Marysville,  Santa  I  llara,  Santa  Cruz, and  Alame- 
da. These  schools,  which  are  preparatory  to  the 
state  university,  contain  1,500  pupils,  taught  by 
A'A  teachers.  Besides  the  high  schools,  there  i-  a 
large  number  of  flourishing  private  schools,  of 


which  some  are  for  boys  exclusively,  others  for 
girls,  and  some  for  both  sexes. 

Denominational  Schools. — The  denominational 
schools  are  quite  numerous  and  extensive.  In 
San  Francisco,  six  Roman  Catholic  schools  give 
instruction  to  600  boys  and  850  girls;  besides 
which,  the  Presentation  Convent  School,  for  girls, 
has  700  pupils  and  26  teachers  :  and  the  Sacred 
Heart  Presentation  Convent,  750  pupils  and  26 
teachers.  The  Academy  of  Notre  Dame,  at  San 
Jose,  has  550  pupils  and  30  teachers.  Other 
Catholic  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  state  give 
instruction  to  1,385  pupils.  The  Protestant 
schools  in  various  parts  of  the  state  give  instruc- 
tion to  about  1,500  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  California  State 
University  (q.  v.)  crowns  the  public  school  sys< 
tern,  being  entirely  free  in  all  its  departments. 
Other  institutions  of  a  similar  grade  are  included 
in  the  following  list : 


California  College 
Christian  College 
Pacific  Meth.  College 
Sacred  Heart  College 
St.  Ignatius  College 
SantaBarbaraCollege 
St.  Mary's  College 
Santa  Clara  College 
Univ.  Mound  College 
University  of  Cal. 
Univ.  of  the  Pacific 


•a 

a  o 

xi  a 


Religious 
Denomina- 
tion 


Location 


1-71  Baptists        Vacavflle 
1872  Christians     Santa  Rosa 
1862  Meth. CI). s.  Santa  Rosa 
I-;:;  Rom.  Cath.  Ban  Francisco 
1 355  Rom.  Cath.  San  Francisco 
I --7 1  [ndep.Prot.  Santa  Barbara 
L861  Rom.  Cath.  San  Francisco 

'.mi.  Cath.  Santa  Clara 
1859  Presbyt.       San  Francisco 
1869  Non-sect.      Berkeley 
ls5l|.Meth.  Epis.  Santa  Clara 

Special  Instruction. —  The  principal  institu- 
tions for  special  instruction  are  the  following : 
The  California  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
and  the  Blind,  near  Berkeley,  established  in  1860, 
and  supported  by  the  state ;  the  Pacific  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (Congregational),  at  Oakland; 
the  Theological  Seminary,  at  San  Francisco;  the 
School  of  Design,  at  San  Francisco,  organized  in 
1873  ;  besides  which,  there  is  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  California,  the  Medical 
College  of  the  Pacific,  and  the  California  College 
of  Pharmacy. 

There  is  no  state  reform  school,  but  the  San 
Francisco  Industrial  School  serves  the  purpose  of 
one,  as  minors  from  other  counties  may  be  com- 
mit ted  to  its  care  on  the  payment  of  a  stipulated 
sum.  The  school  connected  with  this  institution 
is  well  graded  and  equipped,  and  the  buildings 
for  the  accommodation  of  its  different  depart- 
ments are  large  and  spacious. 

Teachers'  Associations. — The  first  state  teach- 
ers' convention  was  held  in  San  Francisco,  in 
Dec.,  L854;  thefirsl  teachers'  institute  met  in  San 
Francisco,  May.  1863,  under  the  direction  of 
State  Superintendent  Moulder.  The  third  state 
institute,  in  L863,  gave  a  marked  impulse  to 
educational  interests.  The  California  State  Edu- 
cational   Society  was  organized    in    L863,  with 


John  Swetl  as  president. 
bership    only   holders   of 
plomas.     This  society  for 

tile    California    Teacher. 


It  admitted  to  mem- 
state  educational  di- 
five  years  controlled 
In  1875,  a  state  edu- 


cational association  was  organized  at  San  Jose. 


CALIFORNIA    COLLKCE 


CALISTHENICS 


113 


Educational  Literature. — The  first  educational 
journal  was  the  California  Teacher,  commenced 
in  July  1863,  published  under  the  general  control 
of  the  State  Educational  Society,  and,  edited,  for 
the  first  four  years,  by  John  Swett  and  Samuel 
I.  0.  Swe/.ev.  It  was  saved  from  a  speedy  termi- 
nation by  a  state  subscription.  In  1873,  it 
was  taken  from  the  control  of  the  society,  and 
became  the  organ  of  the  state  superintendent. 
In  1876,  the  state  subscription  of  $4,000  was 
withdrawn,  and  the  journal  expired  with  the 
official  term  of  Supt.  Bolander.  The  Pacific 
Educational  and  Home  Journal,  was  com- 
menced  in  April,  1877;  and  Fitzgerald's  Home 
Newsp  iperand  Educational  Jownai, in  March, 
1877.  The  History  of  the  Public  School  Sys- 
tem of  California,  by  John  Swett,  was  pub- 
lished in  1S76. 

CALIFORNIA  COLLEGE,  at  Vacaville, 
Gal.,  was  founded  in  1871,  by  the  Baptists.  It 
includes  both  collegiate  and  theological  depart- 
ments, has  an  endowment  fund  of  about  $20,000, 
a  corps  of  8  instructors,  and  160  students,  of 
whom  50  belong  to  the  collegiate  department. 
The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  etc.,  is  esti- 
mated at  825,000  ;  and  its  library  contains  about 
2,500  volumes.  A.  S.  Worrell,  A.  M.,  is  (1876) 
the  president  of  the  institution.  The  cost  of 
tuition  per  annum  is  about  $50. 

CALIFORNIA,  University  of,  at  Berke- 
ley. 4  miles  N.  of  Oakland,  was  organized  in  1869, 
and  forms  a  part  of  the  public  educational  system 
of  the  state.  It  is  under  the  control  of  a  board  of 
22  regents,  of  which  the  governor,  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor, state  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
speaker  of  the  assembly,  president  of  the  state 
agricultural  society,  and  president  of  the  mechan- 
ics' institute  of  San  Francisco  are  ex  officio  mem- 
bers. It  is  open  to  both  sexes,  young  women  be- 
ing admitted  on  the  same  terms  as  young  men. 
Its  endowment  fund  consists  of  the  150,000 
acres  of  land  granted  by  Congress  in  aid  of  agri- 
cultural schools,  and  the  72  sections,  comprising 
46,080  acres,  set  apart  for  a  "  seminary  fund  " 
from  the  public  school  lands.  The  150,000  acres 
were  sold  at  an  average  price  of  $4  per  acre, 
yielding  $600,000 ;  the  seminary  fund  amounted 
to  $35,000,  making  a  total  of  $635,000.  The  state 
appropriated  $300,000  for  the  erection  of  suit- 
able buildings ;  and  the  site  of  160  acres  of  land, 
on  the  hills  at  Berkeley,  overlooking  San  Fran- 
cisco, was  given  by  the  College  of  California, 
which  was  merged  in  the  university.  The  state 
appropriates  for  current  expenses  $50,000  a 
year  in  addition  to  the  revenue  of  the  endow- 
ment fund.  In  1875.  .lames  Lick  endowed  the 
university  with  $7(10.000,  to  be  expended  in 
erecting  and  maintaining  an  observatory  on  Mt. 
Hamilton,  in  the  coast  range,  90  miles  south  of 
Berkeley.  The  departments,  or  colleges,  fully 
organized  are  the  college  of  letters,  or  the  classical 
department,  and  the  scientific  school.  Little  has 
been  done,  as  yet,  towards  organizing  the  agricult- 
ural college,  or  the  colleges  of  mines  or  mechanics. 
The  college  of  medicine  is  in  San  Francisco,  un- 
der a  separate  faculty.  It  consists  of  the  Toland 


medical  colleges,  nominally  transferred  to  the 
university.  The  total  number  of  students  in  De- 
cember, 1875,  was  366,  of  whom  40  were  young 
women.  The  first  president  of  the  institution 
was  Henry  Durant,  the  founder  of  the  College  of 
California,  who  died  in  1874.  He  resigned  his 
presidency  in  L872.  and  was  succeeded  by  Pro- 
fessor I).  C.  Oilman  of  Yale  College. 

CALISTHENICS  ((Jr.  Kak6c,  beautiful,  and 
a&evog,  strength),  a  system  of  physical  exercises 
for  females,  designed  to  promote  strength  and 
gracefulness  of  movement ;  or,  by  assisting  the 
natural  and  harmonious  development  of  the 
muscular  system,  to  improve  the  health,  and  add 
to  the  beauty  of  personal  appearance.  Calisthen- 
ic  and  gymnastic  exercises  are  based  on  the 
same  principle, — that  exercise  is  essential  to  the 
proper  development  of  the  physical  as  well  as 
mental  faculties,  and  to  the  maintenance  of  their 
healthy  condition ;  and  that,  in  education,  it  is 
requisite  that  suitable  exercises  should  be  system- 
atically employed.  The  only  difference  between 
calisthenics  and  gymnastics  consists  in  the  adapt- 
ation of  the  former  to  the  physical  education  of 
girls  ;  and,  of  course,  the  exercises  employed  re- 
quire a  less  violent  muscular  action.  These 
exercises  may  be  practiced  with  or  without  ap- 
paratus. The  latter,  which  should  be  employed 
first,  consist  in  such  movements  as  bring  into 
regular  and  systematic  operation  all  parts  of  the 
body.  The  movements  are  neither  violent  nor 
complicated,  being  in  fact  only  such  as  are  re- 
quired in  the  ordinary  exercise  of  the  limbs.  Their 
advantage  over  those  required  in  the  common 
active  sports  of  girls  consists  in  their  systematic 
regulation  so  as  to  ensure  an  equal  and  regidar 
action  of  the  muscles ;  while  long  continued 
sports  of  any  particular  kind,  such  as  trundling 
the  hoop,  using  the  skipping-rope,  etc.,  have  the 
reverse  effect.  Calisthenic  exercises  should,  how- 
ever, be  so  varied  as  to  exhilarate  the  spirits  as 
well  as  task  the  muscles,  or  they  will  lose  much 
of  their  beneficial  effect ;  since  while  the  body 
is  exercised,  the  mind  must  be  interested.  The 
simplest  apparatus  used  consists  of  wands  or 
poles,  dumb-bells,  backboards,  elastic  bands  with 
handles,  light  weights,  etc.  With  such  instru- 
ments, a  great  variety  of  beneficial,  graceful,  and 
interesting  exercises  can  be  performed  ;  and  when 
■whole  classes  are  exercised  simultaneously,  there 
will  necessarily  be  a  healthful  mental  excitement 
mingled  with  the  physical  training,  particularly 
when  the  movements  are  regulated  by  the  rhythm 
of  music,  which  is  usually  the  case  in  modern 
schools.  The  utility  of  such  exercises,  when 
properly  and  judiciously  employed  cannot  be 
doubted,  especially  after  the  age  of  12  or  14  years, 
before  which  they  should  rarely,  if  ever,  be  resort- 
ed to.  Numerous  ailments  to  which  females  are 
peculiarly  liable  are  due  to  the  neglect  of  proper 
physical  training,  and  may  be  prevented  or  cured 
by  a  judicious  employment  of  calisthenic  exer- 
cises. Many  injurious  practices,  such  as  tight 
lacing,  are  necessarily  precluded  by  the  regular 
resort  to  such  exercises.  Ling,  the  celebrated 
Swedish  author  of  kinesipathy  or  the  movement- 


m 


CALISTHENICS 


CAMBRIDGE 


Mrs.  Willard  says, 

be  learned  chiefly 

( Mlii-v  advantages, 


tare,  has  written  very  enthusiastically  upon  the 
importance  of  free  gymnastic  exercises,  as  a 
means  of  promoting  health  as  well  as  of  curing 
disease.  (See  Die  allgemeinen  GrUnde  der  Gym- 

//us//'/,;  published  ;it  Stockholm,  in  L840.)  He 
founded  the  Central  Institute  at  Stockholm, 
subsequently  conducted  by  Prof.  Branting. 
Many  excellent  manuals  giving  full  practical  di- 
rections to  teachers,  are  now  published.  In  social 
life,  dancing  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  and 
beneficial  of  calisthenic  exercises,  and  were  it  dis- 
sociated from  the  fashionable  dissipation  with 
which  it  is  too  often  allied, would  meet  with  uni- 
versal favor.  Some  of  the  most  eminent  teachers 
of  females  have  regarded  this  species  of  exercise 

as  the  best  even  for   schools. 
'•  The  grace  of  motion   must 
from    instruction  in  dancing. 

besides  that  of  a  graceful   carriage,    might  be 

derived  from  such  instruction,  if  the  lessons  were 
judiciously  timed.  Exercise  is  needful  to  the 
health,  and  recreation  to  the  cheerfulness  and 
contentment  of   youth.      Female    youth    should 

not  be    allowed    to    range    unrestrained,  to    seek 

amusement  for  themselves.  If  it  wereentirely 
prohibited,  they  would  be  driven  to  seek  it  by 
stealth:  which  would  lead  them  to  many  im- 
proprieties of  conduct,  and  would  have  a  perni- 
cious effect  upon  their  general  character,  by  in- 
ducing a  habit  of  treading  forbidden  paths.  The 
alternative  that  remains  is  to  provide  them  with 
proper  recreation,  which,  after  the  confinement 
of  the  day.  they  might  enjoy  under  the  eye  of 
their  instructors.  Dancing  is  exactly  suited  to 
this  purpose,  as  also  to  that  of  exercise;  for  per- 
haps in  no  way  can  so  much  healthy  exercise  be 
taken  in  so  short  a  time."  Miss  0.  E.  Beecher, 
in  Eihirtiiiomil  lit'ininiscpucen,  remarks,  "  When 
physical  education  takes  the  proper  place  in  our 
schools,  young  girls  will  be  trained  in  the  class- 
rooms to  move  heads,  hands,  and  arms  gracefully; 
to  sit,  to  stand,  and  to  walk  properly,  and  to  pur- 
sue calisthenic  exercises  for  physical  development 
as  a  regular  school  duly  as  much  as  their  studies. 
And  these  exercises, set  to  music,  will  besought 
as  the  most  agreeable  of  school  duties." 

In  all  such  exercises,  certain  general  rules   and 
directions  ate  to  be  kept  steadily  in  view.     They 

should  never   be    practiced    immediately  after 

meals,  nor  very  near  the  time  of  eating,  as  diges- 
tion cannot  be  properly  performed  when  the 
•  ■m  is  in  an  exhausted  condition.  The  best 
time  for  exercise  is  early  in  the  morning  or  to- 
wards evening.  In  school,  these  exercises,  being 
of  a  moderate  character,  may  conic  after  the 
mind    is    wearied     with     protracted     intellectual 

work,  foi  then  they  will  prove  a  relief ;  but  in- 
tellectual efforts  cannot  effectively  be  put  forth 
after  the  physical  system  has  become  jaded  and 

jlled      by     protracted      exercise.         Calisthenic 
exercises  should    always    lie   commenced   and  tin 
ished  gently;    indeed,  all   abrupt  transitions  from 
getttk    llO    violent     exertions,    or     the    contrary. 

Should  be  avoided.  It  is  by  moderate  and  pro- 
longed   OT    repeated    e\erci.-c    that     the    physical 

organs  are  to  be  developed  or  improved,  not  by 


violent  and  fitful  efforts.  The  weaker  organs 
should  receive  the  most  attention,  so  that  the 
whole  system  may  receive  a  harmonious  develop- 
ment. The  dress  should  lie  light  and  easy  :  and 
the  department  in  which  the  exercises  are  taken 
should  lie  spacious,  cool,  and  well-ventilated.  All 
such  exercises  require  to  be  practiced  with  many 
precautions,  and  with  a  due  regard  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  individual.  Teachers  may  be  the 
means  of  doing  much  injury  by  indiscriminately 
requiring  all  their  pupils  to  go  through  the  same 
amount  of  exercise.  The  effect  upon  every  pupil 
should  lie  carefully  watched:  and.  in  some  ca.-es. 
the  advice  of  a  careful  physician  should  not  be 
dispensed  with. —  See  Catharine  E.  Bebcher, 
Physiology  and  Calisthenics  (X.  V..  1856);  and 
Educational  Reminiscences  (N.Y.,  1874);  Kjngs- 
t.Kv.  Health  and  Education  (Loud,  and  X.  V.. 
L874)  :  Watson,  Manual  of  Calisthenics  (N.Y., 
1864);  Tkw.l.  The  Illustrated  Family  Gym- 
nasium iX.Y.,  1857);  Dio  Lewis,  New  Gym- 
nastics  |  Boston,  1862);  Basnet,  The  Gymnasium 
at  Howie  (N.Y.,  1871).  (See  Gymnastics,  and 
Physical  EnucATioN.) 

CALISTHENIUM,  a  newly  coined  term, 
applied  to  an  apartment  or  hall  in  which  calis- 
thenic exercises  are  practiced  ;  formed  after  the 
analogy  of  gymnasium. 

CALLIGRAPHY.     See  Penmanship. 

CAMBRIDGE,  University  of,  one  of  the 
oldest  anil  most  famous  institutions  of  learning 
in  England.  A  school  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  at  Cambridge,  by  a  party  of  monks,  as 
early  as  lid!);  and,  twenty  years  later.  Alfred 
of  Beverley,  the  historian,  lodged  in  the  town, 
and  studied.     The  records  of   the  university  are 

preserved  in  the  Tower,  and  show  the  university 
to  have  been  in  full  operation  in  1229.  Edward  I., 
in  1291,  granted  it  the  first  formal  charter  of 
privileges,  which  was  amplified  by  succeeding 
sovereigns.    Edward  II.  obtained  the  first  papal 

recognition  of  the  university.  Henry  VI.  founded 

Kings  College ;  and  bis  consort  founded  Queens', 

which  obtained  a  second  patroness  in  the  con- 
sort of  Edward  IV.  Henry  VH1.  consolidated 
and  enriched  earlier  foundations  to  form  Trinity 
College;  but,  from  1257,  the  date  of  the  found- 
ing of  St.  Peters  College,  private  munificence 
was,  and  still  is.  yet  more  active  in  endowing 
various  foundations.  A  new  era  began  with 
Queen  Elizabeth,  in  the  Kith  year  of  whose 
reign,  on  the  basis  of  existing  charters,  the  Oni- 
versity  of  Cambridge  was  incorporated,  under 
the  title  of  "  the  <  Chancellor,  Masters,  and  Schol- 
ars of  the  University  of  Cambridge."  Theuni- 
vcr-iiy  is  a  federal  republic  of  17  colleges  (or, 
with  Cavendish  College,  L 8),  maintained  solely 
by  the  endowments  of  founders  and  benefactors. 
Each  college  is  a  lesser  republic,  with  its  own 

Statutes,  but  is  Subject  to  university  law.  The 
present    Statutes   were    confirmed,    in    1858,   by 

Queen  Victoria.  The  legislative  and  executive 
bodies  are  composed  of  members  of  the  coileg 

All  master-,  of  arts  and  doctors  in  divinity,  law, 

and  physic,  whose  names  are  on  the  university 

register,  have   the  right  to  vote  in  the  senate. 


CAMBRIDGE 


n;> 


The  electoral  roll  is  a  smaller  body,  consisting 
dt'  all  who  have  resided,  during  the  preceding 
Tear,  at  the  university,  together  with  heads. 
officers,  and  examiners ;  and  by  it   many  of  the 

University   officers    are   elected.      The   senate,  in 

L876,  numbered  5,816;  the  electoral  roll,  318. 
Meetings  of  the  senate  [congregations)  are  held 
fortnightly  during  terms,  for  conferring  degrees 
and  transacting  business.  'The  council  of  the 
tic  consists  of  the  chancellor,  and  vice-chan- 
cellor. .■,..•  officio,  and  L6  other  members  of  the 
■  it  the  electoral  roll,  chosen  by  the  latter 
body.  All  resolutions  for  conferring  degrees, etc. 
.must  lie  sanctioned  by  the  council  be- 
fore they  are  submitted  to  the  senate.  The  ex- 
ecutive consists  of  the  chancellor,  who  is  the  head 
of  the  university  and  non-resident  (usually  a 
prince  or  a  nobleman);  the  vice  i  hancellor,  always 
the  head  of  a  college,  wielding  the  full  powe] 
the  chancellor. and.  pro  tern*  a  magistrate  for  the 
university,  the  town,  and  the  county  ;  the  high 
steward,  the  commissary,  the  sex  viri,  the  as- 
-  ir.  all  exercising  judicial  functions;  the  pub- 
lic orator,  who  is  the  mouth-piece  of  the  senate  ; 
the  librarian:  the  registrary,  for  the  registration  of 
graces  and  the  custody  of  records;  two  proctors 
and  two  pro-procb  »rs,  who  maintain  discipline  and 
attend  congregations  to  read  graces  ami  register 
votes;  the  university  marshals  (constables)  ;  the 
esquire  bedells;  and  the  university  counsel,  solic- 
itor, moderators,  and  syndics,  the  last  being 
members  of  special  committees  for  specific  duties. 
The  university  sends  two  members  to  parliament, 
elected  by  the  senate, — a  privilege  first  granted 
by  James  1. — There  are  33  professors:  of  divinity, 
four;  of  law,  three;  of  physic,  medicine,  anatomy, 
comparative  anatomy,  Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew, 
Sanskrit,  one  each;  of  Arabic,  mathematics, 
astronomy,  two  each;  of  natural  experimental 
philosophy,  experimental  physics,  botany,  geol- 
tnineralogy,  chemistry,  moral  theology  or 
casuistry,  modern  history,  political  economy, 
music,  archeology,  fine  arts,  one  each.  The 
oldest,  the  Margaret  professorship  of  divinity. 
dates  from  1502.  There  are  five  regius  profess- 
orships: divinity,  civil  law.  physic.  Greek,  and 
I  tebrew.  Erasmus  wasthe  first  professor  of  Greek, 
and  the  third  Margaret  professor.  The  stipends 
are  from  endowments,  the  university  chest,  and 
fees.  A  few  are  richly  endowed.  There  are  three 
terms:  (1)  Michaelmas,  or  October  term  (Oct.  1. 
to  Dec.  L6);  (2)  Lent,  or  January  term  (.fan.  L3. 
to  Friday  before  Palm-Sundayjj  (3)  Easter,  or 
Midsummer  term  i  Friday  after  Easter  to  Friday 
afi.r  ( Jommencemenl  day.  which  is  the  last  Tins- 
day  hut  one  in  .June).  An  under-graduate  must 
■'■•side  in  the  university  two-thirds  of  each  term, 
i.  e.,  about  six  months  during  the  year.— Mem- 
bers of  colleges  are  classed  .is  follows:  1 1  |  Meads 
of  colleges,  styled  Master   a1  Bang's,  Provost;  at 

Queens',    President,!:      ('_')     PelloWB    of    colleges. 

ted  by  the  Society  from  distinguished  grad- 
uates— in  one  or  two  colleges,  after  examination 
—numbering  in  all  about  400;  (3)  Noblemen 
graduates,  doctors  in  the  several  faculties,  bach- 
elors in  divinity,  masters  of  arts,  and  of  law ; 


( I)  Bachelors  of  Arts,  Law.  and  Physic;  (;">)  Fel- 
low   commoners,    usually    younger    sons    of    the 

nobility,  or  young  men  of  fortune  ;  (6)  Scholars, 
generally  elected  by  competition,  and  placed  on 
the  foundation;  (7)  Pensioners  (i.  e.,  boarders), 
who  form  the  great  body  of  the  students:  and 
is)  Sizars,  who  are  students  of  limited  means, 
and  enjoy  certain  emoluments  and  immunities. 
— Degrees  are  conferred  in  arts,  law.  medicine, 

divinity,   and    music.      The    first    degree   is   that 

of  Bachelor  (B.A.),for  which  there  are  three 
requisites:  (1)  a  period  of  residence,  (2)  to  be  a 
member  of  a  college,  or  a  non-collegiati  student, 
and  (.'!)  to  pass  examinations.  'I  he  honor  examina- 
tions (triposes)  nine  in  number,  are  held  only 
once  a  year.  Those  who  pass  in  these  are  ar- 
ranged  in  three  classes  according  to  merit,  and, 
in  the  mathematical  triposes,  are  styled,  respect- 
ively, wranglers,  senior  op1Am.es,  and  junior  op- 
times,  the  senior  wrangler  heading  the  list. 
The  subjects  of  this  tripos  (•'!•">  are  named  in  the 
schedule)  embrace  the  whole  range  of  pure 
mathematics,  and  mathematics  applied  to  nat- 
ural philosophy.  'I  he  examination  lasts  nine 
days;  and  the  publication  of  the  list  in  the 
senate  house,  is  the  great  excitement  of  the  year. 
This  tripos  is  the  most  ancient  (the  printed  lists 
in  the  Calendar  begin  with  1747 — 8),  and  has 
given  Cambridge  its  peculiar  renown.  The  clas- 
sical tripos  ranks  next  in  fame,  age  (first  held  in 
1824),  and  numbers.  It  lasts  eight  days.  The 
moral  sciences  tripos,  lasting  6  days,  embraces 
moral,  political,  and  mental  philosophy,  logic, 
and  political  economy.  The  natural  sciences 
tripos  includes  (1)  chemistry,  and  other  branches 
of  physics,  (2)  botany,  (3)  geology  and  palaeon- 
tology, (4)  mineralogy,  and  (5)  comparative  ana- 
tomy, physiology,  and  zoology.  Besidcsthese.  there 
are  the  triposes  of  law,  of  history,  and  of  theol- 
ogy. A  pass  in  any  of  these  triposes  entitles  to 
B.  A.,  the  holder  of  which  may  become  M .  A. 
after  three  years.  The  university,  in  1858,  in- 
stituted local  examinations,  conducted  at  various 
places.  (See  Examinations.) — The  university 
is  a  body  which  holds  public  examinations,  and 
confers  degrees;  the  professors  lecture,  but  hardly 
can  be  said  to  teach;  the  colleges  train,  lodge, 
and  board  the  undergraduates.  The  most  effect- 
ive teaching  is  done  by  private  tutors  (coaches). 
The  names  of  the  colleges,  with  the  date  of  the 
foundation  of  each,  are  as  follows:  St.  Peters, 
1257;  Clare,  L326 ;  Pembroke,  1347;  Gonville 
and  Cains.  L348 ;  Trinity  Hall.  1350;  Corpus 
Christi,  L352;  King's.  1441;  Queens',  L448; 
St.  Catharine's,  L473;  Jesus,  1496;  Chris 
1505;  St.  John's,  1511;  Magdalene,  1519; 
Trinity.  L546 ;  Emmanuel,  L584;  Sidney  Sus- 
sex. L598;  Downing.  L800 ;  Cavendish.  L876. 
The  whole  number  of  under-graduates.  in  L876, 
was  2,175,  the  largest  number  (533)  being  in 
Trinity,  and  the  next  (359)  in  St.  John's.  Th 
were  also  71  non-collegiate  students.  Cavendish 
College  aims  to  give  a  less  expensive  education 
to  students,  and  at  an  earlier  age  than  the  Others. 
—  The  university  buildings  are  numerous:  the 
senate    house,   adjoining  which  is    the   library, 


116 


CAMPE 


CARLETON  COLLEGE 


rich  in  1.000  manuscripts  ami  containing  half  a 
million  of  volumes;  the  geological  museum;  the 
observatory,  in  charge  of  Professor  Adams:  Ad- 
denbrooke's  hospital,  the  Pitt  Press,  the  botanic 
garden,  the  Fitzwilliatn  Museum,  etc.  There  are 
various  societies  in  the  university  for  promoting 
research:  the  Antiquarian,  Philological,  and 
Philosophical  societies.  The  Union  combines  a 
reading-room,  library,  and  debating  club.  It  has 
a  handsome  and  spacious  building. — See  Fuller, 
History  of  Cambridge  from  L066  to  1634;  Car- 
ter, History  of  Cambridge  (London,  1753); 
Dyer,  History  of  <  'ambridge;  (  'ooper,  .  [nnals  of 
Cambridge  (Cambridge,  L842  53);  Cambridge 
Cm'rersi/j/  Commission  Hi  ■port  (1852 — 3);  Cam- 
briih/e  Ci/irersi/i/  Calendar  (annual)  :  Students' 
Guide  to  the  University  of  Cambridge  (1874); 
Bristed,  Three  Years  in  an  English  University, 
3d  edit.  (N.  Y.,  1873) ;  Everett,  On  the  Cam 
(London,  1866). 

CAMPE,  Joachim  Heinrich,  a  prominent 
educational  writer  of  ( Jermany,  was  born  in  1 746, 
and  died  in  1818.  Having  studied  theology  at 
the  university  of  Halle,  he  occupied  for  several 
years  a  position  as  minister.  In  I  777.  he  accepted 
from  Prince  Francis  of  Dessau  the  appointment 
of  councilor  of  education  {Ediicationsrath)  to 
the  Pkilantkropin,  and  became  its  president  in 
place  of  Basedow,  who  had  resigned  in  1770. 

The  institution  made  marked  and  rapid  progress 
under  his  direction;  but  his  personal  relations 
to  Basedow  were  so  unpleasant,  that  he  resigned 
after  a  few  months.  He  then  founded  an  edu- 
cational institution,  similar  to  the  Philanthropin, 
at  TrittOW,  near  Hamburg,  where  he  remained, 
\intil  1787, when  Duke  Charles  of  Brunswici 
called  him  to  his  capital,  in  order  to  reform,  con- 
jointly with  some  other  prominent  educators. the 
school  system  of  the  duchy.  The  reformatory 
scheme  of  the  duke  could  not,  however,  be  car- 
ried out,  in  consequence  of  the  opposition  of  the 
consistory  and  the  diet.  Campe  was  the  most 
prominent  representative  of  the  principles  0D 
which   the    rhilanthrqpin   was  founded.      He 

avoided  the  eccentricities  of    Basedow,  and  thus 

gained  for  the  principles  which  they  both  repre- 
sented,a  much  larger  number  of  friends.  Hegave 
so  <> real  a  prominence  to  utilitarian  considera- 
tions that  he  declared  he  valued  more  highly  the 
merits  of  the  man  who  introduced  the  use  of  the 
potato, or  invented  thespinning-wheel.than  those 

of  the  author  of  the  Iliad.    The  educational  ideas 

of  Campe  were  set  forth  in  two  periodicals,  the 
Braunschweigisches  Journal  (I  vols.,  1  788  91 1, 
and  Altgemeine  Revision  des  gesammten  Schulr 
vmi  Erziehungswesens  (16  vols..  17.s">  91). 
In  the  ninth  volume  of   the  latter  was  published 

a  translation  of  Locke's  Thoughts  on  Education; 

and  in   volumes  xu.  to  xv.,   Rousseau's   Emile, 

both  with  copious  notes.  The  works  of  Campe 
an  very  numerous,  including  many  popular 
juvenile  books. 

CANADA,  The  Dominion  of,  a  federal 
union  ill'  provinces  and  territories,  comprising, 
iu  ls7<'>.  all  the  British  possessions  in  North 
America,  except   the   island  of  Newfoundland. 


Its  area  is  estimated  at  3,513,325  sq.  miles;  and 
its  population,  according  to  the  census  of  1871, 
was  3,718,7  17.  The  imperial  act  under  which,  in 
1867,  the  Dominion  was  established,  imposed 
upon  the  several  provincial  legislatures  the  duty 
of  providing  for  public  education  within  their 
respective  jurisdictions.  Since  that  time,  all  the 
older  provinces  have  revised  their  legislation  upon 
this  subject ;  while  the  younger  members  of  the 
confederation  have  laid  the  foundation  of  new 
systems  of  public  instruction.  A  full  account  of 
t  lie  school  system,- of  the  several  provinces,  which 
differ  in  essential  points,  will  be  found,  in  this 
work,  under  their  respective  titles.  See  Canada 
Educational  Directory  and  Fear-Book,  by 
Alexanoeb  Marling  (Toronto,  1876). 

CANE  HILL  COLLEGE,  at  Cane  Hill, 
near  Boonsboro,  Washington  county,  Arkansas, 
was  chartered  in  L852,  and  reorganized  in  1868. 
It  is  under  the  control  of  the  I  lumberland  Pres- 
byterian Church.  The  institution  has  prepara- 
tory and  collegiate  departments.  In  1873 — f 
there  were  3  instructors,  and  68  preparatory  and 
18  collegiate  students.  The  I  lev.  E.  R.  Earle, 
A.  M..  is  (  L876)  the  president. 

CAPITAL  UNIVERSITY,  at  Columbus. 
Ohio,  was  organized  in  L850  by  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  synod  of  Ohio  and  the  adjacent  states, 
which,  in  L876,  formed  a  part  of  the  Synodical 
Conference.  It  includes  a  preparatory  or  gram- 
mar school,  and  collegiate  and  theological  de- 
partments. It  has  a  library  of  2. 500  volumes, 
a  faculty  of  C>  professors,  2  of  whom  teach 
both  in  the  collegiate  and  the  theological  de- 
partment, and  64  students,  including  those  of 
theology.  Much  attention  is  given  to  the  study 
of  German,  which  extends  through  all  the  classes 
of  the  three  departments,  and  is  partly  used  as 
a  means  of  instruction.  The  annual  tuition  fee 
in  the  grammar  school  is  $25;  in  the  college, 
$40.  In  the  theological  department,  which,  with 
a  few  brief  intermissions,  has  been  in  successful 
operation  since  L830,  no  charge  is  made  for  tui- 
tlon;and  indigent  young  men. possessing  the  nec- 
essary qualifications  for  the  ministry,  are  sup- 
ported by  the  Synodical  Education  Society. 
The  Kcv.'Dr.  Win.  V.  I.ehmami  IS  (1876)  the 
president  of  the  institution. 

CARLETON  COLLEGE,  at  NorthfieM, 
Minn.,  was  organized  in  1866,  by  ihe  Congrega- 
tionalists.  It  hasa  preparatory,  a  collegiate,  and 
an  English  department,  the  latter  embracing 
those  pupils  whose  time  or  means  will  not  allow 
them   to  secure   a   thorough   classical  education. 

The  college  department  was  not  organized  until 
Sept..  L870.     Both  sexes  are  instructed  in  the 

same  classes,  ami  may  take  the  same  degrees. 
There  were  in  L875,  216   students,  of  whom  13 

belonged  to  the  collegiate,  82  to  the  preparatory, 

and  111  to  the  English  department.  The  corps 
of  instructors  numbered  LO.    The  first  board  of 

trustees  was  elected  by  the  stale  conference  of 
Evangelical  churches,  which  now  annually  ap- 
points   a    visiting    committee.       The     board    of 

trustees  is  Belf  perpetuating, but  a  majority  of  its 
members,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  or- 


carthac.k  collkck 


CATECHISM 


117 


ganic  act,  must  be  Congregationalists.  In  L871, 
tin-  college  received  $50,000  in  cash  from  Wm. 
Carleton,  of  Charlestown,  Mass..  ami  the  board 
of  trustees  voted  to  give  liis  name  to  the  institu- 
tion, and  tn  hold  his  gift  as  an  endowment.  In 
1875,  the  endowment  fund  had  increased  to 
about  $80,000.  The  library,  in  L875,  numbered 
2,000  volumes.  The  Win.  II.  Dunning  Cabinet, 
donated  to  the  college  in  1875,  is  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  geological  specimens.  A  museum  of 
natural  history  lias  been  commenced.  The  col- 
lege has  three  buildings  and  a  beautiful  site  of 
about  twenty-live  acres.  The  tuition  fee  in  the 
collegiate  department  is  $8  per  term  of  13  weeks. 
The  president  of  the  institution  is  (187(>)  Rev. 
•  lames  Woodward  Strong.  I>.  I). 

CARTHAGE  COLLEGE,  at  <  arthage.  Ill- 
was  founded  in  1^  i0,by  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  (General  Synod).  It  commenced  as  a 
classical  school,  and  the  college  department  was 
not  organized  until  1S73.  It  comprises  two  de- 
partments, the  collegiate  and  the  academic,  the 
former  embracing  three  different  courses  of  study, 
the  classical,  the  scientific,  and  the  philosophical. 
The  institution  had,  in  1875,  !)  instructors  and 
203  students,  of  whom  53  were  females.  It  is 
supported  partly  from  endowments,  and  partly 
by  tuition  fees.  The  endowments,  amounted, 
in  1ST"),  to  about  $40,000.  The  annual  tuition 
fee  is  from  .$24  to  $28.  The  college  library 
numbered  about  3,000  volumes,  and  the  two 
literary  societies  of  the  college,  the  Calileo  and 
the  Cicero,  have  also  each  commenced  the  forma- 
tion of  a  library.  L.  F.  M.  Easterday  was  the 
principal  of  the  institution  while  it  was  a  clas- 
sical school  (1870  to  1873)  ;  and  the  Rev.  I).  L. 
Tressler  was  subsequently  elected  president  of 
the  college. 

CATECHETICAL  METHOD,  the  method 
of  instruction  by  question  and  answer,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  pupils  are  required  to  answer 
the  questions  of  the  teacher,  so  as  to  show  what 
explanations  they  particularly  need  in  order  to 
obtain  a  correct  knowdedge  of  the  subject ;  or 
sometimes  they  commit  to  memory  and  recite 
answers  to  set  questions  from  a  text-book.  This 
was  the  method  employed  in  teaching  the  truths 
of  Christianity  in  the  early  churches,  each  re- 
sponse to  the  question  being  the  formal  state- 
ment or  detinition  of  a  dogmatic  truth ;  and  when 
the  object  is  to  impart  definite  information  in  brief 
and  precise  language  which  the  pupil  is  expected 
to  commit  to  memory  and  recite  verbatim,  this 
method  is  of  great  value.  There  are  but  few 
subjects,  however,  which  can  be  properly  taught 
in  this  way;  since,  in  training  the  intellectual 
faculties,  the  sequence  of  facts,  thoughts,  or 
ideas,  is  more  important  than  their  clear  ap- 
prehension or  expression  singly  and  disconnect- 
edly. On  this  principle,  there  arc  several  objec- 
tions to  the  catechetical  method  as  one  of  general 
application:  (1)  The  pupil  is  deprived  of  a 
proper  exercise  of  the  expressive  faculties,  being 
required  only  to  repeat  what  has  been  enunciat- 
ed in  the  language  of  others:  (2)  The  logical 
relations  of  the  facts  learned  arc  apt  to  be  un- | 


noticed  by  the  pupils,  from  the  absence  of  those 
intermediate  connective  words  and  phrases  by 
which  ordinarily  those  relations  are  indicated; 
(3)  The  pupil,  by  learning  merely  the  answer 
to  a  question,  fails  to  obtain  a  full  idea,  of  the 
truth,  a  part  of  which,  and  sometimes  the  most 
essential  part,  is  expressed  in  the  question  itself. 
Thus,  if  a  pupil  is  asked.  What  is  an  island? 
and  he  answers.  Land  surrounded  hi/  water,  he 
does  not  entirely  express  the  fact,  but  only  a 
disjointed  fragment  of  it.  Many  text-books 
constructed  on  the  catechetical  plan  are  liable 
to  this  objection  ;  others,  however,  obviate  it  by 
invariably  making  the  answer  a  complete  state- 
ment, the  gist  of  the  question  being  repeated. 
Thus,  the  answer  to  the  question,  What  is  an 
island?  would  lie.  An  island  is  land  surround- 
edbywater.  When  the  catechetical  method  is 
employed  in  giving  oral  instruction,  the  teacher 
should  be  careful  to  keep  this  principle  in  view. 
A  skillful  use  of  this  method  will  always  be 
found  effective  in  opening  up  to  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  the  fundamental  ideas  and  principles  of  a 
subject  previous  to  its  formal  study  by  the  pupil 
himself,  or,  when  difficulties  arise,  in  leading 
the  pupil's  mind,  by  an  adroit  series  of  inter- 
rogatories, to  such  an  analysis  of  the  statement 
or  problem  in  question  as  will  enable  him  to 
apprehend  the  elementary  facts  or  principles  in- 
volved, and  thus  to  solve  the  difficulty  without 
further  aid.  This,  however,  is  not  so  much  an 
application  of  the  catechetical  method  as  a  skill- 
ful use  of  interrogation,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
and  indispensable  means  of  imparting  informa- 
tion. (See  Interrogation-.)  The  Socratic  method 
was  an  illustration  of  this,  being  employed  to 
bring  conviction  to  the  learner's  mind  by  obtain- 
ing, in  answer  to  the  questions  asked,  a  series  of 
admissions  leading  finally  to  his  assent  to  the 
truth  proposed. 

The  catechetical  method  was  formerly  very 
popular  in  schools,  and  almost  universally  em- 
ployed ;  but,  in  proportion  as  mechanical  meth- 
ods of  recitation  and  rote-teaching  gave  place 
to  such  as  appealed  directly  to  the  pupil's  intel- 
ligence and  powers  of  expression,  the  mere 
question-and-answer  system  of  instruction  be- 
came discredited  and  was  abandoned.  In  its 
place,  the  topical  method  is  now  in  quite  gen- 
eral use.  This  requires  that  the  pupil  shall  give 
a  connected  statement,  not  simply  as  an  answer 
to  a  question,  but  as  logically  expressing  the 
knowledge  which  he  has  acquired  in  regard  to 
the  topic  assigned  bythe  teacher. 

CATECHETICAL  SCHOOL.  See  Alex- 
andrian School. 

CATECHISM  (Or.  Kar^ia^,  instruction), 
an  elementary  work  containing  a  summary  of 
principles,  especially  of  religious  doctrine,  re- 
duced to  the  form  of  questions  and  answers.  The 
name  catechism  for  religious  works  of  this  kind 
was  probably  first  proposed  by  Luther,  whose 
two  famous  catechisms  appeared  in  1529.  Sum- 
maries of  Christian  doctrines,  in  the  form  of 
questions  and  answers,  under  other  names,  are, 
however,  of   much   earlier   origin,   and   can  be 


118 


CATECHISM 


CATHEDRAL  SCHOOLS 


traced  to  the  eighth  century.  Among  the  early 
works  of  this  class,  those  by  Kero,  a  monk  of  St. 
Gall,  and  one  probably  written  by  Otfried  of 
Weissenburg,  were  the  must  famous.  Subse- 
quently, we  find  similar  books  in  use  among  the 
Waldenses  and  Bohemian  Brethren,  These 
works  oontained  mostly  the  Apostles"  Creed, 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  and.  since  the  fourteenth 
century,  the  Ten  Commandments.  Luther,  who 
devoted  special  attention  to  the  religious  in- 
struction of  children,  published  his  first  ele- 
mentary work  on  this  subject  in  L520.  A  few 
years  Later,  Justus  Jonas  and  Johann  Auricula 
were  commissioned  to  prepare  a  catechism  em- 
bracing the  entire  creed  of  the  Reformation,  but 
subsequently  Luther  undertook  the  work  him- 
self. Both  of  his  catechisms  were  receive  I  by  the 
Lutheran  Church  among  the  symbolical  books. 
The  mosl  celebrated  among  the  catechisms  which 
originated  in  the  Reformed  Church  were  the 
Geneva  catechisms,  compiled  in  the  French  lan- 
guage by  Calvin  (the  smaller  in  L  536,  the  larger  in 
1541),  the  Zurich  catechism,  which,  in  I  639,  was 

ived  as  a  symbolical  I k.  and  especially 

Heidelberg  catechism,    compiled    in    1563    by 

Order  of  the  elector  of  the  I  'alat  iiiate.  and  gener- 
ally adopted  by  the  German  ami  Dutch  Re- 
formed Churches.  In  the  Anglican  Church, the 
Church  Catechism,  which,  in  1552,  was  com- 
piled by  John  Poynet,  sanctioned  by  Edward  VI.. 
ami  published  in  L 553,  obtained  a  great  author- 
ity. The  Presbyterian  Church  has  generally 
adopted  the  shorter  Assembly  Catechism,  which 
was  compiled  by  committeesof  the  Westminster 

Assembly,  presented  to  the    House  of    C mons 

in  K)4T  ami  Mils,  and  in  the  latter  year  by 
resolution  of  Sept.  15.,  1648,  ordered  to  be 
printed  "by  authority,"  for  public  use.  This 
catechism    is    also   extensively    used   among    the 

Independents  and  Oongregationalists  in  Great 
Britain  and  America.     In  the  Wesleyan  Church 

of  England,  the  cathechisms  in  use  have  been  ar- 
ranged by  the  Rev.  Richard  Watson.  For  the 
Methodisl  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  State-. 

a  series  of    three   catechisms,    prepared    by    Rev. 

Dr.  Kidder,  was  adopted  by  the  General  Con- 
ference ")'  1852.    In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

the  Tridentine  Council  ordered  the  compilation 
of  a  catechism  "  for  the  use  of  pastors."  It  was 
published  in  Rome,  in  L566,  under  the  title  of 
Catechismus   Romanus.      It  was,  originally,  not 

in  the  shape  of  questions  ami  answers,  though  it 

has  this  form  in  later  editions.  Among  the 
numerous  catechisms  prepared  for  the  use  of 
children,  those  by  Canisius  (1554  and  L566), 
EJeUarmin  (1603).  and  l5ossuet  (lf>87)have  had 
the  largest  circulation.  The  Vatican  Council, in 
1870,  decreed  the  preparation  of  a  common 
catechism  for  the  whole  Church,  which  is  to  be 
essentially  that  of  liellarmin.  In  the  Creek 
Church,    the     catechism     prepared     by    MogilaS, 

metropolitan  of  Kief  (1642),  was  recognized  as 
tndard,  in  1672,  by  a  synod  at  Jerusalem. 
M.i n v  other  religious  denominations,  besides  those 
mentioned,  have  also  their  denominational  cat- 
echisms; and  it  may.  therefore,  be  said  that  the  im- 


I  mense   majority  of    the  children  of   Christian 

parents  receive  their  first  instruction  in  the  tenets 
of  ( 'hristianity  by  means  of  catechisms.  The  ob- 
ject of  a  catechism  is.  more  or  less,  not  only  to 
present  to  children,  in  the  most  lucid  form,  the 
tenets  of  the  religious  communion  of  which  they 
are  expected  to  become  active  members  in  after 
life,  but  to  impress  these  doctrines  indelibly 
upon  their  minds. 

CATECHUMEN  (Gr.  mtnixob/ievog,  in- 
structed by  word  of  mouth),  the  name  given,  in 
the  early  Christian  church,  to  a  convert  who  was 

receiving  catechetical  instruction  preparatory  to 
baptism.  The  catechumens  were  divided  into  dif- 
ferent grades  or  classes  according  to  the  degree 
of  their  proficiency,  only  those  of  the  highest 
grade,  who  had  been  pronounced  tit  for  baptism, 
being  permitted  to  be  present  at  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  lord's  Supper.  This  appellation 
was  afterwards  given  to  the  younger  meml 
of  any  Christian  church  who  were  undergoing 
instruction  to  prepare  them  for  the  rite  of  con- 
firmation, or  for  the  ( lommunion,  in  which  sense 
die  term  is  still  used.     (See  Catechism.) 

CATHEDRAL  AND  COLLEGIATE 
SCHOOLS  (Ger.  Bom-  und  SHftsschulen),  a 
kind  of  schools  founded  in  the  middle  apes  in 
connection  with  cathedral  ami  collegiate  churches. 
They  are  of  considerable  importance  in  the  history 

of  education,  because  they  shared  with  the  con- 
vent schools  the  honor  of  In  i 1 1 o .  for  a  lon<£  time, 
almost  exclusively  the  nurseries  of  instruction 
ami    education    in    Christian    countries.        They 

were  originally  intended  chiefly  for  educat- 
ing the  candidates  for  the  priesthood,  but  af- 
forded also  to  others  who  regarded  a  pood  edu- 
cation  necessary  for  their  social  position,  an  op- 
portunity to  acquire  the  knowledge  needed.    A 

few  schools  in  connection  with  cathedra]  churches 

appear  to  have  existed  even  before  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Benedictine  order;  and  the  towns  of 
Aries.  Reims,  ami  Orleans  are.  in  particular, 
mentioned  as  having  possessed  schools  of  this 
kind.  In  England,  the  episcopal  school  at  York 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  The  systematic  or- 
ganization of  these  institutions  as  a  special  class 
of  schools,  in  distinct  ion  from  the  coin  cut  schools. 

was  due  to  Bishop  Chrodegang  of  Metz  (died 
766).  Me  united  the  clergymen  of  his  cathedral 
church  tor  a  common  life  on  the  basis  of  a  modi- 
fied ride  of  the  Benedictine  order,  and  thus  be- 
came the  founder  of  a  class  of  religious  orders 
known  in  church  history  as  the  Canons  Regular. 
These  orders,  subsequently  divided  into  a  large 
number  of  different  branches, regarded  it  as  one 

of  their  foremost  duties  to  establish  schools  sim- 
ilar in  organization  to  those  of  the  Benedictines. 
In  the  management  of  these  schools,  greater  at- 
tention was  paid  to  strict  discipline  than  to 
excellence  of  instruction.  One  brother  [frak 
of  unblamable  character,  was  charged,  in  each 
establishment    of   these  orders,  with    the    duty  of 

superintending  the  scholars,  and  of  enforcing 
strict  discipline,  in  order  that  they  might  become 
able  "  t"  rise  to  the  dignities  of  the  church,  fitted 
out    with  ecclesiastical   erudition  and  spiritual 


CKi'l  I.IAN   COLLKCK 


CENTRAL  AMERICA 


119 


weapons."  The  Dumber  of  these  schools  vapidly 
tocreased,  and  they  made  the  towns  which  con- 
tained them  the  centers  of  learning.  Thesubjects 
of  instruction  embraced,  besides  theology,  the 
reading  of  Latin  and  Greek  classics,  as  Homer, 
Virgil,  Sallust,  Statins,  Terence,  Cicero,  ami 
Seneca,  the  making  of  Latin  and  Greek  verses, 
instruction  in  painting,  calligraphy,  church  sing- 
ing, ami  arithmetic.  In  the  celebrated  cathedral 
school  of  Paderbom,  instruction  was  given  in 

mathematics,  physics,  music,  rhetoric,  and  dia- 
lectics.     Special  interest  in    the   success  of  these 

.schools  was  taken  by  Charlemagne  (see  Chable- 
kagne),  who,  in  very  emphatic  rescripts,  urged 
all  the  bishops  to  establish  schools  of  this  kind. 
During  the  reign  of  his  son,  Louis  le  De- 
bonnaire,  the  synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  816, 
made  the  adoption  of  tin'  rule  of  Chrodegang, 

involving  the  establishment  of  a  school,  com- 
pulsory for  all  cathedral  (episcopal)  churches. 
Many  other  synods  urged  the  carrying  out  of 
this  law.  and  demanded  the  establishment  of 
schools,  not  tor  the  episcopal  churches  alone,  but 
likewise  for  other  large  churches.  The  rapid 
spread  of  the  Canons  Regular,  who  no  longer 
confined  their  religious  communities  to  the 
capital  of  the  diocese,  but  established  numerous 
"  collegiate  "  churches  in  smaller  towns,  greatly 
aided  in  the  steady  increase  of  schools.  The  col- 
legiate schools  of  the  smaller  towns  resembled 
the  town  schools  which  arose  during  and  after 
the  crusades.  They  provided  only  for  the  teach- 
ing of  the  trivium  ;  while,  in  the  episcopal  city, 
the  quadrivium  as  well  as  the  trivium  was 
taught,  and  the  addition  of  the  sacra pagina  de- 
veloped the  episcopal  seminaries.  With  the  de- 
cline of  the  Canons  Regular,  this  class  of  schools 
also  lost  their  reputation.  The  lower  studies  be- 
wail to  be  pursued  at  the  parish  schools :  and  for 
the  higher  branches  the  universities  made  much 
more  ample  provision  than  had  ever  been  made 
by  the  cathedral  and  collegiate  schools.  —  See 
Lai'xoii  Descholis  celebrioribus  s.  "  Garolo  M.  s. 
j»,s/  eundem  in  Occidenie  msiauraiis  (Paris, 
1672);  Ozanam,  La  Civilisation  ChreHenne ckez 
k&  Francs  (Paris,  1849). 

CECILIAN  COLLEGE,  situated  near  Eliz- 
abethtown,  I  lanlin  county,  Kentucky,  was  found- 
ed by  Charles  Cecil  and  sons,  in  L860.  Though 
a  private  institution.it  was  chartered  in  L867, 
and  confers  degrees.  It  is  under  Roman  Cath- 
olic influence.  It  comprises  a  commercial  and 
a  classical  course. 

CENSUS,  School.     See  School  Census. 

CENTENARY  COLLEGE,  at  Jackson, 
Louisiana,  was  established  by  the  state  in  L825, 

and  taken  under  the  patronage  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  South,  in  L845.  It  comprises 
a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department,  the 
latter  having  a  classical  and  a.  scientific  course. 
The  buildings  arc  healthfully  situated  in  a  grove 
o!  pine,  magnolia,  oak.  and  beech.  They  consist 
of  a  commodious  steward's  hall,  two  brick  dormi- 
tories, each  containing  twenty-four  rooms,  and 
a  magnificent  center  building,  which  has  been 
erected    at    an    expense    of    over    $60,000.       It 


contains  a  chapel  tor  public  exhibitions,  large 
enough  to  scat  over  two  thousand  persons.  The 
college  possesses  a.  valuable  set  of  philosophical, 
astronomical,  and  chemical  apparatus,  and  also  a 
well-selected  mineralogkal  and  geographical 
cabinet.  The  value  of  the  college  properly,  in 
L876,  was  about  $100,000,  and  the  income  from 
productive  funds  $10,000.  The  college  library 
contains  about  2,000  volumes  :  those  of  the  two 
literary  societies,  about  L,600  each.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  silo  a  year  in  the  collegiate,  and  $40 
in  the  preparatory  department  Booms  in  the 
dormitories  arc  free  of  rent.  In  \X~'l — 7.'!  there 
were  .">  instructors,  1(10  preparatory  and  24  col- 
legiate students,  and  2(1!!  alumni.  The  Rev. 
C.  G.  Andrews,  A.  M.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA  is  a  narrow  and 
irregular  strip  of  land  which  forms  the  southern 
part  of  North  America.  It  comprises  the  five 
republics,  Guatemala,  Honduras.  San  Salvador, 
Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica.  Its  total  area  is 
175,000  sq.  m.,  and  its  population,  according  to 
the  census  of  L865,  2,665,000.  Of  these  1.34,000 
are  whites:  1,000,000  arc  mestizos,  or  the  off- 
spring of  whites  and  Indians:  1,500,000  are 
aboriginal  Indians:  and  the  remainder  are  ne- 
groes, either  pure  or  mixed.  The  country  was 
conquered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1525,  and  re- 
mained subject  to  Spanish  rule  until  L823,  when 
the  five  colonies  formed  themselves  into  a  federal 
republic,  which  lasted  until  1839,  when  the 
federation  was  dissolved.  There  have  been  re- 
peated federations  formed  since,  but  the  inhab- 
itants, like  the  country,  are  very  unstable,  and  a 
speedy  dissolution  has  in  each  case  followed.  For 
a  long  time,  each  of  the  republics  has  been  going 
its  own  way  in  politics  and  also  in  education 
— a  way  which  thus  far  has  led  only  to  anarchy. 
The  great  instrument  of  reform,  in  all  these 
Spanish  American  republics,  seems  to  have  been 
to  plunder  the  Church  —  a  plan  which  thus  far 
has  borne  no  valuable  fruit  for  public  education. 

In  Guatemala  public  instruction  is  still  in  the 
hands  of  the  clergy,  who,  on  account  both  of 
these  repeated  plundering^  and  of  the  severe 
laws  against  them,  are  incapable  of  doing  much. 
There  are  26  primary  schools  in  the  capital  (10 
for  boys  and  1G  for  girls)  and  several  private  in- 
stitutions. These  are  .supported  mainly  by  volun- 
tary offerings.  For  the  higher  education,  there  is 
a  college  hi  old  Guatemala,  which  formerly  had  a, 

fair  reputation.  New  Guatemala  has  the  colegio 
de  la   Trinidad,  the  colegio  Iridentino,  and  a 

university  besides.  The  latter  is  the  most  famous 
of  the  Central  American  schools  and  has  many 
students  from  the  other  republics.  The  Sociedad 
patriMico-econdmica,  founded  in  I7!'~>,  also  sup- 
ports a  school  for  drawing, sculpture,  and  mathe- 
matics, and  publishes  a  journal. 

Honduras  possesses  two  institutions  called 
universities,  but  they  are  such  only  in  name.  The 
public  schools  are  scarcely  worth  mentioning, 
and  education  is  at  the  lowest  possible  point.  In 
L874,  the  number  of  public  schools  was  IDT. 
which  were  attended,  on  an  average,  by  25  pupils 
each,  showing  about  one  pupil  for  60  inhabitants. 


120 


CENTRAL  COLLEGE 


CENTRE  COLLEGE 


•  San  Sal  null, r  also  possesses  a  university  which 
has  the  reputation  of  being  the  second  in  Central 
America.  Primary  schools  are  few  in  number; 
nailing  and  reckoning  are  taught  in  them  more 
or  less  indifferently;  writing  is  a  luxury  in  all 
these  republics  which  everybody  cannot  afford. 

Nicaragua  has  a  more  demoralized  popula- 
tion even  than  the  other  republics,  owing  to  the 
former  filibustering  expeditions  from  abroad,  and 
also  to  the  many  political  revolutions  and  parti- 
san dissensions  which  have  occurred.  There  are 
two  universities  in  name,  one  in  Leon  and  one  in 
Granada.  The  first  possesses  a  small  library  of 
1500  volumes:  the  other  has  none.  In  1873,  the 
whole  number  of  schools  for  males  was  92,  with 
an  attendance  of  3,871;  and  for  females.  !).  with 
an  attendance  of  532.  The  whole  number  of 
children  of  school  age  (7  to  15)  was  30,000 — 
males,  12,000,  and  females,  L8.000. 

In  Costa  Rica,  the  schools  are  somewhat  better 
attended,  but  both  the  amount  and  the  manner 
of  instruction  given  are  pitiable.  A.  very  short 
time  suffices  to  forget  what  little  has  been  learned. 
Moritz  Wagner  gives  a  rather  gloomy  picture 
of  these  schools,  lie  leads  us  into  dark,  damp 
rooms,  in  which  teachers  of  unexampled  igno- 
rance give  instruction  in  reading,  writing,  and 
reckoning  to  some  dozen  of  barefooted  children. 
who  are  crowded  closely  together  and  full  of  im- 
patience to  escape.  There  is  a  university  as  well 
as  a  Lyceum  in  San  Jose,  and  another  Ivcciun  in 
Cartago.  The  university  has  six  chairs,  and  the 
professors  receive  a  salary  of  skid  a  year.  Juris- 
prudence and  theology  are  the  chief  studies. 
.Mathematics  and  a  little  Latin  are  taught,  hut 
no  Greek.  There  are  about  100  students.  The 
lyceums  are  no  better.  See  Lk  Roy  in  Sr/,,ni<l, 
P&dagogi&che  Encydqpadie,  vol.  x.,  art.  *s'^/- 
america  :  Squier,  TkeStatesof  <'<,ntrnl  America 
(N.  V..  L857). 

CENTRAL  COLLEGE,  at  Fayette.  Mis- 
souri, under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South,  of  that  state,  was  chartered 

in  is.")."),  it  comprises  a  preparatory  and  a 
collegiate  department.  The  latter  embraces  live 
schools;  namely,  pure  and  applied  mathematics, 
moral  philosophy,  Knglish  language  and  litera- 
ture, ancient  languages  and  literature,  and  phys- 
ical science.  Each  student  is  required  to  attend 
at  least  three  schools.  The  degrees  conferred  by 
Central  College  are  (1)  Graduate  in  a  School, 
(2)  Bachelor  'of  Philosophy,  (3)  Bachelor  of 
Arts.  (4)  Master  of  Arts.  The  degree  of  grad- 
uate in  a  school  is  given  upon  passing  an  ex- 
amination   on  the  subjects  taught  in  that  school. 

The  degree  of  bachelor  of  philosophy  is  con- 
ferred upon  graduates  in  the  schools  of  English 
literature,  moral  philosophy, and  physical  science 

who  pass  satisfactory  examinations  in  the  studies 
of  the  junior  and  intermediate  classes  of  mathe- 
matics.    To  obtain   the  degree   of   bachelor  of 

arts,  the  student  must  graduate  in  the  schools 
of  moral  philosophy,  physical  science,  and  an- 
cient languages,  except  the  Greek  and  Roman 
literature,  ana  pass  examinations  in  the  studies 
of  the  junior  class  in  the  Bchool  of  English  liter- 


ature, and  in  part  of  the  studies  of  the  school 
of  mathematics.  To  obtain  the  degree  of  master 
of  arts,  the  student  must  graduate  in  the  schools 
of  English,  Latin.  Greek,  moral  philosophy,  nat- 
ural philosophy,  and  chemistry;  also  in  two  mod- 
ern languages,  and  pass  an  approved  examination 
in  all  the  studies  of  the  school  of  mathematics. 
The  college  property  is  valued  at  $40,000,  and 
the  productive  funds  amount  to  800,000.  in 
1873 — 4  there  were  7  instructors,  and  33  pre- 
paratory, and  1 1  1  collegiate  students.  The  Lev. 
.1.  <'.  Wills,  1).  D..  is  (1876)  the  president. 

CENTRAL  TENNESSEE  COLLEGE, 
at  Nashville,  Term.,  was  organized  in  18GG.  It 
is  under  the  patronage  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  and  is  supported  almost  entirely 
by  the  Freedmen's  Aid  Society  of  tha4  church. 
Through  the  Methodist  Missionary  Society  and 
the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  the  buildings  now  occu- 
pied, valued  at  $45,000,  were  secured  in  1869. 
The  college  is  designed  mainly  for  the  education 
of  colored  youth  of  both  sexes.  It  embraces  an 
academic  department,  for  English  education ;  a 
normal  department,  for  training  teachers;  a 
preparatory  school,  a  classical  collegiate  course, 
and  a  theological  department.  In  L873 — 4,  there 
were  1  1  instructors.  262  students  in  the  prepara- 
tory and  lower  departments  (139  males  ami  123 
females),  and  'il  in  the  theological  department 
The  Rev.  J.  Braden,  I).  D.,  is  (1876)  the  presi- 
dent. 

CENTRAL  UNIVERSITY,  at  Richmond, 
Kentucky,  was  chartered  in  L873,  and    is   under 

the  control  of  the  Southern  Presbyterians.  It 
has  property  valued  at  $70,000,  and  productive- 
funds  to  the  amount  of  $150,000.  It  was  opened 
in  1874  with  7-">  preparatory  students,  of  whom 
40  were  preparing  for  the  classical,  and  35  for 
the  scientific  course.    The   Lev.  I!.  L.  Breck, 

P.  I>..  is  (1876)  the  chancellor. 

CENTRE  COLLEGE,    at    Danville,    Ken- 
tucky, was  first  chartered   in   Is  Lb  and   received 

an  amended  charter  in  1824.  It  was  originally 
a  state  institution,  but  was  purchased  bv  the 
Presbyterian  synod  of  Kentucky,  which  obtained 
complete  control  in  L830.  Upon  the  division  of 
the  synod   in  L866,   the   college  was  held  by  that 

part  adhering  to  the  General  Assembly  (North), 
It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  M 

the  endowment,  which  amounts  to  SdHbOOO. 
The  other  property  is  valued  at  $75,000.  Tuition 
in  the  college  is  S."l)  a  year  ;  but  to  the  sons  of 
clergymen  and  other  young  men  of  limited 
means  and  good  character,  it  is  free.  The  in- 
stitution comprises  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate 

department.     Special    attention    is  given   to  the 

German  language.  In  L^Te  6,  there  were  8  in- 
structors, !'_'.")  collegiate  and  50  preparatory  stu- 
dents, and  about  7,500  volumes  in  the  libraries. 
The  number  of  alumni  in  L872  was  754.  'I  he 
successive  presidents  have  been  as  follows :  the 

Rev.   .lames    Met 'hold,    L820,    who    died    before 

entering  upon  the  duties  of  his  office;  the  Kev. 
Samuel  Finley,  />/■<>  I'm..  L822;  the  Rev. 
Jeremiah  Chamberlain,  I  ».!>..  from  L822  to  L826 ; 
the  Rev.  I».  C.  Proctor.  1».  P..  pro  tern.,  L826^ 


CERTIFICATE 


CHARACTER 


121 


the  Rev.  Gideon  Blackburn,  D.  !>.,  from  182*7  to 
L830;  the  Rev.  John  C.Young,  D.D.,  from  L830 
to  L857;  the  Rev.  Lewis  W.  Green,  D.D.,  from 
L857  to  L863;  the  Rev.  W.  L  Breckinridge, 
from  L863fol868;  and  Ormond  Beatty,  LL.D., 
appointed  in  1*72  and  still  (1876)  in  office. 

CERTIFICATE.     See  License,  and  Incen- 
tives, School. 

CHAPSAL,  Charles  Pierre,  a  French 
grammarian,  was  burn  in  Paris  in  17*7, and  died 
in  1858.  I  If  is  chiefly  noted  for  the  grammar  of 
which  he  was  the  joint  author  with  Francis 
Joseph  Noel.  This  work,  entitled  Nbuvette 
grammaire  frctnpaise,  avec  exercises,  was  very 
popular,  passing  through  as  many  as  40  editions 
between  1KUU  and  LS58,  and  is  still  in  use, 
although  to  a  great  extent  superseded  by  more 
recent  publications.  Chapsal  realized  from  this 
book  a  large  fortune,  which  he  partly  expended 
upon  charitable  objects.  At  his  death,  he  left 
si i.di it l  francs  to  the  teachers  in  the  outskirts  of 
Paris. 

CHARACTER,  Discernment  of.  The  per- 
ception of  the  peculiarities  of  individual  char- 
acter by  its  external  manifestations  constitutes 
an  essential  preliminary  to  all  sound  and  judi- 
cious educational  treatment.  There  is  an  endless 
diversity  in  the  natural  inclinations  and  capacities 
of  children  ;  and,  therefore,  no  system  of  educa- 
tion can  claim  to  be  scientific  that  fails  tore- 
cognize  this  fact,  and  to  supply  (1)  the  principles 
and  rules  that  should  guide  the  educator  in 
discerning  these  individual  peculiarities,  and  (2) 
the  practical  methods  of  treatment  best  adapted 
to  each.  Generally,  however,  education  is  car- 
ried on  with  but  little  or  no  such  discrimina- 
tions ;  pupils,  whatever  may  be  their  tempera- 
ment, physical  condition,  state  of  health,  mental 
capacities,  or  moral  proclivities,  are  treated 
according  to  the  same  system  or  plan.  It  is 
true,  there  is  in  every  mind  a  kind  of  instinctive 
perception  of  the  peculiarities  of  character,  either 
the  result  of  an  inexplicable  impression  or  prej- 
udice, formed  with  little  observation,  or  a 
positive  judgment  derived  almost  unconsciously 
from  an  attention,  more  or  less  superficial,  to 
the  person's  appearance,  actions,  and  words  on. 
different  occasions.  A  systematic  study  of  the 
external  indications  of  character  has  not,  how- 
ever, been  generally,  or  usually,  enjoined  upon 
the  teacher  as  a  preparation  for  the  work  of 
training  and  instruction.  Nevertheless,  the  most 
distinguished  educators  have  fully  recognized  the 
principle.  "  I>et  him  that  is  skilled  in  teaching," 
Bays  Quintilian,  ••ascertain  first  of  all  when  a 
boy  is  entrusted  to  him,  his  ability  and  disposi- 
tion....  When  a  tutor  has  observed  these  indi- 
cations of  disposition  and  ability,  let  him  next 
consider  how  the  mind  of  his  pupil  is  to  be  man- 
aged. Some  boys  are  indolent,  unless  you  stimu- 
late them;  some  are  indignant  at  being  com- 
manded ;  fear  restrains  some,  and  unnerves 
others;  continued  labor  forms  some  ;  but  with 
others  hasty  efforts  succeed  better.  Ix-t  the 
boy  be  given  to  me,  whom  praise  stimulates. 
"whom  honor  delights,  who  weeps  when  he  is  un- 


successful. His  powers  must  be  cultivated  under 
the  influence  of  ambition;  reproach  will  sting 
him  to  the  quick  :  honor  will  incite  him  ;  and  in 
such  a  boy  1  shall  never  be  apprehensive  of  in- 
difference.'' Here  we  have  prescribed,  in  moral 
education  at  least,  an  adaptation  of  treatment 
to  special  traits;  and  few  will  deny  that  educa- 
tion is  perfect  in  its  plan  and  efficient  in  its 
results  in  proportion  as  its  agencies  and  opera- 
tions are  adapted  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  indi- 
vidual character  which  it  is  to  form  or  unfold. 
When  children  are  educated  at  home  by  private 
teachers,  and,  indeed,  always  in  that  part  of  edu- 
cation which  belongs  to  the  family  or  home  circle, 
there  is  a  wide  scope  for  such  discrimination; 
but  when  large  masses  of  children  are  taught 
together,  as  in  public  schools,  a  discrimination 
of  individual  traits,  and  a  corresponding  adapta- 
tion of  method  and  requirement  becomes,  except 
within  quite  narrow  limits,  impracticable;  still, 
it  has  been  questioned  whether,  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  such  schools,  the  classification  of  the 
children  should  not  be  based  upon  other  con- 
siderations than  merely  their  apparent  profi- 
ciency in  a  few  elementary  branches  of  study.  If 
to  secure  these  intellectual  acquirements  be  the 
exclusive  end  of  the  teaching  to  be  given,  the 
usual  classification  is,  of  course, proper;  but,  even 
then,  it  should  be  constantly  corrected  according 
as  individual  capacity  unfolds  itself.  Some  pu- 
pils will  make  much  more  rapid  progress  than, 
others  ;  and  if  these  are  kept  back  in  order  that 
the  general  or  average  progress  of  the  class  may 
be  brought  up  to  a  given  standard,  their  future 
progress  will  be  greatly  obstructed  ;  their  mental 
activity  and  elasticity  will  be  impaired  by  the 
want  of  due  exercise  ;  and  their  interest  in  study 
will  be  more  or  less  extinguished.  Mereover, 
not  finding  the  natural  craving  of  their  minds, 
for  exercise  gratified,  their  sensuous  nature  will 
be  unduly  developed,  and  they  will  be  inclined 
to  plunge  into  frivolous  and  idle  amusements. 
In  large  schools,  conducted  almost  entirely  with- 
out any  of  the  discrimination  here  referred  to,  the 
individual  is  sacrificed  to  the  mass ;  and  many  a 
bright  youth  loses  not  only  the  best  hours  of  his 
life,  but,  by  untoward  habits  and  a  want  of  due 
training,  the  very  spring  of  his  intellectual  nature. 
The  moral  influence  of  such  indiscriminate  treat- 
ment is  still  worse  ;  since  there  is  nothing  that 
requires  so  delicate  and  careful  a  consideration 
as  the  proper  methods  of  guiding,  controlling, 
and  training  the  dispositions  of  children. 

In  the  discernment  of  the  character  of  chil- 
dren, a  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
temperaments  ;  indeed,  a  knowledge  of  tempera- 
mental distinctions  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  teacher's  accomplishments.  Says  an  ex- 
perienced educator,  ••  If  I  know  the  temperament 
of  a  child,  I  knowr  how  to  approach  him  to  ac- 
complish a  given  object,  to  what  motives  to  appeal, 
what  influences  to  bring  to  bear  upon  him.  etc." 
The  four  great  distinctions,  of  temperament, — 
nervous,  sanguine,  lymphatic,  and  hilious  are 
strongly  marked  and  easily  discerned.  In  the 
Scientific  I!<<sis  of  Education  by  John  Ilecker 


122 


CHARACTER 


CHARLEMACXK 


(X.  V..  L868),  they  are  thus  described:  "The 
peculiarities  of  the  nervous  temperament  spring 

from  tlic  tact,  that  in  such  a  physical  organiza- 
tion, the  brain  and  nervous  system  predominate, 
ami  their  indications  take  precedence  in  the 
make-up  of  the  individual,  both  as  to  proportional 
size  and  activity.  The  functions  of  mental  life 
are  stronger  than  others  in  the  system.  The 
sanguine  temperament,  in  like  manner,  indicates 

the  predominance  of  the  lungs  and  arterial 
33  -tern,  as  compared  with  the  other  physiological 

functions.  The  lymphatic  temperament  is  ac- 
companied I  iy  a  similar  predominance  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  stomach  ami  digestive  apparatus, 

and  of    the  glandular  and   lacteal   system:   and 

the  bilious  temperament,  by  a  similar  predomi- 
nance of  the  functions  of  the   liver.  —  the  ureal 

secreting  organ  of  the  body."  The  same  writer 
enumerates  with  much  minuteness  the  peculiari- 
ties of  disposition  attendant  upon  these  distinc- 
tions of  temperament.  "Uptotheage  of  pu- 
berty," he  remarks,  "growth  being  the  leading 

necessity  of  lite,  the  Lymphatic  conditions,  as  a 
general  rule  predominate."  <  Ihildren  of  a  nervous 
temperament  when  the  brain  is  well  developed, 
"are  eager  to  learn,  and  learn  easily  and  fast. 
beingreadily  impressed  through  the  mental  fac- 
ulties." They  are.  however,  less  retentive  of 
what  they  learn,  than  those  of  the  bilious 
temperament,   have    less  warmth   of    disposition 

than  those  of  the  sanguine  temperament,  ami  are 

less  susceptible  to  the  ordinary  methods  of  train- 
ing than  those  of  the  lymphatic  temperament. 

<  'hildren  of  the  sanguine  temperament  are  said  to 
be  volatile,  more  swayed  by  the  pleasures  of  the 
senses  and  less  interested  in  merely  intellectual 
employment  ;  but  they  are  characterized  bj  a 
1:1  cat  degree  of  active  energy,  and  hence  desire 
ami    need    more   physical   exercise.      Children   of 

the  lymphatic  temperament  receive  impressions, 

as  distinguished  from  ideas,  readily,   hut  do  not 

retain  them  as  permanently,  as  those  of  the  bil- 
ious temperament  :  they  lack  also  the  physical 
activity  of  the  sanguine  temperament.  The  bil- 
ious temperament  is  said  to  give  permanence 
to  all  impressions,  though  their  reception  is  com- 
paratively slow  ami  difficult.  "  When  we  con- 
sider," says   Mr.    Becker,  "that    children   in  a 

school  arc  collected,  not  as  operatives  in  a  fac- 
tory, tor  what  they  can  dn.  hut  for  what  can  be 
done  to  them  what  they  can  receive  —  it  is 
evident  that  differences  of  temperament,  which 
involve  such  important  variations  in  theproper 
mode  of  training,  cannot  he  ignored  in  classifica- 
tion, w  ithout  severely  affecting  the  results  of  edu- 
cation." This  writer,  however,  who  has  made  to 
a  very  great  extent  the  phrenological  discrimina- 
tions of  brain  structure  the  "scientific  basis  of 

education."  remarks  in  this  connection.  "It  is 
not  to  he  supposed  that  the  mental  disposition  of 
the  child  resides  ill  the  tempera  II  lent .  'I'll  is  depends 

directly  upon  the  organization  of  the  brain  :  but 
the  temperamental  conditions  exert  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  activity  of  the  brain,  ami. 
both  directly  by  growth  and  indirectly  by  the 
senses.,  modifj  the  mental  disposition." 


To  what  extent  the  principles  of  phrenology 

may  be  applied  to  education,  by  affording  a 
means  of  scientific  discrimination,  has  been  con- 
siderably discussed.  The  only  question  to  de- 
cide is.  whether  phrenology  affords  a  reliable 
means  of  discerning  the  mental  peculiarities  of 
different  individuals,  or  how  far  such  peculiarities 
are  manifested  in  cerebral  Structure  ;  since,  if  they, 
are  unerringly  thus  indicated,  a  means  is  in  this! 
way  afforded,  in  connection  with  the  tempera- 
ments, of  ascertaining  the  capacities  and  capa- 
bilities of  cluldren,  which  educators  camiot  prop- 
erly ignore. 

In  whatever  way.  however,  the  educator  may 
obtain  his  knowledge  of  the  peculiar  dispositions 

and  talents  of  his  pupils,  it  is  essential  that  this 

knowledge  should  be  acquired,  and  that  it  should 

modify  his  treatment  Of  his  pupils,  physical, 
moral,  and  mental.  —  See  Sitkziikim.  Princi- 
ples <if  Education,  with  Appendix  by  S.  lb 
Wells  (N.  V..  L847) ;  Becker,  Scientific  Basis 
of  Education  (N.  Y.,  1868) ;  Bain,  The  Study 
<if  Character  (London.  L861). 

CHARLEMAGNE,  Charles  the  Great, 
or  Charles  I.,  king  of  the  Franks  and  emperor 
of  the  West,  was  born  in  742,  and  died  in  Aix- 
la-Chapelle.  in  814.  lie  was  one  of  the  greatest 
monarchs  that  ever  reigned,  and  no  less  distin- 
guished in  the  history  of  education  than  in  po- 
litical history.  Though,  from  his  earliest  youth, 
a  great  and  impetuous  warrior. he  fully  recognized 
the  importance  of  the  educational  interests  of  his 
empire,  and  patronized  them  with  a  devotion 
such  as  has  been  shown  but  by  few  princes.  It 
was    his    clearly  conceived    plan    to  elevate    the 

blanks  and    the    Germans   to  an  educational 

level  with  the  countries  which  at  that  time  ex- 
celled in  the  world  of  Utters.  —  chiefly  Italy  and 
Ireland.  Amidst  all  his  wars  of  conquest  and 
the  cares  of  avast  and  steadily  extending  empire, 

he  never  ceased  to  labor  to  supply  the  deficiencies 
of  his  early  education.    His  thirst  for  knowledge 

extended  to  all  the  different  branches  of  science. 

The  letters  which  he  addressed  to  Alcuin  abound 
in  grammatical,  arithmetical,  astronomical,  and 
theological  questions.     Me  completely  mastered 

the  Latin:  and  he  studied  Creek  in  order  to  be 
able  to  compare  the  Latin  translation  of  the 
gospels  with  the  original  He  personally  dis- 
cussed with  the  bishop  the  most  subtle  theolog- 
ical questions, and  was  indefatigable  in  search 

ill  the  information  necessary  to  a  thorough 
understanding  of  all  controverted  points.  He 
appreciated  profound  learning,  and  was  anxious 
to  attract  to  his  court  as  many  scholars  as  pos- 
sible. His  chief  adviser  wa-  Alcuin.  with  whom 
lie  became  acquainted  in  781,  and  whom  he  ap- 
pointed instructor  of  his  court  school  [palat- 
inate school).  Though  he  succeeded  in  gathering 
at  his  court  a  brilliant  galaxy  of  nun  of  genius, 
he  was  himself  never  Satisfied,  incessant  Iy  aiming 
at  Still  higher  results.       His  desire  to  have  twelve 

teachers    like    St.  Augustine  and   St.  Jerome 

drew  from  the  astonished  Alcuin  the  reply,  diat 
the  Creator  himself  had  only  had  tWOSUch  men. 

Alcuin.  conjointly  with  Rhabanus  Maurus,  Egin- 


CHARLESTON 


CHEEVER 


123 


boid, and  others,  instituted  al  the  court  of  Charle- 
tnagne  s  kind  of  literary  academy,  in  which  the 
emperor  himself   and  several  members  of   his 

family  took   an  active   part.     Though   this   may 

not  have  been  an  academy  of  science  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  word,  there  was  probably 
Bome  established  association  of  the  literary  men 
living  at  the  court. 

Charlemagne  being  convinced  that  the  clergy 
were  the  only  class  who  could  furnish  the  large 
number  of  instructors  whom  lie  needed  for  his 
subjects, adopted  measures  for  the  thoroughedu- 
cationof  that  class.  In  787,  he  addressed  a  Letter 
totheabbol  Bangulfat  Pulda  in  which  heurged 
the  most  thorough  instruction  of  all  candidates 
for  the  priesthood,  In  order  that  &ey  might  be 
enabled  to  understand  more  fully  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  and  to  communicate  their  knowledge 
more  effectively  to  others,  lie  also  enjoine  1  that 
schools  should  be  established  in  connection  with 
all  the  cathedrals  and  convents.  In  789,  it  was 
ordered  that  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  gram- 
niar.  and  singing  should  be  taught  in  these  schools. 
Attributing  very  great  importance  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  language  of  the  people,  in  7!>4, 
he  issue  1  an  edict  requiring  that  the  faithful 
should  be  taught  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the 
Apostles'  Creed  in  German,  and  that  no  one 
should  teach  that  God  could  only  be  worshiped 
in  the  Latin.  Greek.or  Hebrew  tongues.  In  802, 
he  enjoined  upon  all  priests,  parents,  and  god- 
fathers to  provide  for  the  instruction  of  children 
committed  to  their  care,  in  the  tenets  of  the 
Christian  faith  and  in  the  Lord's  Prayer;  and, 
in  804,  he  ordered  that  all  those  who  did  not 
know  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Creed  should  be 
Bcourged,  and  required  to  fast  until  they  had 
learned  both.  These  efforts  were  zealously  sup- 
ported by  the  bishops;  and  the  councils  held  at 
Mayence,  Reims,  and  Tours  declared  in  favor 
of  using  the  native  tongues  spoken  in  the  em- 
pire, for  the  instruction  of  the  people,  in  place 
of  the  Latin.  Even  the  idea  of  organizing  a 
system  of  public  instruction  began  to  be  con- 
ceived at  that  time,  as  appears  from  a  rescript 
ad  Iressed  by  bishop  Theodulf  of  Orleans  to  the 
priests  of  his  diocese,  admonishing  them  to  keep 
■  >i  every-where  (per  villas  est  vicos),  and  to 
ask  no  pay,  but  only  to  receive  gratuitous  offer- 
ings in  return  for  the  service  rendered.  -  See 
GrAiLLARD,  Histoire  de  Charlemagne  (I  vols.,  2d 
edit.,  Paris,  1819) ;  Lorenz,  Karl  des  Grossen 
Privatr  und  Hqfleben,  in  Raumer's  llislor. 
Tasckenbueh,  1832);  Hbppe,  Das  Sckulwesen 
des  Mittelnlters  (.Marburg,  18(i0);  1  Iai.i.am,  En- 
during the  middle  ages;  Schmidt,  Gesch. 
</-r  PSdagogik,  vol.  n. 

CHARLESTON,  College  of,  at  Charleston. 
South  Carolina,  was  founded  in  17s.").    It  isnon- 

tarian.  The  patronage  has  been  almost  entirely 
confined  to  the  city,  one  greal  object  being  to 
prevent  the  youth  of  Charleston  from  losing 
their  acclimation  by  absence  from  the  city  during 
a  critical  period  of  their  lives.  There  being 
no  dormitories,  the  students  enjoy  the  advan- 
tage  of   domestic   influences.      The    institution 


has  a  valuable  museum  of  natural  history,  a 
library  of  10,000  volumes,  productive  funds  to 
the  amount  of  $200,000,  and  scholarship  funds 
to   the  amount    of  $33,000.      The   value    of  the 

college  property  is  $50,000.     In  1875 — 6,  there 

were  5  instructors  and  35  students.  The  pres- 
idents have  been  as  follows  :  the  lit.  Rev.  Robert 
Smith,  the  Rt.  Rev.  X.  Bowen,  the  lion.  Mit- 
chell K iiiLr-  the  Rev.  Jasper  Adams,  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Brantley,  Wm.  P.  r'inley,  and  N.  R.  Middle- 
ton.  LL.D.  (now  in  ollice). 

CHART  (Gr.  {dprttg,  Lat.  charta,  a  leaf  of 
paper),  a  large  sheet  generally  of  pasteboard, 
containing  a  synoptical  exhibil  of  letters,  words, 
colors,  plants,  etc.,tobeusedin  giving  instruction, 
particularly  to  classes.  This  is  a  very  useful 
piece  of  school  apparatus,  since  by  means  of  it 
the  eye  is  addressed,  and  large  numbers  of  pupils 
may  be  taught  simultaneously ;  while  the  teacher 
is  relieved  from  the  trouble  of  writing  out  or  draw- 
ing on  the  blackboard  what  is  to  be  presented. 
In  teaching  cohr  by  object  lessons  a  chart  is  in- 
dispensable, as  it  exhibits,  in  a  methodical  way. 
the  objects  themselves.  Several  excellent  charts 
for  this  purpose  have  been  constructed.  Charts 
are  also  very  useful  in  teaching  phonics.  In 
higher  instruction,  there  are  many  subjects  in 
which  the  use  of  charts  affords  an  important 
means  of  illustration  ;  and,  hence,  we  find  in 
school  rooms  charts  of  botany,  physiology, 
chemistry,  astronomy,  etc.  While  the  rapid 
sketching  of  an  illustration  on  the  blackboard 
has  many  advantages  for  certain  kinds  of  illus- 
tration and  teaching,  the  more  accurate  delinea- 
tion of  objects  by  charts  is  often  to  be  preferred, 
and,  therefore,  no  school  room  can  be  completely 
furnished  without  sets  of  these  articles. 

CHEEVER,  Ezekiel,  one  of  the  earliest 
and  most  celebrated  teachers  of  New  England, 
illustrious  not  only  for  the  extraordinary  length 
of  his  service,  which  lasted  seventy  years,  but 
for  his  scholarship  and  classical  attainments.  He 
was  born  in  London,  England,  in  1014,  where 
he  received  an  excellent  education.  At  the  age 
of  23,  he  emigrated  to  America,  landing  at 
IJoston.  He  did  not  remain  there,  however,  but 
took  part  with  Theophilus  Baton,  Rev.  John 
Davenport,  and  others  in  planting  the  colony  of 
Xew  Haven;  and  held  the  ollice  of  deacon,  from 
1644  to  1650,  in  the  first  church  established  at 
that  place.  He  commenced  his  career  as  a 
school-master  in  1638,  teaching  the  first  free 
school  of  Xew  Haven  till  Kill,  when  he  took 
charge  of  a  grammar  school  of  a  higher  grade. 
These  schools,  like  the  New  England  schools  in 
general,  were  not  common  or  public  schools, 
open  to  all  without  expense,  but  were  partly 
supported  by  endowments  and  partly  by  tuition 
fees.  The  principal  studies  pursued  were  Latin 
and  Greek.  Until  L650,  Cheever  continued  to 
take  charge  of  this  school,  and  as  is  remarked  by 
one  of  his  biographers,  "  devoted  to  the  work  a 

Scholarship  and  personal  character  which  left 
their  mark  forever  on  the  educational  policy  of 
Xew  Haven."  At  the  date  mentioned,  here- 
moved  to  Ipswich,  in  Massachusetts,  where  he 


124 


CHEEVER 


CIIEKE 


took  charge  of  the  grammar  school  of  that  town, 
and  made  it  famous  by  his  faithfulness,  scholar- 
ship, and  skill.     Prom  1661  to  L  670,  he  taught 

the  Town  Free  School  in  Chariest  own.  in  the 
latter  year  removing  to  Boston,  which  became 
the  scene  of  his  labors  for  38  years  thereafter. 
Hi  re  he  was  appointed  head -master  of  the 
"Free  Schoole,"  known  since  L790  as  the  '•  Latin 
School,"  being  engaged  by  the  governor  and 
select  men  at  a  salary  of  "  sixtie  pounds  p.  an.", 
and  allowed  the  "possestion  and  use  of  ye  schoole 
house."  This  school,  under  his  long  and  faithful 
service,  became  the  chief  classical  school,  not 
only  of  Massachusetts  Bay ,  but  of  all  the  English 
colonies  in  America.  Some  of  the  most  eminent 
men  of  the  period  were  educated  under  Master 
Cheever;  and  in  the  autobiographies  which 
some  of  them  have  written,  they  have  left  mosl 
sincere  testimonials  of  respect  and  affection  for 
their  old  and  venerable  teacher,  as  well  as  highly 
interesting  pictures  of  school  life  in  those  early 
days.  Among  these  pupils  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cotton 
Mather  became  the  mosl  celebrated;  but  per- 
haps the  most  interesting  sketch  of  M]'.  Cheevers 
school  is  contained  in  the  Autobiography  of  ike 
/ur.  Jo////  Barnard,  drawn  up  in  1766,  in  the 
85th  year  of  the  writer's  age.  and  first  printed 
in  the  Collections  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical 
SiH-ir/,/.  ••  I  remember  once,"  says  Barnard,  "in 
making  a  piece  of  Latin,  my  master  found 
fault   with   the  syntax  of  one   word,   which   was 

not  so  \\r..-t\  byme  !  eedlessly, but  designedly,  and. 
therefore,  I  told  him  there  was  a  plain  grammar 

rule  for  it.  lie  angrily  replied,  there  was  no 
such  rule.  I  took  the  grammar  ami  .showed  tin- 
rule  to  him.  Then  he  smilingly  said,  "  Thou  art 
a  brave  boy  ;  I  had  forgot  it."  And  no  wonder; 
for  he  was  then  above  eighty  years  old."  He 
was  ;i  strict  disciplinarian,  and  corporal  punish- 
ment was  often  resorted  to,  and  not  sparingly 
applied,  in  his  school ;  but  severity  was  tempered 
with  kindness,  and  his  venerable  presence  was 
accompanied  by  "  an  agreeable  mixture  of  majes- 
ty and  sweetness,  both  in  his  voice  ami  counte- 
nance," that  secured  at  once  obedience,  reverence, 
and  love.  Such  is  the  pleasant  testimony  of 
one  of  his  pupils,  lie  died  in  L  708,  in  the  94th 
year  of  his  age  :  and  we  are  told  by  Dr.  Mather 
that  "he  held  his  abilities  in  an  unusual  degree 
to  the  last,  his  intellectual  force  being  as  little 
abated  as  his  natural."  Says  one  of  his  biogra- 
phers, ••  It  was  his  singular  good  fortune  to  have 
lived  as  an  equal  among  the  very  founders  of 
New  England,  with  them  of  Boston,  and  Salem, 

ami  New  Haven,  to  have  taught  their  children, 
and  their  children's  children,  unto  the  third  and 

fourth  generation— and  to  have  lingered  in  the 
recollections  of  his  pupils  ami  their  children,  the 
model  ami  monument,  the  survivor  ami  represent- 
ative of  the  Puritan  ami   Pilgrim  stock,  down 

almost  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century." 
At  his  funeral,  which  took  place  from  the  school- 
house,  there  were  present  the  governor,  council- 
ors, ministers,  justices,  and  gentlemen;  ami  Dr. 
Mather  preached  a  funeral  sermon  on  the  occa 
rion,  in  w  bich  he  not  only  eulogize  I  his  "faithful, 


successful,  venerable,  and  beloved  teacher,"  but 
took  occasion  to  deliver  a  lecture  upon  the  duty 
of  towns  ami  parents  to  provide  for  the  education 
of  children.  This  sermon  was  printed  under  the 
quaint  title  of  "  Corderius  Americanus,  an  Es- 
say  upon  tin-  Good  Education  of  Children,  and 
what  nun/  Hopefully  In-  Attempted  for  the  II 
of  the  Flock;  in  a  Funeral  Sermon  upon  Mr. 
K/.KKiKi,  Cheever,  the  Ancient  "in/  Honourable 
Master  of  the  Free-School,  in  Boston,etc." 

The  most  noted  of  Cheevers  publications  was 
a  Latin  accidence,  entitled  A  snort  introduction 
In  the  Latin  Tongue,  which,  for  more  than  a 
century,  was  the  hand  book  of  most  of  the  Latin 
scholars  of  New  England,  and  very  highly  com- 
mended. An  edition  of  this  celebrated  work 
was  published  in  1838,  with  testimonials  from 
the  most  distinguished  scholars,  asserting  its 
merits,  and  commending  its  restoration  to  use  in 
the  schools.  President  Quincy  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege said,  "It  is  distinguished  for  simplicity, 
comprehensiveness,  and  exactness:  ami.  as  a 
primer  or  first  elementary  book.  I  do  not  believe 
it  is  exceeded  by  any  other  work,  in  respect  to 
those  important  qualities." — See  Barnard,  Edu- 
cational Biography  (N.  V..  L861). 

CHEKE,  Sir  John,  an  eminent  English 
scholar  and  teacher,  was  born  at  Cambridge,  in 
L514,  and  died  in  1557.  He  was  educated  in 
the  university  of  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed 
in  1540,  professor  of  Creek  in  that  institution. 
In  1544,  he  became  tutor  to  prince  Edward  ; 
and  on  the  accession  of  his  pupil  to  the  throne, 
he  was  rewarded  with  an  annuity  and  a  grant  of 
land.  In  L551,  he  was  knighted,  ami  soon  after 
rose  to  the  office  of  secretary  of  state.  On  the 
accession  of  Mary,  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
England,  as  he  had  favored  the  cause  of  Lady 
-lane  Grey,  and  he  supported  himself  for  some 
time  at  Strasburg  by  teaching  Greek.  Heine 
arrested  in  Flanders,  by  order  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  he  was  carried  a  prisoner  to  London  and 
confined  in  the  Tower,  when,  in  order  to  save 
his  lite,  he  abjured  his  religion,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Catholic  church.  Repentance 
for  this  act,  it  is  said,  preyed  upon  his  mind, 
and  shortened  his  days,     lie  wrote  many  works, 

evincing  profound  scholarship  and  excellent  taste: 
among  which  may  he  mentioned,  Epistles  mi  tin'- 
/><■<////  nt'  Bueer,  ami  /'-■  Pronunciatione  '•riv- 
en- potissimum  Ungues  disputationes  (Basel, 
L555).  The  only  work  in  English  published  by 
him  was  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  Hurt  of  Sedi- 
tion, how  Grievous  if  is  in  n  Commonwealth 
(1549).     Among  his  unpublished  manuscripts, 

was  a  translation  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew, 
in  words  derived   solely    from    Saxon   roots,  ami 

a  plan  to  change  the  English  orthography  by 

a  kind  of  phonography  —  spelling  by  sound. 
Before  his  time,  the  study  of  the  Creek  language 
and    literature   had    been    greatly     neglected    in 

England;  but,  through  his  efforts,  it  was  estab- 
lished as  an  essential    part   of  a  learned  educa- 
tion.    He  was  deservedly  considered  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  bis  age.     See  Strype,  V 
Life  '/Sir  .li,!i,,  Cheke  (Lond.,  I  To.")). 


CHEMISTRY 


125 


CHEMISTRY,  although  one  of  the  youngest 
branches  of  physical  Bcience  in  its  development, 
is  one  of  tlu'  most  important,  from  an  educational 
]>oint  of  view.  But  the  attention  may  be  so  readily 

arrested  by  its  many  easily  recognized  points  of 

contact  with  the  individual  and  society,  in  its 
numberless  applications  in  the  household,  the 
shop,  the  farm,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  the  industrial 
processes  on  a  grander  scale,  thai  any  value  it 
may  possess,  as  a  purely  disciplinary  agent,  may 
be  overlooked,  even  by  teachers  of  it,  and  it  may 
be  regarded  too  much,  simply  as  a  low  utilitarian 
element  in  an  educational  course,  however  valu- 
able it  may  be  admitted  to  be.  It  is,  neverthe- 
less, true  that,  in  recent  years,  much  that  had 
contributed  a  peculiar  attractiveness  to  chemis- 
try as  a  branch  of  instruction,  seemed  inex- 
tricably involved  in  discussion.  The  perspicuity 
of  its  nomenclature,  the  precision  of  its  state- 
ments, the  simplicity  and  comparatively  limited 
number  of  the  laws  involved  in  its  most  com- 
plex phenomena,  were  all  apparently  affected. 
But  it  has  at  last  emerged  from  this  formative 
condition,  so  changed  to  be  sure,  that  many  well 
educated  in  chemistry  a  few  years  ago  may  be 
obliged  to  recast  their  knowledge  in  new  moulds, 
but  with  a  system  of  philosophy  which  has  much 
clearer  and  more  comprehensive  generalizations. 
It  has,  moreover,  lost  nothing  of  its  peculiar 
character  as  perhaps  the  most  sharply  defined 
branch  of  physical  science.  The  changes  have 
not  been  so  much  those  of  abandonment  of  views 
formerly  held,  as  of  their  expansion,  to  provide 
for  the  wonderful  accumulation  of  facts  since 
the  science  first  took  form  about  the  beginning  of 
the  century.  The  old  nomenclature  survives  only 
in  a  few  general  principles.  The  names,  being 
out  of  accord  with  established  and  accepted  facts, 
were  too  precise,  and  expressed  too  much. 

It  may  be  felt  that  the  New  Chemistry  is 
too  elaborate  and  complex  to  permit  of  profitable 
introduction;  but  a  closer  examination  will  show 
that  it  still  possesses  its  former  peculiar  sim- 
plicity and  directness  of  statement,  that  its  no- 
tation is  as  expressive  as  ever,  that  it  requires 
no  application  of  mathematical  analysis  hi  work- 
ing out  or  stating  its  generalizations,  that  these 
are  as  easily  reached  from  facts  within  the  com- 
prehension of  the  pupil,  as  ever,  and  that  they 
are  just  as  susceptible  of  reproduction,  for  and 
by  the  pupil,  with  comparatively  little  ami  in- 
expensive apparatus.  No  doubt,  more  depends 
now  upon  the  faithfulness  with  which  it  is 
taught.  There  is  more  of  a  philosophy,  as  well  as 
a  larger  body  of  facts,  and  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
must  be  led  to  discern  the  principles  that  under- 
lie the  facts.  A  necessity  for  the  conception 
of  a  threefold  division  of  matter  arises  in  the 
modern  explanation  of  chemical  phenomena.  The 
indivisible,  indestructible,  insensible  atoms  of  the 
old  chemistry  are  accepted ;  but  the  interpola- 
tion is  required  of  equally  insensible  groups  of 
atoms,  called  molecules,  between  the  atoms  and 
the  sensible  aggregations  of  matter  called  masses. 
The  word  molecule  henceforth  ceases  to  be  used 
interchangeably  with  atom.     Forces  may  act 


upon  or  within  these  molecules;  and  when  they 
act  within,  a  chemical  change  is  said  to  occur. 
Thus,  ice  composed  of  molecules  is  converted 
into  water  by  releasing  these  molecules,  in  a  great 
measure,  from  cohesive  attraction,  and  thus  allow- 
ing them  perfect  freedom  of  motion  among  them- 
selves, apart  from  any  directive  force.  By  con- 
tinued heating,  repulsive  force  predominates;  and 
they  separate,  but  still  as  molecules,  the  atoms 
as  such  being  unaffected.  The  electrical  current, 
whatever  that  may  be,  invades  these  molecules; 
dissects  off  atom  from  atom;  demonstrates  the 
molecules  to  be  groups  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
atoms,  held  together  by  a  force  named  chemical 
affinity  or  chemical  attraction,  or  better  still 
chemism.  However  chemical  phenomena  maybe 
influenced  by  physical  conditions,  they  involve, 
essentially,  only  this  play  of  the  atomic  foi'ce, 
between  atoms,  within  molecules.  This  appar- 
ently restricted  and  sharply  defined  character  of 
the  field  of  chemistry  is  calculated  to  render  it 
more  easy  of  comprehension,  as  a  whole,  by  the 
pupil,  than  most  other  branches  of  physical  sci- 
ence; whilst  it  still  retains,  in  a  high  degree,  the 
advantages  conceded  to  such  branches  as  in- 
struments for  the  culture  of  the  faculty  of  abstrac- 
tion and  generalization,  and  for  fostering  a  habit  of 
careful,  close  inductive  reasoning,  in  connection 
with  that  of  cautious,  patient  observation, — habits 
that  have  so  much  to  do  with  the  formation  of 
correct  judgments  in  the  affairs  of  every-day  life. 
Although  a  fuller  consideration  of  the  purely 
disciplinary  qualities  of  chemical  studies  might 
exhibit  them  in  favorable  comparison  with  some 
of  the  usual  branches  taught,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  very  properly  holds  its  place,  largely 
by  reason  of  the  character  of  the  information  it 
imparts.  It  may  be  regarded,  therefore,  as  the 
chief  aim  of  the  teacher  of  chemistry,  to  make 
the  pupil  acquainted  with  the  chemical  proper- 
ties of  matter,  and  with  the  leading  processes  by 
which  comparatively  worthless  material  has  high 
value  imparted  to  it.  And  yet  the  manner  in 
which  this  information  is  acquired,  to  whatever 
extent  the  science  may  be  taught,  has  far  more 
to  do  with  the  subsequent  practical  value  of  the 
study  than  the  amount;  and  a  proper  mode  of  im- 
parting the  facts  will  also  prove  of  high  educa- 
tional value  in  other  respects.  It  is  only  facts  so 
connected,  and  so  lodged  in  the  mind  that  they 
readily  suggest  themselves  when  an  occasion  may 
demand  them,  that  are  fruitful.  But  chemistry 
has  such  a  body  of  minute  facts,  that  the  text- 
books are  necessarily  constructed  largely  on  a 
cyclopaedic  plan  ;  masses  of  facts  are  classified 
as  well  as  they  can  be,  and  are  pigeon-holed 
away  for  reference  rather  than  for  a  connected 
inductive  study.  Nothing  is  more  natural  for 
the  pupil  than  to  run  into  the  vicious  habit  of 
simply  memorizing.  There  is  no  tendency  more 
decided  in  pupils  with  memories  well  trained  by 
early  studies.  It  will  require  very  little  encour- 
agement on  the  part  of  a  teacher  to  have  the 
pupil  reproduce  the  numerical  statements  of 
a  lesson,  the  specific  gravities  to  the  last  dec- 
imal, the  equivalents  of  elements,  the  melting 


126 


CHEMISTRY 


points,  etc.  Yet  these  form  the  very  class  of  facte 
which  scarcely  survive  the  day  of  recitation,  and 
for  which  the  chemist  would  rely  upon  his  ref- 
erence-book in  case  of  need.  This  is  also  true  of 
a  large  number  of  other  facts  of  subordinate  im- 
portance. Again,  facts  of  the  highest  importance, 
assigned  by  a  proper  classification  to  one  place, 
may  find  most  forcible  re-statement,  in  many 
other  places,  and  in  other  connections.  It  rests 
with  the  teacher  to  direct  the  pupil  continually 
in  his  study,  by  calling  his  attention  to  the  most 
important  facts,  and  by  holding  them  up  to 
view  in  all  their  relations,  particularly  in  their 
practical  bearing  upon  each  other.  A  compar- 
atively few  facts,  thus  exhaustively  studied,  will 
form  a  nucleus  around  which  further  chemical 
knowledge  may  accumulate,  whilst  the  mind  will 

be  impressed  with  the  interdependence  of  chem- 
ical processes.  It  is  also  apparent  that  the 
process   by  which  these    facts   are  accumulated  is 

an  educating  process  of  the  highest  order.     The 

pupil  soon  falls  into  the  habit  of  considering  all 

facts  in  their  relation-,  am  1  n  fuses  to  he  satisfied 

with  uncorrelated  facts:  and  he  carries  this  habit 
into  the  consideration  of  all  matters,  and  seeks  a 
wider  view  i  if  every  subject. 

In  teaching  chemistry,  three  methods  readily 
suggest  themselves:  I  By  text-hooks:  ('Jj  By 
lectures,  accompanied  by  experiments;  and 
(3)  By  experiments  or  investigations  performed 
by  the  pupil.  These  methods  are  so  different  in 
themselves  and  in  the  end  to  be  accomplished, 
that  they  cannot  be  compared  as  to  effectiveness; 
but  they  so  fully  supplement  each  other,  that 
they  should  as  far  as  possible  accompany  each 
other.      The  tendency,  at    the    present   rime,  is  to 

undervalue  the  text-book.  Whilst  there  can  he  uo 

doubl  that,  by  itself,  it  yields  the  least  return  for 
the  time,  attention,  ami  drudgery  of  both  teacher 
and  pupil,  as  an  adjunct  to  either  of  the  other 
methods,  it  not  only  imparts  fullness  to  the 
knowledge,  but  also  renders  it  more  precise.  An- 
other incidental  advantage  of  the  highest  charac- 
ter consists  in  a  certain  facility  for  reference, 
which  its  Study  imparts;  and.  in  many  cases,  an 
ability  to  make  use  of  the  literature  of  the 
science,   and.    by    means  of    it.    to    study   up  a 

subject,  or  investigate  a  particular  case,  may  he 
of  far  more  value  than  a  memory  thoroughly 
crammed  with  facts. 

Lectures  accompanied  by  illustrative  experi- 
ments are  generally  conceded  to  he  valuable,  and 

to   some   extent    indispensable,  aids    iii    teaching 

physical  science.  Text-boob  study,  however 
Faithful  and  earnest,  must  he  supplemented  by 
them.  The  facts  formulated  in  words  must  he 
vitalized,  ami  re-enforced  bj  their  objectivere- 
production.  Presented  thus  directly  to  the  senses, 
tiny  not  only  become  more  intelligible,  hut  pos- 
sess a  peculiar  charm,  that  impresses  them  upon 
the  memory,  and    renders    the    whole  study  more 

profitable,  as  well  as  more  attractive.  1  Jm  Lectures 

are  more  part  icularl\  adapted  to  teach  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  the  science,  and  to  develop,  to 

its  fullest  extent,  the  d iscipl inar\  value  of  the 
mode  of  reasoning  employed  in  the  investigation 


of  the  trutlis  of  nature,  and  also  to  cultivate  the 
faculty  of  observation.  They  are,  however, 
in  no  wise  adapted  to  displace  the  text-hook. 
They  arc  feeble  in  teaching  details.  Simple 
statement  and  re-statement,  and  illustration  com- 
bined, will  not  impress   these  upon  the   memory. 

If  the  pupil  be  required  to  take  fall  notes,  or  in- 
deed he  allowed  to  take  any  notes  at  all.  it  will 
he  at  the  lo>s  of  much  that  is  peculiarly  valuable 
ill  such  lectures.  With  the  faculty  of  observation 
in  the  pupil  generally  untrained,  any  division  of 
attention  between  writing,  and  listening,  and  ob- 
serving v\i!l   greatly   reduce  the  proper  effect  of 

the  lecture.  Great  pains  should  hi'  taken  to  ar- 
range the  matter,  and  bring  it  before  the  pupil 
so  that  the  salient  points  may  impress  themselves 

upon  the  memory:  and  the  lecture  should  he  tilled 
in  from  memory  afterward,  or  it  may  he  a  still 
better  plan,  in  many  cases,  to  furnish,  on  the 
blackboard,  a  very  brief  syllabus  of  the  lecture. 
But  much  of  the  effectiveness  of  a  lecture  is  lost 
in  attempting  even  incidentally  to  teach  numerous 
details  by  means  of  it.  It  cannot  be  expected, 
nor  is  it  at  all  necessary,  to  reproduce  all,  or  in- 
deed a  very  large  proportion,  of  the  facts  and 
processes  of  the  text-book,  in  order  that  it  may 
lie   fully   comprehended.      There   are  many  facts 

and  processes  in  chemistry  that  possess  a  typical 

character,  aiding  directly  in  the  comprehension 
of  many  others,  and  these  are  the  ones  most 
likely  to  be  drawn  upon  by  the  lecturer.  There 
is  no  branch  of  physical  science  that  admits  of  a 
fuller  illustration  and  verification  of  its  tacts 
with  comparatively  limited  and  inexpensive  ap- 
paratus, nor  any  in  which  the  want  of  thorough 
practical  knowledge  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
experimenter   is  productive   of    less   damage    to 

the  apparatus  employed,  dp  to  a  very  recent 
date,  simple  entertainment  and  amusement  have 
been  regarded,  almost  equallj  with  instruction, 
as  the  objects  of  such  lectures.  The  most  sen- 
sational experiments  that  the  science  and  the 
means  at  command  could   afford,  were  impressed 

into  service;  ami  these,  too,  often  Loosely  con- 
nected, or  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  text-book. 
There  is  .-till  unfortunately  a  residuum  of  expec- 
tation of  something  of  this  kind.  The  apparatus 

and  experiments  with  it  arc  apt  to  he  made  the 
display  features  of  the  instruction.  Whilst  simple 
entertainment,  or  even  amusement,  may  some- 
times legitimately  accompany  lectures  on  chem- 
istry, it  should  hi ly  as  a  natural  incident;  and 

even  then,  should   not    occur  too  often,  since  it  is 

apt  to  create  an  expectation  of ,  if  no1  a  desire  for. 

such  features:    and  this  will   seriously   divert    the 

attention  of  the  pupils  from  the  line  of  thougbl 
which   should    always   connect    the   experiments. 

Every  experiment  should  come  upon  the  seem 

like  a  well  trained  servant,  just  at  the  right 
point  of  time  to  add  its  proper  effect  to  the 
total    effect    of     the     lecture:    and,  in    no    case. 

should  it  control  the  lecturer.  An  experiment 
without   sucm  a  subordinate  relation   is  as  much 

out  of  place  as  a  word  without  proper  con- 
nection in  a  discourse.  As  the  text  hook  is 
largely  a  compendium  of  details,  its  somewhat 


CHEMISTRY 


127 


arbitrary  plan  of    arrangement,  and  its  formal. 
systematic,   didactic    treatment   must  give  way 

to  the  mora  instructive,  as  well  as  more  attract- 
ive. Baconian  method  of  insinuating  knowledge 
into  the  mind  of  the  pupil  ia  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  discovered.  Topics  should  be  taken 
up,  discussed,  and  illustrated.  The  most  familiar 
phenomena  should  be  noticed,  and  the  lecturer 
should  place  himself,  with  his  appliances,  in  the 
position  of  an  investigator,— an  interrogator  of 
nature,  and  an  interpreter  of  her  replies.  The 
point  of  attack,  and  the  line  of  investigation 
should  be  carefully  determined  upon  and  wrought 
out.  so  as  to  cm  ike  the  most  valuable  information, 
and  exhibit  the  logic  of  tacts  inductively  em- 
ployed. The  pupil  will  readily  follow  the  in- 
vestigator in  his  alternate  inductions  and  deduc- 
tions, as  he  "guesses  and  checks  his  guesses." 
Be  will  thus  not  only  learn  the  subject,  but  ac- 
quire, in  a  measure,  the  attitude  of  mind  by 
which  facts  are  discovered,  judged,  and  arranged, 
and  by  which  also  they  may  be  turned  to  prac- 
tical account.  To  take  a  very  simple  ease:  car- 
bonic acid  being  selected  as  the  subject,  a  burn- 
ing candle  may  suffice  to  start  the  inquiry  which 
will  lead  up  to  it.  and  far  beyond  it.  Then,  out 
of  the  numerous  questions  that  suggest  them- 
selves, the  chemist  might  ask  whether,  as  the 
material  of  the  candle  evidently  undergoes  a 
radical  change,  the  air  surrounding  it  is  affected? 
It  is  placed  in  a  jar.  and  covered;  it  goes  out. 
Is  the  air  changed  ?  Test  with  lime-water.  Yes. 
Will  a  splinter  change  it  in  the  same  way?  Try. 
^  •  -.  It  is  then  allowable  to  guess  that  all  burn- 
ing bodies  affect  the  air  in  the  same  way.  The 
guess  may  be  checked  by  employing  a  wax  taper; 
then  an  oil-lamp  :  then  a  gas-jet.  The  inference 
then  becomes  the  very  plausible  hypothesis,  that 
burning  bodies  invariably  affect  the  air  surround- 
ing them  in  such  a  way.  that  it  will  render  lime- 
water  turbid.  All  would  be  satisfied  to  stop  at 
this  conclusion  ;  but  a  jet  of  burning  hydrogen 
is  at  hand,  and  on  repeated  trials,  each  time 
with  greater  care,  it  fails  to  give  the  result  pre- 
dicted from  the  hypothesis.  The  many  facts  only 
led  up  to  that  degree  of  certainty;  the  one  dis- 
cordant fact  shakes  the  whole  fabric.  The  case 
is  now  looked  at  anew.  What  have  these  bodies 
in  common  so  as  to  produce  this  identical  result 
in  bimiing.  which  hydrogen  has  not?  Carbon. 
A  piece  of  charcoal  is  tried.  It  confirms  the 
conjecture  which  led  to  the  experiment  with  it. 
More  cautiously  than  befc  ire,  the  hypothesis  would 
then  be  modified  to  suit  the  new  fact.  —  bodies 
containing  carbon  in  burning  modify  the  atmos- 
phere in  a  certain  way.  From  this  point,  all  the 
leading  properties  of  carbonic  acid  could  be 
developed,  with  but  little  more  apparatus  than 
may  be  found  in  any  household:  its  specific 
gravity,  by  pouring  it  from  ordinary  pitchers,  or  I 
running  it  off  by  means  of  a  syphon,  by  weighing 
it  in  a  paper  bag  on  ordinary  scales,  etc.:  its  solu- 
bility in  water,  ami  the  solvent  properties  it  im- 
parts to  the  water,  by  passing  it  through  lime- 
water,  until  the  precipitate  is  re-dissolved,  then 
re-precipitating  it  by  boiling  the  solution,  etc. 


The  other  constituents  of  the  atmosphere  are. 
in  a  similar  way.  readily  brought  within  the  range 
of  inquiry.  Such  a  mode  of  treatment  has  for 
the  pupils  all  the  freshness  of  an  original  inves- 
tigation. It  arouses  a  spirit  of  inquiry,  and 
quickens  observation;  since  they  will  be  far  more 

apt  to  observe  closely  when  they  are  to  discover 
what  is  to  be  seen,  than  if  required  simply  to 
see  what  is  described.  There  will,  moreover,  he  a 
pleasing  surprise  at  the  evolution  of  clear  general 
principles  from  apparently  confused  inquiries. 
In  such  lectures,  a  sensational  experiment  with- 
out a  direct  bearing  upon  the  subject,  would  be 
entirely  out  of  place.  Humble  and  apparently 
trifling  experiments  are  frequently  found  to  pre- 
sent the  truth  in  it.>  simplest,  clearest,  most  in- 
telligible form.  In  all  cases  the  chemical  notation 
should  lie  freely  employed.  All  reactions  should 
be  expressed  by  symbols  upon  the  blackboard. 
One  fact,  however,  should  he  continually  kept  in 
mind  in  arranging  such  a.  lecture,  and  bringing 
i  the  phenomena  before  the  pupils;  namely,  that 
in  pupils  of  all  ages,  without  any  previous  train- 
ing in  this  direction,  the  power  of  observation  is 
generally  exceedingly  feeble,  and  that  they  can 
follow  the  lecturer  but  slowly.  They  are  very  apt 
to  overlook  or  mistake  the  feature  to  be  observed, 
or  to  be  misled  by  some  unavoidably  prominent 
accessory.  An  examination  upon  a  lecture  of 
the  simplest  character  will  reveal  this  fact.  The 
most  salient  points,  even,  will  often  be  found  to 
be  wanting.  A  great  part  of  the  value  of  the 
illustrations  of  scientific  lectures  in  our  higher 
institutions,  and  of  the  highly  elaborated  popular 
lectures  is  lost  for  the  same  reason.  This  dif- 
ficulty may  be  remedied  in  a  great  measure  by 
adding  the  other  method  of  teaching  suggested : 
that  is.  by  allowing  the  pupil,  under  the  direction 
of  the  teacher,  to  perform  the  experiments  and 
conduct  the  investigation,  requiring  him  to  keep 
accurate  notes,  and,  in  some  cases,  to  reproduce 
the  residts  in  the  form  of  a  lecture.  Chemistry 
is  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  mode  of  instruction. 
A  few  test-tubes,  flasks,  corks,  etc..  and  very  little 
material  will  put  it  into  the  power  of  the  pupil 
to  reproduce  the  explanation  of  many  facts.  I  le 
will  learn  more  by  a  few  failures  than  by  a  win  »le 
scries  of  experiments  successfully  exhibited  in  a 
le.t  ure,  and  will  realize  how  much  of  care  ami 
painstaking  accuracy  must  be  expended  in  the 
preparation  of  every  successful  experiment.  Ih- 
will  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  most 
trifling  essential  condition,  and  will  find  that 
here  no  oversights,  no  mistakes,  no  negligence 
can  be  condoned:  but  that  failure  follows  them 
as  inexorably  as  effect  follows  cause,  lie  will  be 
surprised  to  find  how  apparently  trifling  an  over- 
sight often  lay  between  him  and  success,  and  will 
learn  to  estimate  conditions  by  other  standards 
than  their  apparent  magnitude  or  importance.  He 
will  thus  form  the  habit  of  observing  closely,  and 
of  noticing  every  thing  exhibited  in  the  course 
of  lectures,  and  will  carry  this  habit  into  all  the 
affairs  of  life.— Sec  Dai  iu':nv  (Prof .  Charles  G.B.), 
On  !},<■  Study  of  <  'hemistrif  us  n  llranch  of  Edu- 
cation, in  Lectures  on  Education  (Loud.,  1855). 


128 


CHICAGO 


CHICAGO,  the  principal  city  of  Illinois,  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  the  North-western 
section  of  the  Onion,  and  the  fifth  in  population 
of  the  cities  of  the  United  States.  Its  population, 
according  to  the  national  census  of  1870,  was 
298,977  ;  but,  according  to  the  special  census 
of  1874,  was  395,408.  'This  city  was  incor- 
porated March  1..  1837  ;  and  the  first  census 
was  taken  in  July  of  that  year,  when  it  was 
found  to  contain  a  population  of  4,170.  Its 
rapid  growth  is  probably  without  a  parallel  in 
history.  During  the  '-'<>  years  preceding  the  cen- 
SUS  of  1874.  its  increase  was  nearly  579  per  cent. 
The  public  schools  of  ( Ihicagowere  first  classified 
and  graded  by  .John  C.  Dorr,  the  first  superin- 
tendent, who  served  from  May.  L854,  to  March, 
1851).  when  he  was  succeeded  by  William  II. 
Wells,  who  continued  in  office  till  August,  1864, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Josiah  L.  Pickard,  the 
present  incumbent.  The  first  public  school 
building  was  erected  in  1844,  but  there  was  no 
published  school  report  till  185  I. 

School  Statistics. — For  the  year  ending  August 
31.,  1875,  the  following  statistics  were  reported : 

Number  of  schools 41 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 49,121 

Average  daily  attendance 32,999 

Number  of  teachers 700 

Number  of  months  schools  were  open       10 

Amount  received  from  school  tax  fund $765,968.21 

do  do        from  state  fund 109,044.40 

do  do        from  rents,  interest,  etc.    91,684.58 

Total  receipts $966,697.19 

Amount  paid  for  teachers'  salaries $535,706.79 

do  do   for  school  buildings 155,564.26 

do  do   for  school  sites 9,769.98 

do  do   for  fuel  and  supplies 75,729.22 

do         do  for  other  expenses 38,068.24 

Total  expenditure $814,838.49 

The  school  age  is  from  6  to  21  ;  and  the  num- 
ber of  chih hen  in  the  city  between  those  ages 
was  reported,  in  special  census  of  Oct.  1.,  1874, 
as  1  D'2.555,  out  of  a  total  population  of  395,408  ; 
of  these  15,947  were  reported  as  at  work,  and 
33,547  as  neither  at  work  nor  in  school.  The 
whole  number  of  children  reported  as  enrolled  in 
the  public  schools  was,  at  this  date,  only  36,416  ; 
and  the  number  in  private  schools,  16.6  15. 

School  System,  —  The  system  consists  of  a 
board  of  education  of  fifteen  members,  appointed 
by  the  mayor  of  the  city,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  common  council,  1  high  school,  3  division 
high  Bchools,  1  normal  school,  21  district  schools 
with  grammar  and  primary  departments,  and  L5 
independent  primary  schools.   The  term  of  office 

of  the  men i hers  of  the  board    is  three  years,  five 

members  being  appointed  each  year ;  and  at  Least 
five  years'  previous  residence  is  requisite  for  el i- 
gibility  to  appointment.  Bythe"act  to  estab 
Gahand  maintain  a  Bystemof  free  schools",  which 
went  into  operation  July  1.,  1872,  the  board  of 
education  has  power,  "with  the  concurrence  oi 

the  city  council".  ( I  i  To  erect  or  purchase  build- 
ings suitable  for  Bchool  houses,  and  keep  the 
same  in  repair;  (2J  To  buy  or  lease  sites  for 
school-houses  with  the  necessary  grounds;   (3)  To 


issue  bonds  for  the  purpose  of  building,  fur- 
nishing, and  repairing  school-houses,  for  purchas- 
ing sites  for  the  same,  and  to  provide  for  the 
payment  of  said  bonds;  and  to  borrow  money  for 
school  purposes  upon  the  credit  of  the  city.  It 
is  also  empowered,  (1)  To  furnish  schools  with 
the  necessary  fixtures,  furniture,  and  apparatus  ; 
(2)  To  maintain,  support,  and  establish  schools, 
and  supply  the  inadequacy  of  the  school  fund  for 
the  salaries  of  teachers  from  school  taxes;  (3) 
To  hire  buildings  or  rooms  for  the  use  of  the 
schools  or  the  board ;  (4)  To  appoint  teachers 
and  fix  the  amount  of  their  compensation;  (5) 
To  prescribe  the  school-books  to  be  used,  and 
the  studies  to  be  pursued  in  the  schools  ;  (6)  To 
divide  the  city  into  school  districts,  and,  from 
time  to  time,  to  alter  the  same,  and  create  new 
ones  as  circumstances  may  require ;  and  (7)  To 
enact  such  ordinances  as  may  be  necessary  or  ex- 
pedient for  the  proper  management  of  the 
schools.  The  board  of  education  is  not  per- 
mitted to  increase  the  expenditures  beyond  the 
amount  received  from  the  state  common  school 
fund,  the  rental  of  school  lands,  and  the  amount 
annually  appropriated  for  such  purposes;  nor 
can  it  levy  or  collect  taxes,  or  demand  that  the 
city  council  shall  levy  any  tax  for  school  pur- 
poses, except  on  its  concurrence.  The  officers  of 
the  board  arc  a  president,  vice-president,  secre- 
tary, clerk,  assistant  clerk,  school  agent,  and 
messenger;  also  a  superintendent  of  schools  and 
an  assistant  superintendent  of  schools,  to  tin- 
latter  of  whom  is  entrusted  the  more  immediate 
supervision  of  the  work  of  instruction  and  dis- 
cipline in  the  schools.  There  is  also  a  building 
and  supply  agent,  who  has  the  immediate  super- 
vision of  all  the  buildings  and  grounds  used  for 
school  purposes,  and  who  attends  to  all  repairs, 
and  to  the  purchase  of  needed  supplies. 

The  course  of  study,  below  the  high  school, 
comprises  eight  grades,  four  of  which  are  known 
as  grammar  grades,  and  four  as  primary  grades; 
the  grammar  schools,  however,  embrace  all  the 
eight  grades,  instruction  in  the  four  lower  grades 
being  given  in  the  primary  departments.  The 
high  school  course  is  arranged  for  four  years, 
and  affords  instruction  in  the  higher  Knglish 
branches  and  in  the  modern  languages, preparing 
for  college  such  of  its  pupils  as  desire  it.  The 
division  high  schools  are  organized  with  a  course 
of  study  for  two  years,  excluding  all  foreign  lan- 
guages, except  German,  which  is  an  optional 
study. 

The   studies    prescribed   for    the    primary 

schools  are  reading,  the  rudiments  of  arithmetic. 

spelling  elementary  geography,  and  writing;  to 
these,  in  the  grammar  schools,  arc  added  higher 
geography,  English  grammar  and  composition. 
and  the  history  of  the  United  States.  Music  and 
drawing  are  systematically  taught  throughout 
the  course.  To  each  grade  some  topics  are  as- 
signed for  which  no  text-books  are  provided. 
These  topics  constitute  the  oral  course, which 
includes  various  branches  of  science  presented  in 
a  familiar  way.  and  designed  to  develop  the  in- 
telligence of  the  pupils,  as  well  as  to  impart 


CHICAGO  UNIVERSITY 


129 


useful  information.  German  is  taught  in  1") 
schools,  besides  t  ho  high  schools,  ami  is  super- 
vised by  a  special  superintendent.  There  is  a 
division  high  school  in  each  division  of  the  city  ; 
and  the  studies  taught  are  natural  science,  lan- 
guage, mathematics,  history,  and  civil  govern- 
ment. German,  music,  and  drawing  are  op- 
tional. The  establishment  of  these  schools,  with 
their  brief  and  practical  course  of  study,  was 
dictated  by  the  fact  that  more  than  fifty  per  cent 
of  those  who  annually  enter  the  High  School, 
leave  before  the  completion  of  the  second  year. 

Examination,  Licensing,  and  Appointment 
of  Teachers.  -Candidates  for  teachers'  certifi- 
cates are  examined  by  a  committee  of  the  board 
of  education,  consisting  of  four  members,  and  the 
superintendent.  Those  who  pass  the  examina- 
tion receive,  at  first,  partial  certificates,  testifying 
to  their  moral  character  and  intellectual  attain- 
ments. After  trial,  and  upon  the  joint  recom- 
mendation of  the  committee  on  the  appointment 
of  teachers  and  the  committee  on  the  school 
in  which  the  teacher  is  employed,  the  board  of 
education  grants  a  full  certificate,  certifying  to 
the  competency  of  the  holder  in  regard  to  all 
matters  of  instruction  and  discipline.  No  person 
is  eligible  to  any  position  as  a  teacher  who  is  not 
eighteen  years  of  age.  Teachers  are  appointed 
annually  by  the  board  of  education,  and  at  other 
times  by  a  committee  of  the  board,  when  vacan- 
cies occur.  These  latter  appointments  are  sub- 
ject to  confirmation  by  the  board.  Each  teacher, 
in  the  four  higher  grades,  is  responsible  for  the 
instruction  and  discipline  of  48  pupils,  and  in 
the  lower  grades  for  62.  About  half  the  teach- 
ers hi  the  high  and  normal  schools  are  males ; 
but  in  the  other  schools  there  are  very  few  males. 
— only  21  out  of  a  corps  of  671. 

Salaries  of  Teachers. — Male  teachers  receive 
from  SI, 000  to  $3,000  per  annum,  according  to 
position  and  experience.  Female  teachers  re- 
ceive from  $550  to  $2,000.  Certain  salaries  are 
attached  to  particular  positions,  and  no  distinc- 
tion as  to  sex  is  recognized  in  this  regard. 

The  private  schools  in  Chicago  are  quite  nu- 
merous, and  many  of  a  high  degree  of  efficiency. 
The  census  of  1874  enumerated  144  such  schools, 
including  the  various  classes  of  parochial  and 
denominational  schools,  female  seminaries,  select 
schools,  kindergartens,  etc.  The  number  of  pu- 
pils in  these  schools  was  reported  as  28,251, — ■ 
14,113  males,  and  14,138  females.  The  whole 
number  of  teachers  employed  was  097,  of  whom 
23'J  were  males,  and  458  females. 

CHICAGO,  University  of,  in  Chicago, 
Illinois,  was  chartered  in  1857  and  opened  in 
1858.  The  building,  a  magnificent  structure, 
costing  over  SI  1  7,000,  is  situated  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  city,  in  a  beautiful  grove  of  oaks. 
This  site  was  donated  by  Stephen  A.  Douglas. 
The  charter  provides  that  the  majority  of  trust- 
ees and  the  president  of  the  university  shall  be 
Baptists,  but  otherwise  no  religious  test  or  par- 
ticular religious  profession  is  required  for  admis- 
sion to  any  department  of  the  university,  or  for 
election  to  any  professorship  or  other  place  of 
9 


honor  or  emolument  in  it.  The  institution  em- 
braces a  preparatory  department,  a  collegiate 
department,  a  law  department,  and  a  med- 
ical department.  The  preparatory  department 
comprises  a  classical  course  of  four  years 
and  a  scientific  course  of  two  years.  Be- 
sides the  regular  preparatory  department.  Way- 
land  Institute,  at  Heaver  Dam,  Wisconsin,  for- 
merly Wayland  University,  is  now  conducted  as  a 
preparatory  department  of  the  university.  The 
collegiate  department  comprises  a  classical  course 
of  four  years ;  a  scientific  course  of  four  years  ; 
a  course  in  astronomy  of  two  years ;  and  a 
course  in  practical  chemistry  of  two  or  three 
years.  Provision  is  made  for  students  who  de- 
sire to  take  only  a  partial  course.  Young  women 
are  admitted  to  the  preparatory  and  collegiate 
classes  on  the  same  terms  as  young  men.  There 
is  a  museum  with  a  valuable  collection  of  speci- 
mens in  human  anatomy  and  physiology,  zool- 
ogy, entomology,  geology,  numismatics,  etc.  The 
university  also  has  valuable  chemical  and  philo- 
sophical apparatus.  The  library  contains  about 
20,000  volumes.  In  the  rear  of  the  uni versify 
building  and  attached  to  it,  is  Dearborn  Observ- 
atory, established  in  1805,  which  forms  the  astro- 
nomical department.  It  is  designed  not  only 
to  furnish  instruction  in  astronomy,  but  also  to 
make  original  researches  in  that  science,  and  aid 
in  its  application  to  geography.  This  observato- 
ry contains  a  fine  equatorial  refracting  telescope, 
of  23  feet  focal  length,  and  18£  inches  aperture, 
constructed  by  Alvan  Clark  in  1804,  and  a 
meridian  circle  of  the  first  class  constructed  in 
Hamburg,  with  all  the  necessary  appliances. 
It  is  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Truman  H. 
Safford.  The  price  of  tuition  in  the  university 
is  $70  per  annum  ;  room  rent,  $20.  The  uni- 
versity property  is  valued  at  $700,000,  and  there 
are  scholarship  funds  to  the  amount  of  $48,000. 
The  law  department  was  organized  in  1858.  It  is 
now  also  a  department  of  the  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity (at  Evanston,  Illinois),  and  is  known  as 
the  Union  College  of  Law  of  the  University  of 
Chicago  and  the  Northwestern  University.  The 
course  of  study  is  for  two  years.  The  Rush 
Medical  College  forms  the  medical  department 
of  the  university.  This  college  was  chartered 
in  1843,  and  organized  in  1844  ;  it  became  con- 
nected with  the  university  in  1874.  The  new 
college  building  is  near  the  new  county  hos- 
pital. In  1874: — 5,  there  were,  in  the  prepar- 
at  i  try  and  collegiate  departments,  8  professors  and 
7  other  instructors ;  in  the  law  department,  5 
professors  and  2  lecturers ;  and  in  the  medical 
department,  11  professors.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents was  011;  namely,  medical,  203;  law,  103; 
Wayland  institute,  96  ;  preparatory,  100  ;  col- 
legiate, 10!),  of  whom  (allowing  repetitions) 
3  were  resident  graduates,  3  in  astronomy,  7  in 
practical  chemistry,  22  in  partial  courses,  and  "'.) 
in  the  regular  classes.  The  Rev.  John  C.  Bur- 
roughs, LL.D.,  was  elected  president  in  1858 
and  remained  in  office  15  years,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  the  Rev. 
Lemuel  Moss,  D.  D. 


130 


CHILDHOOD 


CHILI 


CHILDHOOD.     See   A.GB. 

CHILI,  a  republic  of  South  America,  having 
an  area  of  126,034  sq.  in.,  and  a  population,  in 
~ls72,  according  to  official  calculation, of  2,003,346, 
exclusive  of  70,400  independent  Araucanians.  [ 
This  is  one  of  the  few  flourishing  states  of  South 
America.  It  has  been  almost  entirely  free  from 
civil  wars,  and  its  progress  in  education,  litera- 
ture, commerce,  and  general  prosperity  exceeds 
that  of  almost  any  other  South  American  state. 
The  government  favors  immigration  from  Eu- 
rope :  and,  in  L865,  the  number  of  foreign  born 
persons  was  23,220,  among  whom  there  were 
:{,s76  Germans,  3,092  English,  and  2,483  French. 
According  to  art.  5  of  the  constitution,  the  Cath- 
olic religion  was  permitted  to  the  exclusion  of 
all  others;  but,  in  L856,  a  treaty  with  England 
guaranteed  full  religious  liberty  to  all  English 
subjects;  ami,  in  lsii."),  an  Act  of  Toleration  was 
adopted  as  an  amendment  to  the  constitution, 
authorizing  not  only  the  exercise  of  non-Catholic 
religious  worship,  but  also  the  establishment  of 
non-Catholic  schools.  The  number  of  Prot- 
estants is  limited  almost  to  the  English  and  Ger- 
man immigrants  and  their  descendants.  Only  a 
tew  Protestant  congregations  have  been  estab- 
lished  among  the  natives  by  missionaries  from 
the  United  States.  The  national  language  is  the 
Spanish. 

The  Spanish  conquest  of  the  country  began 
about  L535;  and,  during  the  Spanish  rule,  Chili 
formed  a  viceroyalty  under  the  name  of  Estre- 
madura.  The  war  of  independence  began  in  1  si  o. 
and  was  virtually  terminated  in  1818.  The  in- 
dependence of  the  country,  however,  was  not 
recognized  by  Spain  until  L84  1. 

Public  instruct  ion  in  Chili  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  minister  of  justice  and  ecclesiastical 
and  educational  affairs.  It  is  his  duty  to  inspect 
all  the  schools  and  colleges  supported  by  the 
national  treasury,  to  appoint  all  the  teachers  and 
employes,  to  apply  to  congress  for  the  necessary 
sums  for  their  support,  and  to  present  every 
year  a  report  on  the  condition  and  progress  of 
education.  The  university  of  Chili  regulates 
the   studies  and   examinations   which  candidates 

for  the  different  scientific  courses  are  required  to 

pass,  examines  and  prescribes  the  text-books, 
makes  out  the  programmes  of  examination,  etc. 
The    primary  schools  are,   moreover,    under   the 

immediate  direction  of  a  general  visitor  of  schools, 

who  has  deputies  in  all  the  provinces,  and  whose 
central  office  is  at  Santiago.  It  is  his  duty  tu 
vi'm'i  the  schools  constantly ,  and  to  receive  detailed 
information  regarding  the  number  of  pupils  and 

the  COndud  of    the  teachers,  as  well  ;is  the  tinan- 

cial  condition.  The  municipalities  of  each  prov- 
ince exercise  a  vigilanl  inspection,  and  aid,  ac- 
cording to  theextenl  of  their  local  treasuries,  in 
supporting  the  educational  institutions. 

Primary  Instruction.  The  tirst  organization 
of  primary  instruction    in  Chili    was  due   to  the 

zeal  ot  Presidenl  Montt,  who  regarded  public 
schools  as  the  firmest  support  of  republican  in- 
stitutions. He  offered  in  1853,  a  reward  of  It""1 


pesos  for   the    best    treatise  on 


the  following 


three  questions  :  (1)  What  influence  has  public 
instruction  on  manners,  public  morality,  in- 
dustry, ami  the  development  of  public  wealth? 
(2)  What  educational  organization  is  the  most 
appropriate  in  view  of  the  national  peculiarities 
of  the  country  and  of  its  inhabitants?  (3) 
What  is  the  best  way  to  provide  for  the  support 
of  public  instruction?  The  prize  was  awarded, 
in  1855,  to  Miguel  Luis  and  Gregorio  Victor 
Amunategui;  and  the  views  of  the  successful 
treatise  were  the  basis  on  which  the  organization 
of  public  instruction  was  begun.  According  to  this 
treatise,  there  were,  in  1855,  39  I  public  primary 
schools  for  boys,  with  15,707  pupils  ;  95  schools 
for  girls,  with  4.297  pupils;  total  489  schools 
and  20,004  pupils.  The  number  of  private 
primary  schools  was,  for  boys  194,  with  5879 
pupils,  for  girls  105,  with  939  pupils;  total  299 
schools,  with  6,818  pupils.  The  aggregate  num- 
ber of  public  and  private  primary  schools  was 
7*S.  with  26,822  pupils.  Eight  years  later,  in 
L863,  the  number  of  schools  had  increased  to 
9S">  (5ss  public,  397  private),  with  47.717  pupils 
(35,4*0  in  the  public  schools,  and  12.247  in  the 
private).  Of  the  197  new  schools  which  had 
been  opened,  150  were  female  schools:  of  the  in- 
crease of  20,895  new  pupils,  11,027  were  girls. 
The  school  population,  embracing  the  children 
from  the  7th  to  the  15th  year  of  age,  numbered 
in  L863,  167,409  hoys  and  L67.838  girls;  which 
shows  that,  notwithstanding  the  great  progress 
that  had  been  made,  nearly  six-sevenths  of  all 
the  children  of  school  age  were  growing  up 
without  any  instruction.  In  bringing  these  facts 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  country,  the  minister  of 
public  instruction  stated,  that,  to  carry  out  the 
law  of  1860,  which  prescribed  the  establishment 
of  a  primary  school  for  every  2,000  inhabitants 
and  of  two  schools  of  a  higher  grade  in  the  chief 
town  of  each  department,  the  sum  of  970,000 
pesos  would  be  required,  instead  of  208,000  pro- 
\  ided  for  in  the  budget:  also,  to  cany  out  the  law 
of  I860,   it  would  be  necessary  to  establish  1(>70 

elementary  and  LOO  higher  schools,  besides  those 
previously  established.  As  the  government  did 
not  deem  it  advisable  to  raise  the  cost  of  pulilie. 
instruction  to  the  amount  thus   demanded,  it 

encouraged  the  formation  of  private  associations 
for  tin'  promotion  of  public  instruction,  and  also 
authorized  the  "Brothers  of  Christian  Schools" 

to  establish  schools:    but    though    much  has  been 

achieved  in  this  way,  the  number  of  schools  is  still 
insufficient,  and  the  number  of  children  attend- 
ing school  in  proportion    to  the  total  population, 

was.  in  L872,only  I  to  25.  The  number  of  public 

Scl Is.   in   the  same  year,  was  la  1  ;    of  private 

schools  706;  the  aggregate  number  of  children 
attending  school  (public  and  private)  was  54,821, 
and  the  annual  expense  tor  each  scholar  averaged 
8.98  pesos.  The  number  of  schools  for  adults, 
which  are  designed  to  afford  the  advantages  of 

education  to  those  who  have  grown  up  illiterate, 
was.  in  L855,  10:  and  in  1863,30,  of  which  24 
were  supported  bytJhestate.  Two  normal  schools, 

one   tor  male  ami  one   for   female   teachers,  were 

established  by  President   Montt.  in  L863.    The 


CHILI 


CHINA 


131 


candidates  for  admission  are  required  to  be  18 
years  of  age,  and  to  furnish  certificates  of  good 
behavior  and  good  health.  They  are  educated  at 
the  expense  of  the  state,  but  engage  to  accept 
the  position  of  teacher  at  the  place  assigned  to 
them  by  the  government,  The  smallest  salary 
paid  to  a  teacher  is  300  pesos.  The  course  of 
instruction  in  the  normal  schools  is  for  .'{  years. 
The  public  primary  schools  are  supported  by  the 
state,  by  municipalities,  or  by  monastic  organiza- 
tions. Elementary  instruction  embraces  reading, 
writing,  the  elements  of  practical  arithmetic,  and 
legal  weights  and  measures.  The  primary  schools 
of  a  higher  grade,  which  are  gradually  to  be  estab- 
lished in  the  capital  of  each  department,  but 
the  number  of  which  is  as  yet  quite  small,  teach 
also  Spanish  grammar,  higher  arithmetic,  draw- 
ing, an  outline  of  the  history  of  Chili,  the  con- 
stitution of  Chili,  and  book-keeping. 

Secondarylnsiruclion. — The  secondary  schools 
of  the  republic  embraced,  in  1863,  13  state 
lyceums  with  2,537  pupils,  4  episcopal  seminaries 
supported  by  the  state  and,  therefore,  also  re- 
garded as  state  institutions,  6  monastic  colleges 
with  210  students,  and  53  private  colleges  with 
2868  students.  The  study  of  the  classical  lan- 
guages has  of  late,  somewhat  declined. 

Superior  List  ruction.  —  The  highest  institu- 
tion of  the  country  is  the  Tnstituto  national, 
comprising  the  university  of  Chili,  a  preparatory 
college,  and  a  school  of  fine  arts.  The  university, 
which  embraces  five  faculties  (plulosophy  and 
philology,  law  and  political  science,  natural  sci- 
ence and  mathematics,  medicine,  and  theology) 
is  entirely  modeled  after  the  best  institutions  of 
the  kind  in  Europe,  and  a  large  number  of  the 
professors  are  distinguished  scholars  of  Germany 
and  France.  The  university  is  richly  endowed, 
and  possesses  excellent  collections.  It  has  pub- 
lished a  year-book,  called  Anodes  de  la  Uni- 
!••  r&idad  de  Chile,  by  means  of  which  it  keeps 
up  a  communication  with  similar  institutions 
in  Europe  and  America.  Among  the  institu- 
tions connected  with  the  university,  are  an  ob- 
servatory, a  national  museum,  and  a  national 
library. 

Special  Instruction.  —  Of  special  schools, 
there  are,  at  Santiago,  a  national  school  of  art  and 
industry,  a  military  academy,  a  school  of  agri- 
culture and  veterinary  science,  with  a  model 
farm  ;  a  school  of  midwifery,  an  institution  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  a  conservatory  of  music. 
The  most  important  schools  in  the  provinces  are 
a  school  of  mining  at  ( lopiapo,  a  nautical  school 
at  Valparaiso,  a  mariners'  school  at  Ancud,  a 
school  of  tine  arts  and  industry  at  Talca ;  and 
commercial  colleges  at  Valparaiso  and  Quillota. 

In  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of 
the  prize  essay,  the  government  makes  an  annual 
appropriation  for  the  establishment  of  public 
libraries  in  connection  with  public  schools;  and  a 
large  number  have  already  been  established.  — 
See  Le  Roy,  in  Schmid's  Realencuclopddie,  vol. 
ix,  pp.  848 — 857;  Anales  de  la  tmiversidad  de 
Chile;  Amunategui,  De  la  instruction  primaria 
en  Chile  (Sautiago,  1856). 


CHINA  Proper  is  a  country  of  eastern  Asia, 
extending  from  Ion.  98°  E.  to  123°  E.,  and 
from  lat.  Is1-'  V  to  43°  X.  Its  area  is  about 
L ,553,000  sq.  miles,  or  nearly  half  that  of  all 
Europe.     Inclusive  of  its  dependencies,  it  has  an 

extent  estimated  at  3,970,000  sq.  miles.  The 
population  of  China  Proper  is  estimated  at  about 
404,000,000,  (see  Behm,  mid  Wagner,  BevGlke- 
rung  der  Eh'de,  vol.  in.,  Cotha.  L875),  while  that 
of  the  vast  dependencies,  Mantchooria,  Tibet, 
Mongolia,  and  Corea,  is  believed  not  to  exceed 
20,000,000.  The  traditions  of  the  ( 'hincse  point 
to  an  immigration  from  the  west,  and  distinctly 
affirm  the  savage  character  of  their  ancestors. 
(See  L'Histoire  generate  dr  la  Chine  by  Eere 
Mailla.)  Unlike  the  civilizations  of  western 
Europe,  which  were  all  imposed  from  without, 
the  Chinese  civilization  seems  to  have  developed 
spontaneously  from  within.  Stagnant  though  it 
be  in  many  respects,  the  claim  that  <  'hinese  civili- 
zation has  remained  stationary  for  thousands  of 
years  seetns  unfounded.  Civilization  has  had  a 
peculiar  development  in  China,  but  still  it  has 
made  progress.  There  is  an  intense  national 
pride  among  the  people,  wdiich  is  not  altogether 
without  justification;  as  there  is  scarcely  a 
modern  invention  of  any  note,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  electricity  and  the  steam-engine,  which 
was  not  known  to  them  many  centuries  ago. 
The  mariner's  compass,  gunpowder,  printing, 
porcelain,  and  paper  were  known  to  them  soon 
after  the  Christian  era.  The  chief  religions 
are  Confucianism,  Buddhism,  and  Taonism; 
and  the  lack  of  religious  elements  in  these 
systems  has  led  to  the  charge  that  the  Chinese 
nation  is  atheistic.  Confucianism,  for  example, 
recognizes  no  personal  Cod  as  an  object  of  divine 
worship,  while  the  other  religious  systems  have 
grown  into  a  farrago  of  jugglery,  necromancy,, 
and  devil  worship.  In  all  the  empire,  there  is- 
but  one  temple  consecrated  to  the  worship  of 
the  Supreme  Deity,  and  but  one  worshiper — 
the  emperor — who  celebrates  the  pageant  once  a 
year.  This,  however,  is  a  degradation  from  an 
earlier  and  purer  form  of  monotheism.  The 
works  of  the  ancient  sages,  and  even  the  earlier 
wrorks  of  Confucius  abound  in  passages  showing 
a  higher  and  purer  conception  of  God  than  after- 
ward obtained.  (See  Life  and  teachings  of  Con- 
fucius, by  Dr.  Legge.)  The  language,  like  every 
thing  else  Chinese,  is  stri  generis.  It  is  neither 
Semitic,  nor  Aryan,  nor  Turanian.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, a  monosyllabic  language,  as  is  commonly 
said,  this  error  being  due  to  the  form  of  the 
printed  words,  in  which  the  syllables  are  sepa- 
rated, whereas  they  are  not  separated  in  meaning. 
The  alphabet  is  also  peculiar.  Instead  of  employ- 
ing letters  to  represent  sounds,  they  have  letters 
to  represent  things  and  words.  Hence,  the  lan- 
guage contains  many  thousand  signs.  A  dic- 
tionary of  the  second  century  of  our  era  contains 
9,353  signs.  The  imperial  dictionary  of  Kang- 
he,  the  most  recent  work  of  the  class,  gives 
43.960.  This  makes  the  language  one  of  extra- 
ordinary difficulty.  The  written  language  i- 
only  mastered  by  a  small  percentage  of  the  pop- 


132 


CHINA 


ulation,  and  even  scholars  do  not  by  any  means 
master  the  whole  number  of  signs.  A  knowledge 
of  ten  or  twelve  thousand  is  sufficient  to  make 
an  accomplished  graduate  ;  and,  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  two  or  three  thousand,  one  may  make  a 
very  fair  start  as  a  literary  man.  The  literature 
is  said  to  be  the  most  extensive  in  the  world. 
The  most  prominent  works  are  the  so-called 
Classics,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
supervised  by  Confucius.  They  are  five  in  num- 
ber, and  are  held  in  the  highest  reverence,  being 
looked  upon  as  a  standard  from  which  there  is 
no  appeal.  They  are  the  sacred  books  of  Con- 
fucianism, and  are  replete  with  rules  for  daily 
conduct,  public  and  private.  Apart  from  these 
Classics,  and  the  commentaries  upon  them,  which 
are  legion,  the  most  important  part  of  Chinese 
literature  consists  of  the  histories  of  the  several 
dynasties.  The  historian  of  the  western  Han, 
which  ended  A.  I>.  84,  gives  a  catalogue  of  the 
works  in  the  imperial  library,  comprising  clas- 
sics, philosophy,  poetry,  military  tactics,  mathe- 
matics, and  medicine.  The  literature  probably 
suffered  somewhat  from  the  barbarism  of  ( 'hi- 
hwang-te.who  attempted  to  immortalize  himself, 
about  21(1  B.  < '..  by  destroying  all  the  literature 
of  the  ages  that  preceded  him. 

Education  is  held  in  the  highest  honor.  No 
government  provision,  however,  is  made  for  pub- 
lic education.  The  government  fosters  it  only 
by  making  it  the  road  to  distinction,  and  by  sup- 
porting the  various  examinations.  Knowledge 
centers  in  a  mere  acquaintance  with  the  apho- 
risms of  the  Glassies.  A  scanty  knowledge  of 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  is  all  but  uni- 
versal;  but,  owing  to  the  peculiar  structure  of 
the  language,  one  may  be  able  to  read  a  little. 
without  having  any  knowledge  whatever  of  the 
rest.  Not  more  than  three  males  in  a  hundred 
can  read  the  classical  books  with  readiness,  and 
not  more  than  one  woman  in  a  thousand.  The 
oidy  course  of  instruction  necessary  to  obtain  a 
government  position,  is  a  classical  and  histor- 
ical one.  The  consequence  is  a  disregard  for  all 
branches  of  study,  which  are  not  practical,  and 
hence  a  most  astonishing  narrowness  of  all  culture. 
The  rights  and  duties  of  the  government,  and  of 
the  individual  in  his  several  social  relations,  form 
the  chief  subject  of  Chinese  books  and  instruc- 
tion. Confucius,  in  his  system,  adopts  the  prin- 
ciples of  dependence  and  subordination,  ana  the 
instruct  ion  of  the  schools  aims  to  impress  them 
carefully  upon  the  student.  The  great  end  of 
all  instruction  in  China  is  not  so  much  to  till 
the  head  with  knowledge  as  to  make  quiet  and 
orderly  citizens.  Any  thing  like  general  culture 
is  entirely  unknown,  except  where  the  Chinese 
have  been  Forced  into  contact   with  European 

nations.       They  have  ttO  ueed   of  science,  for   I  he 

Classics  contain  all  thai  is  worth  knowing. 
and  no  need  of  geographical  and  historical 
knowledge  beyond  mat  of  their  own  people,  for 
they  are  "celestials,"  and  all  outside  are  "barba- 
rians", female  education  is  almost  unknown. 
Girls  are  very  seldom  instructed  in  anything  but 
ordinary  house-work  ;  and  yet  a  learned  woman 


is  held  in  honor.  It  is  not  thought  right  that 
parents  should  conduct  the  education  of  their 
own  children,  because  the  relation  of  parent  and 
child  is  a  holy  one  and  would  be  disturbed  by 
the  necessary  severities  of  the  teacher.  Chil- 
dren begin  their  studies  with  their  sixth  and 
seventh  year.  There  is  no  compulsory  educa- 
tion. School-teachers  are  not  appointed  by  the 
state  and  need  no  official  permission.  Parents 
choose  the  teachers,  who  receive  from  $4f>  to 
$90  a  year  with  board.  A  teacher  takes  from 
twenty  to  thirty  scholars.  Public  school-houses 
do  not  exist.  The  arrangement  of  the  schools  is 
very  simple ;  a  teacher  has  a  table  and  arm- 
chair, and  every  scholar  has  to  provide  himself 
with  a  desk  and  a  chair.  There  is  in  every 
school-house  a  little  altar  dedicated  to  *  onfucius 
and  to  Wun-tschong-ya.  the  God  of  Science. 
I'pon  entering  school,  the  boys  receive  their 
school  names  in  place  of  their  so-called  " milk 
names."  The  first  school-book  is  the  Path  to 
lie  regions  of  classical  and  historical  literature. 
It  begins  with  the  methods  of  instruction  and 
their  necessity,  the  importance  of  the  duties  of 
children  and  brothers:  and  then  follows  an  over- 
sight of  the  different  branches  of  knowledge : 
the  great  powers,  heaven,  earth,  and  man  ;  the 
four  Beasons  and  the  points  of  the  compass  ;  the 
five  elements,  "  metal,  wood,  water,  fire,  earth  ;" 
the  five  cardinal  virtues,  ••  love,  justice,  wisdom, 
cleverness,  truth  ;"  the  five  kinds  of  grain,  the 
six  domestic  animals,  the  seven  passions,  the 
eight  notes  of  music,  the  nine  grades  of  relation, 
the  ten  social  duties.  After  this,  follow  rules  for 
a  course  of  academical  study,  with  an  index  of 
the  books  to  be  used,  a  short  account  of  the 
universal  history  of  China,  together  with  a 
list  of  the  successive  dynasties  of  the  empire. 
The  idea  is,  to  take  advantage  of  the  receptivity 
of  the  memory  at  this  period,  to  store  it  with 
tacts  to  be  afterward  digested.  The  method  of 
learning  to  read  is  as  follows  :  The  book  is  open 
and  the  teacher  begins  to  read ;  the  scholars 
have  each  a  book,  and  with  eyes  upon  the  book 
pronounce  word  for  word  after  the  teacher.  Only 
a  line  is  read  at  a  time,  and  this  is  repeated  until 
the  scholars  have  learned  the  pronunciation  of 
every  sign,  and  the  line  is  then  learned  by  heart. 
When  this  is  learned,  the  scholar  goes  to  the 
teacher,  lays  the  book  upon  the  table,  turns  his 
back  to  him.  and  recites  it.  Besides  reading, 
writing  is  taught  in  all  the  primary  BChools, 
but  there  is  no  instruction  in  reckoning,  geog- 
raphy, universal  history,  natural  history,  foreign 
languages,  or  even  in  religion.  This  reading  and 
writing,  however,  for  the  most  part,  is  the  mere 
ability  to  pronounce  or  make  the  signs,  and  does 

not  imply  an  understanding  of  what  is  read  or 
written;  a>  if  one  should  read  or  write  Latin  or 
Greek    words  without   any  comprehension  of 

their  meaning.  Those  who  wish  to  devote  thein- 
Belvea  to  study  receive  a  thorough  exposition  of 
the  Classics,  and  write  verses  and  essays.  The 
written  language  is  so  difficult,  that  more  time 
is  consumed  by  the  Chinese  student  in  mastering 
it  than  is  given  in  western  countries  to  the  ac- 


(MUX  A 


133 


quiremenl  of  a  libera]  education;  and  the  cele- 
brated literary  examinations  arc  limited  to  the" 
inquiry  whether  the  candidates  can  read  and 
write  with  readiness  and  grace.  This  study  is 
overseen  by  teachers  who  have  passed  an  exam- 
ination. When  one  lias  acquired  some  reputa- 
tion for  learning,  a  number  of  young  people 
gather  around  him  to  prepare  themselves  for 
examination  under  his  instruction.  Such  private 
colleges  arc  numerous  both  in  the  city  and  coun- 
try. Lectures  are  given  by  the  teacher  upon 
the  Classics,  and   essays   and  verses  are  written 

upon  them  once  a  week  by  the  students.  It  is  the 
custom  of  these  students  to  learn  a  large  num- 
ber of  standard  essays  by  heart,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain a  finished  and  correct  style.  There  are  four 
literary  degrees  :  The  first  corresponds  to  our 
B.  A.,  the  second  is  the  degree  of  "licentiate," 
tin'  third,  that  of  doctor,  and  the  fourth,  the 
degree  of  "member  of  the  imperial  academy.'' 
Public  examinations  for  the  degrees  have  existed 
in  China  since  the  Tang-  dynasty.  There  are 
three  examinations  for  the  first  grade.  The  first 
is  held  by  th3  mandarin  of  the  district,  and 
lasts  several  days.  The  candidate  has  to  furnish 
seven  essays  and  verses  upon  seven  subjects,  with- 
out a  hook  or  other  help.  The  second  examina- 
tion is  conducted  by  the  prefect  of  the  district, 
assisted  by  the  literary  chancellor  of  the  province. 
The  third  examination  is  under  the  control  of 
the  chancellor,  and  is  held  twice  in  every  three 
years.  Whoever  passes  all  three  examinations 
receives  the  degree  of  "blooming  talent,"  and 
although  he  has  no  claim  to  position,  he  is  still  a 
man  above  the  common  people.  If  he  neglects 
his  studies  he  may  lose  his  rank;  hence  he  must 
be  present  at  the  examinations  up  to  his  sixti- 
eth year.  Thousands  of  men  of  this  degree  be- 
come school-teachers,  doctors,  letter-writers,  ad- 
vocates, etc.  The  examinations  for  the  second 
degree  are  held  every  three  years,  in  the  capital 
of  each  province,  by  two  imperial  examiners 
from  Peking.  The  average  number  of  applicants 
is  twenty  thousand,  of  whom  about  two  hundred 
pass.  Besides  the  imperial  examiners  from 
Peking,  about  sixty-five  literary  officers  and  a 
multitude  of  servants  assist.  When  the  candidates 
enter  the  apartment,  they  are  searched  for  books 
and  papers  which  might  give  them  an  unfair 
advantage  ;  they  then  receive  the  work,  and  are 
shut  up  in  cells  of  about  12  sq.  ft.,  and  high 
enough  to  admit  of  their  standing.  The  exami- 
nation hall  contains  about  7,500  of  these,  arranged 
around  open  courts;  these  are  paraded  by  sol- 
diers to  prevent  any  communication  between  the 
candidates  or  with  the  outer  world.  The  exami- 
nation consists  chiefly  in  the  writing  of  themes, 
and  is  intended  to  last  nine  days  and  three 
nights.  \\  hen  the  work  is  done,  it  is  examined 
first  by  a  subordinate  commission,  to  see  if  the 
formalities  have  all  been  observed.     No  essay 

may  have  more  than  seven  hundred  signs,  nor  less 

than  one  hundred  :  and  correction  LB  in  no  case 
allowed.  The  work  is  afterward  laid  before  the 
imperial  examiners,  whogive  the  final  judgment. 
It  i.-  considered  an  honor  to  attempt  this  cxami- 


I  nation,  and  failure  is  never  looked  upon  as  a  dis- 
grace. The  licentiate  is  entitled  to  a  position 
alter  some  years,  and  has  the  right  to  hoist  a 
flag  before  his  house.    The  examination  for  the 

degree  Of  doctor  is  held  every  three  years  at 
Peking,  and  only  licentiates  are  allowed  to 
Undergo  it.  This  examination  is  the  same  as 
that  for  the  degree  of  licentiate,  except  that  the 
examiners  are  of  higher  rank.  The  names  of  the 
successful  candidates  are  entered  upon  the  civil 
Service  list,  and  they  receive  the  first  vacant 
position.  The  examination  for  membership  of 
the  imperial  academy  takes  place  every  three 
years  at  the  imperial  palace;  this  degree  is 
equivalent  to  an  office,  since  the  members  of 
the  academy  are  maintained  by  the  state. 

Contact  with  European  nations  is  gradually 
breaking  down  the  popular  estimate  of  the  Glas- 
sies, and  gradually  European  education  is  being 
introduced.  In  L866,  a  mechanical  workshop 
was  opened  in  Shanghai,  in  which  the  imperial 
officers  were  commanded  to  study.  In  18(>7.  a 
polytechnic  school  was  opened  in  the  sea  province 
Fu-tschien,  for  the  instruction,  by  foreign  teach- 
ers, of  talented  young  Chinamen  in  machinery. 
In  1868,  a  university  was  opened  at  Peking; 
where  the  instruction  was  afterward  on  the 
European  plan.  This  caused  a  good  deal  of  ex- 
citement among  the  conservatives,  but  all  to  no 
avail.  A  great  observatory  has  been  built  for 
the  university,  and  many  costly  instruments  ob- 
tained from  Europe.  The  student  in  the  uni- 
versity must  (1)  have  taken  a  course  in  the 
classics ;  (2)  he  must  live  in  the  university 
building,  and  be  present  from  morning  until 
evening;  (3)  he  has  to  pass  a  monthly  and 
semi-annual  examination  ;  (4)  after  three  years 
he  has  to  pass  an  examination  for  dismissal ;  (5)v 
he  receives  board  and  lodging  free,  and  about 
$  I  5  a  month  pocket  money.  Those  who  pass 
the  final  examination  are  viewed  as  belonging 
to  the  higher  classes  of  learned  men.  Besides 
scientific  instruction,  the  "  six  fine  arts  "  are  also 
taught :  (1)  Society  manners,  (2)  Music,  (3)  Arch- 
ery, (4)  Carriage  driving,  (f>)  Writing,(  (i)  Reckon- 
ing. Prince  Kung,  who  was  the  chief  mover  in 
founding  the  university,  complained  bitterly  of 
the  decay  of  mathematics  and  astronomy,  ow- 
ing to  a  monopoly  of  the  mandarins,  who  had 
procured  a  law  forbidding  any  one  to  study 
astronomy  under  heavy  penalties.  He  viewed 
it  as  the  greatest  glory  of  the  dynasty  to  have 
restored  to  his  father-land  the  mathematical  and 
astronomical  studies. and  whatever  the  Europeans 
have  built  upon  them,  as  an  old  property  of  the 
nation.  In  this  way  he  justified  to  the  jealous 
Chinamen  the  introduction  of  foreign  teachers  and 
foreign  inventions.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
which  had.  in  IsT'J.in  China  proper,  26  vicariates 
apostolic,  and  •'!  prefectures  apostolic,  and.  in  the 
Chinese  dependencies,  .'{  vicariates,  with  a  Cath- 
olic population  of  about  400,000,  supports  a 
large  number  of  schools,  some  of  which  are  of  a 
high  grade.  The  number  of  native  priests  is 
considerable;  and  most  of  them  receive  a  Euro- 
pean education  in  the  propaganda  at  Borne,  and 


134 


CHRIST  CROSS  ROW 


CHRISTIANS 


in  a  Chinese  missionary  seminary  at  Naples. 
The  Protestants,  who  have  formed  native  con- 
gregations in  the  treaty  ports,  with  an  aggregate 
membership  (in  1869)  of  :),l>24,  have  also  some 
schools,  and  make  considerable  progress  in  cir- 
culating the  Bible.  In  1872,  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment sent  30  students  to  the  United  States,  and 
30  more  were  to  come  each  year  for  the  succeed- 
ing four  years;  in  all  130. — See  Schmidt,  Ge- 
schichte  der  P&dagogik ;  Coircy,  1/ Empire  >/" 
Milieu  (Paris,  1867);  Davis,  Description  of 
China  mid  it  Inhabitants  (2  vols.,  London, 
L857);  Gutzlaff,  China  Opened  (2  vols..  Ixni- 
don.  1838);  Banspach,  Reports,  for  the  Years 
1863  and  1864,  of  the  Chinese  Vernacular 
Schools  (Hongkong,  1805);  Hit,  L' Empire  Chi- 
nois  (2  viilx.  4th  edit.,  Paris,  1862);  Williams, 
The  Middle  Kingdom  (N.  Y.,  1848). 

CHRIST  CROSS  ROW,  or  Criss  Cross 
Row,  a  familiar  designation  formerly  applied  to 

tlic  first  line,  or  row.  of  the  alphabet, as  arranged 

in  the  old  horn-books,  or  primers.  In  these  books, 
which  consisted  of  only  a  single  page,  the  letters 

were  printed  in  the  following  manner: 
-f-  A  a  b  c  d  efghijkl  m  n  o  p  q 
r  f  s   t    u    v    w    x    v    z    etc      a    e    i    o    u 
A    I!  C   I)   E   T  (i    II  U  K  LM  N  O  I'  <> 
8.8TD   V   W  X  V  Z. 

The  first  line  commencing  with  a  cross  was 
called    the  Christ  frnss  row,  or  briefly  the  cross 

row.  The  term  was.  however,  frequently  ap- 
plied to  the  whole  alphabet.  Thus,  we  read  in 
Dove's  Polydoron  (1631),  -of  all  the  letters  in 

the  CTOSS  rmr  a  "■  is  the  worst."  "The  cross  was 
placed  at  the  beginning,"  says  Johnson,  "to  show 
that  the  end  of  learning  is  piety.'' 

This  term  is  often  referred  to  by  the  old  writ- 
ers. In  Shakspeare's  Richard  III.,  .allusion  is 
made  to  it  by  Clarence  when  he  says  of  the 
king : 

•■Hi'  hearkens  alter  prophecies  and  dreams, 
Ami  from  the  cross  row  pluck9  the  letter  <;.'' 

Cotgrave  mentions  "La  croix  de  /»ir  Then, or 
Ln  cnii.r  <!•'  ./rs».t.  the  Chrisfs-crosse-rowe,  ox 
home-booke,  wherein  a  child  learns  it."  In  Spec- 
imens of  West   Country    Dialect,  we  find  the 

following    words,   used  by  one  who  is  teaching 

the  alphabet : 

•■  Ston  -'ill  there,  and  mind  what  I  da  za  to  ye,  and 
whaur  I  do  point.  Now;  criss-cross,  ghi  a,  little  a. 
b,  c,  d.  That's  right,  Billy;  you'll  zoon  lorn  the 
criss-cross  lain.-' 

In  the  autobiography  of  John  Britton,  bom  in 
1771.  iii  Wiltshire,  England,  the  following  pas- 
sage occurs:  "  I  learnt  the  <  'lirist  cross  row  from 
a  horn  hook,  on  which  were  the  alphabet  in 
large  and  small  letters  and  the  nine  figures  in 
Roman  and  Arabic  numerals.     The  horn-hook  is 

now  a  rarity."  -See  Ttmbb,  School  Days ;  Bar- 
nard's Journal  <f  Education,  vol.  \n.  art. 
A  B-C-Books  and  Primers.     (See  also  Horn- 

r> c,  ami  Primer.) 

CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS,  College  of 
the,  at  St.  Louis.  Missouri,  was  established  by 
Roman  Catholics  in  1855.  It  comprises 8  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  department,  and  has  a 
library  of  1.5,000  volumes,  Its  buildings,  grounds, 


etc.,  are  valued  at  0150,000.  In  1873 — 4,  there 
were  30  instructors.  270  preparatory  and  31  col- 
legiate students.  The  Kev.  Brother  James  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS'  COLLEGE, 
at  Memphis.  Tennessee,  was  opened  in  1871. 
It  is  a  Roman  <  'atholic  institution,  having  a  col- 
legiate, a  scientific,  a  commercial,  and  a  prepar- 
atory department.  The  college  possesses  valuable 
philosophical  apparatus  and  a  library  of  about 
L,500  volumes.  The  value  of  the  college  prop- 
erty is  $40,000.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  9  in- 
structors and  127  students,  of  whom  48  were  of 
a  collegiate  grade.  Brother  Maurehan  is  (1876) 
the  president. 

CHRISTIAN  COLLEGE,  at  Monmouth, 
Oregon,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Christians. 
It  was  formerly  known  as  Monmouth  University, 
but  was  chartered  under  its  present  name  in 
L865.  The  value  of  its  buildings  and  other  prop- 
erty is  estimated  at  $20,000  :  the  amount  of  its 
productive  funds  is  about  the  same.  The  college 
has  two  separate  coursesof  study,  the  classical  and 
the  scientific;  and  there  is  also  a  preparatory 
course.  Roth  >e\es  are  admitted.  A  student  may 
receive  a  certificate  of  graduation  in  any  of  the 
following  departments:  (1)  sacred  history, 
mental  and  moral  sciences:  (2)  natural  science; 
(3)  mathematics;  (4)  classics.  To  obtain  such 
certificate  it  is  required  that  the  candidate  should 
have  been  a  Student  of  Christian  College  at  least 
one  year,  and  that  he  should  pass  a  satisfactory 
examination  in  all  the  prescribed  studies  of  the 
department.  In  L873 — 1,  there  were  '.'  instruct- 
ors and  180  students.  T.  P.  Campbell,  A.  M.,  is 
(bs7iii  the  president. 

CHRISTIAN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Canton, 
Missouri,  was  chartered  in  L853,  and  organized 
in  18f>(>.  It  was  founded  by  the  Christian  de- 
nomination for  the  education  of  both  sexes.  Its 
buildings,  grounds,  etc.,  are  valued  at  $100,000. 
In  1S72 — 3  it  had  8  instructors  and  166  students. 
W.  1 1. 1  lo|u»i.  A.M..  is  ( L876)  the  president. 

CHRISTIANS  (sometimes,  but  improperly, 
pronounced  Christ  iansi,  CHRISTIAN  DENOMINA- 
TION, Christian  Connection,  and  Christian 
Church, are  name-  chosen, in  the  United  States, 
by  organizations  of   Christians  who  -seek  to 

unite  the  followers  of  Christ  of  every  persuasion, 

bj  the  breaking  down  of  party  walls,  party 
spirit,  and  sectarian  feeling  and  practice, and  by 
infusing  into  the  minds  and  hearts  of  all  lovers 
lit  i  he  eon  i  nn  m  Saviour  a  liberal  spirit,  thereby  in- 
ducing libera]  practice."  (See  Wellons,  Annual 
qf  the  Christian  Church  for  L875,  Suffolk,  Va., 
L875.)  They  have  no  rule  of  faith  and  practice, 
save  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  the  only  test  of 

fellowship  agreed  upon  is  Christian  character. 
They  believe  that  the  right  of   private  judgment 

and  entire  liberty  of  conscience,  in  reference  to 

those  points  of  doctrine  and  practice  not  con- 
sidered essential  to  sal  vat  ion.. should  be  accorded 

to,  and  enjoyed  by,  all;  and  that,  therefore,  all 

who    believe    in,   and    love    and    serve,  the    Lord 

•lesus  Christ,  ought  to  be  received  into  the  fel- 
lowship and  communion  of  the  Church.     They 


CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL 


CHURCH  OF  GOD 


135 


are  generally  Antitrinitarians  and  Baptists; 
they  cherish  prayer  meetings,  Sunday  schools, 
and  missionary  enter)  irises,  and  are  congregational 
in  church  government,  holding  animal  and  state 
conferences,  and  a  quadrennial  general  conven- 
tion. Tlie  first  organization  of  the  kind  was 
effected,  and  the  name  Christians,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  other  names,  adopted,  through  the  influence 
of  Rev.  •••  01 Kelly,  in  a  conference  held  in  Surry 
( lounty,  Va..  Aug.  4.,  1794.  The  new  organization 
consisted  of  seceders  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  A  similar  organization  was  established, 
a  tew  years  later,  by  seceders  from  the  regular 
Baptists,  in  the  New  England  States;  and  a  third 
in  I  sud.  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  by  a  number 
of  Presbyterians.  Soon  after,  the  three  bodies 
met  in  general  convention  and  were  consolidated 
into  one  denomination.  The  war  interrupted 
the  connection  of  the  Southern  with  the  Northern 
conferences,  and  the  former  organized  a  Southern 
■ral  convention,  which  held  its  first  session 
in  L866,  ami  the  fourth  in  IsTd.  The  main 
body  had,  in  1ST.").  1197  ordained  and  210  un- 
ordaiae  1  ministers,  and  <>1),T01  members.  The 
Southern  branch  had,  in  the  same  year,  (i  confer- 
ences. ~>T  elders,  12  licentiates,  and  about  10,000 
members. 

The  main  branch,  according  to  the  almanac 
published  by  the  denominational  publishing 
house  at  Dayton.  Ohio  [The  ('lirixtiun  Almanac 
fur  \  876),  had,  in  1ST"),  the  following  educational 
institutions:  Union  Christian  College,  at  Merom, 
Sullivan  County,  Indiana ;  Starkey  Seminary 
at  Eddytown,  Yates  County,  N.  Y.  ;  Proctor 
Academy,  Andover,  N.  H.,  and  the  Christian 
Biblical  Institute,  at  Stanfordville,  Dutchess 
County.  N.  Y.  The  latter  institution  was  for- 
merly situated  at  Eddytown,  N.  Y.,  and  was, 
in  18T2,  removed  to  Stanfordville,  where  sixty 
acres  of  land  had  been  bought  for  it,  at  a  cost  of 
318,000.  The  Institute  building  and  a  student's 
home  had  been  erected  by  the  Hon.  David  (dark, 
of  Hartford,  Ct.,  at  a  cost  stated  to  have  been 
between  820.000  and  §.'{0,000,  and  were  present- 
ed to  the  convention  as  his  free  gift.  It  offers 
free  tuition  to  worthy  young  men  and  women  : 
also  the  free  use  of  class-books  and  library,  and  to 
students  without  families  the  free  occupancy  of  a 
lodging  and  study-room  in  the  Students'  Home. 
The  Southern  branch  controls  the  Suffolk  Ool- 
legiate  Institute,  at  Suffolk,  Va.,  and  the 
Graham  High  School,  at  Graham,  N.  C. 

CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL,  or  Tin:  Blue-Coat 
School,  one  of  the  most  famous  charitable  in- 
stitutions of  London,  incorporated  by  Edward 
VI.,  in  1553,  as  a  hospital  for  orphans  and  found- 
lings. It  derives  its  name,  Blue-Coat  School, 
from  the  costume  of  the  boys,  which  has  con- 
tinued from  its  foundation.  This  consists  of  a 
blue  woolen  gown  or  coat  with  a  red  leathern 
girdle,  yellow  breeches  and  stockings,  and  a  black 
worsted  cap.  (diaries  li.  founded  a  mathemat- 
ical school  in  the  hospital,  in  K;T2.  the  students 
"f  which  arc  called  King's  boys.  The  age  of  ad- 
don is  between  seven  and  fifteen,  except  for 
die  King's  boys  and  the  "Grecians,"  or  boys  of  the 


highest  class,  of  whom  eight  are  annually  sent  to 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  The  government  of 
the  institution  is  vested  in  the  lord-mayor  and 
aldermen  of  London,  anil  those  who  have  con- 
tributed to  the  institution  the  sum  of  £400.  The 
total  income  of  the  hospital  is  about  £50,000. 
The  old  buildings,  which  were  destroyed  in  the 

great  fire  of  L666,  were  replaced  by  others  erect- 
ed under  the  direction  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 
The  present  edifices  were  erected  in  1825.  It  has 
ceased  to  be  a  charitable  institution,  and  is  now 
essentially  a  classical  school.  Latin  and  Greek 
form  the  basis  of  its  course  of  study,  but  all  the 
elementary  branches,  including  drawing,  the  mod- 
ern languages,  etc.,  arc  also  taught.  In  lti83,  a 
preparatory  school  was  built  at  Hertford,  in 
which  the  hospital  children  are  nursed  and  in- 
structed till  they  are  old  enough  to  enter  the 
school.  The  girls  remain  permanently  here.  Many 
illustrious  names  are  found  in  the  list  of  its 
graduates,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned, 
Camden,  the  historian,  Bishop  Stillingfleet, 
Richardson,  the  novelist,  Coleridge,  Lamb,  and 
Leigh  Hunt. 

CHRONOLOGY.     See  History. 

CHURCH  OF  GOD,  a  denomination  of 
Baptists  in  the  United  States,  organized  in  1830 
by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Winebrenner,  formerly  a  minis- 
ter of  the  German  Reformed  Church.  The  pe- 
culiar name  was  adopted  as  being  the  most  scrip- 
tural. Besides  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper, 
they  hold  feet-washing  to  be  a  positive  ordinance 
of  perpetual  standing  in  the  church,  and  obliga- 
tory on  all  Christians.  In  church  government, 
this  denomination  is  Presbyterian.  A  number 
of  congregations  form  an  eldersliip,  which  meets 
annually.  The  General  Eldership,  consisting 
of  delegates  from  annual  elderships,  meets  trien- 
nially.  ddiere  were,  in  1875,  13  elderships,  about 
400  churches,  and  about  25,000  members.  Sev- 
eral efforts  were  made,  between  1854  and  1866, 
to  establish  a  denominational  school,  but  they  all 
failed.  In  1872,  the  General  Eldership  was  vis- 
ited by  a  delegate  from  the  general  conference 
of  the  Eree  "Will  Baptists  (wdio,  like  the  Church 
of  God,  are  Arminian  in  theology) ,  wdio  proposed 
on  behalf  of  that  body,  that  the  Church  of  God 
should  take  an  interest  in  Hillsdale  College,  a  de- 
nominational school  of  the  Eree  Will  Baptists  at 
1  Iillsdale,  Michigan,  by  endowing  a  professorship 
and  designating  a  professor.  The  offer  was  ac- 
cepted, a  professor  chosen,  and  a  visiting  com- 
mittee to  the  college  appointed.  The  chair  was 
to  be  endowed  by  the  sale  of  scholarships.  At 
the  next  General  Eldership,  in  18T5,  the  board 
of  education  were,  however,  compelled  to  report 
that  the  effort  to  raise  an  endowment  fund  of 
si  n.ooo,  had  failed,  no  more  than  $200  having 
been  obtained.  In  accordance  with  the  request, 
the  board  of  education  was  relieved  from  the 
charge  of  completing  the  arrangement  with  the 
authorities  of  Hillsdale  College.  At  the  same 
time,  it  was  resolved  to  form  a  chartered  or  in- 
corporated society  to  take  charge  of  the  educa- 
tional interests  of  the  church,  and  similar  socie- 
ties in  all  the  annual  elderships. 


136 


CINCINNATI 


CINCINNATI,  the  metropolis  of  the  state 
of  Ohio,  having  a  population,  in  1870,  of  L'lG.'Jiiit. 

"Educational  "History. — The  first  effort  made 
in  behalf  of  education  was  that  of  John  Kidd, 
who,  in  1818,  devised  $l,000per  annum,  charge- 
able upon  the  "ground  rents  of  his  estate,''  to  be 
expended  for  the  education  of  the  poor  children 
of  the  city.  His  title  to  his  estate,  however, prov- 
ing defective,  his  devise  failed.  The  next  bequest 
was  that  of  Thomas  Hughes,  who.  in  1824,  left  a 
tract  of  land  the  perpetual  rent  of  which, 
amounting  to  $2,000,  was  to  be  applied  to  the 
same  purpose.  The  following  year,  the  legislature 
passed  a  general  law  applicable  to  the  state,  but 
making  no  special  provision  for  education  in  the 
cities.  Owing  to  inherent  defects,  however,  this 
law  became  inoperative;  and.  in  1830,  the  city's 
representatives  in  the  state  Legislature  procured 
the  passage  of  a  law  by  which  an  independent 
organization  was  given  to  the  schools  of  Cincin- 
nati. This  provided  tor  the  appointment  of  a 
board  of  trustees  and  visitors,  and  directed  the 
council  to  divide  the  city  into  ten  districts,  in 
each  of  which  they  were  required,  within  ten 
years,  to  purchase  a  lot  on  which  a  building  of 
brick  or  stone,  two  stories  high,  and  containing 
two  school  rooms,  should  be  erected;  the  cost  of 
which  was   to  be  defrayed   by    taxation.      Much 

opposition  was  encountered,  however,  by  the 
trustees  in  carrying  out  these  provisions,  the  ob- 
jection, on  the  pari  of  the  people,  to  taxes  lev  ied 

for  such  a  purpose  being  very  strong.  Want  of 
means,  and  the  unfriendliness  of  the  city  council, 
also,  produced  such  delay,  and  the  accommoda- 
tions provided  for  the  pupils  were  80  insufficient, 

that  the  sympathy  of  the  people  was  in  danger 

of  permanent  estrangement  from  thecauseof the 

schools.    At  this  juncture,  the  friends  of  education 

resolved  to  place  the  benefits  derived  from  the 
schools  before  the  people.    Annual  examinations 

of  the  pupils  were  publicly  held,  to  which  emi- 
nent men.  members  of  the  press,  and  teachers 
from  other  states,  wert'  invited;  and  these  were 
followed  by  imposing  street  parades  of  the  school 
children,  which  were  continued  for  several  years. 

The  result  was  a  hearty  endorsement  of  the  pub- 
lic schools  by  the  people,  so  that,  in  1833,  a  model 

schoobhou.se  was  1  milt,  a  nd,  in  1 83  Iandl835,eigh1 
public-school  houses  were  erected  the  whole 
at  an  expense  of  $96,1  59.4  I,  which  was  met  by  the 
issue  of  city  bonds.  The  cause  was  furthered  still 
more  by  the  establishment,  about  this  time,  of 
the  Western  College  of  Teachers,  and  the  open- 
ing of  the  Woodward  Sigh  School,  which  offered 

to   receive   annually,   for   gratuitous  instruction. 

ten  boys  to  be  selected  by  the  school  board  from 
the  common  schools.  In  1  s .' { 7 ,  the  constitution 
of  the  Bchool  board  was  changed  so  as  to  consist 
of  two  members,  instead  of  one,  from  each  ward. 
In  1839,  schools  were  established  in  orphan 
asylums;  in  1840,  the  German  language  was  in- 
troduced into  the  coi union  schools;  and.  in  1842, 

oighl  schools  were  opened.  The  harmony  of  the 
schools  was  disturbed,  in  L842,  by  a  violent  dis- 
cussion in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  Bible  in  the 

Schools,  which    has   been   carried   on   with   goal 


acrimony,  at  intervals,  ever  since.  The  Central 
High  School,  with  a  graded  course,  was  estab- 
lished in  L847  ;  the  Woodward  High  School  and 
the  Hughes  High  School,  in  1851.  In  1852,  the 
Woodward  and  the  I  Inches  funds  were  merged  in 
the  city-school  fund,  the  whole  being  managed 
by  a  union  board.  In  1849,  colored  schools  were 
established  by  law.  and  the  study  of  the  German 
language  was  authorized  in  some  of  the  district 
schools.  The  organization  of  intermediate  schools 
was  begun  in  1854,  the  object  being  the  consoli- 
dation of  pupils  in  such  a  manner  that  fewer 
teachers  would  be  needed.  In  18.">7.  the  first 
normal  school  was  opened,  the  number  of  teach- 
ers at  that  time  being  300.  In  L869,  the  Bible 
question  was  again  discussed,  and.  in  the  legal 
struggle  which  resulted,  it  was  excluded  from 
the  schools.  In  May,  1873,  the  legislature  passed 
an  act  for  the  re-organization  and  maintenance 
of  common  schools,  which  is  substantially  the 
present  law  of  the  city. — The  supervision  of  the 
schools  was  first  provided  for  in  1850,  the  first 
general  superintendent  being  Nathan  Guilford, 
who  was  elected  by  popular  vote,  lie  served  two 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Merrcll.  who  re- 
signed shortly  after.  In  1853,  the  law  was 
changed,  and  the  annual  appointment  of  a  super- 
intendent by  the  board  was  ordered.  A.. 1.  Rickoff 
being  the  first  incumbent  of  the  office  under  the 
new  law;  he  was  succeeded,  in  L866,  by  John 
Hancock,  and,  in  L874,by  Jno.  B.  Peaslee. 

School  System. — The  system,  at  present  (1876), 
comprises  26  district.-!  intermediate,  ami  2  high 
schools,  for  whites;  and  4  district  schools,  one 
intermediate,  and  one  high  school,  for  colored 
persons;  in  addition  to  which,  there  arc  inter- 
mediate departments  in  10  of  the  district  schools. 
There  are,  also.  ID  district  night  schools,  and  one 
evening  high  school.  The  legal  school  age  is 
from  6  to  21  years.  Three  courses  of  study  have 
been  adopted  by  the  union  board  of  high  schools, 
denominated  the  classical,  the  technological,  and 
the  general;  the  first  two  intended  as  preparatory 
to  kindred  courses  in  the  university,  the  last,  for 
pupils  whose  education  ends  in  the  high  school. 
The  fund  for  the  support  of  the  schools  is  derived 
from  a  special  three-mill  tax  on  property,  the  state 
tax.  the  income  of  the  Woodward  and  Hughes 
funds,  tuition  fees  paid  by  non-residents,  etc. 

The  chief  items  of  school  statistics  are : 

No.  of  children  of  Bchool  age 7(5,477 

"    "        "        enrolled  in  public  schools 28,999 

•'    "       "       In  average  daily  attendance. ..  .21,929 

"    "       "       attending  private  schools 1.6,464 

"     "         "  «'      '    night   schools 3,,.)7!> 

N'n.  of  teachers  in  public  schools 54.5 

Receipts  (1876) $695,000 

Expenditures  (1870) $(i!U,700 

Many  other  educational  institutions  exist  in 
Cincinnati.  The  Catholic  parochial  schools  edu- 
cate, it  is  estimated,  about  L 7, 000  children  ;  and 

different  religious  orders,  male  and  female,  annu- 
ally educate  many  children  and  young  ladies  in 
denominational     and    conventual    schools.      The 

University  of  Cincinnati,  which  is  liberally  en- 
dowed, took  possession  of  its  new  building  iu 
1875,  and  is  now  in  active  operation. 


CINCINNATI,  UNIVERSITY  OF 


CLASS 


137 


CINCINNATI,  University  of,  in  Cincin- 
nati. Ohio,  whs  organized  under  the  acl  passed 
by  the  general  assemblyof  Ohio,  April  L6.,  L870, 
"to  enable  cities  of  the  first  class  to  aid  and 
promote  education."  It  consists  of  three  depart- 
ments: the  Academic,  or  Department  of  Litera- 
ture and  Science;  the  School  of  Design  ;  and  the 
Observatory.  It  is  to  be  maintained  by  any 
funds  either  heretofore  or  hereafter  given  to  the 
n't  v.  for  the  purpose  of  founding  or  aiding  an 
institution  for  promoting  free  education.  The 
statute'  also  authorizes  any  persons  or  bodies 
corporate,  holding  any  estate  or  funds  in  trust 
for  the  promotion  of  education  or  any  of  the 
arts  or  sciences,  to  transfer  the  same  to  the  city 
as  a  trustee  for  such  purpose,  thus  affording  a 
means  of  consolidating  the  various  funds  now 
existing  which  separately  are  of  little  or  no 
avail  for  their  intended  purpose.  The  same 
statute,  furthermore,  authorizes  an  annual  tax, 
by  the  city,  of  one-tenth  of  a  mill,  for  the  sup- 
port of  such  institutions.  The  endowment  of 
the  University  of  ( 'incinnati  consisted,  in  1876, 
of  the  estate  devised  to  the  city  by  the  late 
Charles  McMicken,  in  L857,  the  annual  tax  of 
one-tenth  of  a  mill,  and  donations  for  special 
purposes,  amounting,  in  the  aggregate. to  s<l  25,000. 
The  donation  of  the  old  observatory  property,  on 
Mt.  Adams,  is  upon  the  condition  that  the  city 
shall  maintain  an  observatory  in  connection  with 
the  university,  and  was  accepted  by  the  city 
council  accordingly. 

The  institution  is  managed  by  a  board  of 
directors,  consisting  of  the  mayor  ex  officio  and 
L8  members,  appointed  by  the  common  council. 
It  is  open  to  both  sexes.  The  receipts,  in  1875, 
amounted  to  Sill). 74*. 92  ;  the  expenditures 
were  8 1  ( >s.si K5.S4, including $54,683.28  for  build- 
ing purposes.  The  academic  department  was 
opened  in  1873.  Three  courses,  of  four  years 
each,  have  already  been  established  ;  namely,  (1) 
The  Classical  Course;  (2)  The  Scientific  Course; 
(3)  The  Course  in  Civil  Engineering.  Besides 
these  regular  courses,  provision  is  made  for  stu- 
dents desiring  to  pursue  particular  branches  ex- 
clusively. The  work  during  the  first  year  is  rig- 
idly prescribed ;  but,  after  that,  a  large  amount 
of  option  is  allowed,  except  in  the  civil  engineer- 
ing course.  Candidates  for  the  degree  of  B.  A. 
or  B.  S.  must  choose  at  least  one  principal  study 
in  which  to  take  a  full  course  of  three  or  four 
years.  For  the  former,  this  may  be  either  an- 
cient languages,  modern  languages,  or  some  other 
literary  branch  ;  for  the  latter,  chemistry  and 
physics,  natural  history,  geology,  mathematics, 
astronomy,  or  some  other  science.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  elective  time  may  be  devoted  to 
other  full  or  partial  courses.  Instruction  is  free 
to  all  who  are  bona  fide  residents  of  Cincinnati; 
but  tuition  fees  are  charged  to  non-residents.  The 
course  pursued  in  the  city  high  schools  constitutes 
the  requirements  for  admission. 

The  north  wing  of  the  university  building  was 
completed,  and  occupied  by  this  department,  in 
October,  1>7">.  In  1S7(5,  there  were  Id  instructors 
and  51  students.   II.  T.  Eddy,  C.  E.,  Ph.  !>..  is 


(1876)  dean  of  the  faculty.  The  School  of  Design 
was  established  in  connection  with  the  Ohio 
Mechanics'  Institute  in  L863,  but  they  are  now 
entirely  separate.  This  school  occupies  rooms  in 
the  Cincinnati  <  'ollege  building;  and  there  are  day 
and  evening  sessions.  It  is  designed  especially  for 
residents  of  '  'incinnati,  but  others  may  be  ad- 
mitted. The  full  course  is  for  four  years.  In  1 876, 
there  were  6  instructors  and  402  students,  of 
whom  242  were  in  the  classes  in  drawing  and 
design.  1.'!.'!  in  wood-carving,  and  27  in  modeling. 
The  Observatory  was  established  about  LS44.  The 
new  site  is  on  Mt.  Lookout,  li  m.  from  the  city, 
one  of  the  highest  points  in  Hamilton  County. 
Besides  an  astronomical  library,  it  is  supplied  with 
first  class  instruments,  among  them  the  Mitchel 
refractor  of  12  inches  aperture.  It  is  (1876)  un- 
der the  direction  of   Ormond  Stone,  A.  M. 

CIVIL  GOVERNMENT.  See  Science  of 
Government. 

CLAFLIN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Orangeburg, 
South  Carolina,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  was  chartered  in  1869, 
and  opened  in  1870.  It  was  established  prima- 
rily for  the  education  of  colored  youth  of  both 
sexes,  but  no  one  is  excluded  on  account  of  race, 
color,  or  religious  opinions.  The  buildings, 
grounds,  etc.,  are  valued  at  $40,000.  In  1872, 
the  state  established  its  agricultural  college  and 
mechanics"  institute  in  connection  with  the  uni- 
versity. Three  departments  are  now  in  opera- 
tion, namely :  a  common  English  department,  a 
classical  preparatory  and  higher  English  depart- 
ment, and  an  agricultural  and  scientific  depart- 
ment. In  187-4 — 5,  there  were  f)  instructors  and 
188  students,  of  whom  151  were  in  the  common 
English  department,  37  in  the  higher  English,. 
and  65  in  the  scientific  and  agricultural  depart- 
ment. The  agricultural  college  and  mechanics' 
institute  has  a  productive  endowment  of 
$18d,000.  The  Baker  Theological  Institute  is 
connected  with  the  university.  The  Rev.  Ed- 
ward Cooke,  D.D.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

CLASS  (Lat.  classis,  from  Gr.  K/.aaic,  from 
naTitiv,  to  call,  because  applied  to  an  assembly  of 
the  people  when  called  together),  a  number  of 
pupils  or  students  in  a  school  or  college,  of  the 
same  grade  of  attainments,  receiving  the  same  in- 
struction, and  pursuing  the  same  studies.  When 
large  numbers  of  pupils  are  to  be  taught,  a  care- 
ful distribution  of  them  into  classes  becomes  requi- 
site; indeed,  nothing  is  so  important,  previous, 
to  the  work  of  instruction,  as  an  accurate  classi- 
fication. Heterogeneous  masses  of  children  can- 
not be  instructed  simultaneously.  They  may  be 
made  to  perform  mechanically  certain  school  ex- 
ercises,— may,  perhaps,  be  taught  to  read,  to 
spell,  to  write,  and  to  cipher  to  some  extent ;  but 
it  can  only  be  by  rote,  without  the  due  exercise 
of  their  intelligence,  and,  hence,  without  proper 
mental  development.  A  poorly  classified  school 
can  never  be  really  efficient,  whatever  talent  in 
teaching  may  be  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  Then 
is  no  doubt  that  individual  teaching  has  many 
advantages  over  the  teaching  of  classes;  since 
there  is  a  better  opportunity  to  observe  the  pu- 


138 


CLASS 


pils'  peculiar  traits  of  character,  and  to  adapt  the 
instruction  to  them  ;  but  class  teaching  approx- 
imates to  individual  teaching  in  proportion  as 
the  classification  is  so  accurate  as  to  bring  to- 
gether under  the  influence  of  the  teacher  pu]  tils 
of  a  like  grade  of  attainments,  and  of  similar 
disposition,  temperament,  and  mental  constitu- 
tion. Of  course,  such  a  degree  of  accuracy  in 
classification  is  ordinarily  impossible  ;  but  this 
is  the  ideal  standard  to  which  the  teacher  shovdd 
always  endeavor  to  approximate  in  organizing 
the  classes  of  his  school. 

A  pi-oper  limit  as  to  the  size  of  classes  should 
be  carefully  observed.  This  is  difficult  to  fix 
by  the  statement  of  any  particular  number, since 
the  number  of  pupils  that  may  be  properly 
placed  under  the  instruction  of  a  single  teacher 
will  vary  with  the  age  and  character  of  the  pu- 
pils, the  evenness  of  the  grade,  and  the  skill  and 
experience  of  the  teacher  himself.  When  the 
number  is  between  50  and  LOO,  or  over,  as  it 
sometimes  is  ill  the  large  city  schools,  of  course 
no  proper  result  can  be  effected.  "In  a  large 
class."  says  Eteid  [Principles  of  Education), 
"each  of  whom  seldom,  and  at  best  only  for  a 
short  time,  receives  individually  any  attention 
from  the  teacher,  the  progress  is  slow,  the  facul- 
ties little  develop,' Land  the  education  altogether 
v.tv  imperfect."  The  danger  inseparably  con- 
nect e  1  with  the  indiscriminate  treatment  of  pu- 
pils of  different  characteristics  has  been  often 
referred  to  by  experienced  educators.  Thus,  we 
find  in  a  work  designed  to  aid  practical  teachers, 
the  following  important  admonitions  :  "In  every 
class,  however  well  graded,  the  pupils  will  differ 
much  in  age,  health,  mental  capacity,  and  home 
advantages.  A  correct  and  judicious  classifica- 
tion will  reduce  this  inequality  to  a  minimum  ; 
but  there  will  still  remain  a  wide  field  for  the 
exercise  of  discrimination,  care,  and  caution  on 
the  part  of  the  class-teacher.  The  lessons  should, 
in  all  respects,  be  adapted  to  the  average  ability 
of  the  pupils  of  the  class  ;  but,  even  beyond  this, 
some  allowance  will  often  have  to  be  made  in  th  i 
case  of  pupils  of  quite  inferior  mental  capacity 

or  opportunities  for  ho stu  lies  :"  ami  further, 

"  Teachers  are  especially  admonished  to  be  con- 
dderate  toward  pupils  of  a  delicate  constitution, 

an  over-excitable  brain  and  nervous  system,  or  in 
temporary  ill  health.  Many  children  of  thiscla^s 
precocious  hi  mental  activity  and  exceedingly 
ambitious  to  excel :  ami  the  greatest  care  is  re- 
quired to  prevenl  them  from  Injuring  themselves 
by  an  inordinate  devotion  to  books  and  study." 

(Sec  How  to  Teach  N.  Y..  L873.)     The  < ipar- 

ative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  home  (in- 
dividual) instruction,  and  school  (class!  instruc- 
tion  are   quite  fully  discussed    in    Isaac  Taylor's 

I Inni'-  Education.  •  \  principal  and  necessary 
distinction,"  he  remarks, "  between  the  two  sys- 
tems   is   this,  that  while,  in    the   one,  all  methods 

of  instruction  and  modes  of  training  are  or  may 
be,  with  more  or  less  exactness,  adapted  to  the 
faculties,  tastes,  and  probable  destination  of  the 

pupils  singly,  and  may   he  accommodated  to  the 

individual  ability  oi  each:  in  the  other  .system. 


that  is  to  say  at  school,  it  is  the  mass  of  minds 
only,  or  some  few  general  classes,  at  the  best,  that 

can  be  thought  of Lad  yet  even  this  undistin- 

guishing  mechanism,  which  is  proper  to  a  school, 
and  which  carries  all  before  it  with  a  sort  of 
blind  force,  is  in  itself,  in  some  respects,  a  good; 
and  if  some  are  the  victims  of  it,  to  others  it  may 
be  beneficial.  There  are  children  who  are  not 
to  be  advanced  at  all,  except  by  the  means  of 
a  mechanical  momentum  ;  and  such  might  well 
be  sent  from  home  to  school,  on  this  sole  account, 
that  they  will  then  be  carried  round  on  the  ir- 
resistible wheel-work  of  school  order But  al- 
though in  a  large  school,  even  when  broken  up 
into  classes,  little  regard  can  equitably  lie  paid 
to  individual  peculiarities  of  faculty  or  taste, 
the  principle  which  is  characteristic  of  home  edu- 
cation, may  readily  be  extended  to  schools  not 
much  exceeding  the  bounds  of  a  numerous  fam- 
ily. In  fact.it  is  only  the  personal  ability  of  the 
teacher,  his  tact,  his  intelligence,  and  his  assi- 
duity, that  can  fix  the  limits  within  which  the 
principle  of  adaptation  may  be  made  to  take  ef- 
fect." The  number  of  pupils  that  should  lie 
placed  in  a  class  is.  therefore,  a  matter  requiring 
the  utmost  exercise  of  good  judgment,  taking 
cognizance  of  all  attending  circu instances. 

What  should  constitute  the  basis  of  classifica- 
tion is  also  a  matter  requiring  a  careful  consider- 
ation. The  several  grades  of  the  course  of  study 
should,  of  course,  be  exactly  defined,  and  all  the 
Subjects,  or  parts  of  subjects,  prescribed,  should 
lie  carefully  adjusted. so  that  the  various  require- 
ments of  the  grade  may  be  accomplished  simul- 
taneously, and  a  due  proficiency  in  each  may 
constitute  the  basis  of  distribution  or  promotion 
at  every  reorganization  of  the  classes.  Still,  let 
the  adjustment  be  as  nice  as  practicable, some 
diversity  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  each  period 
of  instruction.  One  pupil,  for  example,  will 
have  made  good  progress  in  arithmetic,  but  very 
little  in  reading,  writing,  grammar,  etc.  What, 
then,  is  to  be  done?  If  the  average'  progress  is 
taken,  pupils  of  such  unequal  attainments  in 
particular  studies  may  be  broughl  together,  that 
the  teacher  will  find  it  impossible  to  give  instruc- 
tion to  one  portion  of  the  class  without  neglect- 
ing the  other,  or  will    lie  obliged    to  divide    his 

class  into  Bub-grades,  and  thus  .sacrifice  much 
time  in  attending  to  each  separately.  This  dif- 
ficulty is  often. measurably, Obviated  by  selecting 
some   one    branch   of   instruction,  as  arithmetic, 

and  basing  the  classification  upon  the  pupils'  at- 
tainments in  this  subject,  working  constantly 
thereafter  to  bring  the  pupils,  as  far  as  may  he 
necessary,  up  to  the  same  standard  in  other  sub- 
jects. 

Whether  a  school  is  best  taught  by  classes  or 
by  subjects,  is  a  question  that  has  received  much 

attention  from  educators;  that  is  to  say.  whether 
each  teacher  shall  instruct  a  particular  class  in 
all  the  branches  of  study  which  the  pupils  are 
required  to  pursue:  or  whether  each  class  shall 
be  taughl  in  succession  by  Beveral  teachers,  each 
one  taking  a  particular  subject  or  class  of  sub- 
jects.     The   diversity   of    attainments,    mental 


CLASSICAL  STUDIES 


139 


tastes,  and  special  skill  among  teachers,  won  Id 
seem  to  dictate  the  subject  system  rather  than 

the  class  system  ;  since,  were  certain  liranches  as- 
sumed as  a  specialty  to  each  teacher,  there  would 
be  more  time  for  the   careful    study  by  the 

teacher,  not  only  of  the  liranches  themselves,  but 
of  the  proper  methods  of  teaching  them  ;  and,  of 
course,  better  work  would  necessarily  be  done. 
Other  considerations,  however,  seem  partially  or 
wholly  to  neutralize  this  apparent  advantage. 
The  success  of  a  teacher,  especially  of  young  pu- 
pils, depends  upon  his  thorough  knowledge  of 
their  disposition,  and  also  upon  their  familiarity 
with  his  characteristics;  and  this  knowledge  it 
would  bedifficult  to  acquire  if  the  teacher  were 
required  to  spend  but  a  short  time  with  each 
class,  and  his  means  of  acquiring  it  were  dis- 
tributed over  a  number  of  classes.  Some  edu- 
cators, however,  take  a  view  directly  opposed  to 
this.  "  If  the  pupil,"  says  Wickersham,  "recite 
always  to  the  same  teacher,  he  may  become  fa- 
miliar with  certain  lines  of  thought,  but  he  will 
most  likely  be  confined  to  them.  He  might  be 
Trained  by  a  more  unvaried  discipline,  but  it 
is  a  discipline  in  one  direction.  He  becomes  im- 
bue 1  with  his  teachers  peculiar  opinions,  ac- 
quires his  manners,  and  is  apt  to  create  a  little 
world  in  which  his  teacher  is  the  reigning  sover- 
eign and  himself  the  most  conspicuous  citizen  of 
the  realm.  It  is  much  better  for  all  pupils  to 
have  different  teachers,  with  different  tastes,  tal- 
ents, and  opinions  ;  but  it  is  very  important  that 
this  should  be  the  case  with  advanced  pupils." 
Nevertheless,  it  has  generally  been  found  that 
much  better  discipline. — a  tinner  control,  prevails 
in  schools  conducted  under  the  class-teaching 
plan  than  in  those  taught  on  the  subject  or  de- 
partmental system  ;  and,  consequently,  the  for- 
mer is  the  prevalent  mode  of  organization  in 
large  public  schools.  In  district  or  private 
schools  consisting  of  but  few  pupils,  and  in  insti- 
tutions of  a  higher  grade,  as  high  schools,  col- 
leges, and  universities,  the  other  system  is  in- 
variably, and  of  course  necessarily,  employed. 

Instead  of  requiring  all  the  members  of  a  class 
to  study  the  same  branches,  some  schools  are  so 
organized  that  pupils  recite  different  studies  in 
different  classes.  This  method  has  sometimes 
been  denominated  a  loose  classification.  It  en- 
courages unequal  attainments,  the  pupil  being 
stimulated  to  do  his  best  in  each  study  without 
any  regard  to  his  progress  in  other  studies.  This 
i-.  of  course,  a  great  disadvantage.  Besides,  it 
requires  a  constant  change  of  classes  in  the 
working  of  the  school,  and,  consequently,  makes 
the  discipline  more  difficult.  "  1  recommend," 
says  Wickcrshani  (School  Economy),  "a  close 
classification,  with  such  departures  from  it  as 
overruling  circumstances  may  make  expedient.'' 
—See  Wki.i.s.  Graded  Schools  (N.  Y„  1862); 
Wickebsham,  School  Economy  (Phil.,  1864); 
Isaac  Tavi.or,  Home  E'inrn/io//  (London  and 
K.  Y.,  L836) ;  Le  Vaox,  Science  and  Art  of 
Teaching  (Toronto.  1875). 

CLASSICAL  STUDIES,   a  term  denoting 
the  study  of  the  Latin  and  ( deck  languages  and 


literatures.  The  word  classical  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  word  c/ussif/is,  that  is,  relating  to 
the  classes  of  the  Roman  people,  especially  to 
the  first  class.  The  b-st  authors  known  to  the 
Romans,  both  Latin  and  Creek,  were  rated  as 
classici,  that  is,  of  tJie first  class,  or  classics.  The 
expression  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  the 
standard  authors  of  any  nation,  but  it  is  chiefly 
applied,  as  it  was  originally,  to  the  standard  Latin 
and  <  ireek  writers. 

The  study  of  Latin  and  (ireek  occupies  a  very 
prominent  part  in  the  educational  history  of  the 
Christian  and  civilized  world,  and  still  constitutes 
a  principal  branch  of  instruction  in  institutions 
of  the  middle  and  higher  grades.  The  Romanic 
countries.  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France,  in 
which  new  languages  gradually  and  slowly  arose 
out  of  a  mixture  of  the  Latin  and  the  native  lan- 
guages, naturally  retained  the  Latin  as  their 
exclusive  literary  language.  In  the  Germanic 
world,  a  knowledge  of  Latin  was  no  less  indis- 
pensable, on  account  of  the  connection  of  the 
churches  with  the  see  of  Rome.  The  Sacred 
Scriptures,  and  the  ecclesiastical  literature  in 
general,  were  only  accessible  in  Latin  ;  and,  as 
none  of  the  native  languages  had  a  literature, 
Latin  was  the  only  key  to  the  scanty  amount  of 
information  which,  at  that  time,  was  attainable. 
In  the  cathedral,  collegiate,  and  convent  schools 
of  the  middle  ages.  Latin  was  not  only  a  subject 
of  study,  but  also  the  vehicle  of  instruction. 
( 'harlemagne,  in  the  schools  founded  by  him, 
promoted  the  study  not  only  of  Latin,  but  also 
of  (ireek.  His  example,  however,  found  little 
imitation ;  and,  until  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  Greek  was  taught  in  but  few  of  the 
schools  of  western  Europe,  and  even  the  knowl- 
edge of  Latin  was  quite  rare.  Though  it  was  the 
official  language  of  the  Church,  the  acquaintance 
of  the  great  majority  of  priests  with  it  appears 
to  have  been  very  imperfect.  The  growing  op- 
position to  scholasticism  awakened  a  new  inter- 
est in  the  Latin  classics ;  and,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  learned 
Byzantine  Emmanuel  Chrysoloras  taught  Greek 
in  Italy,  the  study  of  the  Greek  language  and 
literature  spread  throughout  western  Europe. 
The  Reformation,  while  it  favored  the  tise  of 
(lie  native  languages  in  preference  to  the  Latin, 
for  divine  worship,  encouraged  the  study  of 
the  Latin  classics  in  opposition  to  the  writings 
of  the  representatives  of  mediaeval  scholasticism. 
At  the  same  time,  a  great  impulse  was  given 
to  the  study  of  Greek,  since  the  Protestant 
churches  urged  a  thorough  study  of  the  (ireek 
Testament,  in  preference  to  the  Vulgate.  In  the 
Protestant  as  well  as  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
countries,  the  Latin  remained  the  usual  medium 
of  literary  productions,  and  thus  Latin  classics 
continued  to  be  a  very  important  agent  in  the 
education  of  the  European  nations.  The  increas- 
ing interest  in  the  natural  sciences,  and  the  Spread 
of  Utilitarian  tendencies,  which  found  a  distin- 
guished representative  in  the  Philanikropin, led, 
Fn  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
to   a   considerable    restriction  of   Latin,    in   all 


140 


CLASSICAL  STUD1KS 


schools  of  a  lower  grai  le,  and  to  a  fierce  con  t  r<  >versy 
in  regard  to  the  propriety  of  classical  studies,  in 
general,  in  the  course  of  instruction  prescribed 
for  schools  of  a  higher  grade.  This  controversy 
is  not  yet  ended  ;  and  the  relative  importance  of 
these  studies,  as  compared  with  other  subjects  of 
instruction,  is  still  greatly  disputed.  The  op- 
position to  the  prominence  which  was  formerly 
accorded  to  classical  studies  in  colleges,  gymna- 
siums, and  similar  schools,  has  been  so  far  suc- 
cessful, that  the  course  of  instruction  in  all  schools 
of  this  grade,  now  embraces  subjects  formerly  ex- 
cluded; and,  moreover,  institutions  of  a  higher 
grade  have  been  organized,  in  which  classical 
studies  are  either  entirely  excluded,  or  reduced 
to  a  secondary  or  auxiliary  position.  A  large 
Dumber  of  American  colleges  and  universities 
have  arranged,  in  addition  to  the  full  classical 
course,  a  scientific  course,  from  which  Greek  is 
always  and  Latin  generally  excluded:  and  the 
large  patronage  which  this  arrangement  has 
attracted  presents,  of  course,  a  very  strong  in- 
ducement for  all  colleges  to  yield  to  what  appears 
to  be  a  general  demand.  In  Germany,  a  sharp 
controversy   is  still  pending   on   the    question 

whether    the    state    government    should    confer 

upon  the  real  schools  in  which  either  Greek  or 

classical  studies,  in  general,  are  excluded,  the 
right  of  conferring  certificates  of  maturity  for 
the  university.    On  the  part  of  those  who  de 

inand  that  classical  studies  should  be  retained  as 
a  prominent  and  essential  part  of  a  higher  edu- 
cation, it  is  argued  that  the  organic  structure  of 
the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  is  more  nearly 
perfect  than  that  of  any  other  language,  and  that. 

by  the  great  diversity  of  their  inflections,  they 

express   re   fully  and   exactly  all   the  various 

and  minute  modifications  of  thought.  The  fact 
that  they  are  no  longer  living  languages,  is  urged 

as  an  advantage:  because,  being  complete  organ- 
isms, they  afford  a  better  means  of  mental  dis- 
cipline  than    the   modern    languages,   which    arc 

continually  undergoing  important  changes.  The 
mutual  relation  of  the  two  classical  languages  is 
represented  as  such  that  they  supplement  each 

other,  the  Latin   being    more    artistic,  rhetorical, 

and  pathetic:  while  the  Greek  bears,  to  a  greater 
extent,  the  impress  of  naturalness,  refinement, 
and  freedom.  The  literatures  of  Rome  and  I  i  recce 
are  regarded  as  no  less  indispensable  than  their 
languages.  Translations, it  is  claimed,  will  never 

succeed  in  reproducing  all  the  excellencies  of  a 
literary    masterpiece;     and    the    standard    works 

of  classic  literature  are  models  of  such  perfection, 

that,  like  the  ancient  worksof  plastic  art,  they  are 
Sure  to  remain    for  all  time   the   instrumentality 

for  teaching  those  who  aspire  to  a  higher  edu- 
cation. There  is  do  country,  in  either  Europe 
or  America,  which,  tor  its  intellectual  develop- 

■  hi,  n!,  has    not    leaned  on  the  pillars  of  the  I  aim 
and  Greek  classics,  and  a  normal  and  continuous 

growth  of  our  modern  literatures  is  not  conceiv- 
able, without  an  uninterrupted  connection  with 
the  chief  sources  of  our  Intellectual  life.  This 
connection  is  necessary  tor  all  branches  of  science  : 
for  some,  as  theology,  philosophy,  philology,  law. 


and  medicine,  it  will  obviously  appear  so  indis- 
pensable that  no  student  of  any  of  these  sciences 
will  ever  think  of  disputing  it. 

John  Stuart  Mill,  in  an  address  delivered  in 
the  university  of  St.  Andrews,  on  his  inaugura- 
tion as  rector,  strongly  expressed  his  preference 
for  classical  studies  as  compared  with  modern 
languages.  "  The  only  languages,"  he  says,  "and 
the  only  literature  to  which  I  would  allow  a 
place  in  the  regular  curriculum,  are  those  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans,  and  to  these  I  would 
preserve  the  position  in  it  which  they  at  present 
occupy."  The  superiority  of  the  Latin  and  <  Sreek 
languages  over  any  other,  ancient  or  modern,  is 
thus  explained  by  -Mr.  Mill  :  "The  principles  and 
rules  of  grammar  are  the  means  by  which  the 
forms  of  language  are  made  to  correspond  with 
the  universal  forms  of  thought.  The  distinctions 
between  the  various  parts  of  speech,  between 
die  eases  of  nouns,  the  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs, 
the  functions  of  particles,  are  distinctions  in 
thought,  not  merely  in  words.  Single  nouns  and 
verbs  express  objects  and  events,  many  of  which 

can  be  cognized  by  the  senses;  but  the  modes  of 

putting  nouns  and  verbs  together,  express  .the 
relations  of  objects  and  events  which  can  be 
cognized  only  by  the  intellect:  and  each  different 
mode  corresponds  to  a  different  relation.  The 
structure  of  every  sentence  is  a  lesson  in  logic. 
The  various  rules  of  syntax  oblige  us  to  dis- 
tinguish   between    the   subject  and  predicate  of  a 

proposition,  between  the  agent,  the  action,  and 

the  thing  acted  upon:  to  mark  when  an  idea  is 
intended  to  modify  or  qualify,  or  merely  to  unite 
with  some  other  idea:  what  assertions  are 
categorical,  what  only  conditional ;  whether  the 
intention  is  to  express  similarity  or  contrast,  to 
make  a  plurality  of  assertions  conjunctively  or 
disjunctively;  what  portions  of  a  sentence, 
though  grammatically  complete  with  them- 
selves, are  mere  members  or  subordinate  parts 
of  the  assertion  made  by  the  entire  sentence. 
Such  things  form  the  subject-matter  of  universal 
grammar;  and  the  languages  which  teach  it  best 
are  those  which  have  the  most  definite  rules. and 
which  provide  distinct  forms  for  the  greatest 
number  of  distinctions  in  thought — BO  that  if  we 
fail  t<>  attend  precisely  and  accurately  to  any  of 
these,  we  cannot  avoid  committing  a  solecism  in 
language.  In  these  qualities,  the  classical  Ian- 
guaevs  have  an  incomparable  superiority  over 
every  modern  language,  and  over  all  languages, 

dead  or  living,  which  have  a  literature  worth  be- 
ing generally  studied."  Mr.  Mill  also  claims  that 
"the  pre-eminence  of  the  ancients  in  purely  liter- 
ary excellence  in  perfection  of  form  -is  not 
disputed,  that  their  composition,  like  their  sculp- 
ture, has  been  to  the  greatest  artists  an  example, 
to  he  looked  up  to  with  hopeless  admiration,  luit 
of  an  inappreciable  value,  as  a  light  on  high, 
guiding  their  own  endeavor." 

The  I  Ion.  William  E  Gladstone, who  as  a  clas- 
sical scholar  has  few.it'  any,  equals  among  the 

greal     statesmen     of      the     nineteenth     century, 

strongly  maintains  the  hereditary  claims  of  clas- 
sical studies  toe  prominent  position  in  a  modern 


CLASSICAL  STUDIES 


141 


curriculum  for  secondary  and  superior  schools. 
Be  denies  the  right  of  natural  science,  modem 
languages,  modern  history,  or  other  studies,  to  a 
parallel  or  equal  position.  "Their  true  position," 
he  says, "  is  ancillary,  and  as  ancillary  it  ought  to 
be  limited  Or  restrained,  without  scruple,  as  much 
as  a  regard  to  the  paramount  matter  of  education 
may  dictate The  modern  European  civiliza- 
tion, from  the  middle  ages  downwards,  is  the 
compound  of  two  great  factors,  the  Christian  re- 
ligion for  the  spirit  of  man,  and  the  Creek  (and 
in  a  secondary  degree  the  Roman)  discipline  for 
his  mind  and  intellect.  St.  Paid  is  the  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  and  is,  in  his  own  person,  a  sym- 
bol of  this  great  wedding.  The  place,  for  ex- 
ample, of  Aristotle  and  Plato  in  Christian  edu- 
cation is  not  arbitrary,  nor  in  principle  mutable. 
The  materials  of  what  we  call  classical  training 
were  prepared  in  order  that  it  might  become  not 
a  mere  adjunct,  but  (in  mathematical  phrase)  the 
complement  of  Christianity  in  its  application  to 
the  culture  of  the  human  being,  as  a  being 
formed  both  for  this  world  and  the  vorld  to 
come." 

In  the  conflict  between  the  advocates  of  clas- 
sical studies  in  our  higher  schools  and  their 
opponents,  the  former  generally  take  the  ground 
that  Latin  and  Greek,  both  the  languages  and 
tin'  literatures,  supplement  each  other.  Where 
a  comparison  between  the  two  is  made,  the  pref- 
erence is  generally  given  to  the  Latin,  partly 
because  the  knowledge  of  Latin  grammar  is 
supposed  to  be  of  superior  utility,  and  partly 
with  a  view  to  the  fact,  that  Latin  is  not  only 
the  key  to  an  understanding  of  the  Latin  clas- 
sics, but,  for  a  long  period,  has  been  the  universal 
language  of  Christendom  ;  and  also  because  the 
Latin  works,  since  the  restoration  of  letters, 
are  in  themselves  of  considerable  value  for  the 
knowledge  of  every  kind  which  they  afford,  even 
to  this  day,  many  valuable  works  being  published 
in  that  language.  The  Greek  language,  too,  is 
by  no  means  without  its  champions  ;  and,  though 
none  of  them  would  venture  to  disparage  the 
study  of  Latin,  they  regard  the  Greek  as  the 
superior  representative  of  classic  antiquity.  (See 
Latin,  and  Greek.) 

The  method  of  teaching  and  studying  the  clas- 
sical languages  and  literatures  must,  of  course, 
vary  according  to  the  object  or  purpose  for  which 
they  are  taught  or  studied.  In  some  schools,  the 
study  of  these  languages  (particularly  Latin)  has 
been  adopted  tor  the  sole  or  chief  purpose  of 
showing  their  relation  to  the  English  language, 
and  of  giving  a  clear  insight  into  the  mean- 
ingot"  English  words  derived  from  them.  Where 
tliis  is  the  exclusive  object,  a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  time  will  be  found  sufficient  for  this 
study.  In  classical  schools,  colleges,  gymnasia, 
etc.,  classical  studies  are  generally  pursued  for 
the  purpose  of  cultivating  and  developing  the 
mental  faculties,  and  introducing  the  student  to 
the  literary  treasures  of  which  they  are  the  keys. 
It  is  obviously  of  the  greatest  importance,  that 
the  teacher  should  be  fully  conscious  of  the  pre- 
cise aim  that  is  to  be  attained,  and  that  the  pu- 


pils themselves  should,  as  soon  as  possible,  be 
made  to  understand  the  objects  and  advantages 
of  the  study.  The  first  reading  exercises  will,  of 
course,  serve  chiefly  to  familiarize  the  pupil  with 
the  grammatical  rules  ;  but,  as  soon  as  he  under- 
stands the  peculiar  structure  of  the  language,  the 
teacher  should  strive  to  unveil,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, what  is  beautiful  and  excellent  in  the  clas- 
sic authors  selected  for  study.  Loth  translation 
and  explanation  should  aim  not  only  at  increas- 
ing a  knowledge  of  the  vocabulary  and  the  gram- 
mar, but  at  the  training  of  the  mind  to  compre- 
hend, to  appreciate,  and  to  admire  these  beauties 
and  excellencies.  The  finer  parts  of  a  classic 
author  will,  of  course,  require  the  greatest  and 
most  concentrated  attention  of  the  pupil;  and, 
therefore,  the  greatest  possible  exclusion  of  mere 
grammatical  explanations.  It  is  evident  that 
none  but  teachers  of  the  best  skill  and  attain- 
ments are  competent  to  give  this  kind  of  instruc- 
tion. The  college  graduate'  who  has  just  com- 
pleted his  course,  however  well  he  may  have  been 
taught,  cannot  be  expected  to  make  the  impres- 
sion, and  accomplish  the  success,  by  his  teaching, 
which  can  only  spring  from  a  professor  of  ripe 
scholarship,  cultivated  taste,  and  experience  in 
giving  instruction.  There  is  no  doubt  that  clas- 
sical studies  have  suffered  in  repute  as  the  agen- 
cies of  a  higher  education,  by  the  mechanical 
methods  employed  by  teachers.  The  letter,  and 
not  the  spirit,  has  been  taught ;  and  the  conse- 
quence has  been,  that  the  perusal  of  the  sub- 
limest  masterpieces  of  ancient  history,  oratory, 
and  poetry  has  commonly  degenerated  into  the 
study  of  petty  grammatical  subtleties,  only  puz- 
zling the  mind  of  the  student  without  informing 
or  elevating  it.  Next  in  importance  to  the  employ- 
ment of  competent  teachers,  is  the  selection  of 
proper  text-books,  in  order  to  produce  the  best 
results  in  this  department  of  instruction.  The 
books  at  first  needed  by  every  pupil  are  a  gram- 
mar, a  dictionary,  and  books  for  translation. 
The  grammars  and  dictionaries  used  should  be 
those  specially  prepared  for  pupils;  for  the 
wants  of  pupils  are  different  from  those  of 
teachers  and  scholars.  As  regards  the  editions 
of  classic  authors,  some  teachers  prefer  texts  with 
notes,  others  those  without  notes.  In  the  former 
case,  the  notes  should  be  exclusively  calculated 
to  promote  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  language 
and  a  clear  understanding  of  the  writers  mean- 
ing. The  use  of  translations  is  generally  dis- 
couraged by  teachers;  though  all  know,  that 
•ponies"  are  great  favorites  with  students. 
There  are  some  educators  who  regard  a  judicious 
use  of  translations  as  not  only  not  hurtful,  but 
commendable.  When  a  knowledge  not  only  of 
the  classic  language,  but  also  of  its  literature  is 
desired,  the  use  of  the  entire  work  of  an  author  is 
preferable  to  that  of  selections,  such  as  are  found 
in  reading-books.  An  introduction,  giving  the 
pupil  information  in  regard  to  the  author  of  the 
work,  facilitates  a  correct  understanding  of  the 
work  itself,  and  increases  the  pupils  interest. 
Ceographical  and  historical  explanations  should 
be  given  wherever  they  arc  needed.     The  trans- 


142 


CLASSIC'S,  CHRISTIAN 


lations  should  be  at  first  literal,  but  should,  in- 
variably, be  converted  into  good  English,  and 
should  reproduce,  as  much  as  possible,  the  excel- 
lencies, as  weD  as  interpret  the  meaning,  of  the 
original.  Of  course,  the  pupil  should  not  be  dis- 
couraged by  too  harsh  and  minute  a  criticism  of 
his  i  Minor  faults  should,  at  first,  be  passed 

over,  and  the  pupil's  mind  gradually  trained  to 
facility,  accuracy,  and  elegance  of  expression. 

See  II.  Babnabd, Studies  and  Conduct  (Hart- 
ford, 1  873),  gn  ing  the  views  of  Byron,  ( ihatham, 
Donaldson,  Be  Quincey,  Froude,  Gladstone,  Her- 
schel,  Hodgson,  Locke  Lowe,  Macaulay,  Marti- 
neau,  Mill.  Milton,  Niebuhr,  Southey,  Temple, 
Tyndall,  Vaughan,  and  Whewell,  respecting  clas- 
sical studies;  Hodgson,  Classical  Instruction:  Its 
Use  and  Abuse  (London.  L854);  J.  W.  Donald- 
.  Classical  Scholarship  and  Classical  L<nrn- 
ing\  London,  L856);  Et.  Raucbenstein,  THeZeUge- 
masskeit  der  alien  Sprachen  in  unsern  Qymna- 
sien  (Aarau,  1850);  Beneke,  Bhrziehungs-  und 
Unterrichtslehre,  2d  vol.  (3d  edit  .  Berlin,  L864}; 
Thaulow,  OymnasialrPddagogik  (Kiel,  I- 
Laab,  Gymnasium  und  Real8chule{  Berlin,  1 875). 

CLASSICS,  CHRISTIAN,  or  Christian 
Greek  and  Latin  Writers.  The  ideas  and  life 
of  pagan  Greece  had  been  expressed  and  beauti- 
fied, and  the  growth  of  pagail  genius  had  ceased 
in  <  rreece  before  the  coming  of  <  Ihrist.  The  I  Ireek 
language  remained  to  embody  the  new  idea-  of 
Christianity;  the  expression  of  them  by  Christ 
and  his  apostles  in  the  New  Testament  is  the 
earliest  Christian  Creek.  These  ideas  rapidly 
affected  all  serious  thought.  A  long  succession 
of  Christian  Greek  writers  followed,  many  of 
admirable  eloquence,  more  of  wonderful  subtlety 
and  learning,  apologists,  preachers,  commen- 
tators, historians,  philosophers,  and  poets.  'The 
Greek  language,  meantime,  was  most  carefully 
studied  from  generation  to  generation,  and 
changed  very  slowly. 

The  center  of  controlling  thought  and  genius 
early  moved  westward.  There  had  been  an 
after-growth  of  pagan  literature  at  Komi':  but, 
in  the  second  century  of  our  era.  Africa  became 
the  nurse  of  genius,  and  Christianity  Its  inspira- 
tion. M iimtiiis Felix, Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Com- 
modian.  Arnobius,  Lactantius,  and  Augustine 
appeared  in  rapid  succession.  The  Latin  language 
expanded  and  strengthened,  to  express  the  new 
ideas  and  life.  An  original  Roman  poetry  for 
the  first  time  appeared,  new  in  its  form  and 
thought,  and  living  on  the  lips  of  the  people. 
A  new  mythology  of  the  saints  displaced  the 
heathen  deities.  History  was  rewritten,  phi- 
phy  drawn  to  new  and  higher  applications, 
Christianitj  became  the  religion  of  the  state. 
and  the  services  of  the  church,  the  canon  law, 
and  the  proceedings  of  the  courts  were  in  Latin 
throughout  the  Western  world.  At  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  mingling  of 
barbarians  with  Romans  changed  the  spoken 
dialects  of  the  common  people  bo  much  that  they 
are  called  new  languages,  Italian.  French,  Span- 
ish, and  the  like.  But  the  priests  and  lawyers 
and  scholars  continued  to  read, write, and  speak 


Latin  ;  and.  when  learning  revived,  the  book 
Latin  was  carefully  cultivated.  All  important 
works  in  science  or  learning  were  written  in  it. 
and  also  much  literature.  This  practice  continued 
till  recent  times.  Bacon.  Milton,  and  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  used  it,  and  critical  commentaries  on 
ancient  authors  are  still  often  written  in  Latin. 

The  earliest  Christian  Latin  differed  little 
from  the  heathen  Latin ;  but,  after  it  ceased  to 
be  folk  speech,  the  free  use  of  the  living  idioms  of 
feeling  was  gradually  lost,  and  the  number  and 
precision  of  its  technical  terms  immensely  in- 
creased. The  late  Latin  follows  the  general 
rules  of  ancient  Latin  grammar  more  closely 
than  did  the  ancient-  themselves,  and  is  proba- 
bly the  most  perfect  language  which  ever  existed, 
for  the  purposes  for  which  it  has  been  cultivated, 
for  precision,  brevity,  and  perspicuity  in  dealing 
with  its  own  range  of  subject.-. 

The  early  Christians  detested  and  feared  the 
paean  religion  and  manners,  and  the  literature 
in  which  they  are  made  alluring.  The  pagan 
books  were  often  destroyed,  and  the  Christian 
authors  displaced  them  almost  entirely.  Through 
the  darkest  period  of  the  middle  ages,  the  works 
of  the  Christian  writers  were  almost  the  sole 
reading,  and  the  Btudyof  them  and  their  lan- 
guage, almost  the  sole  learning,  of  western  Eu- 
rope.    At  the  pagan  renaissance,  the  admirers 

of  the  older  heathen  writers  claimed  for  them 
the  place  of  honor;  and  heated  contests  were 
waged  between  the  advocates  of  the  Christian 
and  the  heathen  Latin, which  ended  in  a  victory 
for  the   heathen,  and  the  establishment  of  the 

pagan  authors  as  the  text-hooks  for  the  study 
of  Ixitiu  and  Greek  in  the  schools  of  Europe. 

The  great  Christian  writers  have  always  been 
the  delight  of  Christian  scholars ;  and  no  long 
period  has  ever  passed  without  expressions  of 
regret  from  eminent  educators,  that  the  best  years 
of  youth  should  be  spent  in  mastering  the  de- 
tails of  heathen  life,  and  dwelling  on  the 
thoughts  of  heathen  heroes  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  Bible  and  Christian  heroes ;  audit  has  Keen 
yielded  to  by  many,  only  on  account  of  the  train- 
ing to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  the  Lain  and 
deck  languages,  which  were  thought  to  be  found 
only  in  the  heathen  books.  But  christians  also 
have  written  Greek  and  Latin  welL  All  the 
grammatical    forms  are   preserved,   and    used  in 

their  works  according  to  the  rules  of  our  gram- 
mars. Whatever  is  to  be  gained  from  an  acquaint- 
ance with  a  synthetic  language,  and  from  strange 
modes  of  expression,  may  be  had  from  studying 

them;   and.  at    the   same  time,  the  student   may 

imbibe  from  their  perusal  the  noblest  thoughts. 
The  modern  science  of  language  has  changed  the 
estimate  placed  on  classic  periods,  and  it  now 
teaches  the  recognition  of  many  admirable  lan- 
guages, and  the  study  of  all  dialects  and  periods 
in  their  relation  to  thought    and    history;   audit 

has  been  Bald  thai  no  other  thought  or  history  is 
so  interesting  or  bo  important  as  that  embodied 
in  Christian  Greek  and  Latin,  and  that  these 
should,  therefore,  have  the  place  of  honor  in  the 
Linguistic  studies  of  our  universities. 


CLASSICS.  CHRISTIAN 


CLEVELAND 


143 


The  knowledge  of  Christian  Latin  especially 
is  Decenary  tn  all  original  researches  into  the 
history  of    moil, tii  civilization  and  of    modern 
philosophy,  since  the  early  history  of  the  Euro- 
pean nations,  their  laws,  charters, diplomas,  and 
treaties,   the   councils  of    the   church,   and  the 
works  of  the  founders  of  modern  science,  are  all 
written   in   it.     It   is  also  essential  to  original 
researches  into  the  history  of  the  modern  lan- 
guages; the  peculiarities  of  etymology,  syntax. 
and  orthography,  are  to  be  explained  from  the 
later  Latin,  for  the  most  part.     The  history  of 
modern  literature,  the  spirit   emerging   in   the 
works  of  the  early  masters,  like  Caedmon.  Haute, 
and  Milton,  is  to   be   understood  only  by  the 
study  of  the  Latin  fathers.    From  considerations 
like  these,  the  fitness  of  these  writers  to  be  used  as 
text-books  in  our  schools  and  colleges,  has  lately 
been  strongly  urged,  and   attempts  are  making 
to  introduce  them  in  F ranee  and  Austria.  In  the 
United  States,  there  has  always  been  a  consid- 
erable use  of   the  Historic*  Sacra,  as  a  Latin 
book  for  beginners.     Two  editions  are  now  pub- 
lished:   Epitome   Historice  Sacra,    L'Homond 
(Baltimore):  Historia Sacra  (Phila.).  A  consider- 
able part  of  it  is  also  included  in  Allen  and 
Gbkenough's  Latin  Primer  (Boston).   The  New 
Testament,  in  Greek  and  Litin.  is  used  in  several 
editions  prepared   for  schools:  also  the  Greek 
Testament,  by  Spencer  (New York);  and  Gfreek 
and  Latin,by  Leusden  (Phila.).  A  series  of  ( 'hris- 
tian  classics  in  Greek  and  Latin,  prepared  with 
notes,  like  the  common  text-books  for  our  schools 
and  colleges,  and  edited  by  F.  A.  March,  is  also 
appearing  in  New  York  under  the  name  of  The 
Douglass  Serifs,  Mr.  Benjamin  Douglass  having 
given  a  fund  to  promote  the  publication,  and  to 
establish  the  study  in  Lafayette  College.     Tho 
following  have  appeared:  Latin  Hymns,  Euse- 
bius,  Athenagoras,   TertuSian;  Justin  Martyr 
is  in  press,  .-1  ugustine  in  preparation,  and  others 
are  to  follow.     Other  books  which  may  be  used 
as  text-books,  are  :  Sanctorum  Patrum  Opuscula 
selectn  ml   usum  praisertim  studiosorum  theo- 
hgias,  II.  Burter  (Innspruck),   of    which    31 
volumes  had   appeared  in    1876.      Books   pre- 
pared for  the  French  schools  :   TertuUien,  Au- 
gustine, Erasme,  Peres  de  VEglise  Latine,  Mor- 
ceaux  choisis  des  Peres  Grecs,  St.  Basile,  Gre- 
goire,  Chrysostome,  each  a  few  pages  with  little 
or  no  apparatus,  but  with  a  translation  added. 
There  are  stereotyped  texts  of  the  Confessions 
of  St.  Augustine,  of  the  De  Sacerdotio  of   Ghry- 
DU  by  Tacchnitz,  i  Leipsic);  of  Eusebius  and 
Josephus  by  Teubner  |  Leipsic).  Accessible  trans- 
lations of  several  authors  are  in  Tlie  Antenicene 
FaUiers,  Edinburgh:  I  John's  Ecclesiastical  Series, 
London  ;   Rqjssler,  Bibliothek  der  Kirchenvater 
in  Uebersetzungen  (Leipzig,  1776 — 86);    Thal- 
hofer,  Bibliothek  der  Kirchenvdter,    Auswahl 
der  vorzuglichsten  patristischen  Werke  in  deut- 
scher  Ueberseteung  fKempten),  of  which,  up  to 
1876,   175    parts  have   appeared.       Great    Li- 
braries  of  the  Fathers  are  those  edited  by  Gal- 
lani.i  (Venice,  L765— 88),  and  by  J.  P.  Miuxe 
(Paris),  not  yet  complete.    Of  all  the  most  emi- 


nent authors  there  are  many  editions,  commen- 
taries, and  other  works  of  elucidation.  Students 
will  also  find  the  following  works  convenient: 
Lexicon  Manuals  ad  Scriptores  media}  et  iafimoz 
Latinitatis,  by  W.  II.  M.  D'Aknis  (Paris.  1866); 
Gfreek  Lexicon  from  146  B.  C.  to  1000  A.  D., 
by  E.  A.  Sophocles  (Boston,  1870). 
"CLASSIFICATION.  See  Class. 
CLEVELAND,  an  important  eity  in  Ohio. 
being  the  second  in  the  state  in  population. 
The  Dumber  of  inhabitants  in  lv7<).  was  92,829  ; 

in  1876,  it  was  estimated  at  1  10,000. 

Educational  History. — The  general  assembly 
of  the  state,  as  early  as  1821,  provided  for  the 

establishment  of  school-districts,  the  election  of 
school  committees,  and  the  levying  of  a  tax  for 
school  purposes:  and.  in   1823,  it  made   further 
provision  for  education.  The  act  of  incorporation, 
in  1836,  authorized   the   city  council  to  provide 
for  the  support  of  common  schools,  to   levy  a 
tax  of  not  more  than  one  mill  on  the  dollar  of 
the  assessed  valuation  of  property  for  the  pur* 
chase  of  .sites  and  the  building  of  school-houses, 
and  one  mill    additional  for  the  support  of  a 
school  in  each  of  the  three  wards  of  the  city,  for 
a  term  of  not  less  than  six  months  in  the  year. 
The  administration  of  school  affairs  was  vested 
in   a  board,  entitled  the  Board  of  Managers  of 
Common  Schools,  appointed  by  the  city  council 
for  the  term  of  one  year.     In  1859,   by   special 
legislation,  the  election  of  members  of  the  board 
of  education  was  placed  in   the  hands  of  the 
people,  one  member  being  elected  in  each  ward, 
and  one  half  of  the  wards  electing  annually.  The 
city  council,  however,  still  retained  its  control  of 
the  finances;  but  it  was  required   to  "provide 
and  support  such  number  and  grade  of  schools, 
in  said  city,  as  may  be  necessary  to  furnish  a 
good  common-school  education  to  all  the  children 
residing  therein",    and    to    "support  two  high 
schools."     In  1868,  a  law  was  passed  removing 
all  restraints  on  the  part  of  the  city  council  from 
the  board  of  education,  except  that  the  purchase 
of  sites  and  the  erection  of  school-buildings  were 
made  dependent  upon  the  consent  of  the  council. 
In  1837 — 8,  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled    in 
the  schools  was  only  840  :  and  there  were  only  6 
schools.   In  1850 — .")1,  there   were    32    teachers 
employed;  the  average  attendance  in  all  the  schools 
was  1 650  :  and  the  number  enrolled,  2,304,  out  of 
a  school  population  of  6,7-12.  In  1860 — 61,  the 
school  population  was  14. 625;  enrollment.  5.081; 
average  daily  attendance, 3,962,  with  s-'!  teachers. 
In  1870 — 71,  the  school  population  had  increased 
to  34,544;  enrollment,  L3.184;  average  daily  at- 
tendance.  8,174,  with    L88  teachers. — In  1846,  a 
high  Bel  u  K  >1  h  ir  I  h  lys  was ,  >j  >ei  icd  by  order  of  the  city 
council :  and.  in  the  following  year,  a  department 
for  girls  was  established  in  the  same  school.  For 
two  years,  the  new  institution  met  with  much  op- 
position, it  being   ••maintained  by  some  that  it 
was  illegal,  by  others  that  it   was   inexpedient", 
to  levy    taxes    for  the    support  of    schools  for 
higher   education.      The   people,  however,   gave 

policy,    and  the  follow- 
passed   authorizing  and 


their   support   to   the 

ing   year,   a    law   was 


m 


CLEVELAND 


CLINTON 


requiring  the  city  council  to  "establish  and 
maintain  a  high  school"  Since  that  time,  two 
other  high  schools  have  been  established— the 
West  ffigh  School,  in  1864;  and  the  East  High 
School,  in  L872. —  The  supervision  i  >t  'the  schools 
was,  in  1841,  vested  in  an  acting  manager  of  the 
public  schools,  who  was  a  member  of  the  board, 
and  its  secretary.  The  office  of  superintendent 
of  schools  was  created  in  1853,  and  has  been 
rilled  as  follows :  Andrew  Freese,  1853 — 61; 
Luther  M.  Oviatt.  1861—3;  Anson  Smyth,  1863 
— 7;  Andrew  J.  Kickoff,  the  present  incumbent 
(1876),  from  1867.  This  officer  is  elected  by 
the  board  of  education  for  a  term  of  two 
years.  There  are,  besides,  three  associate  super- 
intendents, one  (a  female)  specially  for  primary 
schools. — The  chief  duties  of  the  superintend- 
ent are  to  supervise  the  work  of  instruction 
in  all  the  schools  of  the  city,  visiting  the  schools 
as  often  as  possible,  noting  detects,  and  recom- 
mending  measures  to  remove  them  ;  to  inspect 
the  school  buildings,  and  report  on  their  condi- 
tion; and  to  fix  the  time  and  mode  of  the 
examination  of  schools.  Candidates  for  teach- 
ers' licenses  are  examined  by  a  board  of  six 
examiners,  appointed  by  the  board  of  edu- 
cation.— The  School  System  < sists  of  a  normal 

school,  4  high  schooLs,  L9  grammar  schools, 
and  15  primary  schools,  making  a  total  of  '■'>'■> 
schools.  These  schools  receive  all  children  six 
years  of  age  and  upward,  without  regard  to 
color.  There  are  four  courses  of  study  prescribed 
for  the  high  schools :  an  English  course,  of  3 
years;  a  German-English  course,  of  4  years;  a 
Ixitin-English  course,  of  4  years;  and  a  classical 
course,  of  4  years.  The  course  of  study  pre- 
scribed for  the  grammar  and  primary  schools  com- 
prises the  branches  usually  taught  in  common 
schools,  including  music,  drawing,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  natural  science.  German  is  taught  in 
most  of  the  schools  (introduced  in  1870).  All  the 
teachers  of  the  primary  and  grammar  schools, 
both  principals  and  assistants,  are  females. 

School  Statistics. — The  following  items  are  re- 
ported for  the  year  1876 : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 4G,990 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 2o,771 

Average  daily  attendance 14,069 

Number  of  teachers,  326 

Receipts  (1876) 1497,174.67 

Expenditures  1 1875) $366,096.24 

Besides  the  public  schools,  there  are  private 
schools  and  seminaries  in  considerable  number; 
also  German  and  English  schools,  and  de- 
nominational schools,  the  latter  including  several 
Roman  Catholic  institutions.  The  Cleveland 
Female  Seminary  is  an  institution  for  the  supe- 
rior instruction  of  women,  chartered  in  L853. 
St.  Mary's  Theological  Seminary, a  Roman  <  !ath- 
olic  institution,  was  founded  in  1849.  The 
Ohio  State  and  Onion  Law  College,  founded  in 
L856,  in  L 874,  had  I  professors,  and  a  library  of 
3,000  relumes.    The  Cleveland  Medical  College, 

founded  iii  L843,  had,  the  same  year,  15  in- 
structors, and  92  students;  there  is  also  a  col- 
lege, connected  with  the  homoeopathic  hospital. 


CLINIQtTE  (Gr.  iMyti,  a  couch  or  bed),  a 
French  word  used,  in  medical  schools,  to  denote  an 
examination  or  treatment  of  patients  by  medical 
or  surgical  professors  in  the  presence  of  their 
pupils,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  practical  in- 
struction ;  hence  the  term  clinical  instruction 
or  lectures,  because  originally  given  or  delivered 
at  the  bedside  of  the  sick.  (See  Medical 
I  Schools.) 

CLINTON,  De  "Witt,  one  of  the  most  il- 
j  lustrious  of  American  statesmen,  of  deserved 
celebrity,  not  only  on  account  of  his  brilliant 
talents,  high  culture,  and  comprehensive  views, 
but  for  his  earnest  philanthropy  and  his  zealous 
efforts  in  behalf  of  popular  education,  lie  was 
born  at  Little  Britain,  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  March 
2.,  1769,  and  died  in  Albany,  Feb.  11..  1828. 
After  graduating  at  Columbia  College.  Xew 
York,  with  great  distinction,  in  1786,  he  studied 
Jaw.  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1788.  lie 
also  entered  the  field  of  politics,  sustaining  the 
interests  and  principles  of  the  republican  party. 
of  which  his  uncle,  George  Clinton,  was  then  the 
leader  in  the  state  of  New  York.  After  rilling 
various  offices  under  the  latter  as  governor  of  the 
state,  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  serving 
successively  in  the  assembly  and  in  the  senate,  and 
at  the  age  of  33  was  appointed  to  a  seat  in  the 
senate  of  the  United  States.  This  he  resigned 
to  assume  the  position  of  mayor  of  the  city  of 
Xew  York,  which  he  filled,  at  intervals,  for  ten 
years.  He  also  served  as  lieutenant-governor  of 
the  state  ;  and  his  advocacy  of  the  construction 
of  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals  made  him  so 
popular,  that,  in  1816,  he  was  elected  governor 
of  the  state,  virtually  by  the  unanimous  voice  of 
the  people  ;  and  his  administration  was  contin- 
ued, with  the  exception  of  an  interval  of  two 
years,  during  a  period  of  twelve  years.  1  lis  wise 
and  comprehensive  measures,  particularly  in  be- 
half of  internal  improvements  and  common- 
school  education  in  the  state,  gave  him  a  wide 
popularity  and  fame;  and,  in  L825,  he  partic- 
ipated in  a  grand  popular  celebration  on  the 
don  of  the  completion  of  his  greatest  meas- 
ure, —  the  establishment  of  a  water  communi- 
cation between  Lake  Krie  and  the  Hudson  River. 
As  he  was  borne  in  a  barge  along  that  magnifi- 
cent canal  (called  the  (frond  Erb<  Canal)  he 
was  every-where  saluted  with  the  ringing  of 
bells,  the  tiring  of  cannon,  and  other  joyous  dem- 
onstrations. 

It  is  not.  however,  intended  to  dwell  here  upon 
his  brilliant  career  as  a  statesman  and  politician, 
bu1  to  refer  to  his  connection  with  the  cause  of 
education,  and  the  mighty  impulse  which  was 
given  to  it  in  the  stale  of  New  York  by  his 
genius  and  public-Spirited  exertions.  The  foun- 
dation of  the  state  school  fund  had  already  been 
Commenced;  but  nothing  had  been  done  for 
public  education  in  the  city  of  New  York.  In 
L805,  Clinton,  then  mayor  of  tin'  city,  joined 
with  several  distinguished  citizens  in  obtaining 
an  act  of  incorporation  for  the  Society  for  Estab- 
lishing a  Free  School  in  the  city  of  New  Fork, 
for  the  education  of  such  poor  children  as  donot 


CLINTON 


CO-EDUCATION 


146 


belong  to,  or  are  not  provided  for  by,  any  re- 
Ugiotis  society;  and  for  a  period  of  21  years, 
from  1805  to  l*'J<i.  he  was  the  president  of  the 
society.  This  society  was  afterwards  known  as 
the  Public  School  Society,  and  its  operations  fill 
a  large  space  in  the  educational  annals  of  the  city. 
In  1809,  on  the  occasion  of  the  inauguration  of 
its  first  large  school  (for  it  commenced  with  a 
few  poor  children,  in  a  single  room),  Clinton 
delivered  an  interesting  address,  in  which  he 
referred  to  the  previous  work  of  the  society  in 
connection  with  the  Lancasterian  system,  in  the 
following  words  :  "  When  T  perceive  that  many 
boys  in  our  school  have  been  taught  to  read  and 
write  in  two  months,  who  did  not  before  know 
the  alphabet,  and  that  even  one  has  accomplish  1 
it  in  three  weeks — when  I  view  all  the  bearings 
and  tendencies  of  this  system — when  I  contem- 
plate the  habits  of  order  which  it  forms,  the 
spirit  of  emulation  which  it  excites, — when  I 
behold  the  extraordinary  union  of  celerity  in  in- 
struction and  economy  of  expense, — and  when  I 
perceive  a  great  assembly  of  a  thousand  children 
under  the  eye  of  a  single  teacher,  marching  with 
unexampled  rapidity  and  with  perfect  discipline 
to  the  goal  of  knowledge,  I  confess  that  I  rec- 
ognize in  Lancaster  the  benefactor  of  the  human 
race  — I  consider  his  system  as  creating  a  new 
era  in  education,  as  a  blessing  sent  down  from 
heaven  to  redeem  the  poor  and  distressed  of  this 
world  from  the  power  and  dominion  of  ignorance/' 
The  merits  of  the  mutual  system  of  instruction 
as  a  means — and  then  the  only  means — of  diffus- 
ing the  benefits  of  education  among  all  classes  of 
the  people,  had  impressed  themselves  deeply 
upon  his  philanthropic  mind.  He  discerned 
clearly,  to  use  his  own  language,  that  "  the  first 
duty  of  a  state  is  to  render  its  citizens  virtuous 
by  intellectual  instruction  and  moral  discipline, 
by  enlightening  their  minds,  purifying  their 
hearts,  and  teaching  them  their  rights  and  their 
obligations."  He  took  an  active  part  in  enlarg- 
ing the  means  of  ed  tcation  by  augmenting,  and 
rendering  more  available,  the  school  fund  of  the 
state.  In  1826,  in  his  annual  message,  he  re- 
marked, "Our  common  schools  embrace  children 
from  5  to  16  years  old,  and  continue  to  increase 
and  prosper.  The  appropriation  for  the  school 
fund  for  the  last  year  was  $80,670,  and  an  equiv- 
alent sum  is  also  raised  by  taxation  in  the  several 
counties  and  towns,  and  is  also  applied  in  the 
same  way.  The  capital  fund  is  $1,333,000,  which 
will  be  in  a  state  of  rapid  augmentation  from 
sales  of  the  public  lands  and  other  sources ;  and 
it  is  well  ascertained  that  more  than  420,000 
children  have  been  taught  in  our  common  schools 
during  the  last  year.  The  sum  distributed  is 
now  too  small,  and  the  general  fund  can  well 
warrant  an  augmentation  to  $120,000  annually.'' 
In  May,  182d,  the  Presbyterian  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  the  Education  of  Youth  elected 
De  Witt  Clinton  its  president,  and  he  continued 
to  occupy  this  position  till  his  death.  On  taking 
the  chair,  he  delivered  an  address,  in  the  course 
of  which  he  said,  "  Monitorial  education,  Sun- 
day schools,  and  Bible  societies  are  the  great 
10 


levers  which  must  raise  public  opinion  to  its 
proper  elevation."  lie  also  took  an  active  inter- 
est in  the  Infant  School  Society  of  New  York, 
founded  in  1*27.  upon  the  plan  of  similar  insti- 
tutions in  Great  Britain,  These  schools  were 
designed  to  receive  such  children  of  the  laboring 
poor,  as  had  not  attained  the  age  at  which  they 
could  be  received  into  other  schools.  Indeed, 
such  were  the  active  beneficence  and  public  spirit 
of  De  Witt  Clinton,  that,  in  the  community  to 
which  he  belonged,  there  was  scarcely  an  enter- 
prise designed,  in  any  way.  to  promote  the  good 
of  mankind,  in  which  he  did  not  take  a  leading 
part.  Among  such  may  be  further  mentioned, 
the  New  York  Hospital  and  the  New  York 
Historirttt  S'icit'ty,  of  the  latter  of  which  he  was 
the  president  from  181*7  to  1820.  Be  was  also 
a  member  of  most  of  the  literary  and  scientific 
institutions  in  the  United  States,  and  of  several 
of  those  of  Great  Britain  and  the  continent  of 
Europe.  It  was  well  remarked  by  Dr.  Samuel 
H.  Cox,  one  of  his  distinguished  contemporaries, 
that  "  he  was  remarkable  at  once  for  the  com- 
bination of  great  qualities,  and  the  happy  equi- 
librium of  their  adjustment.  He  was  unquestion- 
ably a  man  of  genius,  a  scholar,  a  jurist,  a  states- 
man, an  enlightened  political  economist,  a  deep 
and  practical  projector,  and  a  polished  gentle- 
man."— See  Hosack,  Memoir  of  lie  Witt  Clinton 
(N.  Y.,  1829);  S.  S.  Randall,  History  of  the 
Common-School  Si/stem  of  the  State  of  New 
York  (N.  Y.,  1871).     (See  also  New  York.) 

COACH,  a  cant  term  applied  to  a  private  tu- 
tor (particularly  in  the  English  universities), who 
prepares  students  to  pass  the  public  examinations 
(hence  the  verb  coach,  to  give  such  instruction). 
Such  tutors  are  graduates  from  the  university, 
and  are  prepared  for  the  special  function  which 
they  perform,  not  only  by  scholarship,  but  by  ex- 
perience in  the  particular  requisites  of  the  college 
examinations,  as  well  as  by  address  in  teaching. 
— See  Bristed,  Five  Years  in  an  English  Uni- 
versity (N.  Y.,  1852). 

CO-EDUCATION  of  the  Sexes,  a  term 
used  to  denote  the  system  of  educating  males 
and  females  together,  that  is,  in  the  same  insti- 
tution, school,  or  class,  and  by  means  of  the  same 
studies,  and  methods,  pupils  of  each  sex  receiving 
the  same  school  training  and  culture.  This  sys- 
tem, in  the  lower  grades  of  schools,  has  been  al- 
ways prevalent  in  the  United  States,  as  being  the 
most  convenient  and  economical  for  small  com- 
munities. Where  only  one  small  district  school 
could  be  supported,  of  course,  the  separate  in- 
struction of  boys  and  girls  was  out  of  the  question. 
This  practice,  so  common,  appeared,  and  still  ap- 
pears, to  receive  not  only  the  tolerant  assent  of 
parents  as  a  necessity,  but,  in  most  cases,  an  un- 
qualified approval,  as  being  not  simply  expedient, 
but,  in  all  respects,  the  best  to  be  adopted.  In 
some  of  the  large  cities,  as  the  schools  grew 
large,  and  were  composed  of  children  gathered 
from  all  classes  of  society,  it  was  often  deemed 
best  to  organize  separate  boys'  and  girls'  schools; 
especially,  as  this  could  be  done  without  any  in- 
jury, but,  probably  with  a  benefit  to  the  clas- 


146 


CO-EDUCATION 


sification.  Private  seminaries,  however,  have 
generally  been  separate  schools,  except  those  for 
the  youngest  pupils.  Passing  from  the  grade  of 
primary  schools,  we  find  the  propriety  of  co-edu- 
cation to  be  a  question  among  educators  ;  while 
many  patents  prefer  that  even  the  youngest 
children  of  their  families  should  attend  schools 
exclusively  for  either  sex.  Those  who  oppose 
co-education  allege  as  reasons  for  their  views. 
(1)  That  there  is  need  of  a  better  adaptation  of 
instruction  and  discipline  to  the  peculiarities  of 
the  .sexes  than  is  possible  in  mixed  schools  ;  (2) 
That  the  manners  of  the  girls  are  unfavorably 
affected  by  the  constant  example  of  the  rougher, 
coarser  conduct  of  the  boys,  the  latter  receiving 
but  little  or  no  benefit  from  the  presence  of  the 
girls;  and  (3)  That  the  moral  character  of  each  is 
liable  to  be  impaired  by  a  premature  develop- 
ment of  the  sexual  instincts,  caused  by  the 
constant  presence  of  the  other  sex.  With  but 
few  exceptions,  these  arguments  are  advanced  by 
those  who  have  only  theoretically  considered  the 
subject,  or  by  those  whose  practical  experience 
has  been  in  connection  with  mixed  schools  of 
which  the  discipline  and  management  were  im- 
perfect, thus  leading  to  abuses  which,  under 
proper  and  normal  circumstances,  would  have 
been  eliminated.  On  the  other  hand,  wh 
there  has  been  a  thorough  and  proper  trial  of 
the  co-education  of  boys  and  girls,  the  testimony 
serins  to  be  strongly,  and  almost  exclusively, 
favorable  to  that  system.  In  many  of  the  large 
cities  of  the  Union,  this  is  the  prevalent  plan  of 
organization,  and  the  reports  of  superintendents 
are  quite  emphatic  in  its  approval.  The  allege  I 
benefits  arising  from  it  are  chiefly  the  fol- 
lowing: (h  Improvement  in  discipline,  the  self- 
will,  violence,  and  rudeness  of  the  boys  being 
restrained  by  the  presence  of  the  girls;  while 
the  girls' manners  are  rendered  more  easy  and 
self-possessed  by  daily  school  association  with 
the  other  sex;  (2)  Improvement  in  instruction 
and  Study,  the  diversities  of  the  sexes  prevent- 
ing extreme    methods,   and  exclusive,   one  side  I 

training  and  study.  Thus.it  is  said,  that  the 
tastes  of  the  boys  for  severer  studies,  such  as 
mathematics,  are  corrected  by  the  inclination  of 
the  oaris  for  the  lighter  and  more  sentimental 
studies,  general  literal  me.  poetry,  etc.;  (.'})  .V 
mure  sound  and  healthy  development  of  both 
se\cs;  in  support  of  which  it  is  asserted  that 
"schools  kept  exclusively  for  girls  or  boys,  re- 
quire a  much  mure  strict  surveillance  on  the 
pari  of  tin-  teachers.  The  girls  confined  by 
themselves,  develop  the  sexual  tension  much 
earlier,  their  imagination  being  the  reigning 
faculty,  and  not  bridled  l»y  intercourse  with 
society  in  its  normal  form.  So  it  is  with  the 
boys,  OB  the  Other  hand.  Daily  association  in 
the  class  room  prevents  this  tension,  and  supplies 
its  place  i'\  mi  lifference.     Bach  Bex   testing  its 

Strength  with  the  other,  on  an  intellectual  plane. 

in  the  presence  of  the  teacher— each  one  seeing 

the  Weakness  and   Strength   of    the   other,   learns 

to  esteem  what  is  essential  at  its  true  value. 
That  the  sexual  tension  be  developed  aa  late  as 


possible,  and  that  all  early  love  affairs  be  avoided, 
is  the  desideratum;  and  experience  has  shown, 
that  association  of  the  sexes  on  the  plane  of  in- 
tellectual contest  is  the  safest  course  to  secure 
this  end."  Thus,  the  theory  of  one  side  in  re- 
gard to  sexual  peculiarities  is  just  the  reverse  of 
that  of  the  other ;  but  it  is  claimed  that  prac- 
tical experience  confirms  the  latter,  while  the  for- 
mer is  only  a  theory;  and  for  this  claim  there 
appears  to  be  a  pretty  strong  foundation.  The 
citation  given  above  is  from  the  report  of  one  of 
the  most  experienced  school  superintendents  of 
the  United  States,  and  is  based  upon  an  obser- 
vation of  the  mixed  system  in  large  public 
schools  for  fifteen  years.  (See  School  iRepori  if 
St.  Louis,  1869 — TO.)  In  the  city  of  New  York, 
in  1874,  the  number  of  mixed  grammar  schools 
was  reported  as  13,  containing,  in  average  at- 
tendance, 2,400  pupils  :  and  the  superintendent 
in  his  report  for  that  year  remarked:  "  A  careful 
examination  of  these  schools,  as  to  their  disci- 
pline and  progress  in  scholarship,  has  elicited 
nothing  to  discredit,  in  any  way,  this  mode  of  or- 
ganization, as  compared  with  that  of  the  other 
schools.  The  principals  commend  it  as  possess- 
ing many  advantages  over  the  plan  of  separating 
male  and  female  pupils  of  such  an  age  and  grade 
of  attainments,  and  parents  seem  to  approve  of 
it."  In  New  York,  however,  most  of  the  schools 
arc  organized  On  the  extreme  separation  system. 
The  report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, for  1874,  states  that  there  are  in  the 
United  States  .ltd  schools  (secondary),  contain- 
ing 64,129  pupils,  male  and  female  (boys.  32,711; 
girls.  27,942  :  of  others,  sex  not  reported):  while 
the  number  of  separate  schools  for  boys,  report- 
ing to  tin'  Bureau,  was  195,  with  13,592  pupils; 
and  for  girls.  275,  with  20,458  pupils.  This 
would  seem  to  indicate,  as  might  naturally  have 
heeii  expected,  a  tendency  to  separate  schools  for 
;_:it  Is :  but,  at  the  same  tame,  shows  that,  in  sec- 
ondary education  in  the  Inited  States,  the  mixed 
system   prevails.     There   is,   unquestionably,  a 

natural  reluctance  on  the  part  of  many  parents 
to  send  their  daughters  to  schools  in  which  boys 
arc  also  educated:  but  this  apprehension  of  danger 

Seems  to  give  way  after  a  trial  of   co-education; 

and.  it  is  claimed  that  corrupt  influences  are 
more  liable  to  abound  in  schools  exclusively  for 
either  sex.  hut  particularly  in  separate  schools 
for  girls.  "To  insure  modesty."  says  Richter, 
"I  would  advise  the  education  of  the  sexes  to- 
gether;  for  two  hoys  will    preserve   twelve  girls, 

or  two  girls  twelve  boys,  innocent,  amidst  winks, 
jokes,  and  improprieties,  merely  by  that  instinct- 
ive sense  which  is  the  forerunner  of  natural  mod- 
Bui  I  will  guarantee  nothing  in  a  school 
where  -iris  are  alone  together,  and  still  less 
w  here  hoys  are." 

All  the  facts  and  views  here  considered  have,  it 
must  he  observed,  reference  onlj  t"  that  limited 
education  which  is  carried  on  in  schools,  where 
hoys  and  girls  are    brought    together   tor  a  brief 

period  to  receive  instruction  in  those  branches 
of  study  which  are  pursued  for  the  purpose  of 

intellectual   education.      The    question    whether 


CO-EDUCATION 


1i  n 


such  a  limited  co-education  is  expedient  and 
proper,  does  ool  involve  a  consideration  of  the 
extent  to  which  the  distinction  of  sex  requires  a 
diversification  of  method  in  education  in  a  lar- 
ger sense,  as  comprehending  physical,  mora],  and 
mental  training.  Extreme  opinions,  however, 
prevail  on  this  point.  Dr.  Clarke  says,  in  Seas 
in  Education,  "  None  doubl  the  importance  of 
acquirement,  idiosyncrasy,  and  probable 
career  in  life  as  factors  in  classification.  Sex 
goes  deeper  than  any  or  all  of  these."  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  contended  that  sex  is  not  to  be 
considered;  and  this  is  the  position  of  most 
women  who  have  written  on  this  question. 
"Education,"  says  Caroline  II.  I 'all,  "is  to  be 
adapted  neither  to  boys  nor  to  girls,  but  to  indi- 
viduals. The  mother,  or  the  teacher,  has  learned 
little  who  attempts  to  train  any  two  children 
alike,  whether  as  regards  the  books  they  are  to 
study,  tin;  time  it  is  to  take,  the  attitudes  they 
are  to  assume,  or  the  amusements  they  are  to  be 
allowed.''  The  general  principle, without  doubt, 
is,  that  education  should  be  adapted  to  the  in- 
dividual ;  but  as  there  are  many  diversities  of 
character,  both  physical  and  mental,  which  arise 
from  the  difference  of  sex,  and,  consequently,  are 
common  to  all  of  the  same  sex,  boys  cannot,  in 
every  respect,  be  educated  as  girls.  It  is  against 
this  "  identical  co-education,"  as  he  calls  it,  that 
Dr.  Clarke,  in  Sex  in  Education,  so  warmly  in- 
veighs. "Boys,"  he  says,  "must  study  and  work," 
"in  a  boy's  way,  and  girls  in  a  girl's  way;"  which 
may  be  very  true,  and  yet  by  no  means  invali- 
date the  propriety  of  school  co-education. 

In  respect  to  the  higher  education  of  women, 
this  question  takes  a  wider  range  ;  and,  since 
the  diversities  of  sex  are,  at  this  stage,  more  com- 
pletely developed,  the  arguments  against  co-edu- 
cation become  more  emphatic  on  the  part  of  those 
who  view  the  subject  from  a  theoretical  stand- 
point. These  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  (1) 
The  physiological  peculiarities  of  the  female  sex 
render  it  impossible  that  young  women  should 
undergo  the  same  continuous  mental  labor  as 
young  men,  without  the  sacrifice  of  their  health, 
and  without  impairing  the  functions  proper  to 
their  sex;  (2)  The  constitution  of  the  female 
mind  is  so  diverse  from  that  of  the  male  mind, 
that  it  requires  different  studies,  different  modes 
of  instruction,  and  different  regimen  in  every 
n  spect ;  (3)  The  career  in  life  which  is  the 
destiny  of  woman  demands  a  preparation  diverse 
from  that  which  is  to  fit  a  young  man  for  the 
special  duties  of  his  sphere.  The  first  of  these 
positions  is,  of  course,  of  paramount  importance; 
although  it  is  not  simply  an  argument  against 
co-education,  but  against  affording  to  young 
women  the  same  facilities  for  a  higher  education 
as  are  afforded  to  young  men.  whether  they  are 
educated  together  or  not.  "  Appropriate  educa- 
tion of  the  two  sexes,"  says  Dr.  Clarke,  "  carried 
as  far  as  possible,  is  a  consummation  most  de- 
voutly to  be  desired  ;  identical  education  of  the 
two  sexes  is  a  crime  before  God  and  humanity, 
that  physiology  protests  against,  and  that  ex- 
perience weeps  over."     Doubtless,  this  position 


was  based  upon  certain  facts  which  came  under 
the  writer's  observation  as  a  physician  ;  but  it  is 
contended  thai  these  cases  were  peculiar  and  ab- 
normal, the  result  of  an  imprudent  disregard  of 
individual  peculiarities,  and  that  thej  were  not 
sufficiently  numerous  to  form  the  basis  of  so 
sweeping  a.  generalization;  and  that  there  are 
no  facts  of  the  kind  within  the  range  of  actual 
experience  in  co-education  to  warrant  this  asser- 
tion. Hence,  in  the  words  of  Miss  Anna  I '. 
Brackett,  "  the  men,  generally,  and  seemingly 
without  appreciation  of  its  logical  results,  ap- 
prove of  what  Dr.  Clarke  has  said  ;  the  women 
of  largest  experience  condemn,  denying  his  prem- 
ises, disproving  his  clinical  evidence  by  adding 
other  facts,  and  protesting  against  his  conclu- 
sions." 

Co-education  in  the  higher  institutions  of 
learning  has,  during  the  last  few  years,  been 
thoroughly  tried  in  the  United  States;  and  the 
system  has  rapidly  advanced,  stimulated  by  the 
success  which  appears  uniformly  to  have  attended 
the  experiment.  But  a  few  years  ago,  there  was 
not  one  college  in  the  United  States,  which  af- 
forded  equal  instruction  to  both  sexes  ;  in  1874, « 
according  to  the  report  of  the  U.  S.  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  there  were  97  colleges  and 
universities  in  which  the  co-educative  system 
prevailed.  Of  the  academies,  normal  schools,  and 
high  schools,  only  about  seventeen  per  cent  are 
for  boys  exclusively,  nineteen  per  cent  for  girls 
exclusively,  and  more  than  sixty  per  cent  for 
both  sexes.  The  testimony  of  those  experienced 
as  instructors  in  the  higher  institutions,  as  well 
as  of  the  alumnce  themselves,  appears  to  favor 
strongly  the  principle  and  practice  of  co-educa- 
tion. In  1853,  Horace  Mann  accepted  the  posi- 
tion of  president  of  Antioch  College,  which  had 
just  been  established  ;  and,  as  the  co-education 
of  the  sexes  in  such  an  institution  was  then  a 
novel  experiment,  he  had  many  misgivings  as  to 
the  result.  Five  years  afterward,  however,  in  a 
letter  to  Mr.  Combe,  of  Edinburgh,  he  stated, 
"We  really  have  the  most  orderly,  sober,  diligent, 
and  exemplary  institution  in  the  country.  We 
passed  through  the  last  term,  and  are  more  than 
half  through  the  present ;  and  I  have  not  had 
occasion  to  make  a  single  entry  of  any  misde- 
meanor in  our  record  book  —  not  a  case  for  any 
serious  discipline."  Mrs.  Mann,  in  the  Life  of 
Horace  Mann  (Boston,  1865),  says:  "  No  one 
conversant  with  the  daily  life  and  walk  of  Anti- 
och College  can  deny  that  the  purity  and  high 
tone  of  its  morals  and  manners,  in  both  depart- 
ments, were  unequaled  by  those  of  any  other 
known  institution.'"  In  1868,  the  Westminster 
Review  said:  "Antioch  College  has  been  visited 
by  Emerson,  Theodore  Parker,  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  Dr.Bellows,  and  other  distinguished  men: 
j  and  the  testimonies  as  to  its  superior  character 
have  been  uniform."  The  writers  of  the  article 
referred  to  (The  Suppressed  Sex,  Westminster 
Review,  Oct.  1868),  stated,  that  he  had  resided  in 
the  vicinity  of  Antioch  College  under  circum- 
stances that  afforded  ample  opportunities  for 
forming  an  acquaintance  with  its  plan,  professors. 


148 


CO-EDUCATION 


and  students  ;  and,  although  quite  familiar  with 
the  University  of  Virginia,  Harvard,  and  to  sonic 
extent  with  English  universities,  he  expressed 
Ins  "entire  conviction  that,  in  none  of  those  male 
institutions,  can  there  be  found  anything  com- 
parable to  the  moral  elevation,  the  refinement. 
or  the  intellectual  enthusiasm  which  characterize 
the  students  of  Antioch."  As  to  the  ability  of 
the  female  students  to  perform  the  intellectual 
tasks  assigns  1  to  those  of  the  other  sex,  the  testi- 
mony of  college  presidents  and  professors  is  uni- 
formly and  strongly  favorable.  President  Fair- 
child,  of  Oberlin,  in  1874,  said,  "  During  my  ex- 
perience as  professor — twenty-seven  years  in  all — 
I  have  never  observed  any  difference  in  the  sexes 
as  to  performance  in  recitation.  President 
Angell,  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  said  (1874), 
"  We  have  not  had  the  slightest  embarrassment 
from  the  reception  of  women.  They  have  done 
their  work  admirably,  and,  apparently,  "with  no 
peri]  to  their  health."  President  White,  of  ( lornell 
University,  in  an  address  delivered  in  1st  1,  said. 
" The  best  Greek  Bcholar  among  L ,300  students 
of  the  University  of  Michigan  a  few  years  since,  the 
best  mathematical  scholar  in  one  of  (lie  largest 
classes  of  the  institution  to-day,  and  several 
among  the  highesl  in  natural  science  and  in  the 
general  courses  of  study,  are  young  women." 
President  Magill,  of  Swarthmore  College,  in  an 
address  before  the  Pennsylvania  State  Teachers' 
Association,  August,  L874,  said.  "  As  a  rule,  the 
more  faithful  and  conscientious  discharge  of  their 
duties,  which  characterizes  the  young  women, 
has  produced  a  slight  difference  in  their  favor. 
in  the  matter  of  scholarship.  The  average  stand- 
ing of  the  nine  young  women,  for  the  four  years. 
was  80.8;  that  of  the  four  young  men,  82.2." 
Professor  Orton,  of  Yassar  College,  in  an  ad- 
dress (entitled  Four  Fears  in  Vassar  College) 
before  the  National  Educational  Association. 
August,  1ST  1.  said,  "Vassar  graduated  last  dune 
42,  being  just  half  the  number  who  have  been 
connected  with  the  class.  Amherst  graduated 
62  out  of  95, and  ( lornell  ii">  out  of  261 — a  pain- 
ful example  of  'the  survival  of  the  fittest'.  Dur- 
ing the  past  year,  eleven  per  cent  of  the  under- 
graduates in  VaSSar  have  been  kept  from  college 
duties  more  than  ten  days  on  account  of  illness; 
while  at  Amherst,  where  the  physical  education  of 
the  young  men  is  more  carefully  attended  to  than 

at  any  other  college,  the  percentage  was  twenty- 
one"  Professor  Bosmer,  of  the  University  of 
Missouri,  in  a  paper  entitled  Co-Education  of  the 
Sexe&  in  Universities,  read  before  the  National 
Educational  Association  in  L874,  cited  many  in- 
stall inexperience  unfavorable  to  tin-  en 

education   of  young  men   and  women,  and   thus 

very  forcibly  illustrated  the  need  of  great  vigi 
lane  and  caution  in  the  management  of  institu- 
tions where  the  sexes  are  thus  educated.  Still  he 

sums  up  the  matter  in  (he  following  words: 
"The  coeducation  of  the  sexes  in    universities   i- 

possible;  even  to  Mime  extent  desirable, on  ac- 
count of  a  certain  good  influence  which  the  sexes 
may  exert  upon  each  other.  That  eo-education 
is  a  matter  of  no  difficulty,  we  are  not  to  belies 6] 


much  less  that  it  is  to  be  accepted  as  the  power 
which  is  to  produce  straightway  a  millennium  of 
purity  and  good  order." 

A  s  to  the  effect  of  such  an  education  upon  the 
after  physical  health  and  vigor,  and  the  longevity, 
of  the  female  students,  the  statistics  are.  proba- 
bly, insufficient  to  decide  the  question  titherway. 
Those  given  in  Adelia  A.  P.  Johnston's  essay  on 
Oberlin  College  are  very  interesting  and  suggest- 
ive, and  seem  to  disprove  the  danger  which,  some 
physicians  have  alleged,  is  attendant  on  such  a 
system  of  co-education.  Of  the  620  women  grad- 
uated, up  to  lb'73.  at  Oberlin  College,  some,  she 
says,  have  been  "teachers  in  our  common  schools 
and  in  our  high  schools,  missionaries,  both  in  the 
home  and  foreign  field,  professors  in  female 
medical  colleges,  founders  of  asylums  ami  homes 
of  refuge,  and  Leaders  in  all  benevolent  enter- 
prises." The  number  of  deaths  among  the 
alumni  is  stated  to  have  amounted  to  a  little 
over  10  per  cent  ;  among  the  alumna,  to  9.67 
per  cent.  Twenty  cases  of  alumnoe,  the  names  of 
whom  are  taken  in  alphabetic  ordir  from  the  roll. 
are  cited,  to  show  how  many.. seventeen  years  after 
their  graduation,  were  leading  lives  of  healthful 
vigor  and  activity:  and  the  facts  in  regard  to 
each  afford  additional  testimony,  in  disproof  cf 
the  peril  of  "identical  co-education"  as  regards 
the  health  of  the  students.  In  briet.it  may  justly 
be  said,  that  the  testimony  of  practical  educators 
is  greatly  in  favor  of  the  eo-education  of  the 
sexes  in  the  higher  institutions  of  learning. 
I'lie  recently  established  Boston  University 
has  been  organized  avowedly  on  the  principle, 
that  a  "university  should  exist  not  for  one  sex 
merely,  but  equally  for  the  two."  "  It  welcomes," 
says  the  University  Year  Hook,  vol.  n.,  "woman 
not  merely  to  the  bench  of  the  pupil,  but  also  to 
the  chair  of  the  professor.  It  is  the  first  institu- 
tion in  tile  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts  to 
admit  the  two  sexes  to  common  advantages  in 
classical  collegiate  studies;  the  first  in  the  world 
to  open  the  entire  circle  of  post-graduate  profes- 
sional schools  to  men  and  women  alike." 

In  Europe,  co-education  is  generally  discour- 
aged; still,  the  principle  seems  to  be  gaining 
st  length,  in  consequence  of  the  results  of  the  pro- 
visions made  for  the  higher  education  of  women. 
In  Switzerland,    women    have   been   admitted  to 

the  various  departments  of  the  universities  since 
L864.  In  the  university  of  Zurich,  many  young 
Russian  women  have  been  educated;  and  in  the 
university  of  Bern  there  were,  in  1875,32  female 
students,  pursuing  their  studies  without  any  dis- 
crimination as  tosex.  Women  are  now  welcomed 
to  university  instruction  in  Vienna,  Paris. 
Home.    I.eipsie.   (iottiiigcn,    Preslau.    and    some 

other  European  institutions     Efforts  have  been 

made,  unsuccessful   as   yet.  under   the  leadership 

of  Miss. lex  Blake,  to  open  to  female  students  the 
university  of  Edinburgh;  and.  practically,  co- 
education is  sanctioned  in  connection  with  the 
"university  examinations  for  women"  in  Eng- 
land, since  the  lectures  Supplied  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,  for  the  purpose  of  afford- 
a  preparation    for    these    examinations,  are 


/ 


mg 


COLBURN 


COLBY  UNIVERSITY 


149 


Opeil    to    both    sexes.       (See   EXAMINATIONS.)       Til 

London,  in  1st  I .  a  college  was  opened  under 
the  name  of  College  for  Men  and  Women, 
which  recently  reported  about  500  students. 
In  Cambridge,  the  establishment  <>t'  Newuham 
Mall  and  Girton  College  for  young  women 
shows  the  growth,  of  public  sentiment  in  favor 
of  the  higher  education  of  women,  and  is  a 
step  toward  coeducation  in  the  University 
Plenum.  Girton  College  holds  simultaneous 
examinations  with  those  of  the  university,  and 
OSes  the  university  examination  questions.  Ac- 
cording  to  the  report  of  the  National  Union  far 
Improving  the  Education  of  Women  (1874), 
more  than  two-thirds  of  all  the  professional 
lectures  of  the  University  of  Cambridge  have 
been  thrown  open  to  women.  Public  sentiment 
in  Great  Britain  is  growing  in  favor  of  co-edu- 
cation. Some  of  the  great  leading  journals  have 
already  commenced  to  advocate  it.  The  Exam- 
iii'  r  declares.  •■  We  believe  the  separation  of  the 
sexes  in  the  worlds  of  learning  and  thought  to  be 
simply  evil.  To  allow  young  men  and  young 
women  to  meet  together  for  amusement  and 
frivolity,  and  strictly  to  part  them  when  at  work 
with  any  serious  endeavor,  is  surely  foolish." — ■ 
See  E.  H.  Clarke,  M.  [>..  Sex  in  Education 
(Boston,  1873)  ;  and  The  Building  <>f a  Bruin 
(Boston.  1874);  Anna  C.  Brackets,  The  Edu- 
cation of  American  Girls  (N.  V..  1*74):  E.  B. 
Duffey,  No  Sex  in  Education  (1'hila..  1*74); 
Westminster  Review,  Oct.  1808,  s.  v.  The  Sup- 
prrsseif  Sex,  and  Oct.  1873,  s.  v.  The  Educa- 
tion of  Women  in  America;  Boston  Univer- 
sity Year  Book,  vols.  i.  and  n. ;  D.  Beale,  Uni- 
versity Examinations  for  Women  (London, 
L875);  Report  of  the  Public  Sri,,, oh  of  St.  Louis, 
for  1869—70,  and  1872—3:  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Education  (Washington,  L875). 

COLBURN,  Warren,  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent American  mathematicians  and  teachers, 
was  born  at  Dedham,  Mass..  March  1.,  1793,  ami 
died  at  Lowell,  Sept.  15.,  1833.  His  parents 
were  poor;  and  Warren,  who  was  the  eldest  son 
of  a  large  family,  could  attend  the  district  school 
only  a  portion  of  the  year,  working  during  the 
remainder  on  his  father's  farm.  Subsequently, 
he  worked  in  the  factories,  till  having  turned 
his  attention  to  machinery,  he  followed,  for  some 
time,  the  trade  of  a  machinist.  He  had.  how- 
ever, always  been  diligent  in  the  improvement 
of  his  mind,  manifesting  an  unusual  talent  for 
arithmetic;  and,  in  his  twenty-third  year,  he 
entered  Harvard  College,  at  which  he  graduated 
in  L820.  After  leaving  the  college,  he  taught  a 
private  school  in  Boston;  and  in  1*21  published 
his  First  Lessons  in  Mental  Arithmetic,  the 
book  which  made  him  famous.  The  publication 
oi  this  wi irk.  to  a  certain  extent,  revolutionized 
the  method  of  teaching  arithmetic  then  in  vogue, 
substituting  for  the  mechanical  working-out  of 
problems  by  rule,  exercises  in  intellectual  arith- 
metic, of  a  simple  and  progressive  character,  re- 
quiring not  only  calculation  but  analysis.  In 
in-  address  on  Teaching  Arithmetic,  delivered  in 
1830,  before  the  American   Institute  of    Instruc- 


tion, he  compares  what  he  called  the  old  and  the 
new  system,  thus  describing  the  latter  :  "  By  the 
new  system,  the  learner  commences  with  practical 
examples,  in  which  the  numbers  are  so  small 
that  he  can  easily  reason  upon  them;  and  the 
reference  to  sensible  objects  gives  him  an  idea  at 
once  of  the  kind  of  result  which  he  ought  to  pro- 
duce, and  suggests  to  him  the  method  of  proceed- 
ing necessary  to  obtain  it.  By  this  he  is  thrown 
immediately  upon  his  own  resources,  and  is  com- 
pelled to  exert  bis  own  powers.  At  the  same 
time,  he  meets  with  no  greater  difficulty  than  he 
feels  himself  competent  to  overcome.  In  this 
way,  every  step  is  accompanied  with  complete 
demonstration.  Every  new  example  increases 
his  powers  and  his  confidence;  and  most  scholars 
soon  acquire  such  a  habit  of  thinking  and  rea- 
soning for  themselves,  that  they  will  not  be  satis- 
fied with  anything  which  they  do  not  under- 
stand, in  any  of  their  studies.  Instead  of  study- 
ing rules  in  the  book,  the  reason  of  which  he 
does  not  understand,  the  scholar  makes  his  own 
rules ;  and  his  rules  are  a  generalization  of  his 
own  reasoning,  and  in  a  way  agreeable  to  his  own 
associations."  The  composition  of  this  book  was 
the  result  of  Colburn's  own  teaching,  and  em- 
bodied his  methods.  "The  pupils,"  he  said,  "while 
under  tuition,  made  his  arithmetic  for  him." 
The  sale  of  tliis  book  was  enormous,  not  only  in 
the  United  State's,  but  in  Great  Britain,  reach- 
ing, it  is  said,  in  the  former  100,000  copies,  and 
in  the  latter  50,000  copies,  annually.  It  was 
also  translated  into  most  of  the  languages  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  into  some  others.  Its  plan  is 
that  which  was  conceived  by  Pestalozzi,  but 
Oolburn  realized  it,  and  adapted  it  to  general 
use.  George  B.  Emerson,  in  the  Schoolmaster 
(1842),  says  of  this  work:  "Colburn's  First 
Lessojis  is  the  only  faultless  school-book  that 
we  have.  It  has  made  a  great  change  in  the 
mode  of  teaching  arithmetic,  and  is  destined  to 
make  a  still  greater.  It  should  be  made  the 
basis  of  all  instruction  in  this  department."  Col- 
burn's career  as  a  practical  teacher  was  quite 
short,  continuing  only  three  years.  The  subse- 
quent part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  the  work  of 
superintending  a  large  manufacturing  company, 
first  at  Waltham,  afterwards  at  Lowell :  but  he 
delivered  several  courses  of  lectures  on  natural 
history  and  physics,  published  a  Sequel  to  the 
First  Lessons  (1*24),  compiled  a  school  text- 
book on  algebra,  and  also  a  series  of  reading- 
books,  on  an  original  plan.  It  was,  however,  his 
First  Lessons  that  gave  him  his  celebrity  as  an 
educator,  and  that  will  ever  associate  his  name 
with  the  subject  of  oral  or  intellectual  arithmetic. 
"  Then'  are  few  men,"  it  has  been  remarked, 
"  who.  in  so  short  and  quiet  a  life,  have  done  so 

much  good,  and  rendered  their  names  so  familiar 

as   W'anvu    Colburn." — See    Baenard,   Educa- 
tional Biography  (N.  Y.,  18(d). 

COLBY  UNIVERSITY,  at  Watervffle, 
Maine,  under  the  control  of  the  Baptists,  was 
Founded  in  1*20.  There  are  four  fine  college 
buildings.  The  value  of  the  college  property  is 
$150,000,  and  the  amount  of  productive  funds. 


150 


COLLEGE 


8200.000.  Scholarships  to  the  number  of  60, 
yielding  from  $36  ti>  Sf>0  per  annum  each,  have 
been  founded  for  the  benefit  of  students  needing 
aid.  The  charge  for  tuition,  room-rent,  and  use 
of  library  is  $41  per  annum.  The  institution 
has  a  gymnasium,  a  cabinet  of  natural  history, 
especially  rich  in  the  departments  of  conchology 
and  ornithology,  and  a  library  of  about  10,000 
volumes.  The  two  literary  societies  have  libra- 
ries of  about  3,000  volumes  each.  The  Water- 
ville  Classical  Institute  is  under  the  control  of 
the  trusters  of  the  university,  and  serves  as  a 
preparatory  department.  The  regular  university 
course  is  the  ordinary  four  years'  course  of 
American  colleges.  Persons  of  suitable  age  and 
attainments  are  allowed  to  pursue  a  partial 
course  for  any  length  of  time  not  less  than  one 
year,  selecting  such  studies  as  they  may  desire. 
On  leaving  the  institution,  they  are  entitled  to  a 
certificate  of  their  respective  acquirements  in 

the  studies  in  which  they  have  passed  an  exami- 
nation. The  courses  of  study  are  DOW  open  to 
young  women  on  the  same  terms  as  to  young 
men.  In  1873 — 4,  there  were  7  professors  and 
62  students,  of  whom  5  were  females;  namely, 
senior  class.  7;  junior,  Ifi:  sophomore,  It:  fresh- 
man, 25.  The  Rev.  Henry  E.  Robins,  D.  D.,  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

COLLEGE  (Latin  collegium, originally  mean- 
ing any  kind  of  association)  is  a  name  given  to 
large  classes  of  educational  institutions,  especially 
in  the  United  States,  England,  and  France.  The 
academic  use  of  the  word  college  began  about 
the  beginning  of  the  L3th  century,  and  originated 
in  the  following  manner.  The  students  who 
flocked  to  the  university  towns  often  came  into 
collision  with  the  citizens,  and  frequent  brawls 
resulted.  In  order  to  protect  the  public  peace. 
as  well  as  to  watch  over  the  students,  lodging- 
houses  were  provided  in  which  the  students  were 
under  the  charge  of  a  superior.  These  houses 
were  called  colleges;  and  this  name  was  afterwards 
applied  to  any  academic  institution  of  a  certain 
grade,  whether  connected  with  a  university  or 
not.  Colleges  appear  to  have  first  been  estab- 
lished in  Paris;  and  soon  afterward  in  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,   in    Bologna  and   Padua,  and 

in  Fragile  and  Vienna.  They  were  richly  en- 
dowed by  popes  and  other  dignitaries  of  the 
church,  princes,  and  powerful  families  ;  and.  in 

some  of  the  university  towns  just  named,  1 1  i  y 
became  so  numerous  in    the    L5th    century,  that 

almost  every  studenl  of  the  university  was  a 
member  of  some  one  of  the  colleges. 

France.  In  Paris,  several  monastic  orders 
founded  colleges  to  give  to  their  younger  mem- 
bers an  opportunity  to  study  theology  and  philos- 
ophy at  the  great  Beats  of  learning;  other  colleges 
were  founded  in  some  of  the  French  provinces  and 
in  several  foreign  countries.  Among  the  oldest 
French  colleges  were  the  College  of  St.  Thomas, 
the  Danish  College,  College  des  Dix-huit,the  Col 
lege  Grec  (founded  in  1206),  the  College  des  Bans 
Enfants  1 1. 208),  thai  of  the  Premonstratensians 
(1252),  the  Sorbonne,  founded  in  1253  for  16 
I r  siu dents  of  theology,  and  subsequently  one 


of  the  most  famous  of  French  colleges,  the  Col- 
lege de  la  Congregation  de  Glugny  (1269),  and 

the  Colleijc  <li'  Ximirre,  founded  in  1304  by  the 
Queen  of  Navarre.  In  France,  these  colleges 
were  almost  exclusively  situated  in  Paris,  where 
their  number,  up  to  the  end  of  the  13th  century, 
rose  to  1">,  and  subsequently  increased  to  about 
LOO;  many  of  these,  however,  were  of  little  im- 
portance. From  their  origin,  it  is  plain  that 
colleges  were  not  originally  designed  to  give  in- 
struction, but  merely  to  look  after  the  students, 
and  also  to  help  the  poorer  ones  in  their  course 
at  the  university.  The  teaching,  however,  be- 
longed entirely  to  the  university.  This  was 
gradually  changed,  and  the  colleges,  from  being 
j  merely  auxiliary  to  the  university,  became 
finally  the  centers  of  instruction.  By  limiting 
lectures  and  disputations  to  a  single  department, 
the   colleges  became  so  many  distinct    faculties; 

and  the  university  assumed  the  character  of  a 
union  of  colleges.  In  modern  times,  the  term 
college   is.  in    France,  the  distinctive   name  for 

schools  of  sec lary  instruction,  corresponding 

to  the  gymnasiums  of  Germany  and  other  coun- 
tries. The  higher  class  of  these  schools  arc 
called  lyceums  isee  Lyceum),  the  lower,  com- 
munal colleges  [colleges  communaux).  In  1873, 
there  were  78  lyceums  and  236  communal  col- 
leges; iiesides.  a  number  of  private  institutions 
of  a  similar  grade  were  called  colleges  libres. 
These  colleges  have  the  character  either  of  Latin 
schools  or  real-schools.  The  former  strive  to 
emulate  the  lyceums,  though  consisting  some- 
times of  only  a  ivw  of  the  lower  classes,  and 
frequently  giving  special  prominence  to  a  scien- 
tific course  of  instruction.  The  latter  class  of 
colleges  generally  exclude  Latin,  and  are  real- 
schools  for  pupils  of  the  middle  class,  who  intend 
to  devote  themselves  to  industry,  commerce,  arts, 
and  agriculture.  .Many  of  them  prepare  their 
pupils  to  enter  the  special  schools.  There  is  a 
great  variety  in  the  courses  of  instinct  ion  of 
these  schools.      Among  the    best    schools  of  the 

kind  is  the  College  municipal  Chaptaloi  Paris, 
founded  in   lsii   by  the  city.     It  consists  of  6 

classes.      The   subjects  of   instruction  in  the  first 

or  lower  class  are  (1)  Religion;  (2)  Arithmetic 
(decimal  and  common  fractions;  exercises  in  the 

metrical  system  :  calculation  of  extension,  sur- 
face, and  solids | ;  i .". i  French  and  General  <>' ram- 
mar  ;  ill  German  and  English;  (5)  Geography; 
(6)  General  History:  (7)  Geometrical  Drawing; 
(8)  Free  hand  Drawing;  (9)  Singing.  Ln  the  second 
class,  the  same  subjects  are  taught,  and.  in  ad- 
dition, the  elements  of  geometry  and  mathemat- 
ical geography.    Those  of  the  third  class,  besides 

the  studies  of  the  preceding  class,  give  instruction 
iii  algebra,  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  stere- 
ometry, mineralogy,  and  book-keeping.  Those  of 
the  fourth  class  discontinue  arithmetic. and  take 
Up    trigonometry,     Latin.     Italian     or     Spanish. 

mechanics, botany, and zoOlogy.  In  the  /;/'/// class. 
the  history  of  French  literature,  hygienics,  and 
technology  are  added.     In  the  sixth  or  highest 

class. are  taught  geology,  Cosmography,  industrial 
and  political  economy,  and  the  history  of  France. 


COLLEGE 


151 


Tli.'  subjects  taught  in  all  the  six  classes  are 
religion,  French  (in  the  lower  classes  grammar, 
in  the  higher  literature),  German  or  English, 
history,  drawing,  and  Hinging.  The  College  de 
"Prance,  in  Pans,  is  an  institution  of  a  higher 
grade  than  either  the  communal  colleges  or 
rjceums,  presenting  a  system  of  instruction 
almost  as  comprehensive  as  that  of  a  complete 
university.  It  was  founded  by  Francis  I.,  in  1530, 
and  its  professors  have  always  borne  the  name 
of  lecteurs  royaux.  It  has  counted  among  its 
prof essors  some  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  France, 
and  has  at  present  28  professors  and  several 
distinct  courses,  embracing  all  the  different  sci- 
ences, law.  medicine,  as  well  as  classic,  modern, 
European,  and  oriental  literature. 

Qreat  Britain  and  Ireland.  —  The  colleges 
founded  in  England  in  connection  with  the  uni- 
versities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  were  not  in- 
tended to  afford  instruction,  but  to  aid  students 
in  passing  through  the  university.  The  rich  en- 
dowments which  were  conferred  upon  the  col- 
leges, however,  soon  enabled  them  to  give  to 
their  inmates  instruction  as  well  as  aid,  and  so 
increased  their  reputation  and  importance,  that 
the  university,  with  its  four  faculties,  gradually 
losl  its  hold  of  the  students,  and  retained  little 
more  power  than  the  conferring  of  degrees  and 
other  honors.  The  studies  designed  to  prepare 
the  students  for  the  academic  degrees,  were 
chiefly  pursued  in  the  colleges,  and  it  was  espe- 
cially the  lectures  of  the  faculty  of  arts  which 
were  transferred  to  the  colleges.  "  The  colleges," 
said  one  of  the  speakers  during  the  discussions 
upon  the  Cambridge  bill,  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, May  30.,  1856,  "  have  overshadowed  and 
practically  almost  monopolized  the  teaching  of 
the  university."  Every  college  is  a  corporation 
of  its  own,  having  its  own  statutes,  and  electing 
one  of  its  members  for  the  legislative  and  exec- 

•  •    • 

utive  authorities  of  the  university.  The  general 
name  given  to  the  heads  of  the  colleges  is  Heads 
of  Houses  ;  but  there  is  a  considerable  diversity 
in  the  titles  which  the  Heads  of  Houses  have  in 
different  colleges.  In  some,  the  head  is  called 
Master,  a.  title  which  prevails  in  Cambridge  ;  in 
■others.  Provost,  President,  Procurator,  Warden, 
/.'•  ctor,  Perpetual  Rector,  or  Dean.  Most  of  the 
1  hails  of  Houses  are  Doctors  of  Divinity.  Next 
to  the  Heads  of  House-  are  the  Fellows,  a  num- 
ber of  graduates  who  receive  an  income  from 
the  funds  of  the  college,  and  are  permitted  to 
retain  their  positions  for  life,  unless  they  inherit 
ttes  of  greater  income,  or  marry.  The  num- 
ber of  fellowships  in  Cambridge  is  4,'5() ;  in  Ox- 
ford, f>4<».  The  Heads  of  Houses  are  elected  for 
life  by  the  Fellows.  A  portion  of  the  under- 
graduates also  derive  an  income  from  the  funds 
of  the  colleges,  and  are  called  Foundation  Mem- 
bers. Members  not  on  the  Foundation  constitute 
a  large  number  of  graduates  who  continue  their 
names  on  the  lists  of  the  college  in  order  to  have 
the  right  to  take  pari  in  the  sittings  of  the  sen- 
ate, and  of  independent  under-graduates.  who  ac- 
cording to  their  rank  and  expenditures,  are 
called  "Noblemen,  Gentlemen  Commoners,  Fellow 


Commoners,  Commoners,  or  Pensioners  (the 
terms  used  at  the  two  universities  not  quite 
agreeing).  The  under-graduate.  on  entering  col- 
lege, is  assigned  to  a  "tutor,"  who  is  to  him  in 
loco  parentis,  superintends  his  conduct,  and 
provides  for  his  instruction  in  the  different  stud- 
ies by  the  college  lecturers  or  sub-lecturers. 
The  latter  instruct  those  students  whom  the 
lecturer  cannot  admit  to  his  classes,  either  for 
the  want  of  room,  or  for  some  other  reason.  The 
tutor  may  be,  at  the  same  time,  a  college  lec- 
turer. The  instruction  in  the  college  aims  almost 
exclusively  at  preparing  the  student  for  the  ex- 
aminations, which  are  partly  college  and  partly 
university  examinations.  The  college  examina- 
tions are  called  collections,  and  take  place  at  the 
end  of  every  term,  when  each  student  has  to 
answer  in  writing  several  questions  relative  to 
all  the  studies  pursued  by  him.  (For  the  uni- 
versity examinations,  see  University.)  Oxford 
University  contains  21  colleges  and  ">  halls: 
Cambridge.  1  7  colleges  or  halls  (the  two  terms 
in  Cambridge  meaning  the  same).  Next  to  these 
most  important  institutions,  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  holds  a  high  rank.  The  Queen's  Uni- 
versity in  Ireland  consists  of  three  colleges,  lo- 
cated in  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Calway.  Until  about 
1 830,  dissenters'  colleges  were  not  allowed  to  grant 
degrees  without  requiring  the  graduates  to  sub- 
scribe to  the  ^drty-nine  art  ivies.  This  caused 
a  great  deal  of  political  agitation,  which  resulted 
in  granting  the  privilege  to  these  institutions,  and 
also  in  founding  the  University  College,  King's 
College,  and  the  University  of  London,  in  which 
|  the  thirty-mine  articles  are  not  insisted  upon  as 
1  a  condition  of  admission.  These  institutions 
have  also  served  to  promote  the  study  of  the 
natural  sciences  ;  Oxford  and  (  ambridge  being 
still,  in  this  respect,  strongholds  of  conservatism. 
The  '•  great  public  schools,"  such  as  Eton  and 
Rugby,  are,  in  effect,  colleges.  Of  these  there 
are  17,  some  of  which  have  also  the  name  college; 
as  Eton  College,  Dulwich  College,  Wellington 
College,  and  Winchester  College.  Some  of  the 
schools  classed  as  grammar  schools  (see  Gram- 
mar Schools)  are  also  styled  colleges.  Besides 
these,  there  are  many  theological  colleges,  classi- 
fied as  follows:  Established,  11  ;  Wesleyan,  7  ; 
<  'ongregationalist,  11;  Roman  Catholic,  11; 
Baptist,  9  ;  Presbyterian.  3  ;  Calvinist,  '1:  Meth- 
odist. 2  :  Unitarian,  1  ;  Free  Religious  Thought, 
1.  There  were  also,  in  1875  (according  to 
Wkittaker's  Almanack  for  1870),  five  "Ladies' 

(  olleges." 

United  States. — The  American  colleges  grant 
degrees  in  the  arts,  and  give  the  ordinary  course 
of  under-graduate  instruction.  Some  of  the  older 
colleges,  as  Vale  and  Harvard,  add  instruction  in 
theology,  law,  and  medicine,  and  thus  approach 
to  the  rank  of  universities  in  tin-  European  sense 
of  the  word.  Most  of  the  so-called  universities, 
however,  furnish  only  collegiate  instruction  :  and 
there  is,  as  yet.  no  fixed  distinction  between  the 
terms  college  and  university  in  the  United  States. 
The  institutions  of  this  kind  considerably  differ 
in  their  mode  of  organization.    On  the  one  hand, 


152 


COLLEGE 


are  those  which,  adhering  to  the  old  system, have 
fixed  standards  of  admission  and  a  curriculum 
strictly  prescribed ;  on  the  other,  those  which 
have  no  fixed  standard  of  admission  nor  pre- 
scribed curriculum,  their  course  of  studies  being 
arranged  in  schools,  among  which  the  student 
may  select  at  will.  Of  the  former  (the  prevailing 
system)  Yale  may  be  taken  as  a  representative  : 
of  the  latter,  the  University  of  Virginia.  Be- 
tween these  two  extremes,  are  those  that  allow  a 
greater  or  less  freedom  of  choice  to  the  student. 
Some,  like  I  Iarvard  and  Yale,  have  distinct  scien- 
tific departments ;  others,  like  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, have  parallel  courses  in  which  greater  atten- 
tion may  be  paid  to  science  or  to  modern  lan- 
guages than  in  the  classical  course.  With  some 
of  the  colleges,  professional  schools  are  connected. 
Of  about  350  institutions  in  the  United  States, 
styled  colleges  or  universities,  and  possessing  the 
right  to  confer  degrees,  a  large  majority  have 
preparatory,  and  some,  inferior  departments, 
which  often,  especially  in  the  West  and  South, 
comprise  the  greater  part  of  the  students.  I  Iar- 
vard, Vale,  and  a  few  others  have  post-graduate 
courses  of  study.  The  principal  degrees  confer- 
red are  as  follows:  undergraduate,-  Bachelor 
of  Arts,  of  Science,  of  Philosophy,  of  Literature, 
of  Letters;  post-graduate. — Master  of  Arts.  I  >octor 
of  Philosophy,  Doctor  of  Science;  professional, — 
Civil  Engineer,  Mining  Engineer,  Bachelor  of 
Laws,  Bachelor  of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Medicine  : 
honorary, —  Doctor  of  Divinity.  Doctor  of  Laws. 
The  degree  of  Master  ofAxts  is  ordinarily  con- 
ferred, as  of  course,  upon  Bachelors  of  Arts  of 
three  years' standing;  but,  in  some  institutions.it 
implies  a  course  of  post-graduate  study,  and  it  is 
often  honorary.  Many  details  respecting  the 
course  of  study  will  be  given  in  the  articles  on 
the  different  institutions,  and  matters  relating  to 
professional  and  other  special   degrees  will  be 

noticed  under  the  appropriate  heads.  Only  the 
range  of  studies  open  to  candidates  for  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  will  be  noticed  here, 
and,  for  this  purpose,  Harvard  and  Vale  will  be 
taken  as  examples.  The  term  of  study  for  this 
degree  U,  in  almost  every  institution,  four  years  ; 
the  method  of  instruction  is  ordinarily  a  combi- 
nation of  lectures,  recitations,  and  written  cx- 
aminat  ions. 

In  Harvard,  the  course  of  study  includes 
I  lebrew.  Sanskrit,  I  ireek  and  I. at  in  (language  and 
literature,  including  ecclesiastical  Greek  and  the 
elements  of  Roman  law).  Anglo-Saxon,  Knglish 
language  and  literature, German,  French,  Italian. 
Spanish,  Romance  philology,  rhetoric,  political 
economy,  logic,  metaphysics,  ethics,  history  (in- 
cluding international  law),  mathematics  (includ- 
ing   the     higher     branches),    physics     (including 

mechanics,  astronomy,  optics,  acoustics,  electric- 
ity, etc.),  chemistry  [including  mineralogy),  nat- 
ural history  (including  physical  geography,  me- 
teoroli  igy,  ge<  »logy,  botany,  zooli  >gy,  palaeontology, 
and  comparative  anatomy  and  physiology  i,  music, 
and  the  fine  arts,  in  oaanj  of  these  branches, 
several  parallel  courses  are  arranged.  The  pre- 
scribed  studies  occupy    the  whole  of  the  fresh- 


man year,  and  about  one  third  of  the  sophomore 
and  junior  years.     For  the  senior  year,  oidy  cer- 
tain written  exercises  are  prescribed.     The  re- 
mainder of  the  time  is  occupied  by  elect ives,  in 
the  choice  of  which  the  student    is  limited  only 
by  his  qualification  to  pursue  them.    The  clas- 
sics or  mathematics  may  be  pursued  through  the 
entire  four  years.     The  requirements  for  admis- 
sion are  embraced  in  two  courses,  distinguished 
by  a  preponderance  of  the  classics  and  mat  he- 
matics respectively.     The  first  course   embraces 
Latin  grammar  and  composition,  with  the  trans- 
lation of  Latin  prose  at  sight;  Caesar,  De  Bello 
GaUico,  Books  I. — IV.,  inclusive  ;  Sallust,  Cati- 
line; Ovid.  4.001)  lines;    Cicero,  eight   orations 
and  Cato  Major;  Virgil,  Bucolics,  and  d&neid, 
1  Books  I. — VI.,  inclusive;  (ireek  grammar  and 
(composition;      Goodwin     and     Allen's    (ireek 
Reader,  orXenophon's  Anabasis,  Books  I. — IV., 
inclusive,  with  the  Seventh  Book  of  Herodotus; 
Homer's  Iliad,  Books  1. — IH., inclusive,  omitting 
the  catalogue  of  ships ;  arithmetic,  including  the 
metric  system  of  weights  and  measures,  with  the 
rudiments  of  logarithms:  algebra,  through  quad- 
ratic equations;  as  much  plane  geometry  as  is 
contained  in  the  first  L5  chapters  of    I'circe's 
Geometry;  ancient  history  and  geography;  mod- 
ern and  physical  geography;    Knglish  composi- 
tion ;    the    translation    at   sight    of   either   easy 
French  prose  or  easy  German  prose:  and  either 
elementary   botany,  rudiments  of    physics  and 
of  chemistry,  or  rudiments  of   physics   and  of 
descriptive  astronomy.    The  second  course  em- 
braces Latin  grammar;  Caesar,  De  Bello  Oallico, 
Books   I.   and   II.;     Cicero,    six   orations  and 
Cato  Major)   Virgil,  fflrufid,  Hooks  I. —  VX,  in- 
clusive ;  (ireek  grammar ;  Goodwin  and  Allen's 
(ireek    Header,  first  111  pages,  or  Xenophon's 
Anabasis,   Hooks  I. — IV.,  inclusive:    Homer's 
Iliad,  Bonks  Land  1 L.  omitting  the  catalogue  of 
ships:  algebra,  as  much  as  is  contained  in  the 
larger  treatises  of  Greenleaf,  etc.;  solid  geometry, 
as  much   as   is  contained  in  IVirce's  ( ieometry  ; 
plane  trigonometry:  elements  of  plane  analytical 
geometry;    with    arithmetic,    plane    geometry, 
history,  geography,  Knglish  composition,  French 
or  German,  and  physical  science  as  in  the  first 
course. 

In   Vale,  tin ursc  of  instruction  and  the  terms 

of  admission  are  similar  to  those  of  the  better 

class  of  colleges  throughout  the  country.  The 
course    uf    instruction    includes    the   (ireek   and 

Latin  languages  and  literatures  (three  years), 
mathematics  (two years),  history,  rhetoric,  trench 

or    German    (two   terms,    junior   yean,    natural 

philosophy,  logic,  astronomy,    physics,   mental 

philosophy,  political  and  social  science,  chemistry, 
natural    theology  and  evidences  of    Christianity, 

moral  philosophy,  geology,  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology, the  history  of  philosophy,  constitutional 
history,  the  constitution  of  the  Dnited  States,  lan- 
guage and  the  study  of  language.  In  some  of 
these  subjects,  the  instruction  is  imparted  Bimply 
by  lectures.  The  course  of  in.-t  nut  ion  is  strictly 
prescribed,  except  that  the  differentia]  and  ill- 
tegral    calculus    may   he    substituted    for   (ireek 


COLLEGE 


153 


or  Lathi  during  the  first  two  terms  of  the 
junior  year. 

The  requirements  for  admission  arc  Latin 
grammar;  sallust,  Bettum  Jugurthinum,  or  four 
books  of  Caesar;  Cicero,  aeven  orations;  Virgil, 
s-.  (icon/ics.  and  the  first  six  books  of 
ih,'  .Knrul;  Arnold's  Latin  Prose  Composition, 
first  twelve  chapters;  Greek  grammar;  Xeno- 
phon's  Anabasis,  four  books;  Homer's  Mad, 
tlu-ee  books;  Greek  history ;  higher  arithmetic, 
including  the  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures ;  algebra  ;  Euclid,  first  two  books  ; 
English  grammar  and  geography.  In  the  post- 
graduate course,  facilities  are  afforded  for  the 
study  of  Anglo-Saxon, the  American  Indian  lan- 
guages (especially  the  dialects  of  the  Algonquin 
family  i,  Sanskrit,  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
languages,  Hebrew,  and  some  other  branches  not 
in  the  undergraduate  course. 

According  to  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Com- 
missioner of  Education  for  1874,  there  were,  in 
the  I'nited  States.  ,'iU>  universities  and  colleges, 
with  3,783  instructors'  and  56,692  students,  dis- 
tributed according  to  the  following  table  : 


STATES  and  TERRITORIES. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

f  Connecticut 

Delaware 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

District  of  Columbia 

Colorado 

Dtah 

Washington 

In  the  foregoing  table,  the  colleges  and  nni- 
versities  are  placed  together,  but  in  such  case 
only  the  collegiate  department  is  to  be  under- 
stood. When  there  is  a  medical,  law,  or  the- 
ological department,  the  statistics  of  the  same 
are  given  elsewhere  under  the  appropriate  title. 


-  ;o 
o 

No.  in- 
structors 

No.  stu- 
dents. 

5 

55 

274 

2 

8 

39 

12 

L3o 

752. 

3 

.).) 

855 

l 

6 

45 

;. 

35 

574 

•2:: 

232 

1,904 

17 

132 

1,613 

17 

L38 

829 

7 

42 

206 

12 

7!) 

802 

7 

56 

82 

3 

32 

355 

7 

77 

477 

7 

132 

1,517 

7 

'.in 

817 

3 

38 

167 

6 

46 

271 

17 

175 

1,358 

3 

19 

55 

1 

20 

265 

4 

61 

645 

26 

410 

3,010 

6 

31 

267 

34 

258 

2,430 

7 

30 

180 

27 

256 

2,238 

1 

15 

253 

s 

33 

287 

10 

130 

757 

12 

64 

691 

3 

20 

161 

K 

72 

L.284 

3 

23 

171 

It) 

s4 

(Hit 

5 

54 

144 

2 

7 

15 

L 

4 

— 

2 

3 

56 

Some  aggregate  statistics  from  the  same  re- 
port are  given  in  the  following  table: 

No.  volumes  in  college  libraries 1,870,455 

No.  volumes  in  society  libraries 406,144 

Aggregate    value   of   grounds,   buildings, 

and   apparatus $39,170,223 

Amount  of  productive  funds 28,080,309 

Aggregate  income  therefrom 1,801,890 

Receipts  from  tuition  fees 1,768,929 

Amount  of  scholarship  funds 1,999,338 

State  appropriation  for  the  preceding  year       611,676 

The  denominational  character  of  the  colleges 
as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained  was,  in  1875,  as 
follows: 

Baptist 36 

Free  Baptist 4 

Seventh-day  Baptist 2 

Christian 9 

Congregationalist lt> 

Cumberland  Presbyterian 6 

Evangelical  Association 2 

Friends 4 

Lutheran 15 

Masonic 1 

Methodist  Episcopal 47 

Methodist  Episcopal,  South 9 

Methodist  Protestant 1 

Moravian 1 

Mormon 1 

Presbyterian 24 

Protestant  Episcopal 19 

Reformed 3 

German  Reformed 3 

Roman  Catholic 67 

State 12 

Swedenborgian 1 

Unitarian 1 

United  Brethren 3 

United  Presbyterian 4 

Universalist 4 

Unsectarian 34 

A  few  colleges  are  not  contained  in  this  enu- 
meration, it  being  uncertain  to  what  denomination 
they  belong.  All  the  important  institutions, 
however,  are  included. 

The  presidents  of  nearly  all  the  leading  col- 
leges in  the  United  States  met  at  Hanover,  N. 
H.,  in  November  1874,  and  discussed,  among 
other  tilings,  college  athletics  (boating  etc.),  the 
taxation  of  college  property,  optional  studies 
and  the  comparative  importance  of  classical  and 
scientific  studies,  and  the  college  and  university 
system.  It  was  resolved  not  to  interfere  in 
any  way  with  regattas  and  boating.  While  the- 
influences  attending  these  pastimes  might  some- 
what divert  attention  from  study,  and  thus  lower 
the  standard  of  scholarship,  the  physical  training 
and  development  secured  thereby  were  deemed 
amply  sufficient  to  compensate  for  any  such  un- 
favorable results.  Some  of  the  presidents  took 
strong  ground  against  the  taxation  of  college 
property.  President  Kliot  warmly  argued  in 
favor  of  optional  studies,  contending  that  the 
United  States  is  the  only  country  which  com- 
pels a  student  to  pursue  prescribed  branches 
after  the  age  of  19.  In  the  discussion  on  class- 
ical and  scientific  studies,  each  side  had  its 
advocates;    but   the  genera]  opinion  was,  that 

the   languages  and  sciences  should   lie  studied  as 
means    of     mental    discipline    only,    during    tie 

freshman   and   sophomore  years,  and   that  the 

succeeding  years— junior  and  senior — should  be 


154 


COLLEGIATE  SCHOOLS 


COLOMBIA 


devoted  to  philosophy,  literature,  and  special 
sciences,  leaving  the  languages  and  mathematics 
optional  during  the  junior  year.  —  See  Noah 
Porter,  The  American  Colleges  and  ike  Amer- 
ican Public  (N.  Y.,  1870);  Jex-Blake,  A  Visit 
to  some  Aiivriain  Schools  and  Colleges  (Lond. 
and  X.  Y.):  Oi.ix.  College  JAfe;  Its  Theory  and 
Practice  (X.  Y.,  L867);  P.  Arnold,  Oafordand 
Cambridge;  their  Colleges  etc.  (London). 

COLLEGIATE  SCHOOLS.  See  Cathe- 
dral Schools. 

COLOMBIA,  United  States  of,  formerly 
\  w  I  rranada,  a  republic  in  the  northern  part  of 
South  America,  formed  of  nine  federal  states, 
the  combined  area  of  which  is  variously  esti- 
mated a!  from  480,000  to  521,000  sq.m.,  and 
the  population  at  about  2,900,000,  composed  of 
whites,  negroes,  Indians,  and  mixed  races.  The 
whites  are  mainly  Spanish,  cither  by  birth  or 
by  descent;  they  speak  the  Spanish  language  and 

generally  profess  the  Catholic  faith.  The 
country  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  in  L536 
and  L537,  and  was  created  a  viceroyalty  of 
Spain,  under  the  title  of  New  <  rranada,  in  L718. 
Alter  various  insurrectionary  attempts,  the 
Spanish  rule  was  finally  thrown  off  in  L819,  and 
an  allia  ce  was  formed  with  Venezuela  and 
Quito,  under  the  name  of  the  Republic  of  Co- 
lombia. The  chronic  anarchy  which  has  always 
reigned  among  the  South  American  republics, 
put  an  end  to  this  union  in  L829,  and  the  pres- 
ent republic  was  organized  in  L831. 

Under  the  Spanish  rule,  primary  instruction 
was  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Church;  and 
higher  instruction  was  confined  to  the  colleges. 
In  the  latter,  a  very  superficial  instruction  was 
given  in  the  classics,  history,  geography,  and  the 
elements  of  natural  science;  a  smattering  of 
theology  was  also  included.  A  number  of  these 
colleges  still  exist,  but  are  of  little  importance. 
The  chief  ones  are  the  Colegio  National  de  San 
Bartohmeo,  in  Bogota,  and  the  colleges  in  Car- 
tagena,  Popayan,  Mompox,  Tunja,  and  Cali. 

After  the  overthrow  of  the  Spanish  power. 
Bolivar  aimed  to  set  public  instruction  upon  a 
firm  footing.  As  a  preliminary  step,  the  church 
property  was  sold, and  all  cloisters  \\  bich  ha  I  leas 

than  eight  monks  were  Suppressed.  The  con- 
stitution of  L821  limited  the  righl  of  voting  to 
those  citizens  who  could  read  and  write;   it  also 

provided  that  the  national  congress  should  con- 
trol public  education.  Very  considerable  ad- 
vancement was  made  under  Bolivar's  administra- 
tion towards  an  ellicient  school  system  ;  but.  un- 
fortunately, his  dictatorial  proceedings,  together 
with  the  anarchical  spirit  of  the  people,  produced 
such  political  contusion,  that  nothing  resulted 
from  it.  I'ntil  the  year  1863, the  only  schools 
were  the  relics  of  the  old  church  and  cloister 

schools,  a  few  private  institutions. and  some  local 
Schools,  supported  by  ihe  muniei] ialit  ies.     Public 

instruction  was  ftrsl  placed  definitely  under  the 
direction  of  the  national  government  by  the  con- 
stitution of  L863.  The  law  of  .May  30.,  L868, 
determines  the  nd.it i >f  ihe  national  govern- 
ment to  the  several   states  in  the  matter  of  edu- 


cation, prescribing  the  following  as  its  duties : 
Besides  managing  the  national  university,  it  is 
required  to  maintain  normal  schools  for  both 
sexes  ;  also  to  establish  primary  schools,  which 
shall  serve  as  a  standard  for  the  establishment  of 
similar  schools  by  the  several  states.  The  found- 
ing of  agricultural  schools,  together  with  the  en- 
tire direction  of  what  school  books  and  apparatus 
shall  be  used,  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  law  also  provides  for  a  central 
normal  school  in  the  capital  of  the  republic. 
This  law  remained  a  dead  letter  until  November 
:  1.,  1870,  when  a  decree  was  issued  upon  the  sub- 
j  ject,  providing  for  a  national  school  board  in  Bo- 
gota, and  a  state  school  board  for  each  of  the 
states  to  which  a  national  school  officer  is  sent. 
The  public  schools  are  cither  primary  schools  or 
higher  schools,  and  are  for  both  sexes.  The 
primary  school  gives  instruction  in  reading, 
writing,    ami    arithmetic,    the  rudiments  of    the 

Spanish  language,  the  elements  of  physiologyand 
hygiene,  singing,  natural  history, and  the  history 
of  the  nation.  The  higher  schools  add  to  these 
branches  the  elements  of  algebra  and  geometry, 

and  an  elementary  knowledge  of  natural  science 
and  general  geography.  In  the  girls'  schools,  the 
same  subjects  are  taught,  though  to  a  less  ex- 
tent :  and  various  feminine  accomplishments, 
such  as  house-keeping  etc.,  are  added.  The  cen- 
tral normal  school  has  a  four  years'  course.  The 
subjects  studied  are  grammar,  Spanish  literature. 

the  French  and  Rngliah  languages,  universal 
history,  the  national  history,  algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  general  geography,  astronomy,  in- 
dustrial physics  and  chemistry,  mechanics  and 
mechanical  drawing, natural  history  and  agricul- 
ture, anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene,  music, 
vocal  and  instrumental,  and  gymnastics.  The 
law  further  provides  for  a  normal  school  in  the 

capital  of  each  state,  the  expense  of  which  is 
borne  by  that  state.  A  teachers' association  is 
connected  with  each  of  these  normal  schools. 
Schools  are  also  provided  for  those  small  chil- 
dren whose  parents  are  unable  to  provide  them 

with  the  first  rudiments  of  education.  Every 
public  school  must  have  its  own  building,  which 
includes  the  dwelling  of  the  principal ;  it  also 
has  a  garden  for  the  practical  study  of  botany, 
gardening,  etc.  The  law  pros  ides,  too,  that  pub- 
lic instruction  shall  aim  at  moral  culture,  but 
the  national  govemmenl  does  not  interfere  with 
religious  education.     The  course   of  instruction 

in  the  schools  must,  however,  be  so  arranged 

that  sufficient  time  may  remain  for  religious  in- 
struction   by  the   pastors,  Or  such   other   per-ons 

as  the  parents  may  choose.  Parents  and  guard- 
ians must  either  send  their  children  and  wards, 
between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fifteen,  to  the  pub- 
lic schools,  or  provide  other  satisfactory  instruc- 
tion for  them.  As  yet.  however,  there  is  no 
penalty  for  a  non-compliance  with  this  provision, 
although  there  is  a  strong  sentiment  in  favor  of 
compulsory    education.       Besides    these    schools, 

the  government  has  established  schools  in  the 

military  barracks,  for  tin"  instruction  of  the  sol- 
diers  in  the  common  branches  of  learning. 


COLOR 


155 


In  Colombia,  however,  as  elsewhere,  tin'  doc- 
trine of  state  rights  lias  been  a  troublesome  ele- 
ment. No  act  of  the  national  congress  becomes 

a  law  in  the  several  states,  until  it  has  been 
adopted  by  their  respective  legislatures;  and 
there  is  not  a  single  provision  of  the  law  per- 
taining to  education  which  has  not  been  fiercely 

disputed  by  the  several  states:  but  it  has  finally 
been  adopted  by  all  but  Antioquia.  A  further 
disturbing  element  in  carrying  out  the  law,  was 
Ultramontanism.  The  government  called  many 
prominent  teachers  from  abroad,  and  especially 
from  Germany,  for  the  national  normal  schools, 
— a  measure  at  which  the  clerical  party  took  great 
offense.  The  exclusion  of  religious  instruction 
from  the  schools  also  caused  a  great  deal  of  op- 
position from  the  clergy  :  nevertheless,  the  system 
of  national  instruction  has  continually  grown  in 
favor  with  the  people,  and  now  seems  to  be  as 
well  established  as  the  restless  character  of  the 
people  admits.  A  number  of  educational  journals 
arc  published,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
principal :  La  Escuela  Normal,  El  Maestro  de 
Es  .'.  La  Escuela  Primaria,  El  Monitor,  and 
La  Revista. 

COLOR,  as  a  branch  of  object  instruction,  is 
of  great  interest  and  value ;  since,  at  an  early 
children  take  particular  notice  of  colors,  and, 
hence,  lessons  upon  this  subject  furnish  an  excel- 
lent opportunity  for  training  them  to  distinguish 
resemblances  and  differences,  and  for  encouraging 
the  formation  of  those  habits  of  attention  and 
comparison  which  are  necessary  to  the  successful 
study  of  other  subjects.  From  the  fact  that 
many  persons  are  found  to  be  color-blind,  it  is  of 
great  importance  that  suitable  lessons  should  be 
given  children  to  enable  teachers  and  parents  to 
ascertain  whether  this  defect  exists  in  any  under 
their  care,  before  they  become  old  enough  to  en- 
gage in  any  occupation  in  which  color-blindness 
would  be  an  insurmountable  defect.  Besides,  by 
the  early  training  of  children  to  observe  colors, 
much  of  the  inability  to  distinguish  them,  which 
is  commonly  not  discovered  until  later  in  life,  may 
be  overcome  by  education.  Furthermore,  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  colore,  and  of  their  relations  to 
each  other,  is  of  importance  in  nearly  every  avo- 
cation of  life.  This  becomes  especially  apparent 
when  it  is  remembered  how  much  depends  upon 
color  in  the  manufacture  of  materials  for  dress. 
furniture,  household  decorations,  in  the  work  of 
artists,  and  in  various  other  kinds  of  employment. 

Since  a  knowledge  of  color  can  be  gained  only 
through  the  sense  of  sight,  the  methods  for 
teaching  it  in  school  should  be  so  arranged  that 
the  pupils  may  have  abundant  exercise  of  this 
sense  in  distinguishing  colors.  For  the  first  les- 
sons,  place  before  the  pupils  the  best  colors  that  can 
be  procured,  in  order  that  they  may  obtain  cor- 
rect conceptions  as  to  what  are  good  reds,  yel- 
lows, blues,  greens,  purples,  etc.  Commence 
with  showing  a  single  color,  as  red.  and  leading 
the  pupils  to  compare  red  cards,  paper,  silk, 
worsted,  etc..  with  it.  and  thus  to  notice  resem- 
blances and  differences  between  the  true  red  and 
the  several  objects  compared  with  it.     Give  sim- 


ilar exercises,  with  each  of  the  primary  and  sec- 
ondary colors,  singly  ;  then  place  two  of  these 
colore  before  the  pupils,  and  let  them  select  ar- 
ticles t atch  each  of  the  given  colors.  Pro- 
ceed in  a  similar  way  with  the  other  colore;  and, 
finally,  place  several  or  all  of  them  before  the 
pupils  at  the  same  time,  and  require  them  not 
only  to  point  out  the  colore  as  named,  but  to  se- 
lect colored  articles  to  match  each. 

Frequent  changes  in  the  mode  of  giving  these 
exercises  on  color  will  increase  the  interest  of  the 
children  in  the  subject,  and  add  to  their  knowl- 
edge of  it,  especially  when  each  one  has  some- 
thing to  do  in  the  exercise.  After  the  pupils 
have  learned  to  know  each  of  the  six  colore  used 
in  the  previous  lesson,  fresh  interest  may  be 
given  to  the  subject  by  supplying  each  child  with 
a  piece  of  colored  paper,  taking  care  that  those 
who  sit  side  by  side  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  hold 
different  colore.  When  the  papers  have  been 
distributed,  the  teacher  may  say,  "  Now.  look  at 
your  paper,  see  what  color  you  have,  then  fold 
your  arms  so  as  to  hide  your  paper.  Now,  look 
at  the  color  which  I  show  you  ;  all  who  know 
that  they  have  a  like  color  may  hold  it  up.  — 
Right. — Now.  look  at  this  color, — all  who  have 
one  like  it.  hold  it  up."  Proceed  in  >he  same 
manner  with  each  color  ; — to  close  the  iJsson,  re- 
quest one  pupil  to  collect  all  the  red  papers, 
another  all  the  blues,  another  the  greens,  etc. 
Similar  lessons  may  be  given  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  children  to  distinguish  shades  of  colore, 
as  dark  and  light  reds,  blues,  greens,  etc. 

If  it  be  desired  to  continue  these  lessons,  and 
teach  that  the  six  colors  previously  shown  may 
be  divided  into  two  groups — primary  and  sec- 
ondary— procure  artists'  paints:  red  (carmine), 
yellow  (chrome) ,  blue  (ultramarine) ;  also  a  small 
palette,  and  a  palette  knife.  Place  a  little  yel- 
low and  blue  on  the  palette,  side  by  side,  re- 
questing the  pupils  to  notice  what  colore  are 
used.  Then,  with  the  knife,  mix  these  two 
colore  together  until  green  appears  in  place  of 
the  yellow  and  blue.  Then  ask  the  pupils  what 
color  has  been  produced  by  mixing  the  yellow 
and  blue,  Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  to  mix 
red  and  blue,  to  produce  purple  ;  red  and  yellow, 
to  produce  orange.  The  teacher  may  now  write 
on  the  blackboard  for  the  pupils  to  learn  :  Mix- 
ing yellow  and  blue  will  produce  green.  Mixing 
red  mill  blue  will  produce  purple.  Mixing  red 
and  yellow  will  produce  orange.  Then  pupils 
may  select  the  two  primary  colors  that  will  pro- 
duce given  secondaries,  also  the  secondary  that 
may  be  made  from  two  given  primaries.  Show 
the  pupils  also  that  light  and  dark  colors  maybe 
formed  by  mixing  white  or  black  with  other 
colore.  Provide  exercises  by  which  the  pupils 
may  do  something  to  indicate  that  they  know 
each  fact  taught. 

In  order  that  children  may  understand  Itar- 
mony  of  colors,  they  must  be  led  to  observe  that 
to  produce  harmony,  the  three  primary  colors 
must  be  grouped  together ;  that  if  two  of  them 
exist  in  a  given  secondary,  the  other  primary 
will  harmonize  with  that  secondary.     To  accom- 


156 


COLORADO 


plish  this  result  by  teaching,  arrange  colored 
paper,  or  other  material,  so  that  red  and  green, 
yellow  and  purple,  blue  and  orange,  pale  green 
and  violet,  may  be  compared,  and  the  sensation 
noticed.  Request  the  pupils  to  tell  what  colore 
are  compared  in  each  instance;  also  whether 
the  three  primaries  exist  in  each  group;  as  well 
as  to  observe  that  the  colore  of  these  groups 
harmonize.  Next,  compare  red  and  orange,  blue 
and  green,  yellow  and  green,  requiring  the 
pupils  to  observe  the  effect  on  the  sense  of 
sight;  also  to  state  which  primaries  exist  in  each 
group,  and  to  notice  thai  the  colore  of  these 
groups  do  not  harmonize.  These  lessons  will 
be  more  or  less  useful  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  exercise  which  the  pupils  have  in 
distinguishing  and  comparing  colore,  and  in 
observing  their  relations.  —  See  N.  A.  Cal- 
kins. Primary  Object  Lessons,  L5th  ed.  (N.  Y.. 
L871)  :  Burton,  The  Culture  of  the  Observing 
Faculties  (N.Y.,1865);  Ci  www..  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Early  and  Infant  School-Education 
(Bdin.,  1857).     (See  also  Senses.) 

COLORADO  was  organized  as  a  territory 
Feb.  28.,  L861,  From  parts  of  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
New    Mexico,  and    Utah.    The   part   which  is 

situated  north  of  the  Arkansas  river  and  east  of 
the  Rocky  mountains,  was  included  in  Louisiana. 
purchased  from  Prance  in  L803;  the  remainder 
formed  part  of  the  territory  ceded  by  Mexico 
to  the  United  States  in  L848.  In  L870,  the  area 
of  < 'olorado  was  reported  as  In  t,500  sq.  m.,  and 
its  population  as  39,864,  which  included  456  col- 
ored persons,  7  Chinese,  and  ISO  Indians.  The 
settlement   of  the  territory,  it   may  he   said,  was 

begun  in  •lane.  L858,  by  a  party  of  gold-seekers 
from  Georgia,  consisting  of  nine  persons, under 
the  leadership  of  W.  G-.  Mussel.  The  region  se- 
lected by  these  for  settlement  was  near  the  pres- 
ent city  of  Denver,  then  within  the  limits  of 
Kansas.  Previous  to  this  time,  however,  there 
were  a  few  Mexicans  in  the  southern  portion  of 
tin-  territory,  engaged  in  stock-raising. 

Educational  History.  Among  the  acts  passed 
by  the  first  legislative  assembly, which  met  Sept. 
!».,  I  si;  1 ,  was  one  that  provided  for  the  establish- 

nt  of  a  system  of   public  schools,  to  he   under 

the  supervision  of  a  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, county  Superintendents,  and  district 
directors.  At  this  time,  the  school  population 
of  the  territory  was  very  small  ;   hence,  the    law, 

although  comprehensive  and  liberal,  was  of  little 
practical  use.  At  a  subsequent  session  of  the 
legislature,  the  office  of  superintendent  of  public 

instruction  was   practically  abolished   b)'  making 

the  territorial  treasurer  superintendent  ex  officio, 
with  a  -alary  of  8100  per  annum.     Unlike  most 

of  the  recently  settled  states  and  territories.  Col- 

orado  had  for  her  pioneers  not  families,  hut  indi- 
viduals, not  women  and  children,  but  gold-hunt- 
ing men  and  adventurous  explorers,  few  of  whom 
were  to  I"'  found  for  two  successive  years  in  the 
same  locality,  *and  in  me  of  whom  intended  to  re- 
main for  a  longer  time  than  was  required  to 
gather  a  fortune.     Hence  bu1  little  interest  was 

manifested    in    BChools      indeed,   at     that     period, 


there  was  scarcely  any  necessity  for  their  estab- 
lishment i.  until  about  the  year  1869,  by  which 
time  the  natural  resources  of  the  territory — agri- 
cultural, mineral,  ami  climatical — had  been  made 
manifest  to  such  an  extent,  that  railroads  were 
projected,  colonies  were  organized  in  the  east, 
and  those  who  had  been  here  during  the  preced- 
ing years  felt  no  desire  to  emigrate.  The  num- 
ber of  school  children  increased  rapidly,  and  the 
necessity  for  a  permanent  and  liberal  school  sys- 
tem not  only  became  apparent,  but  was  demanded 
by  the  people.  In  1870,  the  school  law  was  re- 
vised; the  office  of  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction was  again  created:  and  Wilbur  < '. 
Loth  top  was  appointed  to  till  the  office  for  two 
years,  and  re-appointed,  in  1872,  for  a  second 
term.  Before  the  expiration  of  his  second  term, 
however,  Mr.  Lothrop  resigned,  and  Horace  M. 
1 1  ale  was  appointed  to  till  the  vacancy,  and  re- 
appointed for  the  full  term  ending  in  Febru- 
ary. 1 876. 

School  System. — The  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is  appointed  by  the  governor  and 
confirmed  by  the  legislative  council,  holds  the 
office  tor  two  years,  and  receives  an  annual  salary 
of  $1200.  He  has  a  general  supervision  of  the 
county  superintendents  and  of  the  public  schools. 
and  is  required  to  report  biennially  to  the  gov- 
ernor. 'I  he  county  superintendents  (25  in  num- 
ber) are  elected  at  the  regular  county  election 
for  two  years;   they  receive    five  dollars  for  each 

day's  service,  are  required  to  examine  teachers. 
to  grant  certificates  (valid  for  a  period  not  ex- 
ceeding one  year),  to  apportion  the  county  fund, 
to  visit  the  schools  twice  each  term,  and  to  make  a 
report  each  year  to  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction.  The  district  directors,  consisting  of 
a  president^  treasurer,  and  a  secretary,  are  elected 
on  the  first  Monday  of  May  in  each  year  by  the 
tax-paying  voters  of  each  district.  The  directors 
employ  teachers,  make  all  contracts  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  schools,  and  perform  such  special 
duties  as  may  be  delegated  to  them  by  the  citi- 
zens at  the  time  of   their  election,  such  as  fixing 

the  course  of  study, designating  the  kind  of  text- 
hooks  to   he  used,  specifying  the  time  during 

which  the  schools  shall  be  in  session,  levying  spe- 
cial taxes  for  building  and  other  purposes,  etc. 
School    districts    are    bodies    corporate,    formed 

from  time  to  time  by  the  county  superintendent. 
They  may.  at  a  special  election  called  for  the 
purpose,  vote  to  issue  the  bonds  of  the  district 
for  the  purpose  of  building  school-houses.   Many 

of   the    incorporated    towns    have    Special    school 

laws  differing  somewhat  from  the  general  school 

law.  The  school  fund  is  obtained  from  a  county 
tax  (not  less  than   two  mills  on  the  dollar),  from 

the  proceeds  of  fines  collected  in   the  several 

counties    for  breaches    of    the    penal    laws,  from 

all   i leys   arising   from  the  sale  of   waits   and 

est  rays,  and  from  a  special  tax  levied  in  each 
district  whenever  the  citizen  voters  so  direct. 
The  comity  fund  and  penal  fund  are  apportioned 

quarterly  to  the  several  districts,  according 
the  number  of  persons  in  each  between  the  . 
of  5  and  21  years.    There  is  no  state. school  tax. 


COLORADO  COLLEGE 


COLORED  SCHOOLS 


157 


It  is  provided  that  the  Bible  shall  nut  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  .schools,  but  that  no  pupil  shall 
be  required  to  read  it  contrary  to  the  wishes  of 
his  parents  or  guardian.  Teachers'  institutes  are 
held  in  the  several  counties  at  the  call  of  the 
county  superintendents  ;  but  there  is  no  regularly 
organized  teachers'  association,  nor  state  normal 
school.    The  school  year  begins  I  >ctober  1st. 

Educational  Condition. —  From  the  report  of 
Sept.  30..  1ST.">.  it  appeared  that  there  were  in 
the  territory  '.VI'.)  school-districts,  280  public 
schools,  and  172  school-houses.  The  number  of 
children  of  school  age  —  from  5  to  21  —  was 
23,274,  and  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled 
10,185.  The  whole  number  of  teachers  employed 
was  377.  of  whom  172  were  males,  and  205  fe- 
males :  and  the  average  monthly  salary  paid  to 
the  male  teachers  was  860,  and  to  the  female 
teachers.  $50.  The  whole  amount  of  money  ex- 
pended  for  school  purposes  during  the  preceding 
year,  was  $210,813.86  ;  and  the  total  value  of 
the  school  houses  and  furniture  was  $414,008. 
The  increase  dining  the  preceding  year  was  as 
follows:  In  number  of  school-districts,  16  per 
cent ;  in  schools,  18  per  cent ;  in  school-houses, 
16  per  cent ;  in  school  population,  16  per  cent ; 
in  value  of  school  property,  23  per  cent. 

Secondary  andotker  Instruction. —  The  High 
School  of  Denver  was  established  in  1873,  and 
will  graduate  its  first  class  in  1877.  There  are 
also  several  private  and  denominational  schools, 
including  a  school  of  mines,  in  Denver.  There 
is  also  a  school  for  deaf-mutes  at  Colorado 
Springs.  A  proposed  state  university  has  been 
chartered,  and  located  at  Boulder.  Forty  acres  of 
ground  have  been  set  apart  for  its  use,  and  $30,000 
are  now  (1876)  in  the  hands  of  the  trustees  to  be 
appropriated  to  the  erection  of  buildings.  Col- 
orado College,  at  Colorado  Springs,  was  estab- 
lished in  1874  by  the  Congregationalists ;  and 
Evans  University,  at  Evans,  was  chartered  in 
1874  by  the  Presbyterians.  A  school  of  mines 
has  also  been  commenced,  at  Golden,  as  the  fut- 
ure scientific  school  of  the  projected  state  uni- 
versity. 

COLORADO  COLLEGE,  at  Colorado 
Springs,  Colorado,  was  organized  in  1874.  It 
is  under  the  control  of  ( loneresationalista.  Pre- 
paratory  and  collegiate  departments  have  been 
established.  In  1873 — 4,  it  had  5  instructors, 
and  25  preparatory  and  15  collegiate  students. 
It  admits  both  sexes. 

COLORED  SCHOOLS,  a  class  of  schools 
designed  for  the  instruction  of  colored  children. 
Such  schools  are  quite  common  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  South, 
where  the  negro  population  is  very  large.  Thus, 
in  South  Carolina,  in  1874.  the  whole  number 
of  children  of  school  age  (6  to  16,  inclusive) 
enumerated  was  230,102,  of  whom  84,975  were 
white,  and  14"). 127  colored  children;  and  of  a 
total  enrollment  of  100.710.  the  white  children 
numbered  44,470,  and  the  colored  children 
56,249.  In  all  the  old  slave  states,  and  in  many 
of  the  northern  states,  the  feeling  of  aversion  to, 
or  prejudice  against,  the  negro  race  is  so  strong, 


that  the  public;  school  system  can  be  made  effect- 
ive only  by  the  establishment  of  separate  schools 
for  colored  children;  since  many  white  parents 
would  refuse  to  permit  their  children  to  attend 
schools  in  which  the  "  co-education  of  the  races" 
was  carried  on.  This  feeling  is  sometimes  strong 
even  in  new  communities.  Thus,  in  Montana,  t  lie 
legislative  requirement  of  separate  schools,  ac- 
cording to  the  report  of  the  superintendent  for 
1873,  has  practically  excluded  colored  children 
from  all  opportunity  to  obtain  an  education; 
and  he  remarks,  in  this  connection,  that  "  prej- 
udice should  not  be  permitted  to  stand  in  the 
path  of  justice."  and  urges,  that  the  schools  should 
be  open  to  all  children  without  regard  to  color. 
In  some  of  the  older  and  larger  northern  states, 
this  distinction,  of  separate  schools  for  white 
and  colored  children,  is  fast  passing  away.  Thus, 
in  Pennsylvania,  in  1874,  there  were  only  73 
schools  for  colored  children  out  of  an  aggregate 
number  of  schools  of  16,641 ;  and  an  attendance 
of  only  2,500  pupils,  out  of  about  440,000.  In 
the  state  of  New  York,  the  whole  expenditure 
for  school  purposes  in  1874,  was  $12,298,729; 
and  of  this  only  $66,126  was  expended  for  the 
support  of  colored  schools  in  the  state,  those  in 
the  towns  costing  only  $7,768,  and  those  in  the 
cities,  $58,458,  of  the  latter  of  which  $46,676 
was  expended  for  the  support  of  the  colored 
schools  of  New  York  City.  In  that  city,  separate 
schools  for  colored  children  have  existed  since 
the  establishment  of  the  African  Free  School, 
in  1787,  by  the  Society  for  promoting  the  manu- 
mission of  slaves,  incorporated  in  1785.  In  1838, 
the  name  African  Schools  was  changed  to  Col- 
ored Schools,  on  the  petition  of  the  teachers.  Pre- 
vious to  this  time,  these  schools  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  Public  School  Society,  which  then 
had  the  charge  of  all  the  other  common  schools 
of  the  city.  In  1835,  the  whole  number  of  pupils 
enrolled  in  these  schools  was  about  1608,  with 
an  average  attendance  of  757 ;  and  the  annual 
report  of  the  city  superintendent  for  1875  shows 
an  enrollment  of  only  1958,  and  an  average  at- 
tendance of  872.  Although,  by  the  Civil  Rights 
Bill,  passed  by  the  state  legislature  in  1873.  all 
the  schools  were  practically  tin-own  open  to 
colored  children,  few  have  taken  advantage  of 
this,  but  have  apparently  preferred  to  remain  in 
the  separate  schools  provided  for  them,  though 
their  attendance  is  often  at  considerable  incon- 
venience in  consequence  of  the  remoteness  of 
their  places  of  residence  from  the  schools. 

In  some  of  the  states,  the  prescribing  of  sep- 
arate schools  for  colored  children  is  a  great  hard- 
ship, since  their  numbers  are  not  sufficient  to 
warrant  the  establishment  of  good  schools,  if  any 
at  all.  Thus,  in  the  Ohio  state  report  for  1873, 
it  is  stated  that,  "  in  many  districts,  colored  chil- 
dren are  practically  deprived  of  school  privileges 
and  advantages,  especially  where  the  number  by 
enumeration  is  less  than  twenty;  and  the  separate 
schools  established  for  them  are  sometimes  con- 
tinued in  session  a  less  number  of  weeks  than 
the  schools  for  white  children  in  the  same  district. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that,  of  the  23,020  colored 


158 


COLORED  SCHOOLS 


COLUMBIA  COLLEGE 


youth  of  school  age  in  the  state,  only  f),950  are 
under  instruction."  It  has  been  claimed  by  some 
that  the  fourteenth  amendment  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  winch  denies  the  right 
of  any  state  "  to  make  or  enforce  any  law  which 
.shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of 
citizens  of  the  United  states,"  prohibits  the 
establishment  of  separate  schools  for  colored 
children  :  hut  decisions  of  the  supreme  courts  in 
New  York  and  Ohio  have  settled  this  question 
in  favor  of  the  separate  schools,  provided  these 
schools  afford  their  pupils  advantages  equal  to 
those  provided  for  white  children.  Such  was 
also  the  decision  of  the  superior  court  of  Marion 
County.  Indiana,  in  L874,  which  held  that  "the 
classification  of  scholars  on  the  basis  of  race  or 
color,  and  their  education  in  separate  schools  in- 
volve questions  of  domestic  policy  which  are 
within  the  legislative  discretion  and  control,  and 
do  not  amount  to  an  exclusion  of  either  class." 
Hence,  the  state  law  of  May  13.,  L859  was  sus- 
tained as  constitutional  :  ami  it  was  decided  that. 
while  it  remained  in  force,  colored  children  were 
"not  entitled  to  admission  into  the  common 
schools  provided  for  the  education  of  white 
children." 

The  feeling  in  regard  to  mixed  schools  for 
white  and  colored  children  is  very  diverse  in 
different  localities.  In  some  places,  there  is  a 
most  intense  opposition  to  such  schools  ;  while, 
in  others,  and  sometimes  in  the  same  state,  there 

is  a  complete  acquiescence  of  all  citizens  in  the 
arrangement.  In  L873,  the  school  superintendent 
of  Illinois  issued  a  circular  of  inquiry,  in  regard 
to  this  subject,  to  the  county  superintendents, 
asking  for  facts  and  results;  and  out  of  77 
counties  reporting,  there  were  in  LO,  no  persons 
of  color  to  be  educated;  in  41,  colored  children 
attended  the  same  schools  as  white  children  ;  in 
10,  the  colored  children  were  in  separate  schools; 

in  L6,  some  were  in  separate  schools,  while  others 

attended  the  same  as  whites;  in  30,  no  objections 

to  the  co-education  of  the  races  were  reported; 
but  in  27,  trouble,  of  a  more  or  less  serious  na- 
ture, was  stated  to  have  oeeiirred.  Some  of  the 
superintendents  were  strongly  in  favor  of  co-edu- 
cation, while  others,  including  some  from  coun- 
ties where  the  schools  were  mixed,  expressed 
their  opposition  to  it  in  the  strongest  terms. 

The  opposition  to  the  co-education  of  the  races 
in  the  Southern  states  is.  as  might  be  expected. 
Very  strong.  This  was  made  manifest  in  the 
public  expression  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
Civil  Rights  Mill  while  it  was  pending  in  the 
tin-  United  States  Senate,  in  L874.  In  Co- 
education of  the    While  and  Colored  Races,  by 

Rev.    W.    II.    Etuffner,    state    superintendent    of 

schools  in  Virginia,  published  in  Scribner's 
Mm,  thiii  (May,  1874),  the  author  said,  "An  act  of 
<'oh  equiring  the  south  poles  of  all  mag- 

nets to  attract  each  other,  would  not  beawhri 
more  absurd  than  one  requiring  education  to  he 

conducted  on  a  race  mixture  in  the  late  sla\e 
states."  "There  a  iv  QOW,"  he  said,  "more  than 
a  million  and  a  half  of  children,  white  and  black. 
in  the  public  Bchools  of  the  fifteen  ex-slave  states;" 


|  and  he  expressed  the  opinion,  that  the  passage  of 
any  law  enforcing  co-education  would  have  the 
effect  to  ruin  the  common  school  system  in  every 
one  of  those  states.  As  long  as  this  feeling  of 
aversion  to  the  co-education  of  whites  and  blacks 
exists,  whether  prejudice  or  not,  it  would  seem 
to  be  the  duty  of  legislators  to  respect  it  :  and 
not  to  endeavor  to  force  upon  communities  a 
school  organization  which  they  abominate,  as 
long  as  the  equal  rights  of  all  citizens  are  re- 
spected. At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  experience  seems  to  show  that  these 
lace  distinctions  disappear  in  time;  but  that 
this  time  may  be  prolonged  by  unwise  violence. 
and  haste.  Probably,  not  in  the  present  genera- 
tion will  the  existence  of  coloreil  schools  cease, 
at  any  rate  in  the  Southern  states:  but  that  they 
will  finally  disappear,  as  a  feature  of  American 
common-school  systems,  there  are  many  that 
entertain  no  doubt. 

COLUMBIA  COLLEGE,  in  the  City  of 
New  York,  was  incorporated  by  royal  charter  iu 
L754,  and  was  called  King's  College.  It  was  sus- 
pended during  the  revolution,  and  reorganized, 
in  17S",  under  its  present  name.  Columbia 
( 'ollege.  The  college  grounds  comprise  the  block 
bounded  by  Madison  and  Fourth  avenues,  and 
49th  and  50th  streets.  The  value  of  grounds, 
buildings,  and  apparatuses  S7s 7, 70(1  ;  the  amount 
of  productive  funds.  $4,581,700,  on  which  the 
annual  income  is  $205,000.  These  figures  are 
exclusive  of  the  medical  school.  Certain  so- 
cieties and  corporations,  including  each  reli- 
gious den ination  in  the  city   of    New  York, 

may  send  students  to  be  educated  free  of  charge. 

fourteen  scholarships  have  recently  been  estab- 
lished, of  the  annual  value  of  SI  III)  each,  and 
six  fellowships  (one  in  science  and  one  iii  litera- 
ture) of  the  annual  value  of  $500  each.  The 
fellowships  are  offered  for  competition  to  the 
senior  class  upon  graduation,  and  arc  tenable 
for  three  years.  The  fellows  are  required  to 
continue  their  studies  under  the  direction  of  the 
president  of  the  college,  but  they  may  choose  the 
place  of  study.  The  institution  comprises  the 
college  proper,  the  school  of  mines,  the  law 
school,    and    the    medical    school.       The    college 

propel1  has  8  professorships  :  ill  Greek  language 
and  literature  ;  (2)  German  language  and  litera- 
ture; (3)  chemistry;  (4)  mathematics;  (•">) 
mathematics  and  astronomy;  (6)  moral  and  in- 
tellectual philosophy, and  English  literature;  (7) 
mechanics  and  physics;  (8)  Latin  language  and 
literature.  The  course  is  the  ordinary  four  years' 
course  of  American  colleges,  leading  to  the  degree 

of  Bachelor  of   Arts.       The  college  has  an  aslro- 

nomical  observatory,  a  herbarium,  and  valuable 
chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus.  The  cost  of 

tuition  is  $100  per  annum,  but  it  may  be  remitted 
to  indigent  students.       The  school  of    mines  Was 

established  in  L864.  It  has  8  professorships: 
(I)  mineralogy  and  metallurgy;  (2)  civil  and 
mining  engineering ;  (3)  analytical  and  applied 
chemistry  ;  (4)  general  chemistrj  :  (5)  mechan- 
6)  mathematics;  (7)  physics:  8)  geology  and 
palaeontology.  The  system  of  instruction  includes 


COLUMBIA 


COM  KM  US 


159 


five  parallel  courses  of  study;  namely,  (1)  civil 
engineering;  (2)  mining  engineering;  (3)  metal- 
lurgy: (4)  geology  and  natural  history ;  (5)  ana- 
lytical and  applied  chemistry.  The  course  of  in- 
struction occupies  three  years.  Those  who  com- 
plete it  receive  the  degree  of  Engineer  of  Mines, 
civil  Engineer,  or  Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 
There  is  an  advanced  course  for  graduates 
of  the  Bchool  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Phi- 
losophy. For  candidates  not  qualified  to  enter 
the  first  year,  there  is  a  preparatory  year. 
Collections  of  specimens  and  models,  illustrating 
all  the  subjects  taught  in  the  school,  are  access- 
ible to  the  students,  including  crystal  models, 
natural  crystals,  pseudomorphs,  ores  and  metal- 
lurgical products,  models  of  furnaces,  specimens 
illustrating  applied  chemistry,  fossils,  economic 
minerals,  rocks,  Olivier's  models  of  descriptive 
geometry,  models  of  mining  machines,  and  models 
of  mining  tools.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $200 
per  annum,  hut  it  may  be  remitted  to  indigent 
students.  The  law  school,  now  in  Great  Jones 
street,  was  opened  in  1858.  Under  the  direction 
of  Theodore  W.  Dwight,  LL.  D.,  it  has  attained 
a  high  reputation.  The  ( 'ollege  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  on  the  corner  of  23d  street  and 
Fourth  avenue,  became  the  medical  department 
of  Columbia  College  in  1860,  but  the  connection 
is  little  more  than  nominal.  The  number  of  in- 
structors, students,  and  volumes  in  the  libraries, 
in  1875 — 6,  was  as  follows  : 

Departments.         Instructors.      Students.    Volumes. 
College  (proper)  13  172  17,500 

School  of  Mines  23  220  6,000 

Law  School  6  573  4,000 

Medical  School  29  410  1,200 

Total    71  1,375  28.700 

According  to  the  triennial  catalogue  of  1870, 
the  total  number  of  graduates  of  all  the  schools 
was  3,834,  of  whom  2,721  were  living.  There 
were  2,109  graduates  in  arts,  868  in  medicine, 
487  in  law,  37  in  mining,  and  333  honorary  grad- 
uates. The  presidents  have  been  as  follows : 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  1754 — 63;  Myles 
Cooper,  LL.  D.,  1763 — 75;  Benjamin  Moore, 
A  \[.,  pro  tern.,  1775 — 6;  AVm.  S.  Johnson, 
LL.D.,  17S7— 1800;  the  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  H. 
Wharton  (who  probably  did  not  act),  1801;  the 
Rev.  Benjamin  Moore,  P.D..  1801—11;  the  Rev. 
Wm.  Harris.  D.D.,  1811—29;  Wm.  A.  Duer, 
LL.  D.,  1829 — 12  ;  Nathaniel  F.  Moore,  LL.D., 
1842—9  ;  Charles  King,  LL.  D.,  1849—64  ;  the 
Rev.  Frederick  A.  P.  Barnard,  LL.D.,  the  present 
incumbent,  appointed  in  1864. 
COLUMBIA,    District  of.     See  District 

OF    <  loLUMBl  \. 

COLUMBIAN  UNIVERSITY,  nearW  a  sh- 
■ington,  I>.  ( '..  was  chartered  in  1821  as  the 
Columbian  College,  and  opened  in  1822.  In  1873, 
the  name  was  changed  by  act  of  Congress  to  the 
Columbian  University.  A  majority  of  the  board 
of  trustees  and  overseers  are  Baptists,  but  the 
institution  is  required  by  its  charter  to  be  un- 
sectarian.  it  comprises  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment, a  college  department,  a  law  department, 
and  a  medical  department.     The  institution  has 


not  a  large  endowment,  and  is  supported  prin- 
cipals by  tuition  fees.  The  value  of  its  real 
estate  is  about  $500,000. 

The  regular  course  of  instruction  (4  years) 
in  the  college  department  is  comprised  in  seven 
schools,  as  follows:  (1)  School  of  English;  (2) 
School  of  Greek;  (3)  School  of  Latin;  (4) 
School  of  Modern  Languages;  (5)  School  of 
Mathematics:  ((I)  School  of  Natural  Science; 
(7)  School  of  Philosophy.  Certificates  of  pro- 
ficiency are  given  to  students  who  pass  an  exam- 
ination in  certain  prescribed  studies  in  any  school. 
A  diploma  of  graduation  is  given  to  those  who 
pass  an  examination  in  all  the  obligatory  studies 
of  any  school.  (1)  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Letters  is  conferred  on  students  who  obtain 
diplomas  in  the  schools  of  English,  Creek.  Latin, 
Modern  Languages,  and  Philosophy,  and  who 
receive  a  certificate  of  proficiency  in  the  School 
of  Mathematics  or  of  N atural  Science.  (2)  The 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  is  conferred  on 
students  who  obtain  diplomas  in  the  schools  of 
English,  Modern  Languages.  Mathematics,  Nat- 
ural Science,  and  Philosophy.  (3)  The  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Arts  is  conferred  on  students  who 
obtain  diplomas  in  any  six  schools,  and  who  re- 
ceive a  certificate  of  proficiency  in  the  residuary 
school  of  the  entire  course.  (4)  The  degree  of 
Master  of  Arts  is  conferred  on  students  who, 
after  obtaining  diplomas  in  all  the  schools  of 
the  college,  sustain  a  final  and  satisfactory 
examination,  in  review  of  all  the  studies  pre- 
scribed for  this  degree.  The  cost  of  tuition  in 
the  college  is  $60  a  year,  but  it  is  remitted  in 
favor  of  students  intended  for  the  ministry. 
The  medical  department,  known  as  the  National 
Medical  College,  is  in  the  city  of  Washington. 
The  law  department  (opened  in  1826)  is  also  in 
Washington.  The  college,  in  1875 — 6,  had  12 
instructors,  103  preparatory  and  48  collegiate 
students,  and  a  library  of  5,750  volumes  ;  the 
law  school,  5  professors  and  130  students;  and 
the  medical  college,  11  instructors  and  54 
students.  The  presidents  of  the  university  have 
been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Win.  Staughton,  D.D., 
1821—1827 ;  the  Rev.  Stephen  Chapin,  D.D., 
1828—1841;  the  Rev.  Joel  S.  Bacon,  D.D.,1843 
—1854;  the  Rev.  Joseph  G.  Benney,  D.D.,  1855 
—1858  ;  the  Rev.  Geo.  W.  Samson,  D.D.,  1859 
— 1871;  James  C.  Welling,  LL.D.,  the  present 
incumbent,  appointed  in  1871. 

COMENIUS,  John  Amos,  the  forerunner 
of  Basedow  and  Pestalozzi,  and  one  of  the  great- 
est educators  of  modern  times,  was  born  at 
Komna,  in  Moravia,  March  28.,  1592,  and  died 
Nov.  15.,  1671.  From  his  birthplace,  he  re- 
ceived the  name  Komensky,  Latin  Comenius, 
by  which  his  family  name  was  so  fully  sup- 
planted, that  even  his  grandson.  D.  B.  Jablon- 
sky,  did  not  know  it.  Be  studied  in  Berborn 
and  Beidelbere,  and  taught  for  a  time  a  school 
of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  in  Prerau,  Moravia. 
Be  afterward  became  a  preacher  of  this  church 
at  Fulneck,  likewise  in  Moravia,  assuming  at  the 
same  time  the  direction  of  the  school.  In  com- 
mon with  the   Protestants  of  Moravia  and  Bo- 


160 


COMENIUS 


hernia  in  general,  he  suffered  great  hardships  at 
the  hands  of  the  Austrian  government ;  and  the 
Thirty  Fears'  war  also  entailed  upon  him  the 
most  serious  losses.  At  the  sack  of  Fulneck  by 
the  Spaniards,  he  lost  his  library  and  manu- 
scripts, and  the  greater  part  of  his  property.  In 
1624,  Protestant  preachers  were  driven  from  the 
country,  and  Comenius  was  compelled  to  conceal 
himself.  In  1628,  he  left  Bohemia,  and  settled 
at  Lissa,  in  Poland.  Soon  afterward  he  assumed 
the  direction  of  the  gymnasium  of  this  town, 
and,  while  in  this  position,  gained  a  European 
fame  by  the  publication  of  his  first  great  work 
(in  1631),  the  Janua  linguarum  reserata  (Gate 
of  Tongues  unlocked),  a  new  method  of  teaching 
languages,  especially  Latin.  This  book  met  with 
an  extraordinary  success,  being  translated  into 
twelve  European,  and  even  into  several  Asiatic 
languages.  At  a  syn<>l  held  in  Lissa.  in  1632, 
he  was  elected  bishop  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren. 
In  1638,  he  received  a  call  from  Sweden,  to  re- 
form the  educational  system  of  that  country,  but 
lie  did  not  accept  it.  He  sent,  however,  to  the 
Swedish  government  a  Latin  translation  of  the 
greatest  of  his  pedagogical  works,  the  Didactica 
magna  seu  omnes  omnia  docendi  artiftci um . 
which  lie  had  planned  in  Lissa  as  early  as  1629, 
and  had  now  completed  in  German.  An  extract 
from  this  work  having  been  printed  by  some  of  his 
friends  in  England  under  the  title  Prodromus 
Pansophin'  (London,  163!)),  he  receive  I  an  invi- 
tation from  England  to  reform  public  instruction 
there.  In  compliance  with  this  invitation,  he 
went,  in  I  (ill,  to  London,  but  political  troubles 
in  Ireland  prevented  his  accomplishing  anything. 
In  1642,  he  was  invited  to  Sweden  to  consult 
with  Oxenstiern,  the  chancellor  of  the  kingdom, 
on  educational  matters.  Oxenstiern  had  read 
the  Prodromus,  audi  recommended  Comenius  to 
pursue  his  undertaking,  but  first  to  care  for  the 
needs  of  the  schools.  The  Swedish  government 
established  Comenius  in  the  Prussian  town  of 
Elbing  to  compose  a  work  upon  his  method. 
After  laboring  four  years,  he  returned  in  L646 
to  Sweden.  Three  commissioners  examined  his 
work,  and  declared  it  proper  for  printing  when 
Comenius  should  have  finally  revised  it.  He  re- 
turned to  Elbing  to  do  this,  and  thence,  in  164S, 
he  went  to  Lissa.  where,  in  the  same  year,  he 
brought  out  his  work,  the  Nbvissima  linguarum 
methodus,  which  substantially  brought  to  a  close 
his  literary  labors  in  behalf  of  a  reform  of  the 
methods  of  instruction.  In  the  same  year,  the 
Bohemian  Brethren  elected  him  Senior  Bishop 
and  President  of  the  Synod,  a  position  which  he 
retaine  I  to  the  end  of  his  life.  In  16,">o,  upon  an 
invitation   from    Prince    Rakoczy,  he  went   to 

Hungary  and    Transylvania,  and  remained  there 

four  years,  during  which  time  he  organized  a 
school  at  Patak  (also  called  Saros  Patak).  Here 
Comenius  wrote,  among  other  works,  his  cel- 
ebrated Orbis  Sensualium  Pictus,  w  hich  was  pub- 
lished in  L657  at  Nuremberg,  and.  in  various 
forms  has  continued  a  favorite  Look  for  children 
down  to  the  present  time.  In  L654, Comenius  re- 
turned to  Lissa,  where  he  remained  until  L656,  in 


which  year  the  Poles  burned  the  city.  He  lost  on 
this  occasion  his  house,  his  books,  and  his  manu- 
scripts, the  labor  of  many  years.  He  fled  into 
Silesia,  thence  successively  to  Brandenburg,  Stet- 
tin. andHamburg,  and  in  August.  1656,  to  Am- 
sterdam, where  lie  remained  until  the  end  of  his 
life,  highly  honored  by  all  who  knew  him,  and 
liberally  supported  by  some  wealthy  merchants 
whose  children  he  instructed.  He  printed  his 
Opera  Didactica  (4  vols.), at  Amsterdam. in  1 657, 
at  the  expense  of  Lorenzo  de  Geer,  one  of  his 
patrons. 

Comenius's  position  in  the  history  of  pedagogy 
is  chiefly  that  of  a  reformer.  I  lis  dissatisfaction 
with  the  prevailing  modes  of  teaching  was,  doubt- 
less, hugely  increased  by  the  neglect  of  his  own 
early  education.  He  did  not  go  to  a  Latin  school 
until  his  sixteenth  year;  and  his  mind  was  al- 
ready sufficiently  developed  to  be  dissatisfied 
with  the  artificial  and  worthless  instruction  there 
received.  At  that  time,  the  study  of  the  Latin 
language  was  the  only  means  of  culture:  and  the 
ability  to  read  and  write  it.  was  regarded  as  all 
that  was  valuable  in  education.  Comenius  in- 
sisted upon  a  study  of  the  mother-tongue  as 
of  greater  importance  than  that  of  the  Latin, 
and  declared,  moreover,  the  study  of  languages  to 
be  a  means  of  knowledge,  not  an  end.  The  aim 
of  education,  he  asserted,  is  the  development  of 
complete  men,  and  the  profoundest  knowledge 
possible  of  the  world  without  and  within.  The 
ideal  order  of  instruction  in  things,  as  opposed 
to  instruction  in  language,  is:  (1)  A  Pmi- 
sophi'i,  in  which  the  sum  of  human  knowledge 
should  be  treated  in  its  relations  to  God,  the 
world,  and  reason ;  (2)  A  Panhistoria,  which 
should  be  divided  into  six  classes:  biblical  his- 
tory, natural  history,  history  of  inventions,  dis- 
tinguished examples  of  virtue,  history  of  dif- 
ferent religious  customs. and  the  history  of  the 
world;  (3)  A  Universal  Do>/i>i<ttic,  or  psychol- 
ogy. In  this  outline,  Comenius  adopted  a  great 
many  of  the  principles  of  Bacon's  Insiauratio 
Magna.  With  Bacon  he  insisted  strongly  upon 
a  study  of  nature  at  first  hand  and  unfettered  by 
traditional  prejudices,  lie  insisted,  too,  upon 
the  equal  instruction  of  both  sexes.  Education 
aims  at  the  development  of  the  human  being,  and 
to  shut  any  one  out  from  it.  is  injustice.  The 
school   should    be   no   respecter  of   persons.      He 

strongly  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  physical 

education,  and  called  the  attention  of  educators 
to  the  importance  of  providing  airy  school- 
rooms and  pleasant  play -grounds.  The  true 
order  of  instruction  must  be  learned  from  nat- 
ure. Art  can  do  nothing  except  by  imitation. 
I'pon  this  point  Comenius  uses  many  fantastic 
analogies,  with  all  of  which,  however,  he  mingles 
a  great  deal  of  truth.  Many  studies  are.  at  the 
same  time,  to  be  avoided,  as  dissipating  the  men- 
tal strength.  All  studies  must  be  so  ordered 
that  the  later  are  always  founded  on  the  earlier, 
and  the  earlier  Supported  by  the  later.  Words 
must  be  learned  only  iii  connection  with  things. 
In  the  study  of  science  the  scholar  must,  as 
far  as  possible,  have  the  objects  themselves  be- 


OOMENIUS 


COMMENCEMENT 


161 


fore  him :  and,  when  this  la  impossible,  correct 
drawings  should  be  used.  His  Orbis  Pictus is 
devoted  to  the  exposition  of  this  principle,  and 
is  the  first  attempt  at  a  system  of  "object  teach- 
ing." In  the  study  of  languages,  one's  mother- 
tongue  must  come  first.  Children  may  only  learn 
that  part  of  a  language  which  deals  with  the  no- 
tions of  childhood.  Every  language  is  to  be 
learned  more  through  practice  than  by  rule. 
Rules  must  be  grammatical,  and  not  philosoph- 
ical. They  must  give  the  form,  and  not  the  ex- 
planation. Rules  are  necessary  only  where  the 
language  differs  from  the  mother-tongue.  These 
thoughts  may  seem  commonplace  enough  at 
present,  but  it  required  no  little  genius  at  that 
time  to  originate  them.  Schools  he  divided  into 
four  classes  :  The  mother  school,  the  vernacular 
Mil.  the  Latin  school,  and  the  university.  The 
mother  school  must  lie  in  every  house.  Here  the 
child  learns  the  use  of  the  senses  and  the  use  of 
Language .  The  child  enters  the  vernacular  school 
in  its  sixth  year,  and  learns  reading,  writing, arith- 
metic, singing,  hymns,  the  catechism,  the  Bible, 
universal  history,  etc.  In  the  Latin  school,  Latin, 
(deck.  Hebrew,  and  the  mother-tongue  are  stud- 
ied, together  with  physics,  chronology,  ethics,  and 
Biblical  theology.  The  university  should  be  a 
place  for  universal  study.  In  all  this,  intellectual 
culture  must  not  he  separated  from  morality  and 
religion.  According  to  him,  all  learning  is  a 
means  for  the  moral  elevation  of  mankind.  The 
present  life  is  to  be  viewed  as  a  preparation  for 
the  life  eternal :  and  children  and  youth  must  be 
taught,  both  by  precept  and  example,  to  connect 
this  life  with  God  and  his  commandments.  The 
importance,  however,  of  ( 'omenius  as  an  educator 
lies  less  in  what  he  did  than  in  the  reform  which 
he  inaugurated.  His  theory  that  education 
should  he  a  development  of  the  whole  man,  that 
educational  methods  should  follow  the  order  of 
nature,  that  nature  itself  should  be  studied,  and 
that  education  should  aim  at  knowledge — this, 
though  imperfectly  understood  by  himself,  con- 
stitutes a  solid  foundation  for  an  enduring  fame. 
( 'omenius  always  designated  Germany,  to  which 
country  he  principally  owed  his  education,  as 
his  native  country,  although  Slavic  (Czechic) 
Mood  may  have  flowed  in  his  veins.  He  was 
master  of  both  the  languages  spoken  in  Mo- 
ravia, his  native  land,  the  German  and  the 
<  V.echic ;  and  he  acknowledged  their  respective 
advantages,  but  he  expressed  Iris  regret  that 
there  was  more  than  one  language. 

The  second  centennial  anniversary  of  ( 'ome- 
oius's  death  was  celebrated  in  1871.  with  ap- 
propriate solemnities,  not  only  in  Moravia,  but 
in  almost  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  as  well  as 
in  the  United  States;  and  tin'  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion in  Moravia  concluded  to  erect  a  monument 
to  his  memory.  A  tine  statue  of  the  great  edu- 
cator has  since  been  executed  in  Saxon  sand- 
stone with  much  genius  and  skill  by  the  cele- 
brated sculptor,  Professor  Seidan,  in  Prague; 
and,  since  August  23.,  L875,  it  has  adorned  the 
square  before  the  castle  in  Prerau.  A  list  of 
the  educational  works  of  Comenius  is  given  in 
11  g 


llaumer's  Gesckichte  </<■>•  /'in/ai/nt/i/,-  (translated 
in  Laniard's  German  Teachers  and  Educators)', 

most   of   them    are   contained    in    the   edition  of 

the  Opera    Didactica,  published  by   Comenius 

himself.  A  complete  list  of  all  his  works,  edu- 
cational  as  well    as   others,    has    been    published 

by  Palacky  in  the  Jahrbucher  'As  Hah  mi  when 
Museums,  L829.  German  translations  of  the 
pedagogical  works  of  ( 'omenius,  with  notes  and 
biography,  are  published  by  Dr.  Th.  Lion,  in 
Bibliothek  padagogischer  Classiker  (Langen- 
sal/a.  1875),  and  by  Beeger  and  Zoubek  in  Rich- 
ter's  Pddagogische  Bibliothek  (Leipsic;  of  the 
translation  of  the  Didactica  Magna  in  this  col- 
lection the  .'Id  edition  appeared  in  L875).  See 
also  Lautbecher,  Joh.  Amos  Comenius'  Lehr- 
k>u/st  (Leipsic,  Ls.">3);  Gindely,  Ueber  des  J.  A. 
Comenius'  Leben  mnl  Wirksamkeit  in  der 
Wremde,  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Vienna,  Acad- 
emy of  Science  (Vienna,  is,")."));  Qiick,  fcssai/s 
on  Educational  Reformers  (London  and  Cin- 
cinnati). 

COMMENCEMENT  denotes,  in  the  United 
States,  the  occasion  on  which  degrees  are  con- 
ferred by  colleges  and  universities  upon  their 
graduates.  This  takes  place  in  June  or  July, 
and  closes  the  scholastic  year,  so  that  the  name 
in  this  respect  appears  to  be  a  misnomer.  The 
exercises  connected  with  the  connnencement 
sometimes  begin  on  Sunday  with  a  connnence- 
ment sermon  to  the  graduating  class.  On  the 
two  or  three  following  days,  the  literary  societies 
among  the  students  hold  their  annual  meetings, 
and  orations  are  delivered  before  the  societies 
and  before  the  alumni  association.  A  general 
reunion  of  the  alumni  of  previous  years  is  held, 
and,  frequently,  also  the  graduates  of  a  particidar 
class  hold,  by  appointment,  a  special  reunion. 
The  board  of  trustees  also  holds  its  annual  meet- 
ing, receives  the  report  of  the  president  of  the 
institution  for  the  past  year,  and  makes  the  nec- 
essary regulations  for  the  year  ensuing.  All 
these  transactions  precede  "  commencement  day", 
on  which  the  president  of  the  institution,  in 
the  presence  of  the  board  of  trustees,  the  fac- 
ulties, and  as  many  friends  and  visitors  as  the 
occasion  may  bring  together,  confers  upon  the 
graduates  the  degrees  (see  Degrees)  for  which 
their  special  studies  and  examinations  have  pre- 
pared them.  The  conferring  of  the  degrees  is 
preceded  by  orations  delivered  by  the  members 
of  the  graduating  class,  the  "  valedictory"  and 
"salutatory"  addresses  being  assigned  to  the 
scholars  holding  the  highest  rank  in  the  class. 
The  Latin  language  is  frequently  used  by  the 
"salutatory"  speaker,  as  well  as  by  the  president 
in  conferring  the  degrees. 

For  the  students  of  colleges  and  universities, 
the  commencement  is  an  occasion  of  peculiar  in- 
terest.  The  ambition  to  excel  a,  that  time,  acts  as 

a  powerful  and  most  beneficial  incentive  to  as- 
siduous study.  The  reunion  of  former  graduates 
tends  to  nourish,  in  all  the  former  students  of 
these  institutions,  a  spirit  of  devoted  attachment 
to  their  Alma  Mulcr,  and  thus  secures  to  the 
cause  of  collegiate  education  a  large  and  influen- 


162        COMMERCIAL  COLLEGES 


COMPANIONSHIP 


tial  number  of  zealous  friends  and  patrons.  The 
large  concourse  of  the  relatives  and  friends  of 
the  pupils,  as  will  as  of  the  friends  of  education, 
and.  in  smaller  towns,  of  the  town  population 
in  general,  diffuses  among  the  people  at  large 
an  acquaintance  with  these  institutions  and  a 
care  for  their  success,  and  gives  them  a  pop- 
ularity which  no  other  feature  could  secure. 
A  glance  at  the  reports,  in  American  newspapers, 
of  the  commencement  exercises  during  the 
months  of  June  and  July,  reveals  a  national  in- 
terest in  collegiate  institutions,  which  is  hardly 
found  to  an  equal  extent  in  any  other  country  ; 
and.  if  the  wealthy  citizens  of  the  United  States 
have  acquired  a  world-wide  reputation  by  their 
liberal  donations  for  educational  purposes,  the 
popular  commencement  exercises  may  claim  to 
have  very  largely  contributed  to  this  result. 
Commencement  exercises  may. therefore,  be  con- 
sidered a  very  potent  agent  in  stimulating  the 
zealot  the  students,  and  in  fostering  among  all 
classes  of  the  people  a  just  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  higher  education. 

COMMERCIAL  COLLEGES.  See  Busi- 
ness Colleges. 

COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION. 
See  Bureau  of  Education. 

COMMON  SCHOOLS,  the  name  given  in 
the  United  States  to  schools  maintained  at  the 
public  expense,  and  open  to  all.  These  schools 
are  public  elementary  schools,  although  the  com- 
mon-school system  of  any  state  or  city  often  in- 
cludes schools  of  several  grades,  as  primary, 
grammar,  and  high  schools,  besides  normal 
schools  for  the  special  instruction  and  training 
of  teachers.  Common  schools  in  the  rural  districts 
are  called  district  schools,  being  under  the  super- 
vision and  control  of  the  officers  of  the  school 
district;  and  for  the  same  reason  those  situated  in 
the  wards  of  a  city  are  sometimes  called  ward 
Schools.  Common  schools  are  established  by 
legislative  enactment,  and  arc  supported  by  tun; Is 
derived  from  legislative  appropriation,  (See 
School  Fund.)     The  expensive  common-school 

systems  of  large  cities  arc.  however,  chiefly,  if  not 
wholly,  supported  by  local  taxation  ;  thus,  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  the  amount  received  by 
apportionment  from  the  state  for  the  support  of 
the  common  schools  of  the  city  is  very  much 
less  than  the  amount  of  tax  paid  by  the  city  for 
the    support    of    the    common-school    system  of 

the  state.     There  is  no  uniform  eommon-scl I 

system  in  the  United  States  no  national  system 
of  public  instruction,  the  organization  ami  con- 
trol of  the  common  schools  being  left  to  the  in- 
dividual Btates;  and.  even  in  the  states,  the  tend- 
ency is  to  almost  exclusive  local  authority.     The 

history  and   description    of    the    C inon-school 

■■in  of  each  state  is  given,  in  this  work,  under 
the  name  of  the  state ;  tor  an  account  of  public 
or  popular  education  in  general,  see  Public 
Schools,  (See  also  National  Education,  and 
I  kited  States.) 

COMPANIONSHIP,  as  one  of  the  neces- 
sary conditions  of  a  child's  life,  is  an  important 
element  in  education  :  indeed,  the  influence  of  a 


child's  companions,  either  for  good  or  evil,  is 
often  far  greater  than  any  that  can  be  exerted 
by  parents  or  teachers.  The  social  nature  of  a 
child  is  stronger  than  that  of  an  adult;  and. 
therefore,  to  educate  it  by  itself,  excluding  it 
from  all  intercourse  with  children  of  its  own 
age,  would  result  not  in  a  natural  or  normal 
development,  but  in  a  kind  of  monstrous  distor- 
tion. The  selfish  principles  of  its  nature  would 
attain  a  disproportionate  growth  and  strength; 
and  it  could  have  neither  sympathy  nor  self- 
control.  Hence,  companionship  is  necessary  for 
several  reasons  :  ill  To  develop  the  social  sym- 
pathies and  affections  of  the  child:  (2)  To 
cultivate  properly  its  moral  nature;  (3)  To  bring 
into  play  its  intellectual  activities,  and  to  accus- 
tom it  to  their  ready  exercise.  Besides,  without 
suitable  and  congenial  playmates,  it  would  not 
be  properly  or  sufficiently  stimulated  to  bodily 
exercise;  and  its  physical  growth  and  develop- 
ment would  be  incomplete.  "  How  many  young 
girls,"  says  Schwarz,  "have  become  diseased  in 
body  and  in  soul  by  reading!  How  many  have 
lost  their  health  by  close  application  to  orna- 
mental needle-work!  They  ought,  therefore,  to 
be  directed,  at  all  suitable  times  to  engage  in 
free  bodily  exercise,  and  even  in  some  of  the 
more  quiet  and  gentle  gymnastic  exercises;  they 
should  enjoy  frequent  opportunities  of  appropri- 
ate amusement  in  the  society  of  others  of  the 
same  age."  <  'ompaniouship.  therefore,  being  in- 
dispensable, it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
it  should  be  of  the  right  character.  It  is  partic- 
ularly true  of  children,  that  "evil  communications 
corrupt  good  manners;"  and  not  only  manners, 
but    morals  :    indeed,  the  society  of    the  debased 

will  inevitably  undermine  the  whole  character, 
leaving  it  but  an  example  of  incorrigible  deprav- 
ity. Nevertheless,  a  youth  must  gradually  be 
accustomed  to  the  exercise  of  considerable  free- 
dom in  selecting  his  or  her  associates  ;  since  the 
circumstances  of  after  life   will    necessitate   this 

independence  of  choice.  The  great  desideratum 
is.  that  the  child's  mind  should  be  so  impressed 
with  right  principles,  that  it  will  avoid  the  com- 
panionship of  those  whose  conduct  and  language 
it  perceives  to  be  vicious.  There  is,  however,  al- 
ways need  of  great  vigilance  in  order  to  prevent 
corrupting  companionship,  even  when  the  greatest 

care  has  been  exercised  in  the  previous  moral 
training  of  a  youth  :  for  the  stronger  will  must 
always  control  the  weaker  will,  when  brought 
together,  and   children    learn    much    faster  from 

each  other  than  from  their  elders.  To  influence 
a  young  person,  SO  88  to  form  his  character  in  a 
particular  direction,  or  fully  to  control  his  ac- 
tions, it  is  requisite  to  cultivate  a  certain   degree 

of  companionship  with  him.  Parents  who  pur- 
sue this  course,  -fathers  making  companions  of 
their  sins,  and  mothers,  of  their  daughters,  are 
the  most  successful  in  establishing  the  character 

of  their  children.  To  a  limited  extent,  the  same 
principle    may    he  applied    in    school   education. 

The  austere  teacher  who  never  strives  to  culti- 
vate any  other  relation  between  himself  and  his 
pupil    than   that  of  authority,  will  never  exert 


( 'OMPKTITl VK  FXA MTXATTOXS 


<<  IMPOSITION" 


103 


any  considerable  influence  over  his  moral  charac- 
ter; while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  who  is  easy 
and  familiar,  who  cultivates  the  friendship, 
esteem,  and  confidence  of  his  pupil,  will  find  the 
latter  always  glad  to  be  his  companion,  and  will 
be  able  to  control  his  conduct  to  an  almost  un- 
limited extent. 

COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS.  See 

EX  \M1\  VI'IONS. 

COMPOSITION,  as  the  formal  expression 
of  thought,  and  as  a  branch  of  school  exercise, 
has  usually  been  confined  to  that  which  is  writ- 
ten:  but  by  some  the  signification  of  the  term 
has  been  so  extended  as  to  embrace  also  the  oral 
use  of  language  in  the  expression  of  a  logically 
connected  scries  of  ideas.  Thus,  it  has  been 
saiil  that  "oral  composition  may  be  cultivated 
from  a  very  early  period,  indeed  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  pupil's  school  education;  and 
whatever  degree  of  facility  he  attains  in  it  will 
secure  his  more  rapid  advancement  when  he 
enters  on  the  study  of  written  composition ;" 
which  is  undoubtedly  true.  At  the  same  time. 
as  nothing  is  gained  by  extending  the  application 
of  a  terin  beyond  the  limits  of  ordinary  usage, 
it  would  seem  best  to  restrict  the  word  compo- 
sition to  the  written  expression  of  thought;  mora 
especially  as  this  requires  a  somewhat  diverse 
training  from  that  which  is  needed  in  oral  dis- 
course. Of  course,  the  habit  of  using  language 
correctly  in  all  the  oral  school  exercises,  as  well 
as  in  ordinary  conversation,  is  not  only  useful 
hut  essential  as  an  antecedent  preparation  for 
written  composition  ;  and  in  view  of  this,  it  is 
important  that  pupils  should  be  accustomed,  in 
all  their  recitations,  to  be  accurate  in  expression, 
and  not  only  to  use  the  proper  forms  of  words, 
but  to  construct  complete  sentences,  instead  of 
such  fragmentary  phrases  as  are  very  often  made 
use  of  in  answer  to  the  questions  of  the  teacher. 
Mnreover,  in  all  recitations  which  do  not  abso- 
lutely require  a  verbatim  repetition  of  the  lan- 
guage of  the  text-book,  the  pupil  should  be  ac- 
customed to  use  his  own  language  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, thus  drawing  upon  the  resources  of  his  own 
vocabulary,  and  his  constructive  power  in  expres- 
sion. But  all  this  is  only  auxiliary  to  written 
composition,  which  requires  special  anil  peculiar 
exercises,  beginning  almost  as  soon  as  the  pupil 
has  learned  to  write  simple  words  and  sentences; 
indeed,  rudiniental  exercises  in  composition  may 
constitute  an  essential  part  of  object  lessons,  the 
teacher  writing  on  the  blackboard  instead  of 
requiring  the  pupils  to  write  on  the  slate  or  on 
paper.  For  example,  in  the  description  of  an 
object,  the  pupils  observe  and  state  each  quality 
Successively, and  the  teacher  writes  each  separate 
statement  on  the  blackboard,  observing  strictly 
the  rules  for  punctuation  and  the  use  of  capitals; 
and  then  the  pupils  are  required  to  put  the  whole 
into  a  connected  statement,  which  the  teacher 
also  writes  on  the  blackboard.  Thus,  suppose  the 
object  is  a  piece  of  glass.  The  pupils  say,  and 
the  teacher  writes,  (this*  is  Intnl.  dtuss  is  solid. 
Glass  is  brittle.  Glass  is  transparent.  Then 
the  whole  is  formed  into  a  connected  statement ; 


and  the  teacher  writes,  Glass  is  hard,  solid, 
brittle,  and  transparent.  Such  simple  exercises 
are  susceptible  of  a  very  great  variety,  and,  con- 
sequently, may  be  made  to  afford  a  grea1  deal  of 

valuable  training  both  in  thought  and  language. 
Reading  also  may  be  made  available   in    training 

pupils  in  the  ready  and  correct  use  of  language, 

by.  requiring  them  constantly  to  reproduce,  in 
their  own  modes  of  expression,  the  substanceof 

the  lessons  read  ;  and,  as  scon  as  they  have  learned 
to  write  with  sufficient  fluency,  to  set  down 
on  paper,  or  on  the  slate,  portions  of  these  state- 
ments. Akin  to  this  kind  of  exercise,  is  the 
reading  of  simple  narratives  by  the  tea*  her,  and 
requiring  the  pupils  to  give  the  substance  of 
them  in  their  own  language. 

In  all  these  cases,  the  pupils  are  trained  chiefly 
in  the  use  of  words  and  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences: but  the  teaching  of  composition  requires, 
(1)  a  cultivation  of  thought ;  and  (2)  a  cultiva- 
tion of  the  faculty  of  expression.  Thought  im- 
plies ideas  and  their  logical  arrangement  accord- 
ing to  certain  laws  of  association.  The  mind 
must  recall  all  that  it  has  learned  upon  the  sub- 
ject under  consideration.  —  ideas,  facts,  proposi- 
tions, opinions,  etc.,  and  arrange  them  into  a 
symmetrical  whole.  To  do  this  well  requites 
not  only  maturity  of  mental  culture,  but  much 
practice  in  the  use  of  language,  filling  the  memory 
not  only  with  a  vocabulary  of  words,  but  a  large 
accumulation  of  phrases,  and  other  forms  of  ex- 
pression, associated  regularly  with  certain  re- 
current ideas.  The  difficulty  experienced  by  pu- 
pils in  writing  compositions  is  proverbial ;  and 
to  a  considerable  extent,  it  is  to  be  hoped, 
obsolete;  since  modern  methods  of  instruction 
have  gone  far  towards  eradicating  many  of  the 
absurd  educational  practices  of  by-gone  times 
one  of  which  was  to  require  young  pupils  to 
write  formal  compositions  upon  difficult  abstract 
themes  without  any,  or  with  very  inadequate, 
]  ireliminary  preparation  and  training.  The  ne- 
cessity of  such  training  is  now  pretty  generally 
recognized,  and  suitable  graded  exercises  are 
employed;  such  as  the  following :  (1)  Conversa- 
tions upon  familiar  objects,  such  as  usually 
engage  the  attention  of  children ;  (2)  Sentence- 
making,  in  various  forms,  and  affording  practice 
in  the  application  of  grammatical  rules;  (3) 
Formal  descriptions  of  objects  ;  (4)  Simple  narra- 
tives; (5)  Didactic  essays,  graduated  from  the 
simplest  composition  upon  such  subjects  as  a 
horse,  <*  cow,  <i  flower,  &c,  up  to  those  upon 
complex  abstract  themes;  (6|  Argumentative 
compositions,  in  which  the  principles  and  rules 
of  logic  and  rhetoric  mayfind  an  application  and 
illustration.  Each  of  these  classified  forms  of 
exercise  aeeds  much  continuous  practice;  and 
the  pupil  should  not  be  required  to  write  mis- 
cellaneous compositions  until  he  has  been  suc- 
cessively trained  in  those  of  the  first  four  classes, 
and  has  acquired  a  fair  degree  of  readiness  at 
each  stage  of  his  progress.  In  all  the  exercises 
however,  of  whatever  grade  or  kind,  it  is  very 
essential  that  the  pupil  should,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, be  induced  to  make  use  of  his  own  experi- 


164 


COMPOSITION 


COMPULSORY  EDUCATION 


ence  in  selecting  subjects  for  composition,  writ- 
ing of  what  lie  lias  himself  seen  and  heard,  and 
using  the  simplest  and  most  direct  language  he 
can  command. 

Mere  grammatical  exercises  are  of  little  use 
in  teaching  composition;  perhaps,  they  are 
rather  a  hindrance,  since  the  exclusive  atten- 
tion to  the  construction  of  sentences  without 
regard  to  their  meaning  or  logical  coherence, 
tends  to  the  formation  of  habits  that  are  directly 
opposed  to  success  in  actual  composition.  The 
great  point  is  to  accustom  the  pupils,  by  constant 
daily  practice,  to  the  free  expression  of  their 
thoughts  in  writing.  Let  them  have  something 
tn  say.  and  then  require  them  to  write  it  in  the 
most  natural  way.  employing  their  own  Diodes  of 
thinking  and  using  Language,  and  thus,  in  the 
course  of  time,  developing  a  style ;  since  style  is 
only  the  peculiar  impress  of  a  writer's  individu- 
ality upon  his  tonus  of  expression.  Paraphrases 
and  translations,  however,  afford  a  very  valuable 
kind  of  exercise  in  composition;  but  should  not 
be  employed  except  in  the  more  advanced  sta 
of  the  instruction. 

In  the  correction  of  compositions,  the  teacher 
should  exercise  grea1  prudence,  so  as  to  impart 
the  kind  and  degree  of  instruction  adapted  to 
the  pupil's  progress ;  ami.  at  the  same  time,  not 
discourage  his  efforts  by  too  minute  criticism. 
If  a  class  is  under  instruction,  the  prevailing 
errors  of  the  pupils,  as  discerned  on  a  perusal  of 
the  con  i  posit  ions,  will  suggest  certain  topics  on 
which  instruction  is  needed;  and  this  may  then 
be  illustrated  by  examples  culled  from  the  com- 
positions without  referring  to  them  individually. 
Especially  should  the  teacher  avoid  holding  up 
any  of  the  pupils'  efforts  to  ridicule  or  severe  re- 
buke, unless    the    inaccuracies  are   such   as  resuH 

from  sheer  carelessness.  A  pupil's  whole  intellec- 
tual career  may  he  vitiated  by  an  imprudence  of 
this  kind;  since,  in  general,  there  is  nothing  in 
respect  to  which  persons,  whether  adults  or  chil- 
dren, are  so  sensitive  as  in  regard  to  their  efforts 
in  written  composition. 

When  the  compositions  have  been  carefully 
read, and  the  errors  pointed  out  by  suitable  marks, 
the  pupils  should  be  required  to  transcribe  them, 
so  that  they  may  be  presented  for  further  revi- 
sion. The  study  of  grammar  and  composition 
should  be  pursued  together  in  the  earh 

and    rhetoric  and  composition    in    the  latter.     A 

distinguished  writer  thus  sums  up  the  require- 
ments of  these  two  branches  of  study:  "Rheto- 
to  become  a  useful  branch  of  modern  educa- 
tion, should  embrace  a  gradually  progressive 
course  of  exercises,  embodying  successively  the 
facts  of  Language,  in  the  use  of  words  and  the 
construct] >f  sentences;  it  should  include  the 

practice   of    daily  writing,    for  successive   years; 

frequent   exercises   in   the   Logical  arranging  of 

thought    tor    the  purposes  of  expression,  and   the 

adapting  of  the  forms  and  character  of  expres 

sion    to    thought;   and    it  should   he  accompanied 

by  the  dose  study  and  critical  analysis  of  the 

works  of  distinguished  writers,  with  the  view  to 
acquire   a   perfect    mastery  over  every   form  of 


style."  —  See  William  Russell,  Intellectual 
Education,  in  Barnard's  Auwricau  Pedagogy; 
Ci  brie,  The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Com- 
mnit  -  School  Education  (Edinburgh,  1872)  ; 
WicKEBSHAM,  Methods  of  Instruction  (Phila., 
1865). 

COMPULSORY  EDUCATION,  a  term 
commonly  used  to  designate  the  compulsion  of 
parents  by  state  law  to  provide  an  education  for 
their  children.  We  find  the  principle  that  the 
government  of  a  state  has  the  right,  and  that  it 
is  its  duty,  to  watch  over  the  education  of  all  the 

children  within  its  jurisdiction,  for  the  first  time 
expressed  in  the  legislation  of  Athens  and  Sparta. 

Solon  gave  a  law  enjoining  on  parents  to  have 
their  children  instructed  in  music  and  gymnastics, 
and  providing  further,  that  no  son  was  bound  to 
Support  bis  father  in  old  age.  if  the  latter  had 
neglected  to  have  him  instructed  in  some  profit- 
able trade.  In  Sparta,  according  to  the  legisla- 
tion of  Lycurgus,  the  state  charged  itself  with 
the  entire  education  of  all  male  children,  after 

they  had  attained  their  seventh  year.  In  Kome. 
the  state  did  not  interest  itself  at  all  in  the  edu- 
cation of  children,  it  being  left  to  the  care  of  the 

mothers.  During  the  period  which  followed  the 
downfall  of  the  Roman  empire, little  provision 
was  made,  in  any  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  for 
the  education  of  children.    Only  the  candidates 

for  the  priesthood  and  the  children  of  noblemen 
and  persons  of  affluence  received  instruction  in 
the  cathedral,  collegiate,  convent,  or  parochial 
schools;  but  the  mass  of  the  people  grew  up 
without  any  instruction.      (See  CATHEDRAL  AND 

Collegiate    Schools,    Convent   Sc ls,  and 

Parochial  Schools.)  The  capitularies  of  Charle- 
magne imposed  upon  all  parents  the  obligation 
to  semi  their  children  to  a  convent  or  parochial 
school, to  obtain  the  necessary  instruction  in  re- 
ligion. These  .schools  were  also  required  to  teach 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  sing- 
ing;  but  no  compulsion  was  to  be  imposed  in 
regard  to  any  of  these  subjects.  A  new  interest 
in  the  cause  of  universal  education  was  awakened 
by  the  revival  of  classical  studies,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  More  than  one  of  the  educational  writ- 
ers of  that  time  demanded  that  the  state  govern- 
ment should  recognize  and  enforce  the  principle, 
that    parents    should   lie   obliged    to   send    their 

children  to  school.  Luther  said,  that  he  regarded 
it  as  a  "duty  of  the  state  authorities  to  compel 
their  subjects   to  send    their  children  to  school ," 

in  order  that  the  community  might  have  well- 
educated  clergymen,  jurists,  physicians,  teachers. 

ami  other  officers ;  and  the  new  church  constitu- 
tion of  Saxony,  of  L528,  which  was  chiefly  com- 
piled by  Melanchthon,  required  that  clergy- 
men should  admonish  the  people  to  send  their 

children  to  school.  ••  ill  order  that  persons  might 
lie  educated  so  as  to  he  competent  to  teach  in  the 

church. and  to  govern."  The  church  constitution 
of  Wurternberg,  of  L559,  provided  that  the 
pastors  should  admonish  their  congregations  at 

leasi  twice  a  year,  to  send  their  children  regular- 
ly to  school.      Similar   provisions   were    made  in 

other  German  states,  without,  however,  adopting 


(OMIMLSOHY  EDUCATION 


165 


the  principle  of  compulsion  ;  but,  in  regard  to 
instruction  in  the  catechism,  which  was  given  in 
the  church  on  Sundays  and  other  holy-days,  a 
punctual  attendance  was  enforced;  and  lines  were 
imposed  upon  the  parents  of  children  who,  instead 
of  being  presenl  to  receive  this  religious  instruc- 
tion were  found  running  about  in  the  streets.  In 
1640,  the  General  Synod  of  Wurtemberg  recog- 
nized the  duty  dt  requiring  all  children  to  go  to 
school,  and  resolved  thai  all  parents  should  lie 
fined,  whose  children  tailed  to  attend.  It  was, 
however,  found  extremely  difficult  to  enforce  this 
provision;  and  new  rescripts  were  issued  in  L670, 
L672,  and  1679,  to  remind  the  parents  of  their 
duties.  The  first  law  defining  the  school  age 
of  children,  was  given  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick- 
t  Vile,  w  ho  commanded  the  parents  and  guardians 
of  children  to  send  them  to  school  from  the  sixth 
year  of  age.  The  movement  in  behalf  of  compul- 
sory education  now  made  steady  though  slow 
progress  in  all  the  German  states.  Prussia  intro- 
duced it  in  17:!'_':  Bavaria,  which  was  one  of 
the  latest,  in  1802.  Compulsory  education  has. 
since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
been  the  general  rule  in  the  German  states  ;  and 
it  is  a  remarkable  fact.  that,  in  all  the  fierce 
conflicts  which  have  been  caused  by  educational 
legislation,  no  party  has  made  any  serious  op- 
position to  the  principle,  that  the  state  govern- 
ment may  and  ought  to  demand  that  parents 
should  provide  some  kind  of  instruction  for  their 
children.  This  kind  of  legislation,  in  Austria, 
began  in  the  eighteenth  century  with  laws  pro- 
viding that  magistrates  should  send  to  school- 
teachers, twice  a  year,  lists  of  all  children  entering 
the  sixth  year  of  age,  and  that  the  teachers  should 
return  monthly  lists  of  absence.  Although  the 
school  attendance  steadily  increased,  the  number 
of  children  growing  up  without  education  was 
still  very  large.  After  the  disastrous  war  with 
Prussia,  in  1866,  the  Austrian  government  has- 
tened  to  introduce  a  new  educational  law  similar 
to  that  of  Prussia,  providing  for  the  rigorous  en- 
forcement of  the  principle  of  compulsory  edu- 
cation. In  some  provinces,  it  was  found  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  provide  for  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  teachers  and  schools,  and  to  compel  the 
attendance  of  children.  The  statistics  of  school 
attendance  show,  however,  a  steady  increase,  and 
there  is  no  systematic  opposition  to  the  principle, 
which  is  now  being  rapidly  carried  into  effect. 
The  cantons  of  Switzerland,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  Geneva,  and  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms 
have  enacted  laws  similar  to  those  of  Germany; 
and  Denmark,  in  particular,  has  had  a  stringent 
law  on  compulsory  education  in  operation  sine 
1814,  and  has  thus  effected  a  remarkably  high 
average  education  of  its  entire  population.  In 
France,  the  pubhc-school  system  was, for  the  first 

time,  regulated  by  the  educational  law  of  1833, 
which  embodied  the  ideas  of  Guizot  and  Cousin. 
Neither  this  law.  however,  nor  the  subsequent 
dations  recognized  the  principle  of  compul- 
sory education  :  and  the  school  attendance,  espe- 
cially in  many  of  the  rural  districts,  continued 
to  be  very  small.     Louis  Napoleon  favored  the 


principle  of  compulsion,  and  M.  Duruy,  his  min- 
ister of  public  instruction   from    1863  to   1869, 

wasone  of  its  most  zealous  advocates:  but  the  at- 
tempts made  to  introduce  ii  into  the  legislation 
of  France  had  to  he  abandoned  in  consequence 
of   the    powerful    Opposition    which    it    met    with. 

After  the  proclamation  of  the  republic,  iii  L870, 
"tic  of  the  must  enthusiastic  champions  of  com- 
pulsory education,  Jules  Simon,  was  appointed 
.Minister  of  Public  Instruction  ;  and  the  new 
educational  law  proposed  by  him  embodied  the 

principle;  but  the  National  Assembly  refused 
to  adopt  the  law.  1.'!  of  the  15  bureaux  voting 
against  it.  The  principle  is  generally  advocated 
in  France  by  the  Liberals,  and  opposed  by  the 
Catholic  party.  In  England,  public  opinion  has 
always  been  strongly  adverse  to  a  participation 

of  the  state  government  in  school  matters.  An 
important  advance  toward  the  principle  of  com- 
pulsory education  was.  however,  made  in  1870, 
by  the  adoption  of  a  bill  brought  in  by  William 
Edward  Forster,  according  to  which,  within  one 
year,  provision  was  to  be  made  for  the  education 
of  every  child  in  England  and  Wales.  The  ques- 
tion of  compulsory  attendance  was  very  earnest- 
ly discussed  in  Parliament,  and  was  finally  left  to 
the  separate  school  boards,  which  have  a  certain 
discretionary  power  of  enforcing  attendance;  but 
it  seems  that  the  advocates  of  compulsion  do  not 
mean  to  be  content  until  its  ultimate  adoption. 
Liverpool,  .Manchester.  Oxford,  and  many  other 
towns  have  passed  by-laws,  compelling  the  at- 
tendance of  children  in  the  public  schools.  The 
Italian  Parliament,  in  1871,  adopted  a  new- 
school  law  according  to  which  elementary  in- 
struction is  required  to  be  given  every-w  here  free 
of  charge,  and  attendance  at  school  is  obligatory 
on  all  children.  In  Belgium  and  the  Nether- 
lands, every  commune  is  compelled  by  law  to 
make  provision  for  a  public  school ;  and,  in 
Belgium,  indigent  children  receive,  on  the  ap- 
plication of  their  parents,  gratuitous  instruction; 
but  neither  of  these  two  states  has,  as  yet,  recog- 
nized the  principle  of  compulsory  education.  In 
Russia,  Peter  the  (Treat  desired  to  make  edu- 
cation obligatory;  but  the  obstinate  resistance 
of  his  subjects,  who  called  education  "their 
destruction,"  prevented  him  from  carrying  out 
his  design  ;  and  the  consequence  is,  that  Russia 
is  still  among  the  least  educated  countries  of 
Europe,  there  being,  in  1875,  1  scholar  for  about 
Si;  inhabitants.  Turkey,  in  1869,  promulgated 
a  law  providing  for  the  establishment  of  a  school 
in  every  locality,  and  requiring  all  children, 
both  boys  and  eirls.  to  attend  it  :  but  no  attempt 
of  any  kind  to  execute    the   law   had   been  made 

up  to  the  end  of  the  year  1875.  In  Greece, 
communal  schools  were  established  by  law.  in 
1834,  on  the  German  system,  that  is.  on  the 
system  of  compulsory  education.  By  the  6th 
article  of  the  law.  all  children  between  the  ages 
of  five  and  twelve  years  must  attend  the  com- 
munal school.     Parents  are  liable  toafinefor 

each  hour  that  the  child  is  absent  :  but  the  pen- 
alty has   fallen   into  disuse;   ami  it  was  found,  at 

the  census  of  1870,  that  but  33  per  cent  of  the 


166 


C<  )M  PULSORY  EDUCATION 


grown-up  men,  and  but  7  per  cent  of  the  grown- 
up women,  were  able  to  read  and  write.  Spain 
and  Portugal  also  have  compulsory  education 
acts,  but  they  are  not  fully  enforced. 

In  America,  the  right  of  state  authorities  to 
require  the  attendance  of  all  children  at  school 
was  asserted  at  an  early  date  by  some  of  the 
English  colonies.  B.  0.  Northrop,  the  secretary 
of  tin-  Connecticut  state  board  of  education,  in 
his  annual  report  for  1*71 ,  says,  that  Connecti- 
cut may  justly  claim  to  lie  one  of  the  first  states 

in  the  world,  that  established  the  principle  of 

compulsory  education.  Its  code  of  laws,  adopted 
in  May  L650,  he  says,  contained  stringent  pro- 
visions for  compulsory  attendance:  and  these 
provisions,  with  some  modifications  chiefly  de- 
signed to  give  them  greater  efficacy,  continued 
in  force  until  the  revision  of  the  code,  in  L810. 
Public  opinion  so  heartily  indorsed  this  principle, 
or  rather  so  thoroughly  believed  in  the  necessity 
of  universal  education,  that  attendance  lost  its 
involuntary  character.    Outside  of  Connecticut, 

however,  little  appears  to  have  been  done  in  this 

direction;  ami  even  in  Connecticut,  the  diffi- 
culty in  enforcing  the  law  was  clearly  shown 
when  the  influx  of  immigration,  in  the  nineteenth 
Century,  gave    fcO   the  state  a  considerable  school 

population  of  foreign  birth.  In  L869,  a  new  law 
was.  therefore,  passed,  forbidding  manufacturers 

to  employ  minors  under  fourteen  years  of  age, 
who  have  not  attended  any  public  school,  for 
at  least  three  months  in  each  year.  The  school 
board  appointed  an  agent  to  supervise  the  en- 
forcement of  the  compulsory  attendance  law, 
and  the  subsequent  considerable  increase  of 
school  attendance  is  partly  ascribed  to  its  en- 
forcement. This  law  makes  it  the  duty  of  school 
visitors  to  examine  into  the  condition  of  chil- 
dren employed  in  manufacturing  establishments, 
and  to  report  violations  of  the  law  to  the  grand 
jurors  of  the  town.  In  Massachusetts,  the 
first  educational  ordinance,  in  1(542,  enjoined 
the  selectmen  of  every  town  to  see  "that 
their  brethren  and  neighbors  teach  their  chil- 
dren ami  apprentices,  by  themselves  or  others, 

SO  much  Learning  as  may  enable  them  to  real 
the  English  tongue,  and  the  capital  laws,  upon 
penalty   of     twenty     shillings    tor    each    neglect 

therein."     In   L834,  children  under  fifteen  years 

of  age  were  prohibited  from  working  in  factories, 

unless   they  had   attended  school  during  three 

months    of    the    preceding    year.       The    present 

school  law  compels  parents  and  guardians  to 
semi  children  in  their  charge,  between  the  age  of 

eighl  and  fourteen, to  scl 1  twenty  weeks  every 

year;  andno  person  can  be  excluded  from  the 

public  schools  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  re- 
ligion.    Towns  and  cities  are  required  to  provide 

f'U-  the  education  of  orphans  and  the  children  of 
drunken    parents.      In    Maine,   the  school  law  of 

the  state  authorizes  towns  to  make  by  laws  for 
the  enforcement  "i  attendance  of  scholars  be- 
tween aix  and  seventeen  yens  of  age,  and  to 
annex  a  suitable  penalty,  not  exceeding  twenty 
dollars,  for  any  breach  thereof.  In  New  Hamp- 
shire, an  ad  of  the  Legislature,  approved  in  July 


1871,  provides  that  all  parents,  guardians,  or 
masters  of  a  child,  between  the  ages  of  8  and  14. 
residing  within  two  miles  of  a  public  school, 
shall  send  such  child  to  school  at  least  12  weeks 
each  year.  Similar  acts  were  passed  in  the  same 
year  by  the  legislatures  of  Michigan  and  Texas. 
Nevada  passed  a  law  in  February  1873,  which 
makes  it  obligatory  on  parents  and  guardians 
to  send  every  child  between  the  ages  of  8  and  14 
years  to  a  public  school  for  a  period  of  at  least 
sixteen  weeks  in  each  school-year,  at  least  eight 
j  of  which  must  be  consecutive,  unless  the  child 
is  being  otherwise  instructed,  or  is  excused 
from  attendance  by  the  board  of  trustees  for 
some  satisfactory  reason.  The  penalty,  for  non- 
compliance with  this  act  is  a  tine  of  not  less 
than  $50,  nor  more  than  SI  01)  for  the  first  offense, 
and  uot  less  than  SI  00  nor  more  than  $200  for 
each  subsequent  offense.  In  1S74.  compulsory 
laws  were  passed  by  the  legislatures  of  Califor- 
nia. New  .Jersey,  and  New  York.  The  general 
features  of  these  laws  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
state  laws  already  referred  to.  The  scliool  age 
dining  which  every  child  is  to  be  instructed  is.  in 
New  Jersey,  from  8  to  13,  and  in  California  and 
New  York  from  8  to  I  I.  There  is  some  diversity 
in  the  time  of  school  attendance  each  year.  New 
Jersey  requires  12  weeks,  of  which  6  must  be 
consecutive.  New  York  14  weeks  in  a  day  school, 
or  28  weeks  in  an  evening  school,  and  California, 
two-thirds  of  the  time  during  which  the  public 
schools  ale  ki-pt.at  least  12  Weeks  of  which  must 
be  consecutive.  The  New  York  law  also  specifies 
the  subjects  in  which  the  child  is  to  be  instruct- 
ed :  namely,  spelling,  reading,  writing.  English 
grammar,  geography,  and  arithmetic.  It  also 
provides  that  no  child  of  this  age  shall  be  em- 
ployed, unless  the  employer  has  a  certificate  that 
such  instruction  was  given  the  child  the  previous 
year,  the  penalty  for  violating  this  law  being  a 
tine  of  S.Ml.  In  many  other  states,  the  passage 
of  compulsory  laws  is  strongly  urged.  In  Indi- 
ana. Illinois.  Kansas.  Minnesota.  Mississippi, 
Nebraska.  Pennsylvania,  and  Khode  Island,  the 
state  superintendents,  in  their  annual  reports,  or 
the  governois  in  their  messages,  have  of  late 
taken  a  decided  stand  in  favor  of  such  laws. 

The  opinions  of  American  educators  and  legis- 
lators, on  the  subject  of  compulsory  education, 
continue,  however,  to  be  greatly  divided.  The 
lion.  Edward  Searing,  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  in  Wisconsin,  in  his  annual 
report  for  1874,  expresses  the  opinion,  that  "  the 
difficulties  lying  in  the  way  of  the  successful  work- 
ing of  a  general  compulson  law  are  numerous 
and  nearly  insuperable  :  so  that  there  is  an  over- 
whelming probability  of  the  failure  of  such  a 
law     to    attain    the    ends   desired."      He    believes 

that  there  is  in  such  a  law  "something  essentially 

Opposed  to  the  genius  of  our  free  institutions, — 

something  essentially  un-American."  He  appre- 
hends no  peril  to  the  state  from  the  mere  fact. 
•  that  a  small  fractional  part  of  its  children  do  not 

obtain  such  primary  instruction  as  the  common 

schools  afford  :"  and  the  idea  that  "  crime  is  the 

direct    result    of    illiteracy"   is   characterized  by 


COMPULSORY  EDUCATION 


CONCEPTION 


167 


him  as  a  "  fallacy  quite  commonly  accepted  as  a 
truth.''  An  enthusiastic  defendant  of  compul* 
soiy  education,  the  Hon.  11.  I>.  McCarty.  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  Kansas. 
in  his  annual  report  for  lsT.'».  thus  replies  to 
Borne  of  tlic  common  objections  made  to  compul- 
sory attendance  :  "  (1 )  '  Such  a  law  would  create 
a  new  crime.'  I  reply,  it  ought  to.  To  bring 
up  a  child  in  ignorance  is  a  crime,  and  should 
he  treated  as  such.  (2)  '  It  interferes  with  the 
liberty  of  parents.'  I  reply  again,  it  ought  to, 
when  they  are  incapacitated  by  vice  or  other 
causes  for  the  performance  of  essential  duties  as 
parents.  (3)  'It  arrogates  new  power  by  the 
government.'  So  do  all  the  quarantine  and 
hygienic  regulations  and  laws  for  the  abatement 
of  nuisances  in  time  of  pestilence.  Now.  igno- 
rance is  as  noxious  as  the  most  offensive  nuisance. 
and  more  destructive  than  bodily  contagions. 
Self-protection  is  a  fundamental  law  of  society. 
(4)  •  It  is  un-American  and  unadapted  to  our 
free  institutions.'  To  put  the  question  in  the 
most  offensive  form,  it  may  be  asked  :  '  Would 
you  have  a  policeman  drag  your  children  to 
school'.'''  I  answer,  yes.  it'  it  will  prevent  his 
dragging  them  to  jail  a  few  years  hence." 

While,  thus,  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  exists 
in  regard  to  the  principle  of  compulsory  educa- 
tion, there  is  an  almost  entire  agreement  between 
friends  and  opponents,  as  to  the  character  of  the 
existing  laws.  They  are,  on  all  sides,  declared  to 
be  deficient.  Many  laws  supply  no  means 
whatever  for  the  enforcement  of  the  compul- 
sory provisions;  and,  in  such  cases,  the  state 
superintendents  must,  of  course,  report,  that  the 
law  has  amounted  to  little  or  nothing.  Thus, 
the  state  law  of  New  York  was  pronounced  de- 
fective and  inefficient  by  the  state  association  of 
school  commissioners  and  superintendents,  at  a 
meeting  held  in  Dec,  1874;  and  it  was  unani- 
mously resolved  to  ask  the  legislature  to  "so 
complete  and  perfect  the  act  already  passed,  that 
it  may  better  secure  the  results  at  which  it 
aims."  The  American  laws  in  favor  of  compul- 
sory education  agree  with  those  of  Europe  in  de- 
signating a  certain  age,  during  which  the  state 
shall  enforce  the  education  of  every  child.  A  Ger- 
man writer.  Riimelin  (in  Zeitschrift  fur  <li<'  ge- 
sammte  Staatswissenschaft,  vol.  xxiv.),  contends, 
that  the  state  has  the  right  to  demand  and  to  see 
to  it,  that  each  of  its  members  receive  a  certain 
amount  of  instruction,  but  that  this  right  does 
not  give  to  it  the  power  of  depriving  parents,  for 
any  length  of  lime  that  may  appear  necessary  to 
state  authorities,  of  the  right  of  disposing  of 
their  children,  but  only  justities  the  state  in  de- 
manding a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  deemed 
necessary  for  the  discharge  of  the  duties  every 
One  OWCS  to  society.  Every  child,  therefore,  he 
argues,  should  be  dismissed  from  the  public 
school,  without  any  regard  to  its  age,  as  soon  as 
it  has  acquired  the  knowledge  demanded  by  the 
state. 

Prom  the  stand-point  of  the  Catholic  church, 
'he  claim  of  state  governments  to  enforce  edu- 
cation has  sometimes  been  absolutely  denied,  on 


the  ground  that  only  the  church,  not  the  state, 
has  received  (he  divine  commission  to  teach. 
Some  Catholic  writers,  however,  recognize  the. 

right  of  the  state  to  enforce  education  in  concert 
with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  <  atholic 
EealrEncydopddie  dies  Wrziehungs-  und  Unter- 
richtswesens  (vol.  iv„  2d  ed.,  Mayence,  1875, 
art.  Schulzwang)  defines  its  position  as  follows: 
(I)  The  majority  of  Catholic  parents  in  Germany 
are  convinced  that  the  schooling  of  their  children 
is  useful,  and  under  the  present  circumstances 
indispensable.  The  church  has  always  had  the 
same  conviction,  and  the  state,  therefore,  acts  in 
concert  with  both,  if  it  makes  school  attendance 
obligatory.  (2)  The  instruction  demanded  by 
the  state  should  be  limited  to  what  is  necessary, 
and  be  confined  to  reading,  writing,  the  four 
fundamental  rules  of  arithmetic,  and  religion.  It 
is  entirely  unnecessary  to  extend  compulsory  edu- 
cation to  7  or  8  years,  and  5  or  6  hours  a  day. 
(3)  The  state  has  no  right  to  prescribe  where  the 
knowledge  demanded  by  it  shall  be  obtained. 
This  must  be  left  to  the  parents.  (4)  Private 
schools  cannot  claim  to  be  entirely  exempt  from 
an  inspection  by  state  authorities.  They  should 
work  in  concert  with  the  church  and  the  state. — 
See  the  Ann  mil  Reports  of  the  V.  S.  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  (1871 — 74)  ;  V.  M.  Rice, 
Special  Report  on  Compulsory  Education  etc. 
(Albany,  1867)  ;  D.  A.  Hawkins,  Report  on 
Compulsory  'Education  (X.  Y.,  1874);  Francis 
Adams,  The  Free  School  System  of  ike  United 
States  (London,  1875);  Addresses  and  Proceed- 
ings of  the  National  Educational  Association, 
August,  1871  (N.Y.  and  Wash.,  1872);  Lukas, 
Der  Schvlzwang,  ein  Stuck  modemer  Tyrannei 
(Landshut,  1865);  Buedinger,  Von  den  Anfan- 
gen  des  Schulzwanges  (Zurich,  1865) ;  J^enisch, 
Der  Schidzu'iniif,  kein  Stuck  modemer  Barbarei 
(Ratisbon,  1866). 

COMSTOCK,  John  Lee,  M.  D.,  a  noted 
American  author,  and  compiler  of  school  books, 
was  born  in  Lyme,  Ct.,  in  1789,  and  died  in 
Hartford,  Ct.,  1858.  After  receiving  a  com- 
mon-school education,  he  studied  medicine ;  and, 
during  the  war  of  1812,  served  in  the  army  as 
an  assistant  surgeon.  He  afterwards  settled  in 
Hartford,  where  he  practiced  medicine,  and 
where  his  books  were  written.  He  published 
Natural  History  (1829),  System  of  Natural 
Philosophy  (1831),  a  work  which  had  an  extra- 
ordinary success,  being  translated  into  several 
languages,  and  edited  for  use  in  Canada, 
London,  and  Edinburgh.  Op  to  I860,  it  is  esti- 
mated that  at  least  50(1,000  copies  of  this  book 
had  been  sold.  His  other  works  were  Introduc- 
tion to  Mineralogy,  Element*  of  Geology,  The 
Young  Botanist,  The  Young  Chemist.  The 
Youth's  Hook  of  Astronomy,  Outlines  of  Physi- 
ology, History  of  the  Greek  Revolution,  History 
of  the  Precious  Metals,  Readings  in  Zoology, 
etc.,  etc.  Though  mostly  compilations,  these 
books  possess  considerable  merit,  and  some  of 
them  have  had  a  very  wide  circulation. 

CONCEPTION/ or  Conceptive  Faculty, 
the  faculty  of  the  mind  which  retains  past  per- 


168 


CONCEPTION 


ceptions,  and  forms  from  them  general  ideas,  or 
notions,  sometime-  called  concepts.  In  this  man- 
ner, the  individual  impressions  obtained  by  per- 
ception are  associated  in  the  mind,  according  to 
their  resemblances  and  analogies,  and  become 
the  materials  df  thought:  for  without  general 
ideas  thought  is  impossible.  Tims,  the  child 
perceives  a  horse,  but  the  concept  in  its  mind  as 
the  result  of  the  perception,  is  not  of  that  par- 
ticular horse,  which  it  will  remember  to  have 
seen  at  a  particular  time  and  place,  but  of  the 
horse  as  one  of  a  class  of  animals  resembling  the 
one  seen;  and  to  each  one  of  this  class  it  is  at 
once  prepared  to  apply  the  name  horse.  As.  if 
you  ask  a  child.  How  many  legs  has  a  horse? 
he  answers,  four  ;  because  such  is  his  concept  or  : 
notion  of  a  horse,  formed  from  all  the  percep- 
tions which  he  has  had  of  this  animal.  ••Nature." 
says  Isaac  Taylor,"for  purposes  which  it  is  no! 
very  difficult  to  divine,  has  allowed  an  absolute 
predominance  to  the  conceptive  faculty  during 
the  season  of  infancy,  and  has  granted  it  a  prin- 
cipal share  in  the  mental  economy  during  the 
succeeding  years  of  childhood."  Hence,  it  is 
with  this  faculty  that  early  education  has  prin- 
cipally to  deal.  At  this  period,  the  mind  is  to 
he  stored  with  ideas  images,  or  mental  pictures 
of  past  perceptions,  which  it  is  to  employ  as  the 
material  for  the  exercise  ot  the  other  faculties, — 
imagination,  judgment,  reason.  "  A  rich  and 
ready  conception,"  says  Currie,  "is  the  soil  out 
of  which  grows  a  sound  judgment.  The  cause 
of  error  in  our  judgments  lies  as  frequently  in 
the  want  of  materials  on  which  to  base  them  as 
on  the  want  of  power  to  compare  them  when  re- 
quired." He  also  judiciously  remarks,  "  It  is  a 
great  mistake  to  hasten  on  the  child  to  use  the 
/units  of  judgment  before  his  mind  is  stored 
with  the  materials  to  which  to  apply  them,  un- 
der the  impression  that  we  are  teaching  him  to 
think."  The  faculty  of  conception  is  most  active 
in  relation  to  the  objects  of  sight,  that  is.  the 
perceptions  derived   from   that  sense  give  rise  to 

the  strongest  or  most  vivid  conceptions;  hence. 
indeed,  the  word  idea,  meaning  image  or  picture 
in  the  mind.  To  those  who  are  deprived  of  the 
Bense  of  sight,  the  perceptions  produced  by  the 
sense  of  hearing  stimulate,  perhaps,  with  almost 

equal  force  the  conceptive  faculty.  ••The  furniture 

of  the  conceptive  faculty,  as  derive  I  from  the  ob- 
jects of  sight."  says  Isaac  Taylor,  "constitutes 
the  principal    wealth  of   the  mind,  and   upon  the 

ready  command  of  these  treasures,  with  some 
specific  end  in  view,  depends  in  great  measure 
it-  power."  The  cultivation  of  this  faculty 
should  aim.  ih  To  give  clear,  definite  ideasof 
objects  and  their  properties;  (2)  To  imprint 
them  deeply  upon  the  mind,  so  that  they  may 
1m-  permanently  retained,  and  reality  recalled: 
and  '■'■  To  associate  them,  as  far  as  possible,  ac- 
cording t"  their  intrinsic  or  logical  relations.  It 
is  a  well-understood  fact  that  the  clearest  and 
deepest  conceptions  are  obtained  bj  a  close  and 
accurate  observation  of  the  objects  from  which 
they  are  derived.  Clearness  and  strength  of  per- 
ception  are   followed   by  the  same  qualities  in 


conception.  Hence,  the  value  of  object  teaching. 
the  best  results  of  which  are  the  effects  produced 
upon  the  conceptive  faculty.  In  training  the 
perception,  we  are.  indeed,  training  the  concep- 
tion :  and  it  is  the  latter  process  that  is  espe- 
cially valuable,  not  the  former.  This  training  can 
only  he  carried  on  by  means  of  language.  No 
idea  can  lie  fixed  in  the  mind  to  he  of  any  prac- 
tical value,  unless  there  is  linked  with  it  its 
proper  verbal  designation.  Words  as  well  as 
ideas  are  the  elements  of  thought.  A  large 
part  of  elementary  teaching  consists  in  analyzing 
the  parts  and  properties  of  object.-,  and.  after 
leading  the  mind  to  form  concepts  of  them 
through  sense-perception,  applying  to  them  the 
names  by  which  they  are  commonly  known.  As 
examples  of  lessons  of  this  kind,  the  following 
are  given  from  Curries  Early  School  Education  : 

TREE. 
Place — in  the  ground,  in  fields,  gardens,  etc 
Form— upright,  bending,  wide-spreading  above,  with 

n  aving  motion,  etc. 
Parts — Root:  below  ground,  branching,  etc. 

Trunk:    round,  solid,  pillar-like,  firm,  dark, 

rough,  knotty,  etc. 
Leaves:     heart-shaped,    oval,    etc.;     suit. 

green,  yellow,  etc. 
Blos-oin  ami  fruit  in  their  seasons. 
Sound  [in  motion)— rustling,  gentle,  violent,  etc. 

GLASS. 

Color— light,    stained,   clear,  transparent,   [ 

obscured,  etc.  I  &„]< 

Form  (in  windows)     square,  round,   oval, 
lozenge-shaped,  etc 

Thin,   light,    hard,   brittle,    cold,  )  foiuJ 
sharp,  etc.  \  '* 

SEA. 

Taste— salt,  unpleasant,  cold,  etc.  Tasti 

Size    large,  broad,  deep.  etc. 
Color— green,  blue,  clear,  Bandy,  etc. 

I'iikm-  Surlace  :    plain,  wavy,  smooth,  foam- 
ing, etc. 

>ui  m)    (in  vee/;../,)-  dashing,    murmuring,      Bear- 
gentle,  violent,  etc. 
cool,  refreshing,  cold,  etc.  Touch.. 

Such  lessons  admit  of  an  endless  variety,  and 
maybe  either  entirely  objective,  that  i-.  given 
with    the    objects    placed    before    the   pupils.  OT 

purely  conceptive :  such  as  tln.se  above  on  the 

tree  and  the  sea.  Both  kinds,  however,  have  die 
same  primary  object  in  view. —  to  train  the  con- 
ceptive   faculty   in    connection    with    expression. 

Observation  is  also  greatly  stimulated  ami  guided 

I. v  such    lessons.      Thus,   to   take  so   familiar  an 

object   as  the  sky,  of  which  every  child  must 

necessarily    have    a     multitude    of    conceptions, 

although  perhaps  indefinite  and  almost  useless, 
because  imt  associated  with  any  names.  I  low 
much  would  his  nal  available  knowledge  be  in- 
creased by  an  exercise  enabling  him  to  enumerate 
the  various  appearance-  id  the  sky  by  proper 
designations,  Thus:  -The  Sky  may  be  sen 
stormy,  -■/.•.,/•.  overcast,  misty,  hazy,  foggy, 
gloomy,  lowering,  bright,  resplendent,  brilliant, 
deep,  </>>//.  brazen,  red,  gray,  azure, starry,  dark, 
lurid,  etc.,  etc.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  sensible 
properties  of  a  great  variety  of  familiar  objects 

ma\   be  recalled    and  named,  and  in  this  way  the 

atteiitii.ii  of  the  pupils  to  minute  characters 


%/,/. 


CONCKRT  TEACHING 


160 


may  be  cultivated,  and  their  command  of  lan- 
guage much  increased. 

The  conceptions  of  the  mind  arc  greatly  in- 
fluenced byits  feelings.  An  indifferent,  apathetic 
mental  mood  will  effectually  preclude  the  forma- 
tion of  any  deep  or  durable  impressions;  on  the 
contrary,  the  conceptions  of  objects  and  scenes 
with  which  the  mind  has  been  brought  into  con-  j 
tact  under  circumstances  causing  deep  emotion, 
either  of  pleasure  or  pain,  arc  ineffaceable.  "  The 
cherished  ami  imperishable  recollections  of  child- 
hood, often  as  bright  and  clear  at  eighty  as  they 
were  at    twenty,  are   those  treasures  of  the  COn- 

ceptive  faculty  which  have  been  consigned  to  its 
keeping  tinder  the  influence  of  vivid  pleasurable 
emotions."  There  is  no  principle  which  the 
teacher  should  more  earnestly  consider  than  this, 
prompting  as  it  does  to  the  effort,  to  associate 
with  the  scenes  of  the  child's  school  life  every 
possible  objed  which  may  excite  its  interest. 
awaken  its  delight,  and  lend  a  charm  to  its  intel- 
lectual acquirements. — See  Isaac  Taylor,  Ifome 
Education;  Currte,  Principles  and  Practice 
qf  Early  and  Infant  School-Education;  Russell, 
Intellectual  Education,  in  Barnard's  American 
Pedagogy;  Porter,  The  Human  Intellect  (N.T., 
L869). 

CONCERT  TEACHING,  a  mode  of  in- 
struction in  which  the  pupils  memorize  what  is 
to  be  learned,  by  simultaneous  repetition.  It  is 
thus  a  kind  of  rote-teaching,  and  is  subject  to  all 
the  disadvantages  and  liable  to  all  the  objections 
incident  to  that  system.  In  large  schools,  in 
which  very  many  pupils  are  taught  together  in 
a  single  class,  this  has  been  a  common  and  favor- 
ite practice  with  teachers;  because  it  has  been 
found  a  ready  way  to  fix  in  the  memory  of  chil- 
dren the  rudimentary  principles  of  reading,  spell- 
ing, arithmetic,  etc.,  and  to  impart  to  the  pupils 
the  ability  to  repeat,  in  answer  to  set  questions. 
what  has  been  thus  mechanically  learned.  The 
arbitrary  associations  established  in  this  way  are 
very  strong  and  durable  ;  and.  as  some  things  are 
to  be  taught  arbitrarily,  and  others  to  be  asso- 
ciated in  the  mind  so  that  they  may  be  arbitrarily 
suggested,  that  is,  recalled  without  any  effort  of 
reasoning  or  other  mental  process,  the  method  of 
concert  repetition,  has  a  place  in  teaching  that 
is  usefid  and  important.  For  example,  the  mul- 
tiplication table  would  be  of  little  value  if  it 
were  so  learned,  that  the  pupil  would  require  to 
reason  out.  or  reckon  up,  the  result  of  each  re- 
quired combination  :  the  associations  must  be  of 
such  a  character,  that  thought  is  unnecessary  to 
recall  them,  the  process  of  simple  suggestion  be- 
ing alone  required.  Hence,  in  memorizing  such 
things  as  arithmetical  tables,  grammatical  de- 
clensions, conjugations,  etc..  concert  teaching  is 
valuable,  on  the  principles.  (!  i  that  all  repetition 
is  valuable  in  order  to  impress  the  mind;  and  (2) 
that,  the  sense  of  hearing  being  strongly  appealed 
to.  the  mental  impressions  and  their  associations 

are  more  durable,  and  more  easily  recalled.  Be- 
sides, by  such  exercises,  the  young  pupils  are 
constantly  employed  ;  their  minds  are  k<  pt  Btead- 

ih/upon   their  school  work,  and  a  strong  social 


or  collective  sympathy  is  established,  which 
would  not  lie  possible  by  the  exclusive  employ- 
ment of  individual  exercises.  In  this  connection, 
Currie  says.  ■•  By  this  oft  repeated  simultai us- 

ness  of  thought,  action,  and  emotion,  the  m 
becomes  welded  together,  takes  on  one  Stamp, 
breathes  one  spirit ....  Such  is  the  foundation  of 
that  simultaneous  action  with  which,  under  the 
name  of  collective  lessons  or  gaUery  lessons,  we 
arc  so  familiar  in  the  infant  school."  So  strongly 
is  this  writer  impressed  with  its  usefulness,  that 
he  styles  it  "  the  very  essence  of  the  infant-school 
system,  springing  immediately  from  the  root  of 
it.  and  embodying  a  first  principle  of  its  exist- 
ence." 

The  exercise  of  intelligence  is.  however,  to  be 
considered  the  chief  instrument  of  education; 
and  this  is  so  much  an  individual  matter,  that 
the  limits  within  which  concert  or  simultaneous 
repetition  is  proper,  are  quite  narrow  ;  and  the 
tendency  with  most  teachers  is  to  transcend 
them.  Consequently,  the  intelligence  of  many 
pupils,  instead  of  being  properly  addressed  and 
exercised, is  kept  in  a  kind  of  stagnant  condition, 
and  is  thus  impaired  rather  than  benefited.  The 
teacher,  in  giving  simultaneous  instruction,  must 
endeavor  to  prevent  this.  The  pupils  will  have 
different  temperaments  and  different  degrees  of 
mental  power;  and.  consequently,  cannot  all 
perform  the  same  work.  The  questions,  when 
addressed  to  the  whole  class,  will  not  be  adapted 
to  all  the  pupils  ;  and  if  the  teacher  should  de- 
pend upon  a  mere  simultaneous  response,  only  a 
part  of  the  class  would  lie  benefited  by  the  teach- 
ing. A  show  of  hands  is  a  ready  and  useful  ten- 
tative means  of  ascertaining  the  condition  of  the 
class  in  this  respect ;  and  thus  the  advantages  of 
the  simultaneous  and  individual  plan  of  teaching 
may  be  combined,  the  teacher  selecting  from  all 
who  raise  their  hands  those  who  are  to  answer, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  observing  carefully  who 
do  not  raise  their  hands.  Then,  when  the  teacher 
wishes  a  certain  answer  to  be  repeated  for  the 
purpose  of  impressing  it  upon  the  pupils'  minds, 
the  class  may  be  required  to  repeat  it  as  often  as 
may  be  necessary  in  concert.  Tact  and  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  will  make  this  method  of 
elementary  instruction  very  effective. 

In  the  simultaneous  responses,  the  tones  of  the 
voice  should  be  as  natural  as  possible.  ^  ithout 
greal  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  concert 
exercises  are  very  apt  to  degenerate  into  a  sing- 
song monotonous  drawl,  which  undermines  or 
prevents  all  proper  habits  of  reading  and  speak- 
ing The  pupils,  too.  are  very  apt  to  pitch  their 
voices  too  high,  or  to  use  a  kind  of  shouting 
tone,  which  no  intelligent  teacher  would,  for  a 
moment, permit.  Under  the  limitations  referred 
to,  ami  with  all  proper  efforts  to  guard  against 
the  abuses   to  which  this  system   of    teaching  is. 

peculiarly  liable.it  is  of  great  value;  but  should 
never  be  employed,  except  when  the  common 
nature  and  common  intelligence  of  the  children 
are  to  be  brought  into  play.  See  CURRIE,  The 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Early  and  Infant 
School-Education  (Edin.  and  Lond.). 


170 


CONCORD  COLLEGE 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 


CONCORD  COLLEGE,  at  New  Liberty, 
Kentucky,  was  established  in  1845,  and  chartered 
in  I860.  It  is  under  the  control  of  Baptists. 
Both  sexes  are  admitted  on  the  same  terms.  The 
institution  comprises  a  classical  course,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  a  scientific 
course,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Sci- 
ence. In  1873 — 4,  it  had  3  instructors  and  69 
students.  H.  J.  Green  well  is  (1876)  the  pres- 
ident. 

CONCORDIA  COLLEGE,  at  Fort  Wayne, 
Indiana,  was  organized  in  1839  and  chartered  in 
1848.  It  is  under  the  control  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  <  Ihurch.  The  value  of  its  buildings, 
grounds,  etc.,  is  $150,000.  The  library  contains 
5,000  volumes.  To  students  whose  parents  are 
members  of  the  synod,  tuition  is  free  :  others  are 
required  to  pay  $24  per  annum.  The  college  has  a 
preparatory  and  a  collegiate  course.  In  1873 — 1, 
there  were  15  instructors  and  255  preparatory 
and  133  collegiate  students.  Dr.  W.  Sihler  is 
(i87l>i  its  president. 

CONGREGATION ALISTS.  This  denom- 
ination takes  its  name  from  the  fact,  that  the 
church  government  is  lodged  with  each  local 
congregation  or  ecdesia.  And  yet,  in  this  re- 
spect, the  Congregationalists  do  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  Baptists,  the  (Jniversalists,  andthe 
Unitarians.  The  Congregationalists  of  the  Unit- 
ed  Stales  correspond,  in  general,  with  the  Inde- 
pendents of  England,  and  these  names  are  used 
somewhat  interchangeably  on  both  sides  of  the 
water.  The  difference  as  far  as  there  is  a  differ- 
ence, is  found  in  this,  that  the  word  Independent 
has  a  stronger  reference  to  the  absolute  and  final 
power  of  the  local  church,  while  the  word  Con- 
gregational suggests  more  the  comity,  fellowship, 
interchange  between  churches  that  are,  neverthe- 
less, independent.  The  word  Congregational 
-and  that  which  is  peculiarly  suggested  by  it,  is 
rather  growing  in  favor  in  England;  but  hither- 
to the  English  Independents  have  made  less  of 
councils,  conferences,  associations,  than  have  the 
American  Congregationalists.  The  general  name 
in  England  embracing  the  Independents,  is  "The 
Congregational  Union." 

The  first  Congregational  church  in  America 
was  planted  at  Plymouth  in  KJ20;  and  the 
second  at  Salem  in  L629.  By  the  year  1  Too.  the 
number  of  churches  was  about  130.  The  Pres- 
byterians and  Congregationalists  had  been  kin- 
dred in  their  history  in  the  old  world,  and  they 
early  became  kindred  here.  Until  within  times 
quite  recent,  it  was  the  common  sentiment,  that 
a  man  who  was  a  Congregationalist  in  New 
England,  would  be  a  Presbyterian  in  the  Middle 
States,  and  vice  versa.  When  the  great  wave 
of  population  began  to  set  westward  from  the 
Atlantic  shore,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century,  these  two  denominations  formed  a  "Plan 
of  Union",  by  which  they  worked  together  in  the 
founding  of  churches,  schools,  and  colleges  in  the 
Middle  and  Western  States.  The  great  benevolent 
societies  like  the  American  Board,  the  American 
Some  Missionary  Society,  the  American  Edu- 
cation   Society,    were     union    societies    between 


these  two  denominations,   untU  within  a  few 
years. 

Because  of  this  prevailing  sentiment,  the  Con- 
gregationalists of  New  England  did  not,  until 
the  present  century,  attempt  to  found  churches 
distinctly  Congregational  out  of  New  England, 
and  not  till  within  the  last  forty  years  was  any 
special  influence  put  forth  in  this  direction.  But 
now  the  denomination,  in  the  states  and  territo- 
ries, numbers  3,438  churches,  of  which  1,459  are 
in  New  England,  and  1,979  out  of  New  England. 
There  are  but  57  Congregational  churches  in  the 
Southern  States.  The  number  of  ministers  be- 
longing to  the  denomination  is  3.300. 

The  system  of  common  schools  originated  with 
the  Congregationalists  of  New  England  in  the 
early  generations,  and  so  thoroughly  inwrought 
is  this  system  with  the  whole  history  and  habit 
of  the  denomination,  that  it  would  be  an  anomaly 
to  find  any  number  of  Congregationalists  any- 
where in  this  country,  without  public  schools. 

From  the  first  they  built  their  institutions 
upon  the  principle  of  an  educated  ministry,  and 
founded  their  colleges  to  this  end.  The  rule  has 
been  with  slight  exceptions,  from  1620  until  now, 
that  a  Congregational  church  should  have  a 
minister,  with  a  collegiate  education.  In  Con- 
necticut, from  1635 — 1835,  there  were  not  far 
from  1,000  Congregational  ministers,  and  not 
more  than  30  of  them  were  without  an  Knglish 
university  education,  or  a  collegiate  education  on 
these  shores.  What  was  true  in  that  state  will 
be  found  substantially  true  in  all  the  New  Eng- 
land states.  Quite  a  number  of  the  colleges  and 
theological  schools  which  the  Congregationalists 
largely  helped  to  build, under  the  Plan  of  Union, 
now  belong  to  the  Presbyterians.  But  aside 
from  these,  their  colleges  are  as  follows,  with  the 
date  of  their  foundation:  Harvard,  Mass,  (1638), 
now  Unitarian;  Yale,  Ct.  (1700);  Dartmouth,  N. 
11.  (1709);  University  of  Yt.  (1791);  Williams, 
Mass.  (1793);  Middlebury,  Yt.  (1800);  Bowdoin, 
Me.  (1802);  Amherst,  Mass.  (1821);  Illinois.  111. 
(1830);  Obcrlin,  O.  (1834);  Beloit,  Wis.  (1847); 
Iowa,  Io.  (1847);  Olivet,  Mich.  (1855);  Pacific 
University,  Oregon  (1859);  Washburn,  Kan. 
(1865);  Wheaton,  111.  (1860);  Ripon,  AVis. 
(1863);  Pisk  University,  Tenn.  (1867),  Carleton, 
Minn.  (1867);  Tabor,' Iowa  (1866);  Berea,  Ky. 
(1858);  Drury,  .Mo.  (1873);  Thayer,  Mo.  (1868); 
Doane,  Neb.  (1872);  Colorado,  Col.  (1874). 

The  Congregational  theological  seminaries  are, 
Andover,  Mass.  (1807) — the  oldest  theological 
school  iii  the  country;  Bangor,  Me.  (1817);  New 
Haven,  Ct.  f 1822);  Hartford,  Ct.  (1834);Oberlin, 
O.  (1835);  Chicago,  111.  (1858);  Pacific  Theo. 
Sem.,  Cal.  (1869). 

Of  academics  and  female  schools  the  list  is 
too  long  to  be  enumerated.  Some  of  the  oldest 
and  best-known  academies  to  prepare  boys  for 
college,  in  New  England,  are  Phillips  Academy, 
Andover.  Mass.;  Phillips  Academy.  Exeter,  N. 
II.;  andWilliston  Academy.  Kasthanipton,  Mass. 
Of  female  academies,  there  are  Mt.  Bolyoke 
Seminary.  Iladley,  Mass.;  Abbott  Academy, 
Andover,  Mass.;  Bradford  Academy.  Bradfordj 


cov;ki:<;atio\a  lists 


CONNECTICUT 


171 


Mass.;  Wheaton  Academy.  Norton.  Mass.  and 
Wellesley  College,  a1  Wellesley,  Mass. 

Of  Congregational  colleges  in  England,  some 
of  the  more  conspicuous  are,  Rotherham  Inde- 
pendent College  (1756),  with  which  Rev.  F.  J. 
[folding,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  II.  I!.  Reynolds  are 
prominently  connected;  Lancashire  Independent 
College  (1806),  where  Rev.  J.  G-.  Rogers  and 
Rev.  J.  Baldwin  Brown,  both  London  ministers, 
are  employed  as  lecturers;  New  College,  London 
(1850),  having  among  its  foremost  professors, 
Bev.J.Stoughton,  D .15., and  Rev.  R.  BulleyJ)J).; 
Theological  Hall  of  Congregational  Churches  of 
Scotland  (1811),  with  which  Rev.  \V.  L.  Alexan- 
der  is  honorably  associated,  and  several  other 
institutions,  with  the  same  general  character 
and  aim. 

The  American  Education  Society,  organized, 
in  L816,  to  assist  young  men  in  humble  circum- 
stances, in  obtaining  an  education  for  the  Chris- 
tian ministry,  has  given  aid,  in  the  sixty  years 
of  its  existence,  to  li. .'!!)'_'  young  men.  It  assists 
them  only  in  the  collegiate  and  theological 
courses,  though,  in  the  early  years,  it  nave  aid 
also  in  the  preparatory  departments.  Its  prin- 
ciple is  not  to  support,  but  to  help  men  to  help 
themselves.  It  gives  them  si  no,  a  year,  each. 
The  society  is  now  giving  its  aid  to  310  young 
men  in  thirty  different  colleges  and  theological 
schools.  Two  years  since,  this  society  was  united 
with  the  College  Society,  so  called,  whose  func- 
tion it  was  to  assist  young  colleges  at  the  West. 
Since  the  union,  the  name  of  the  organization  is 
"The  American  College  and  Education  Society", 
and  it  has  now  the  double  duty  of  aiding  young 
colleges,  as  well  as  young  men. 

The  denomination  now  carries  on  its  benevo- 
lent work  through  six  societies,  which  are  dis- 
tinctively Congregational,  namely:  The  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions, 
raising  and  expending  yearly  about  $475,000  ; 
The  American  Home  Missionary  Society ;  The 
American  Congregational  Union  (church-build- 
in^,:  The  American  Missionary  Association  (work 
among  the  freedmen  of  the  South);  The  American 
College  and  Education  Society;  and  the  Con- 
gregational  Publishing  Society.  Besides  these, 
the  Congregational  churches  bear  a  part  in  the 
union  societies,  like  the  American  Bible  Society, 
American  Sunday  School  Union, etc.  The  whole 
amount  of  the  benevolent  contributions  of  the 
denomination,  last  year,  was  $1,241,014.29. 

While  the  Congregational  system  of  church 
government  lodges  the  power  with  each  local 
church,  yet  it  makes  much  of  the  advisory  power 
of  councils.  In  the  settlement  and  dismissals  of 
ministers, — in  the  organization  of  new  churches. 
— in  cases  of  difficulty  in  any  local  church — it  is 
customary  to  call  upon  sister  churches  for  coun- 
sel and  assistance.  There  has  also  grown  up  in 
the  denomination  a  large  system  of  interchange 
and  fellowship,  by  means  of  associations,  local 
and  state  conferences,  andnow,  at  length,  a  trien- 
nial national  council. 

From  the  circumstance,  that  the  Congrega- 
tionalists  so  early  founded  their  system  of  public 


!  schools  and  their  colleges,  it  has  come  to  pass, 
j  that  this  denomination  has  furnished  the  educa- 
tors of  the  country,  in  the  lower,  and  especially 
in  the  higher  departments,  far  beyond  any  other 
religious  denomination  in  the  land.  It  lias  sup- 
plied presidents  of  colleges,  and  professors  in  col- 
leges and  theological  schools  in  immense  lium- 
!  bers.  Anything  like  an  enumeration  of  names. 
in  this  particular  would  require  so  much  space, 
that  we  will  not  attempt  it.  But  the  tact  will 
probably  stand  unchallenged  by  all  intelligent 
and  observing  men.  A  few  conspicuous  names 
may  be  mentioned,  for  the  most  part  belonging 
to  by-gone  generations.  Such  were  Increase 
Mather.  Edward  Holyoke,  John  T.  Kirkland, 
.lared  Sparks,  presidents  of  Harvard  College; 
Thomas  Clap,  Ezra  Stiles,  Timothy  Dwight,  Jer- 
emiah Pay,  presidents  of  Yale  College:  Eleazar 
Wheelock  and  Nathan  Lord  of  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege. The  late  Dr.  Theron  Baldwin,  for  nearly 
thirty  years  secretary  of  the  College  Society,  by 
reason  of  his  large  organizing  power  in  the  depart- 
ment of  education,  fitly  finds  a  place  in  this  list. 
( )f  men  still  living,  but  \vh<  >.  1  >y  reason  of  age,  have 
passed  out  of  the  offices  they  so  long  held,  and 
may  be  reckoned  as  emeriti,  we  may  name  Mark 
Hopkins,  of  Williams  College,  and  Theodore 
1  hvight  WoolseV)  of  Vale  College.  From  the  be- 
ginning  until  now,  the  presidents  and  professors 
in  the  Presbyterian  institutions  have  been  largely 
furnished  by  New  England;  and  the  same  is  true, 
in  a  lesser  proportion,  in  the  institutions  of  other 
denominations.  A  catalogue  of  presidents  and 
professors  in  American  colleges  and  theological 
seminaries,  including  only  the  men  born  and 
reared  among  the  "  Congregationalists,"  would 
embrace  several  hundred  names. 

CONNECTICUT,  one  of  the  original  thir- 
teen states  of  the  American  Union,  having  a 
population,  in  1870,  of  537,454,  and  an  area  of 
4,750  sq.  m.,  being  the  smallest  of  the  present 
states  except  Bhode  Island  and  Delaware. 

Educational  History. — This  topic  may  con- 
veniently be  discussed  under  three  heads :  (I) 
The  establishing  of  schools  ;  (II)  The  mode  of 
maintaining  them  ;  (HI)  The  mode  of  supervis- 
ing them. 

I.  The  earliest  European  immigrants  to  Con- 
necticut established  schools  very  soon  after  their 
arrival.  Two  distinct  colonies  were  originally 
planted  within  the  present  limits  of  the  state, 
each  consisting  of  several  towns  or  plantations. 
Hartford  (settled  in  L635)  was  the  leading  town  in 
the  Connecticut  colony,  and  New  Haven  (settled 
in  1638),  in  the  New  Haven  colony.  At  first,  each 
town  acted  independently  in  establishing  schools. 
The  earliest  records  of  I  lartford  are  lost,  but  the 
oldest  extant  records  show  that  a  school  existed 
there  as  early  as  lfi42.  The  records  of  New 
Haven  speak  of  a  school  there  in  1639 — 40,  and 
two  years  later  they  contain  a  vote  to  provide 
means  for  a  school.  The  action  of  these  two 
leading  towns  no  doubt  indicates  correctly  the 
similar  action  of  the  other  original  towns.  The 
first  code  of  laws  for  the  Connecticut  colony, 
completed  in   1650,   required  "the  selectmen  of 


172 


CONNECTICUT 


every  town  to  have  a  vigilant  eve  over  their 
brethren  and  neighbors,  to  see  that  none  of  them 
shall  suffer  so  much  barbarism  in  any  of  their 
Families  as  not  to  endeavor  to  teach,  by  them- 
selves or  others,  their  children  and  apprentices 
so  much  learning  as  may  enable  them  perfectly 
to  read  the  English  tongue,  etc.-'  The  same  code 
required  every  town  containing  50  families  to 
•  appoint  one  within  their  town  to  teach  all  such 
children  as  shall  resort  to  him,  to  write  and 
read;"  and  every  town  of  100  families,  to  "  set 
up  a  grammar  school,  the  masters  thereof  being 
able  to  instruct  youths  so  far  as  they  may  be 
fitted  for  the  university."  The  New  Haven 
colony  code,  prepared  in  1  655,  was  equally  em- 
phatic in  requiring  the  education  of  all  children. 
The  two  colonies  were  united  in  1665,  and  the 
Connecticut  code  became  the  law  for  the  whole 
colony.  In  1672,  that  code  was  revised,  and  the 
provision  requiring  a  grammar  school  in  every 
town  of  100  families,  was  superseded  by  a  new 
law  requiring  such  a  school  to  be  maintained  in 
the  county  town  of  each  of  the  four  counties 
that  had  then  been. organized;  namely.  Hartford. 
New  Haven,  New  London,  and  Fairfield.  This 
law  remained  in  force  till  1798.  In  1678,  every 
town  containing  .'ill  families  (instead  of  "ill)  was 
require  1  to  maintain  a  school.  A  new  revision 
of  the  code  was  prepared  in  1700,  and  publishe  I 
two  years  later.  Under  the  revised  code,  every 
town  of  "o  families,  or  more,  was  required  to 
maintain  a  school  eleven  months  of  each  year, 
and  every  town  of  less  than  70  families,  to  have 
a  school  at  least  half  of  the  year.  In  1712,  these 
requirements  were  extended  to  parishes  or  socie- 
ties, into  which  several  towns  of  large  extent 
were  divi  led,  from  time  to  time,  for  the  con- 
venience of  people  in  attending  public  worship. 
In  1766,  each  town,  ami  each  parish,  where  there 
was  more  than  one  in  a  town,  was  authorized  to 
divide  itself  into  convenient  districts,  and  main- 
tain within  its  limits  as  many  schools  as  might 
be  needed  to  accommodate  its  inhabitants.  Pre- 
vious to  this  time,  the  law  had  required  only  one 
school  in  each  town  or  society.  The  law  of  1766 
led,  in  time,  to  the  "district. system" of  establish- 
ing and  maintaining  schools.  At  first,  however, 
the  districts  were  merely  subdivisions  of  towns 
or  parishes.  In  17!)  I,  their  separate  existence 
began  to  be  recognized  in  legislation.  They 
were  authorized  that  year  to  locate  new  school- 
houses  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  the  citizens,  t  i 
lay  taxes  for  the  same,  and  to  appoint  collectors. 
In  1799,  they  were  empowered   to  choose  clerk; 

and  treasurers ;  and,  finally,  in   L839,  they  were 
declared    to    be  "  bodies  corporate,"  and  were 

authorized   to   elect    their   own   committees.      In 

L795,  L 798, and  L799,  laws  were  passed  by  which 
parishes  or  s  icieties  were  invested  with  full  con- 
trol over  schools  within  their  limits,  an  I  n 
designated  Wythe  new  name  of  "school  societies." 
Such  society  mighl  be  an  entire  town,  a  part  of 
a  town,  or  parts  of  two  or  more  towns  ;  bu1  all 
action  concerning  schools  was  taken  by  school 

icieties,   and    towns,   as   such,    ha  I    no    pari    in 

school  affairs.     In    1856.  school  societies  were 


abolished,  and  their  powers  and  duties  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  towns.  In  1865,  the  towns  were 
authorized  to  consolidate  all  their  districts,  pro- 
vided a  majority  of  the  districts  in  a  town  con- 
sented. In  1866,  the  right  to  consolidate  was 
given  without  that  condition;  and  this  law,  with 
slight  modifications,  is  still  in  force.  Under  this 
law,  several  towns  have  abolished  their  school 
districts  and  returned  to  the  original  "town 
system." 

II.  There  have  been  three  principal  sources  of 
support  for  public  schools:  (1)  Taxes;  (2)  Tui- 
tion fees,  or  rate  bills ;  '3)  The  income  of  per- 
manent funds. 

(1)  Taxes. — The  earliest  schools  in  Hartford. 
New  Haven,  "Wethersfield,  and,  doubtless,  in  the 
other  original  towns,  were  supported  in  part  by 
appropriations  from  the  town  treasuries.  The 
code  of  1650  (already  mentioned)  directed  that  the 
teachers  should  be  paid  "cither  by  the  parents  or 
masters  of  such  children  "  as  resorted  to  them, 
"or  by  the  inhabitants  in  general  by  way  of 
supply,  as  the  major  part  of  those  who  order  the 
prudentials  of  the  town  shall  appoint."  The  two 
methods  here  suggested,— taxes  and  tuition  fees 
— were,  doubtless,  combined,  as  they  had  been  be- 
fore that  code  was  formed.  In  1690, the  general 
court  d.  c.  legislature)  of  the  colony  granted  60 
pounds  yearly  to  each  of  the  county  grammar 
schools  of  Hartford  and  New  ETaven,"30  pounds 
of  it  to  We  paid  out  of  the  county  treasury,  the 
other  30  to  he  paid  in  the  school  revenue  given 
by  particular  persons,  or  to  lie  given  for  that  use, 
s  i  tar  as  it  will  extend,  the  rest  to  be  paid  by  the 
respective  towns  of  Hartford  and  New  Haven.'' 
In  1693,20  pounds  was  voted  to  each  of  the 
other  two  grammar  schools.  In  the  revised  code 
of  1700  (previously  referred  to),  an  important 
change  was  made.  The  sum  of  40  shillings 
on  the  thousand  pounds  was  ordered  to  be  paid 
from  the  colony  treasury  to  those  towns  which 
maintained  schools  according  to  law.  in  propor- 
tion to  their  respective  grand  lists  of  taxable 
property  and  polls.  This  sum  was  assessed  in 
addition  to  previous  taxes,  and  was  thus  virtually 
a  town  tax  for  schools.  If  the  amount  thus  re- 
ceived by  any  town  was  insufficient  to  maintain 
its  school,  the  deficiency  was  to  be  "  made  up  of 
such  estate  as  hath  been  bequeathed  by  any  for 

that  use,  and  for  want  thereof,  the  one  half  to  be 
paid  by  the  town,  and  the  other  by  the  children 
that  go  to  school,  unless  any  town  agree  other- 
wise." In  1  712, parishes  or  societies  were  placed 
on  the  same  footing  as  towns  for  maintaining 

schools.  The  law  of  1700.  as  thus  amended,  re- 
mained in  force,  with  slight  modifications,  till 
L820.  The  most  important  modifications  were 
the  following:  In  1754,  the  rate  of  tax  was 
diminished  from  40  shillings  to  10:  in  1766,  it 
was  increased  to  20;  and  in  1767,  was  restored 

to  10.  The  burdens  of  the  Seven  Years'  war 
(1756  63),  doubtless,  caused  the  diminution 
of  the  tax.      In   L 820,  the  state  school  fund   had 

be< so  productive  that  a  law  was  passed  per- 
mitting the  discontinuance  of  the  tax  whenever 

the  yearly  income  of  that  fund  should  amount  to 


COXXKCTICUT 


173 


•  2,000, which  occurred  the  next  year.  In  L854, 
the  town  school  tax  was  restored, and  it  has  since 
been  repeatedly  increased,  till  it  now  supplies 
fully  half  of  the  funds  for  the  current  expenses 
of  public  schools.  In  1  839,  school  districts  were 
authorized  to  tax  themselves  for  current  school 
expenses.  This  is  now  done  most  commonly  by 
the  more  populous  and  wealthy  districts.  In 
(.871,  there  was  appropriated  from  the  state 
treasury  50  cents  for  each  child  between  4  and 
16  years  of  age.  The  next  year  the  sum  was  in- 
creased to  one  dollar  and  a  half  per  child,  which 
it  now  remains. 

(2)  Tail  inn  Fees  or  Rate  Bills.  — These  were 
a  source  of  school  income  from  the  beginning  till 
they  were  abolished  in  1868.  Where  parents  or 
guardians  were  too  poor  to  pay  them,  they  could 
be  collected  from  the  town  or  society. 

(3)  Income  of  Permanent  Funds. —  A  law  al- 
ready quote  1.  passed  in  1690,  refers  to  "  school 
revenue  given  by  particular  persons."  The  quo- 
tation already  given  from  the  law  of  1  TOO,  con- 
tains similar  language.  In  1733,  the  public 
lands  belonging  to  the  colony,  now  constituting 
the  north-western  part  of  the  state,  were  set  apart 
to  form  a  permanent  school  fund,  and  the  avails 
of  these  lands,  except  certain  reservations,  were 
distributed  among  the  towns  then  organized,  in 
proportion  to  their  tax  lists ;  parishes  receiving 
their  portions  on  the  same  basis.  The  money 
thus  obtained  now  constitutes  the  greater  part 
of  the  "  school  society  funds"  belonging  to  many 
of  the  former  societies.  A  small  part  of  these 
funds  came  from  the  "  excise  moneys"  granted 
by  the  colony,  in  1766,  for  the  encouragement  of 
schools,  and  another  part  from  the  donations  and 
bequests  of  benevolent  persons.  The  Connecticut 
School  Fund  was  for  more  than  half  a  century 
the  main  source  of  public  school  income.  By 
the  charter  granted  to  Connecticut  by  Charles  II. 
of  England,  in  1662,  the  colony  extended  west- 
ward to  the  Pacific,  and  from  41°  to  42°  2'  X. 
lat.  The  part  of  this  territory  now  belonging 
to  Pennsylvania,  was  yielded  to  that  state 
after  a  bitter  controversy,  but  the  title  of  Con- 
necticut to  the  remainder,  lying  farther  west, 
was  confirmed.  In  1786,  this  was  ceded  to  the 
L  •  S.,  except  a  reservation  extending  120  miles 
westward  from  the  W.  line  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
known  as  the  "  Western  Reserve,"  or  sometimes 
as  '•  Xew  Connecticut."  This  tract,  except  a  | 
small  part  previously  disposed  of,  was  sold  in 
L795  for  ^1,200,000,  which  was  the  original 
capital  of  the  Connecticut  school  fund.  By  ju- 
dicious management,  particularly  that  of  James 
Hillhouse.  commissioner  of  the  fund  from  L810 
to  182.").  and  Seth  I'.  Beers,  from  1  825  to  1  849, 
the  capital  was  increased  to  over  $2,000,000. 
The  first  dividend  was  paid  in  1799.  The  fund 
now  bears  interest  at  6  per  cent,  and  in  some 
cases  more  than  that.  The  income,  until  1820, 
was  distributed  to  the  school  societies  in  propor- 
tion to  their  respective  amounts  of  taxable  prop- 
erty and  polls;  since  that  time  it  is  divided  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  children  between  4  and 
16  years  of  age. — The  Town  Deposit  Fund  came 


t'n  ,in  the  treasury  of  the  U.  S.  In  1836,  Congress 
directed  that  the  "surplus  revenue"  then  on 
hand  should  be  divided  among  the  states  in  pro- 
portion to  their  representation  in  both  houses  of 
Congress.  Connecticut  revived  87(14,670.60. 
Of  tins  sum  $763,661.83  was  divided  among  the 
towns  according  to  their  population al  the  census 
of  1830.  Towns  organized  since  that  date  have 
(with  one  exception!  received  their  share  of  the 
town  deposit  fund  which  belonged  to  the  towns 
from  which  they  were  formed.  In  theory,  this 
money  is  merely  deposited  with  the  towns  by 
the  state  (whence  its  name),  and  is  liable  to 
be  recalled:  but,  practically,  it  belongs  absolutely 
to  the  towns.  At  first,  one  half  of  the  income 
was  devoted  by  law  to  public  schools;  since 
1 855,  the  entire  income  has  been  so  devoted. 

III.  For  the  first  60  or  Til  years  in  the  history 
of  Connecticut,  there  appears  to  have  been  no  of- 
ficial supervision  of  the  schools.  The  "selectmen" 
in  each  town  were  to  "  have  a  vigilant  eye"  over 
their  townsmen  to  prevent  the  "  barbarism  "  of 
ignorance;  but  nothing  is  recorded  which  indi- 
cates that  schools  were  particularly  under  their 
care.  A  law  of  1702  speaks  of  a  "committee 
for  schools"  as  existing  in  a  part  of  the  towns, 
and  similar  committees  were  afterward  appointed 
in  the  parishes;  but  the  duty  of  these  committees, 
so  far  as  appears,  extended  only  to  the  financial 
affairs  of  the  schools.  In  1714,  the  civil  author- 
ity and  selectmen  of  every  town  were  "directed 
and  empowered,  as  visitors,  to  inspect  the  state 
of  all  such  schools  as  are  appointed  in  said  town, 
from  time  to  time,  and  particularly  once  in  each 

quarter  of  the  year and  to  inquire  into  the 

qualifications  of  the  masters  of  such  schools  and 
their  diligence  in  attending  to  the  service  of  the 
said  schools,  together  with  the  proficiency  of  the 
children  under  their  care."  They  were  also  re- 
quired to  give  such  directions  as  would  render 
the  schools  most  efficient  for  the  purpose  in- 
tended. This  law  remained  in  force  till  1798, 
when  each  society — then  called  a  school  society — 
was  required  to  "  appoint  a  suitable  number  of 
persons,  not  exceeding  nine,  of  competent  skill 
and  letters,  to  be  overseers  and  visitors  of 
schools,"  who  were  to  examine  and  approve 
teachers,  displace  the  incompetent  and  such  as 
disregarded  the  "  regulations  by  them  adopted, 
superintend  and  direct  the  instruction  of  the 
youth  in  letters,  religion,  morals,  and  manners," 
and  in  other  ways  promote  the  efficiency  of 
the  schools.  When  the  school  societies  were 
abolished,  in  L856,  the  appointment  of  "school 
visitors"  was  transferred  to  the  towns. 

Xo  state  superintendent  of  schools  was  chosen 
in  Connecticut  till  1*38.  In  thai  year,  a  board 
of  commissioners  of  common  schools  was  created, 
and  authorized  to  appoint  its  own  secretary,  who 
was  to- devote  his  whole  time,  if  required,  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  board,  to  ascertain  the 
condition,  increase  the  interest,  and  promote  the 
usefulness,  of  the  common  schools."  The  board 
appointed  as  its  secretary  I  bury  Barnard,  who 
served  the  state  efficiently  in  that  position  till 
1842,  when  the  law  creating  the  board  was  re- 


174 


CONNECTICUT 


pealed.  In  1845,  the  commissioner  of  the  school 
fund,  Seth  P.  Beers,  was  appointed  by  the  gen- 
eral assembly  superintendent  of  common  schools. 
In  1849,  an  act  was  passed  establishing  a  normal 
school,  the  principal  of  which  was  to  be,  ex  offi- 
cio, superintendent  of  common  schools.  Under 
this  act,  Henry  Barnard  became  superintendent 
in  September  of  that  year,  and  continued  to 
hold  the  office  till  January,  1855.  John  D. 
Philbrick  succeeded  him  for  two  years,  and 
David  N.  Camp  was  superintendent  from  Jan- 
uary, 1857,  to  August,  1865.  In  July,  18G5, 
the  state  board  of  education  was  constituted,  and 
was  required  to  appoint  a  secretary,  who  by  the 
appointment  was  made  superintendent  of  schools. 
The  first  secretary  was  I  )aniel  C.  Gihnan,  who 
filled  the  position  from  August,  1865,  to  Jan- 
uary, 1867.  The  present  secretary,  Birdsey  G. 
Northrop,  entered  upon  his  duties  January  1., 
1867. 

A  State  Teachers'  Association  was  formed 
April  7.,  1846,  which  meets  once  a  year.  Teach- 
ers' Institutes  are  held  in  different  parts  of  the 
state,  every  year.  They  are  provided  for  by  an 
appropriation  of  .$.'5,000  a  year,  from  the  state 
treasury.  Associations  of  teachers  for  mutual 
improvement  are  formed  from  time  to  time  in 
some  towns. 

School  Si/stem. — The  general  supervision  and 
control  of  the  educational  interests  of  the  state 
are  entrusted  to  the  state  board  of  education, 
which  consists  of  six  persons, — the  governor  and 
lieutenant-governor  of  the  state,  ex  officio,  and 
one  person  from  each  of  the  four  congressional 
districts,  chosen  by  the  general  assembly  for  the 
term  of  four  years,  one  going  out  of  office  each 
year,  but  re-eligible.  The  secretary  ehosen  by 
this  board  is  superintendent  of  schools,  as  above 
stated.  Towns  are  required  to  maintain  schools 
for  at  least  30  weeks  in  each  year,  in  every 
district  containing  24  or  more  persons  between 
4  and  1 6  years  of  age,  and  for  at  least  24  weeks 
in  other  districts :  but  no  school  need  be 
maintained  in  any  district  in  which 
age  attendance,  the  previous  year, 
than  8.  Kach  town  has  a  board 
visitors,  either  3,  6  or  9  in  number, 
chosen  by  ballot  for  three  years,  one 
Log  out  of  office  each  year,  but  re-eligible.  In 
choosing  them,  no  voter  may  vote  for  more  than 
half  of  the  number  to  lie  chosen  when  it  is  an 
even  Dumber, nor  for  more  than  a  bare  majority 
when  it  is  an  odd  number.  The  care  of  school 
funds  and  other  school  property  belonging  to  the 
towns,  is  entrusted  to  selectmen, and  the  visitors 
have  charge  of  strictly  educational  affairs.  They 
examine  and  certificate  teachers,  rejecting  those 
considered  unfit  or  incompetent,  prescribe  rules 
and  regulations  for  the  management,  studies, 
classification,  and  discipline  of  public  schools, 
and  direct  what  text-books  shall  be  used.  They 
approve  sites  ami  plans  for  new  schooMiouses, 
fill  vacancies  in  district  offices,  make  rules  for 
the  care  and  management  of  district  libraries, 
and  supervise  high  schools  where  such  exist. 
They  aunually  assign   to  one  or  more  of  their 


the  aver- 
was  less 

of  school 
who  are 
third  go- 


number,  called  acting  visitors,  the  duty  of  visit- 
ing all  public  schools  in  the  town  at  least  twice 
in  each  term.  They  choose  from  their  own  num- 
ber a  chairman  arid  secretary,  make  yearly  re- 
turns of  the  number  of  children  between  4  and 
16  years  of  age,  and  draw  all  moneys  from  the 
state  treasury.  They  also  send  to  the  secretary 
of  the  board  of  education  such  statistical  re- 
turns as  he  may  call  for.  As  compensation,  they, 
are  entitled  to  receive  3  dollars  a  day.  for  the 
time  necessarily  spent  in  performing  theirduties. 
Each  town  has  power  to  form,  alter,  and  dissolve 
school  districts  within  its  limits,  and  any  two  or 
more  towns  may  form  joint  districts  of  adjoining 
parts  of  their  territory.  Each  district  is  a  body 
corporate,  with  all  the  powers  necessary  for 
building,  purchasing,  hiring,  and  repairing 
school-houses,  employing  and  paying  teachers, 
and  raising  moneys  by  tax  or  loan.  The  name 
or  number,  and  the  boundaries  of  every  district 
are  to  be  definitely  ascertained  and  entered  on 
its  own  records,  as  well  as  on  those  of  the  town 
or  towns  in  which  it  is  situated.  Each  district 
chooses  yearly  by  ballot  a  committee  of  not. 
more'  than  3  persons,  a  clerk,  treasurer,  and  col- 
lector. Some  large  districts  choose  their  com- 
mittees in  the  same  Avay  that  school  visitors  are 
chosen,  as  already  described.  The  committee  of  a 
district  is  its  agent,  employing  its  teacher  or 
teachers,  and  taking  charge  of  its  affairs  ;  giving 
notice  of  district  meetings,  and  calling  special 
meetings  when  deemed  necessary,  or  when  one- 
tifth  or  ten  of  the  voters  in  the  district  request 
it  in  writing. 

Any  town  may,  at  any  annual  meeting,  abol- 
ish all  the  school  districts  and  parts  of  districts 
within  its  limits,  and  constitute  itself  one  district. 
Such  town  assumes  all  the  property  and  debts  of 
the   former   district,   and   chooses  by  ballot,  as 
school  visitors  are  chosen,  a  committee  of  6,  9, 
or  12  male  residents,  who  take  the  place   and 
perforin  the  duties  of  both  district   officers  and 
school  visitors.     They  arrange  for  schools,  of  at 
least  30  weeks  in  the  year,  in  the  different  parts 
of  the  town,  and  take  charge  of  school  buildings 
and    other  school  property.      All  towns  have 
authority  to  establish  and  maintain  high  schools, 
and  to  do  what  is  requisite  for  that  purpose. 
The  siate  makes  yearly  payments  for  procuring 
and  replenishing  libraries  and  apparatus,  to  such 
districts  as  comply  with   certain  requirements. 
Teachers  are  required  to  be  examined  and  ap- 
proved by  the  school  visitors  before  commencing 
to  teach,  and  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of  each 
scholar's  attendance,  in  registers  provided  by  the 
state  for  that  purpose.     An  enumeration  of  all 
persons  between  1  and  1  6  years  of  age  is  made 
yearly,  in  January,  and   the  number  is  returned 
to  the  proper  officer  by  February  5th. The  dis- 
tribution of  the  school  finance  and  state  appro- 
priation is  based  on  this  enumeration. 

Educational  Condition. — The  number  of  school 

districts  as  returned  in  1 876,  is  L ,493,  of  which 

In  comprise  each  an  entire  town:  about  200  are 

joint   districts,  lying   in  two  or  more  towns,  and 

about    1,280   are  each   a   part  of  a  town.     The 


CONNKCTHTT 


175 


number  of  schools  was  1,650;  of  departments, 
2,499.  The  number  of  graded  schools  was  264  : 
i>t  which  1 1  I  had  each  two  departments  ;  39  had 
::  each;  37,4;  23,  5;  11.  6;  L0,  7;  5,8;  5,9; 
6,  Hi:  1.  11;  7,  12;  3,13;  1,  19;  1,20;  1,21. 
The  whole  number  of  departments  in  the  graded 
scIki.  >ls  was  L,093.  Hence  about  1,406  of  the 
public  schools  were  ungraded. 

The  support  of  schools  (including  the  cost  of 
building  and  repairing  school-houses)  was  de- 
rived from  several  sources;   namely. 

Bchool  Fund $148,220.60 

Town  Deposit   Fund 46,534.97 

Other  Funds 15,614.79 

Total  from  funds $210,370.36 

State  Tax $202,1  L9.00 

Town  Tax 668,167.13 

District  Tax 463,775.19 

Total  from  taxes $1,334,061.32 

Voluntary  Contributions 6,881.26 

Other  sources 41,545.17 

Total  from  all  sources $1,592,858. 1 1 

The  average  wages  per  month  of  male  teach- 
ers was  $70.05;  of  female  teachers,  $37.35.  The 
highest  salary  of  any  teacher  is  $3,000  a  year. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  graded  schools 
varies  so  widely  that  no  definite  statement  can 
be  given. 

School  Statistics  (for  the  year  ending  August 
31.,  1875)  :— 

Pupils  enrolled  (or  registered): 

In  the  winter  term 98,402 

"    "   summer  term 88,595 

"    "   whole  year 119,489 

Average  attendance,  winter 71,935 

"  "  summer 65,251 

"  "  mean,  for  the  year 68,593 

Total  Receipts $1,592,858.11 

"     Expenditures 1,552,583.85 

The  items  of  expenditure  are  as  follows: — 

For  Teachers'  Wages $1,057,242.19 

"    Fuel  and  Incidentals 140,130.42 

"    New  School-Houses 135,136.46 

"    Repairs  of  School- Houses 77,544.46 

"    Library  and   Apparatus 8,262.15 

"    other  school  purposes,  including  cost 

of  supervision 134,269.17 


Total $1,552,583.85 

Number  of  Teachers :  — 

In  winter,  males,  721;   females,  1,910;  total 2,631 

"summer,    "      272:        "        2,324;      "    2,596 

Number  of  different  teachers  employed,  at  ieast, 
males,  704;  females,  2,307;    total,  3,011. 

Normal  Instruction. — The  state  normal  school, 
at  Xew  Britain,  was  established  in  1849,  and 
opened  for  pupils  in  1850.  It  is  supported  by 
an  appropriation  of  $12,000  a  year  from  the 
state  treasury.  The  number  of  students,  in  1876, 
was  180;  instructors,  7.  The  design  of  the 
school  is  strictly  professional  :  that  is,  to  instruct 
,  its  pupils  in  the  best  methods  of  organizing, 
governing,  and  instructing  schools,  as  well  as  in 
the  various  branches  pursued  in  the  common 
schools  of  the  state.  Candidates  for  admission 
must  be  at  least  1 6  years  of  age ;  must  declare 
their  full  attention  to  teach  in  the  public  schools 
of  Connecticut,  and  must  pass  a  satisfactory  ex- 
amination in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, English  grammar,  and  the  history  of  the 
United  States.     The  course  of  study  embraces, 


besides    the    branches    usually   taught    in    the 

schools,  school  laws,  theory  and  art  of  teaching, 
English  literature,  vocal  music,  and  drawing. 
The  full  course  requires  two  years.  This  school 
has  a  library  of  about  500  volumes  ;  a  collection 
of  models,  casts,  and  apparatus  for  free-hand 
drawing ;  a  chemical  laboratory,  and  a  philo- 
sophical cabinet  and  apparatus. 

Secondary  Instruction.  —  Of  this  grade  are 
the  high  schools  and  the  academies.  The  ac- 
count already  given  of  the  public  schools  con- 
tains the  facts  in  relation  to  the  county  grammar 
schools,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  high 
schools  of  Connecticut  from  1672  to  1798.  The 
Colony  School  in  New  Haven  (1659 — 62)  may 
be  considered  the  prototype  of  these  schools.  In 
179S.  every  school  society  was  authorized  to  set 
up  a  high  school;  and,  in  1856,  each  town  re- 
ceived similar  authority.  But  very  few  towns 
have  permanently  maintained  such  schools.  In 
many  of  the  larger  villages,  the  highest  depart- 
ment of  a  graded  school  serves  as  a  high  school. 

In  1658,  Edward  Hopkins,  who  had  been  gov- 
ernor of  Connecticut,  died  in  London,  leaving  by 
will  a  part  of  his  estate  to  trustees  in  New 
Haven.  Hartford,  and  Hadley,  .Mass.,  to  be  used 
"  to  give  some  encouragement  in  those  foreign 
plantations  for  the  breeding  up  of  hopeful 
youths,  both  at  the  grammar  school  and  college, 
for  the  public  service  of  the  colony  in  future 
times."  Xew  Haven  and  Hartford  received 
each  a  few  hundred  pounds  from  his  estate,  with 
which  they  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Hopkins 
grammar  schools.  These  schools  date  from 
1660,  though  not  actually  begun  till  1664  and 
1665.  The  school  at  Hartford  was  united  with 
the  high  school  of  that  town  in  1847.  but  the 
Hopkins  Grammar  School  in  New  Haven  has 
retained  its  separate  existence,  though  most  of 
its  present  endowment  came  from  other  sources 
than  the  Hopkins  estate. 

In  the  later  years  of  the  18th  century,  acade- 
mies began  to  be  established,  and  a  large  number 
have  been  incorporated.  A  general  law  for  their 
incorporation  has  been  in  force  since  1838.  At 
present,  about  25  academies  are  in  active  exist- 
ence. In  the  early  part  of  this  century,  the 
Plainfield  Academy,  the  Staples  Free  School,  at 
Easton,  and  Bacon  Academy,  at  Colchester, 
were  especially  prominent,  but  they  have  since 
relatively  declined.  The  most  important  are 
now  the  Episcopal  Academy,  at  Cheshire,  the 
Connecticut  Literary  Institute,  at  Suffield,  the 
Norwich  Free  Academy,  the  Bulkeley  School, 
at  New  Ixmdon,  and  the  Morgan  School,  at 
Clinton.  The  last  three  named  have  large  en- 
dowments. Bowen  Academy,  at  Woodstock, 
Lewis  Academy,  Southington,  the  Guilford  In- 
stitute. Guilford,  and  the  academies  at  Durham 
and  ( Jlastonbury  are  also  valuable  institutions. 

Besides  the  high  schools  and  academies,  there 
are  numerous  private  schools,  especially  in  the 
southern  and  western  parts  of  the  state.  Many 
of  these  are  boarding-schools  which  receive  their 
pupils  chiefly  from  New  York  and  other  largo 
cities. 


176 


CONNECTICUT 


Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools.  — 
There  are  but  few  schools  of  this  kind  except 
those  established  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in 
communities  where  citizens  of  that  denomination 
are  numerous.  In  two  or  three  instances,  schools 
thus  established  have  been  incorporated  into  the 
public  school  system. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  Although  no  college 
was  established  in  Connecticut  till  1700,  the 
founders  of  both  the  original  colonies,  and  espe- 
cially of  New  Haven,  were  ardent  friends  of  col- 
legiate education.  But  Harvard  College  for  a 
long  time  needed  and  received  their  assistance. 
The  Connecticut  colony  appropriated  money  to 
establish  a  fellowship  there.  In  every  town  a 
committee  was  appointed  to  receive  and  forward 
contributions  in  aid  of  students  at  Cambridge. 
New  Haven  sent  40  bushels  of  wheat  as  one 
year's  contribution.  But  the  purpose  to  found 
a  college  at  New  Haven,  was  cherished  from  the 
outset,  and  was  never  abandoned.  At  a  town 
meeting  held  early  in  Kits— less  than  10  years 
ifter  the  first  settlement — ,  the  town  directed  a 
committee,  appointed  to  dispose  of  vacant  lots,  to 
"consider  and  reserve  what  lot  they  shall  see 
meet  and  most  convenient  for  a  college',  which 
they  desire  maybe  set  up  so  soon  as  their  ability 
shall  reach  thereunto."  The  subject  was  repeat- 
edly discussed  both  in  meetings  of  the  town  and 
in  the  colonial  legislature,  but  the  want  of  means 
prevented  the  gratification  of  their  desire.  In 
1659,  a  "  colony  school  "  was  set  up,  in  the  h  »pe 
that  it  might  in  time  become  a  college,  but  it 
was  continued  only  three  years.  At  length,  in 
1699,  a  plan  was  devised  for  establishing  the 
long  desired  college.  The  leaders  in  the  move- 
ment were  the  clergymen  of  the  colony.  'I'eu 
of  these  were  selected  to  act  in  behalf  of  the 
whole  number,  to  found,  erect,  and  govern  a  col- 
lege. In  1700,  they  performed  the  duty  assigned 
them,  and  the  "collegiate  school"  was  begun. 
The  next  year,  the  legislature  bestowed  on  it  a 
charter  and  an  annual  appropriation  of  120 
p<  muds  for  its  support.  It  was  first  located  at 
Snybrook,  but  the  president  (then  called  rector) 
lived  at  Killingworth  (now  Clinton)  a  few  miles 
distant,  and  the  students  pursued  their  studies 
then'  under  his  direction  till  his  death  in  1707. 
Afterward,  the  senior  class  was  instructed  by 
his  successor  at  Milford,  the  other  classes  re- 
maining at  Saybrook,  where  the  successive  an- 
nual commencements  were  held.  In  1716.  the 
trustees  decided  to  remove  the  school  to  New 
Haven,  and  after  much  contention  this  was 
accomplished   the   following  year.      One  year 

filer    (1718),    a    generous  and    timely  gift  from 

Elihu  Yale  induced  the  trustees  to  give  the 
newly  erected  building  the  name  of  the  present 
institution,  Vale  College.  (See  Yu.k  College.) 
Trinity  Coll  ige,  at  Hartford,  was  chartered  as 
Washington  College,  in  L823  j  ami  instruction 
was  begUD  in  L824.  The  name  was  changed  iu 
L845.  (See  Trinity  COLLEGE.)  In  addition  to 
these,  there  is  the  Wesleyan  University,  at 
Middletown,  which  was  founded  in  1830;  chart- 
ered in  1831.     (See  Wesleyan  University.) 


Professional  and  Scietitific  Instruction. — Un- 
jder  this  head  are  included  Theological  Schools, 
Law  Schools,  and  Scientific  Schools,  of  which  the 
following  is  an  enumeration :  The  Theological 
Department  of  Yale  College  was  organized  in 
1822.  For  the  year  1875 — 6,  it  had  99  students. 
The  Theological  Institute  of  Connecticut  was 
founded  at  East  Windsor,  in  1834,  and  was  re- 
moved to  Hartford,  in  1865.  In  1876,  the  num- 
ber of  students  was  16.  The  Berkeley  Divinity 
School  was  organized  in  1851  as  the  Theological 
Department  of  Trinity  College.  In  1854.  it  was 
removed  to  Middletown,  and  was  incorporated 
with  its  present  designation.  It  had  39  students 
in  1876.  In  1784,  the  Litchfield  Law  School  was 
established  by  Judge  Reeve,  and  it  soon  became 
the  foremost  in  the  U.  S.,  having  students  from 
all  parts  of  the  country.  It  was  continued  about 
half  a  century.  The  Law  Department  of  Yale 
College  was  separately  organized  in  1826,  though 
no  class  was  formally  graduated  till  1843.  The 
number  of  students,  in  1876,  was  76.  The  Med- 
ical Department  of  Yale  College  was  organized 
in  1813.  The  number  of  students,  in  1876,  was 
50.  The  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  Col- 
lege was  begun  in  1846,  as  the  Department  of 
Philosophy  and  the  Arts,  and  graduated  its  lirst 
class  in  1852.  Its  rapid  growth  has  been  due 
mainly  to  the  liberality  of  the  gentleman  whose 
name  it  bears.  In  1863,  the  legislature  granted 
to  it  the  income  (88,100)  derived  from  lands 
given  by  Congress,  the  previous  year,  to  provide 
colleges  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts."  The  school  had  224  students 
for  the  year  1875—6.  The  School  of  the  Fine 
Arts  in  Yale  College  has  been  quite  recently 
established,  and  has  as  yet  but  few  pupils. 

Special  Instruction. — The  American  Asylum 
for  the  Deaf  and  I  >umb  was  established  at  Hart- 
ford in  1816,  being  the  first  of  the  kind  on  the 
Western  Continent.  It  receives  jut  pi  Is  from  all 
the  New  England  States.  The  average  number  is 
usually  about  225.  The  Whipple  Home  for  Deaf- 
mutes,  at  Mystic  River,  makes  a  specialty  of 
teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb  to  talk,  in  which  it  is 
remarkably  successful.  The  State  Reform  School 
for  Boys,  at  West  Meriden,  was  established  in 
1  S51 ,  and  opened  in  1 854.  It  has  received  in  all 
about  2,350  pupils, and  has  an  average  number  of 
aboul  300.  The  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  at 
Middletown.  was  incorporated  in  1868,  and  re- 
ceived its  first  pupil  in  January  1870.  It  has  an 
average  number  of  from  60  to  80  pupils,  and  re- 
ceives  from  the  State  $3  per  week  for  each  pupil. 
It  is  designed  to  be  a  reformatory  institution. 
The  Soldiers'  Orphan  Homes,  two  in  number, 
were  opened  10  or  12  years  ago.  at  Darien  and 
Mansfield.  As  the  classof  children  for  which  they 

were  designed  is  now  mostly  beyond  school  age, 
they  can  in  >t  be  much  longer  continued  on  the 
original  basis, but  the  school  at  Darien  has  already 
been  somewhat  transformed.  The  School  for  Im- 
beciles,  at  Lakeville,  was  incorporated  in  1861, 
though  it  had  been  previously  carried  on  as  a 
private  institution.  It  receives  from  the  state 
treasury  an  annual  appropriation  of  $7,000. 


conscience 


177 


Educational  Literature. — The  chief  works  on 
the  schools  of  the  state  are  the  Report  of  1  lenry 
Barnard,  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools, 
for  L853,  which  contains  a.  carefully  prepared 
history  of  education  in  Connecticut  ;  and  histor- 
ical accounts  of  particular  institutions  which  have 

been  published  front  time  "to  time.  Besides  these, 

histories  of  Vale  College  have  been  prepared  by 
Several  persons;  and  a  full  account  of  Trinity 
College  and  the  Berkeley  Divinity  School  is  con- 
tained in  Dr.  K.  K.  Beardsley's  History  of  the 
Episcopal  (Voire//  in  Connecticut.  The  educa- 
tional journals  are  very  important.  The  Con- 
necticut Common  School  Journal  was  first  issued 
by  Henry  Barnard,  in  August,  1838.  Four 
volumes,  Ito,  were  published  in  the  next  4  years, 
and  -1  vols,  more,  previous  to  1854.  From  L854 
to  1866,  inclusive.  13  vols.,  8vo,  were  issued, 
and  after  an  interval  of  4  years  1  vols,  more 
(1871—74),  the  last  two  being  Ito.  The  whole 
number  of  volumes  issued  is  2o.  In  January, 
18";">,  all  the  educational  journals  of  New  Eng- 
land were  combined  into  the  New  England 
Journal  of  Education,  published  weekly  in  Bos- 
ton. The  Journal  of  Education  was  begun  by 
Henry  Barnard,  in  1855,  and  is  still  continued. 
The  series  comprises  27  large  8vo  volumes.  (See 
Barnard,  I  Ienry.) 

CONSCIENCE,  Culture  of.  The  feeling 
of  moral  obligation,  the  conviction  that  certain 
actions  are  right  and  others  wrong,  the  sense  of 
duty,  the  moral  principle,  or  by  whatever  other 
phrase  of  similar  signification  we  may  define  con- 
science,  is  the  most  important  object  of  culture 
in  every  department  and  stage  of  moral  educa- 
tion. The  strength  of  this  principle,  as  an  active 
element  of  character,  differs  greatly  in  different 
individuals,  whether  children  or  adults.  As  a 
general  fact,  however,  children  are  influenced 
but  very  slightly  by  a  sense  of  right  or  duty ; 
they  are  acted  upon  by  a  different  class  of  mo- 
tives. The  desire  of  sensuous  enjoyment,  the 
love  of  approbation,  emulation, self-will,  the  hope 
of  reward,  and  the  fear  of  punishment,  are  the 
usual  means  by  which  youthful  minds  are 
swayed,  and  their  actions  controlled.  The  appe- 
tites are  strong;  the  moral  sentiments,  weak. 
Hence,  to  address  the  conscience  of  a  child  as  a 
ruling  principle  would  be  a  great  error;  perhaps, 
a  disaster.  Still,  children  should  be  treated  as 
possessing  at  least  the  germ  of  conscience ;  and 
they  should  early  be  habituated  to  scan  their 
own  conduct  as  well  as  that  of  others,  and  apply 
to  it  a  certain  standard  of  moral  rectitude.  1  low- 
ever  imperfect  this  standard  in  a  child's  mind 
may  be,  much  will  be  gained  when  we  have  in- 
duced him  to  ask.  in  regard  to  any  of  his  actions, 
'  "•  Is  it  right?"  The  enlightenment  of  conscience 
is  much  easier  than  its  development ;  to  one  who 
ifi  deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  duty,  a 
knowledge  of  specific  right  and  wrong  will  be 
very  readily  acquired.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that,  while  the  child  is  really  restrained  by 
the  lower  motives  of  conduct,  such  as  those  above 
enumerated,  the  conscience  is  to  be  steadily  but 
carefully  addressed.  Thus,  if  a  pupil,  whose  love 
12 


of  approbation  is  strong,  has  learned  a  difficult 
lesson  simply  to  please  his  teacher,  it  is  right  to 
accord  him  all  the  praise  which  he  craves  as  the 
reward  of  his  conduct  :  but  let  not  the  teacher 
fail  to  impress  upon  his  mind,  at  the  same  time, 
that  this  praise  is  given  because  the  action  per- 
formed is  good — is  right;  so  that  his  mind  may 
be  drawn  from  his  overweening  desire  for  the 
approbation  of  others,  and  gradually  led  to  ap- 
preciate more  highly  the  approbation  of  his  own 
conscience ;  and  so  in  respect  to  all  the  lower  in- 
centives. If  the  child  is  punished  for  a  fault  by 
an  angry  teacher  or  parent,  he  will  rather  dread 
the  anger  than  be  impressed  with  the  wrongful- 
ness of  his  conduct  ;  and,  if  sly  and  deceitful, 
the  only  result  of  the  punishment  will  be  to  ren- 
der him  more  careful  to  conceal  than  to  avoid 
similar  wrong-doing  in  the  future.  Hence,  the 
interposition  of  the  teacher's  personality  in  con- 
nection with  either  reward  or  punishment  is  an 
obstacle  to  the  moral  improvement  of  the  pupil; 
because  it  diverts  his  attention  from  the  charac- 
ter of  his  conduct,  as  good  or  bad  in  itself,  to  an 
exclusive  consideration  of  its  effects  upon  the 
mind  of  the  teacher,  as  producing  praise  or  cen- 
sure. Some  thoughtless  teachers  punish  their 
pupils  for  not  telling  of  each  other's  offenses, 
when  they  should  be  glad  to  perceive  an  ex- 
hibition of  such  a  sense  of  honor,  and  should 
rather  encourage  and  commend  it.  Of  course, 
if  a  pupil  who  is  strenuous  in  his  refusal  to  act 
the  part  of  a  tale-bearer,  as  mean  and  wrong, 
could  be  convinced  that  his  duty  demanded  that 
he  should  make  known  the  wrong-doer,  he  would 
at  once  yield  ;  but,  after  a  simple  statement  of 
the  case,  he  should  be  permitted  to  exercise  his 
conscience,  without  any  violence  or  threats  being 
brought  against  it.  A  high  standard  of  moral 
excellence  in  a  child  is  just  as  striking  an  in- 
stance of  precocity,  as  great  intellectual  power 
and  attainments  ;  and  is,  perhaps,  as  much  to  be 
discouraged.  "  Be  content,"  says  Herbert  Spen- 
cer, "  with  moderate  measures  and  moderate  re- 
sults. Constantly  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  a 
higher  morality,  like  a  higher  intelligence,  must 
be  reached  by  a  slow  growth ;  and  you  will  then 
have  more  patience  with  those  imperfections  of 
nature  whidh  your  child  hourly  displays.  You 
will  be  less  prone  to  that  constant  scolding,  and 
threatening,  and  forbidding,  by  which  many 
parents  induce  a  chronic  domestic  irritation,  in 
the  foolish  hope  that  they  will  thus  make  their 
children  what  they  should  be." 

The  conscience  is  not  to  be  cultivated  by 
simply  giving  moral  precepts.  "  Moral  educa- 
tion." says  Dymond,  "should  be  directed,  not  so 
much  to  informing  the  young  what  they  ought 
to  do,  as  to  inducing  those  moral  dispositions 
and  principles  which  will  make  them  adhere  to 
what  they  know  to  be  right."  The  highest  suc- 
cess in  this  is  achieved  when  the  pupil  is  seen  to 
be  willing  to  make  self-sacrifice,  to  practice 
self-denial,  in  order  to  do  what  he  feels  to  be 
right.  This  point  of  moral  excellence  having 
been  reached,  the  individual  may,  with  entire 
safety,  be  allowed  to  control  his  own  actions, 


178        CONSTITUTION  OF  U.  S. 


CONVENT  SCHOOLS 


with  the  assurance  that  lie  will  not,  in  any  cir- 
cumstance of  life,  go  far  astray. 

The  basis  of  moral  rectitude  has  not  here  been 
considered;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  plunge  into 
any  speculations  as  to  what  constitutes  that  dis- 
criminative power  between  right  and  wrong 
which  is  a  part  of  the  original  constitution  of 
the  human  mind.  It  may  undoubtedly  be 
strengthened  by  religious  training  of  a  proper 
character:  and  hence, such  training  constitutes  a 
very  important  agency  in  the  culture  of  the  con- 
science. "  Parents,"  says  Hartley."  should  Labor, 
from  the  earliest  dawniugs  of  understanding  and 
desire,  to  check  the  growing  obstinacy  of  the  will, 
curb  all  sallies  of  passion,  impress  the  deepest, 
most  amiable,  reverential,  and  awful  sentiments 
of  God,  a  future  state,  and  all  sacred  things.-' 
(See  Moral  Education,  and  Religious  Educa- 
tion'.) 

CONSTITUTION  OF  TJ.  S.,  a  branch  of 
instruction  forming  part  of  the  course  of  studies 
pursued  in  the  common  schools  of  many  of  the 
states  of  the  Union.  As  the  object  of  common- 
school  education  is  chiefly  to  prepare  for  the  du- 
ties of  citizenship,  it  is  usually  deemed  essential 
to  impart  a  knowledge  of  the  organic  law  of  the 
nation,  as  the  foundation  of  those  acquirements 
in  political  science  which  every  citizen  needs 
in  order  to  be  able  to  discharge  his  duties  with 
proper  intelligence  and  discrimination.  This  in- 
struction, besides  making  the  pupils  familiar  with 
the  particular  instrument  studied,  may  be  made 
the  basis  for  much  useful  information  in  regard 
to  the  elementary  principles  of  jurisprudence 
and  governmental  organization.  An  analysis 
of  the  various  provisions  pertaining  to  the  three 
great  departments  of  the  government,  .showing 
their  respective  powers  and  limitations  of  power. 
with  an  explanation  of  the  underlying  principles, 
cannot  but  prepare  the  youthful  mind  for  more 
advanced  studies  of  this  kind,  besides  being  the 
means  of  a  particular  culture  of  the  reason  and 
judgment,  of    very  great   value.      The    practical 

usefulness  of  the  knowledge  thus  imparted,  par- 
ticularly in  boys'  schools,  is  scarcely  exceeded  by 
that  of  any  other  branch  of  instruction  usually 
included  in  a  common -school  course.  Main 
valuable  school  text-books  on  this  subject  have 
been  compiled  ;  besides  which,  those  designed  to 
teach  the  history  of  the  United  States  generally 
comprehend  also,  as  an  appendix,  the  (  institution 
of  the  United  States,  arranged  and  adapted  for 
school  study. — See  E.  I  >.  Mansfield,  American 
Education  (N.  Y.,  L851) ;  and  (as  books  of  ref- 
ace)  Stobt,  On  the  Constitution  of  U.  S. 
(N.  Y.):  Kknt.  Commentaries  on  American 
Law  (Boston);  Mansfield,  Political  Manual 
(N.  V.i:  Nordhoff,  Politics  for  Young  Amer- 
icans (N.  \ .);  Pomerot,  Constitution  and  Law 
(N.  Yd;  Shfppard,  Constitutional  Text-Book, 
and  Firs/  Book  of  (he  Constitution  (Phila.) ; 
Stearns,  Constitution  of  U.S.,  with  Concord- 
ance  and    classified    Index    iV  Y.)      TOWNSEND, 

Analysis  of  Civil  Government  (N.  Yd:  An- 
drews, Manual  of  /he  Constitution  if  the  U.  S. 
(<'in..  L874). 


CONVENT  SCHOOLS.  The  convents  of 
the  Christian  church  were  originally  founded 
from  ascetic  and  religious,  not  from  literary  and 
educational  motives :  and,  for  a  considerable 
time  after  their  first  establishment,  but  little 
value  appears  to  have  been  attributed  by  their 
inmates  to  literary  culture  and  education.  Basil 
of  Caesarea  was  one  of*  the  first  who  re- 
commended the  reception  of  children  into  con- 
vents for  the  purpose  of  being  educated.  The 
recommendation  was  complied  with  by  many 
Eastern  convents.  Chrysostom,  as  well  as  other 
bishops,  expressly  ordered  that  convent  schools 
should  be  opened  also  to  lay  pupils,  and  admon- 
ished parents  to  send  their  children  for  ten  or 
more  years  to  convents,  in  order  that  they  might 
be  brought  up  in  the  principles  of  piety.  Next 
to  the  East,  the  convents  of  southern  Gaul,  Ire- 
land. Scotland,  and  England  became  the  seats  of 
Christian  scholarship.  Lerinum,  in  southern 
Caul,  had  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  from  which, 
in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries,  many  authors  and 
scholars  proceeded  :  and.  in  the  British  islands, 
many  convent  schools  which  imparted  theological 
as  well  as  other  instruction,  were  especially 
famous  for  the  number  of  missionaries  whom 
they  educated. 

A  new  period  in  the  history  of  convent  schools 
begins  with  the  foundation  of  the  Benedictine 
order.  By  introducing  a  strict  monastic  rule, 
Benedict  not  only  developed  the  idea  and  organ- 
ization of  monasticism,  but  also  made  monastic 
institutions  one  of  the  strong  pillars  of  the 
church.  When,  therefore,  Benedict  and  his  or- 
der added  the  instruction  of  novices,  as  well  as- 
of  other  scholars,  to  the  regular  work  of  the  con- 
vent, he  did  more  for  the  development  of  educa- 
tion among  the  new  states  emerging  from  the 
ruins  of  the  Boman  empire,  than  any  other  man 
up  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  (See  BENE- 
DICTINES, SCHOOLS  of  THE,  and  CHARLEMAGNE.) 
From  the  Mh  to  the  11th  century,  the  Bene- 
dictine sid Is.  and    their  rivals,  the    cathedral 

and  collegiate  schools  (see  Cathedral  lnd  Col- 

LEGIATE  Schools),  were  almost  the  exclusive  re- 
presentatives of  Christian  education  in  western 
Europe.  Some  of  these  schools,  especially  in 
Germany,  France,  and  England,  attained  a  high 
degree  of  prosperity,  and  gave  a  powerful  im- 
pulse to  the  progress  of  education  by  the  revival 
of  classical  studies.  At  the  time  of  <  Iregory  VII., 
the  convent  schools  began  to  decline.  The  new- 
ideas  set  afloat  by  the  crusades,  found  the  course 
of  instruction  in  the  Benedictine  schools  too  nar- 
row and   onesided:    Franciscans,   Dominicans, 

and  other  mendicant    Orders  dislodged  the  IVnc- 

dictines  in  the  affections  of  the  lower  classes  of 
society,  and,  therefore,  gathered  in  their  schools 

a  large  Dumber  Of  scholars  who   otherwise  would 

have  flocked  to  the  Benedictines;  several  popes, 

as    Innocent    III.,   ostentatiously    evinced     their 

preference  for  the  cathedral  schools;  and.  finally, 
the  rise  of  the  universities  displaced  the  convent 

Schools    from    their   rank   as   the    highest  class  of 

educational  institutions.  Moreover,  the  town 
schools  soon  began   to  make  a   powerful  compe- 


COXVKXT  SCHOOLS 


CONVERSATION 


179 


tition  for  public  favor,  and  created  a  demand  for 
instruction  in  secular  subjects,  which  led  to  the 
foundation  of  new  religious  orders;  and  these, 
like  the  Hieronymians,  attempted  a  new  depart- 
ure in  the  organization  of  convent  schools.  The 
success  of  the  Protestant  movement  in  Germany 
and  in  other  European  countries  called  forth,  in 
the  Roman  ( !atholic  church,  new  religious  orders, 
which  regarded  the  establishment  of  schools  su- 
perior to  those  of  the  Protestants  as  the  surest 
way  to  obtain  a  controlling  influence  over  the 
rising  generation,  and  thus  to  reconquer  the 
ground  which  had  been  lost  by  the  church. 
Among  these  orders,  the  Jesuits,  the  Piarists, 
the  Ursulines,  and  the  many  congregations  of 
school  brothers  and  school  sisters  are  the  best 
known.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  convent 
schools  lost  ground  in  consequence  of  the  greater 
influence  winch  the  state  governments  exercised 
in  the  organization  and  supervision  of  schools. 
They  were  obliged  to  submit  in  many  states  to 
the  legislation  of  the  state  government  on  school 
matters  :  and,  by  the  suppression  of  the  order 
of  the  Jesuits,  were  for  a  long  time  deprived  of 
their  most  illustrious  representatives.  In  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  convents,  though  fiercely 
attacked  in  many  states,  and  totally  suppressed 
in  some,  have  found  for  their  schools  a  very  large 
patronage.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with 
the  female  convent  schools,  which  count  among 
their  pupils  many  thousands  of  Protestants. 

Convent  school  education  is  based  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  religion  should  have  a  predominating 
influence  in  the  education  of  the  child,  and  that 
a  complete  retirement  from  the  world  is  condu- 
cive to  the  formation  of  a  Christian  character. 
The  features  which  distinguish  them  as  a  class 
from  other  schools,  consist  chiefly  in  the  peculiar 
methods  of  their  management  and  administra- 
tion. The  course  of  instruction  presents  no 
marked  points  of  difference  from  that  pursued 
in  other  schools  of  the  same  grade,  comprising,  in 
England  and  the  United  States,  as  the  prospectus 
of  these  institutions  generally  informs  the  public, 
"  all  the  usual  branches  of  a  sound  English  edu- 
cation," with  French,  to  which  a  greater  promi- 
nence is  given  than  in  the  majority  of  other 
schools.  Instrumental  and  vocal  music,  and  draw- 
ing are  carefully  attended  to  as  necessary  accom- 
plishments; and,  in  many  institutions,  the  pupils 
have  also  the  ••  advantage  of  the  best  masters  for 
dancing."  The  superior  of  each  of  these  schools 
is  expected  to  exercise  special  care  in  the  su- 
pervision of  the  deportment  of  the  pupils, 
and  the  greatest  possible  attention  is  given  to 
their  religious  and  moral  training.  The  religious 
atmosphere  in  which  the  students  live,  and  the 
frequency  of  the  devotional  exercises,  interwoven 
with  the  studies,  are  calculated  to  produce  pro- 
found and  lasting  impressions;  and  it  is  but 
natural  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  Prot- 
estant pupils  reared  in  <  'atholie  convents. should, 
in  after  life,  embrace  a  religion  under  the  direct 
influence  of  which  they  received  their  early  edu- 
cation. It  is  equally  natural  that  Protestant 
churches  should  be  greatly  opposed  to  convent 


education,  and  should  earnestly  warn  Protestant 
parents  against  placing  their  children  in  institu- 
tions which,  in  SO  many  cases,  while  affording  a 
thorough  secul  r  education,  divert  the  minds  of 
their  pupils  from  the  religious  faith  of  their 
parents. 

CONVERSATION  has  many  claims  to  con- 
sideration as  an  agency  in  education,  both  in  an 
active  and  passive  sense.  The  child  may  not 
only  receive  information  by  listening  to  the  dis- 
course of  his  ciders  and  superiors,  but  is  taught, 
through  the  imitative  faculty,  to  think  and  speak 
in  a  correct,  easy,  familiar,  and  pleasing  manner. 
The  mere  student  of  books  cannot  mingle  in  so- 
ciety with  ease  and  grace :  having  been  a  recip- 
ient simply,  he  has  no  habit  of  dispensing  infor- 
mation, lie  is,  as  it  were. an  intellectual  bank  of 
deposit,  but  has  no  circulating  medium.  His 
ideas  are  either  imperfect  for  the  want  of  an 
interchange  with  those  of  other  minds,  or  they 
are  vague  and  misty  for  the  want  of  that  prac- 
tical definition  which  can  alone  result  from  cloth- 
ing them  in  familiar  language.  His  views  are 
one-sided  and  narrow,  because  they  have  not  been 
corrected  by  contrast  with  those  of  others. 
"Conversation,"  says  Bacon,  "makesaready  man;'' 
that  is,  the  mind,  by  the  constant  use  of  its  stores 
of  knowledge,  applies  a  practical  rule  in  making 
its  acquisitions,  and  selects  that  which  is  available 
and  useful.  It  does  not  indulge  in  mystic  specu- 
lation, but  adapts  itself  to  the  demands  of  com- 
mon sense.  The  solitary  philosopher  may,  in  his 
seclusion,  develop  ingenious  hypotheses  and  com- 
prehensive theories;  but  it  is  only  wdien  he  comes 
forth  and  discourses  with  his  fellows  that  his 
philosophy  becomes  of  any  practical  use.  Young 
persons  should  be  constantly  practiced  in  conver- 
sation with  each  other,  or  with  their  elders,  upon 
the  subjects  of  their  studies,  as  well  as  the  inci- 
dents of  their  experience  ;  they  should  be  en- 
couraged to  talk  as  well  as  to  listen,  both  for  the 
improvement  of  their  power  of  ready  expression 
and  for  the  general  culture  of  their  minds.  The 
mere  reading  of  books,  wdthout  talking  or  writ- 
ing, may  make  a  learned  man,  but  will  never 
produce  a  really  useful  one.  Flippancy,  cap- 
tiousness,  conceitedness,  and  forwardness  in  ad- 
vancing opinions,  or  in  disputing  about  them, 
should  of  course  be  repressed,  and  humility  and 
modesty  be  cultivated ;  candor  shoidd  always 
be  encouraged,  as  the  best  guide  to  knowledge. 
In  this  way,  conversation  will  be  not  only  an 
important  agent  in  intellectual  culture,  but  one 
of  the  most  effective  means  in  social  education, 
that  is,  in  training  the  individual  for  useful 
ami  agreeable  intercourse  with  his  fellows.  E.  D. 
Mansfield,  in  American  Education,  thus  sums 
ii] >  the  advantages  of  conversation  as  a  means  of 
education:  "(1)  The  rapidity  and  ease  of  con- 
versation enables  an  intelligent  person  to  com- 
municate information,  or  suggest  ideas,  or  direct 
attention,  with  a  readiness  and  a  velocity  which 
it  is  impossible  to  do  by  reading  ;  (2)  It  may  be 
done  more  fully  and  more  accurately,  beca 
there  is  an  opportunity  to  ask  questions,  to  ex- 
press different  shadesof  thought,  and  to  illustrate 


180     CONVERSATIONAL  METHOD 


COOPER 


in  different  ways ;  (3)  Conversation  suggests 
rapidly  numerous  ideas  which  can  only  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  very  limited  manner  by  written  in- 
struction :  and  (4)  Such  instruction  may  thus 
draw  out  a  sympathy  of  minds,  by  which  the 
pupil  is  enlivened,  is  led  forward  without  labor, 
and  ascends,  enlarges  thecircleof  ideas,  loves  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  inquires  into  the 
reason  of  things,  without  ever  suspecting  that  a 
task  has  been  put  upon  him." 

Conversation  brings  into  play  a  great  variety 
of  faculties,  which  without  it  are  quite  apt  to 
rust  from  disuse ;  but  in  order  to  exercise  its 
beet  influence,  it  must  be  spontaneous  and  un- 
restrained, except  by  a  due  regard  to  the  amen- 
ities of  social  intercourse.  It  then  becomes  the 
genuine  inspirer  of  wit,  fancy,  and  sentiment, 
which  find  their  best  and  truest  exercise  in  the 
gladsome  communion  of  congenial  minds.  But 
to  have  this  effect,  it  must  be  an  interchange, not 
a  one-sided  harangue;  nor  must  it  be  permitted 
to  degenerate  into  dogmatism  or  debate.  The 
Hue  art  of  conversation,  apart  from  its  intellect- 
ual requirements,  corresponds  with  the  art  of 
politeness,  the  basic  principle  of  which  is,  to  try 
to  please  others  by  making  them  pleased  with 
themselves.  Hence,  however  much  we  may  differ 
in  opinion  with  others,  we  should  still  treat  their 
opinions  with  respect;  and  if  we  are  obliged  to 
controvert  them,  we  should  do  it  rather  by  sug- 
gesting views  and  considerations  in  opposition, 
than  by  anything  bordering  on  dogmatism  or  de- 
nunciation. ( 'andor,  charity,  and  courtesy  alike 
suggest  this  course,  and  will  be  much  more  apt 
to  produce  conviction  than  positive  assertion  or 
heated  debate.  Conversation  has  been  compared 
to  "a  ball,  which  is  thrown  from  player  to  player 
without  being  allowed  to  drop,  and  thus  keeps 
each  one  in  play."  I  arried  on  in  this  way.  and 
upon  this  principle,  it  constitutes  an  educational 
instrumentality   of   peculiar   value  and  impor- 

CONVERSATIONAL  METHOD.  This 
refers  to  the  mode  of  giving  instruction, in  which 
the  lessons,  instead  of  being  formal  recitations, 
exercises,  explanations,  or  lectures,  consist  of  a 
familiar  discourse  by  the  teacher,  interspersed 
with  questions  or  remarks  by  the  pupils ;  that  is 
to  say.  in  which  the  lessons  partake  of  the  char- 
acter of  conversations,  both  as  to  the  manner  of 
presenting  the  subject  and  the  style  of  language 
employed.    This  mode  of  teaching  is  especially 

adapted  to  young  children,  because  it  affords  the 

teacher  a  constant  opportunity  to  appeal  to  their 
intelligence  and  experience,  and  to  employ  the 
simplest  colloquial  expressions.  Besides,  the 
utmost  Freedom  being  given  to  the  pupils,  they 
are  enabled  to  .-how  by  their  questions  and  re- 
marks to  what  extent  and  in  what  respect  they 
need  special  instruction  and  information.  In 
order  to  arouse  and  sustain  the  pupils' interest, 
their  attention  is  called  to  such  facts  in  connec- 
tion with  the  subject  as,  although  quite  obvious 

when  shown  or  explained,  are  usually  overlooked 

by  children,  who  are  generally  but  superficial 
observers  before  beim,'  trained  to  close  attention 


and  carefid  investigation.  In  object  teaching, 
the  lessons  should  always  be  conversational,  the 
teacher  saying  oidy  enough  to  lead  the  pupils  to 
observe,  and  to  talk  freely  about  what  they 
notice.  As  examples  of  the  conversational 
method  we  may  refer  to  the  beautiful  colloquial 
lessons  contained  in  some  of  the  works  of  Dr. 
Aiken  and  Mrs.  Barbauld.  (See  Evenings  at 
Home,  edited  by  Cecil  Hartley.)  That  on  Hie 
Leguminous  Plants  is  an  excellent  example; 
although  the  .style  is  by  no  means  so  simple  as 
that  which  would  be  used  in  an  actual  oral 
lesson.  The  lesson  is  given  by  the  tutor  to 
two  pupils,  George  said  Harry,  and  commences 
with  an  exclamation  of  the  former,  who  has  ap- 
proached a  bean-held,  and  proceeds  as  follows: — 

G.     What  a  delightful  scent! 

H.  Charming!  It  is  sweeter  than  Mr.  Essence's 
shop. 

T.    Do  you  know  whence  it  comes? 

G.  O— it  is  lit  .in  the  bean-field  on  the  other  side 
of  the  hedge,  I  suppose. 

T.  It  is.  This  is  the  month  in  which  beans  are 
in  blossom.  See— the  stalks  are  full  of  their  black  and 
white  flowers. 

H.  I  see  peas  in  blossom,  too,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  field. 

<I.  You  told  us  some  time  ago  of  grass  and  corn 
[wheat]  flowers ;  but  they  make  a  poor  figure  com- 
pared with  these. 

T.  They  do.  The  glory  of  a  corn-field  is  when  it 
is  ripe  ;  but  peas  and  beans  look  very  shabbily  at 
that  time. 

The  blossoms  of  the  bean  and  pea  are  then 
brought,  and  compared  by  the  pupils;  and  the 
lesson  proceeds. 

T.     Do  you  think  these  flowers  much  alike  ? 

II.     O  no — very  little. 

G.     Yes — a  good  deal. 

T.  A  little  and  a  good  deal !  How  can  that  be? 
Come,  let  us  see.  In  the  first  place,  they  do  not  much 
resemble  each  other  in  size  or  color. 

G.    No — but  I  think  they  do  in  shape. 

T.  True.  They  are  both  irregular  flowers,  and 
have  the  same  distribution  of  parts.  They  are  of  the 
kind  called  papilionaceous ;  from  pajrilio,  the  Latin 
word  for  butterfly,  which  insect  they  are  thought  to 
resemble,  etc.,  etc. 

All  the  characteristics  are  thus  successively 
unfolded  in  this  familiar  manner,  the  explana- 
tions of  the  teacher  being  interspersed  with  the 
remarks  of  the  pupils.  Hookers  Child*  Book 
of  Nature  presents  another  excellent  illustration 
of  the  conversational  mode  of  instruction,  to 
which  may  be  added  many  others.  It  is  diffi- 
cult, however,  fully  to  show  this  method  in  a 
book;  since  its  characteristics  are  freedom  and 
spontaneity,  the  pupil  talking  in  a  child-like 
manner,  and  the  teacher  adapting  his  words  and 
modes  of  illustration  to  the  condiiion  of  the 
pupil's  mind,  as  shown  during  the  lesson.  This 
method  of  instruction,  ill  t  lie  elementary  st.\< 
is  far  more  effective  than  that  which  is  given  by 
means  of  textbooks,  much  of  the  language  of 
which  usually  needs  to  be  translated  into  such 
as  is  suitable  to  the  child's  comprehension. 

COOPER  INSTITUTE,  or  Cooper  Union. 

See    I  loOPBB,    PETBB. 

COOPER,  Peter,  an  American  philanthro- 
pist and  the  founder  of  the  "Union  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science  and  Art.''  a  large  and  hn- 


OOOPEB 


181 


portant  institution  of  learning  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  commonly  called  after  its  founder  "Cooper 
Institute,"  was  born  in   New  York,  Febr.  12., 
L791.     He  was  apprenticed  at  the  ace  of  seven- 
teen to  the  trade  of  coach-making,  and  soon  rose 
to  a  conspicuous  position  anions  the   manufact- 
urers of  the  United  States.     The  development 
of  American  industry,  has  continued,  throughout 
his  long  life,  to  be  an  object  of  his  patriotic 
aspirations;    and.   in   his   later  years,  there  has 
been  hardly  a  question  relating  to  the  industrial 
interests  of  the    country,  in  the  discussion  of 
which  he  has  not  taken  a  prominent  part.     But 
the   one   great   subject    which,   more    than  any 
other,  engrossed  the  attention  of  his  riper  years, 
was  the  education  of  the  industrial  classes.     The 
value  of  a.  good  education  lie  prized  all  the  more 
highly,  because  during  his  youth  his  own  edu- 
cation  had  been  sadly  neglected.     Only  for  a 
single  year  had  he  been  sent  to  school ;  all  the 
varied  knowledge  acquired  by  him  since,  was  the 
fruit  of  laborious  self-education.     As  an  earnest 
friend  of  education,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  development  of   the  public-school  system  of 
the  city  of  New  York,     lie  was  a  trustee  and 
vice-president  of  the  Public  School  Society,  and 
after  this  society  had  been  merged  in  the  Board 
of  Education,    became  a   school   commissioner. 
His  effort  to  improve  the  deficient  education  of 
his  youth,  and  the  high  opinion  which  he  held 
of  the  value  of  education,  early  inspired   him 
with  the  wish  to  found  a  grand  institution  for 
the  gratuitous  instruction,  chiefly  of  the  indus- 
trial classes  of  his  native  city.     "  I  determined,"' 
he  says  himself.  "  if  ever  1  could  acquire  the 
means,  I  would   build  such  an   institution,  as 
woidd  open  its  doors  at  night  with  a  full  course 
of  instruction,   calculated  to  enable  mechanics 
to  understand  both   the  theory  and   the  most 
skillful  practice  of  their  several  trades  ;  so  that 
they  could  not  only  apply  their  labor  to  the  best 
possible  advantage,  but  enjoy  the  happiness  of 
acquiring    useful    knowledge — the    purest   and 
most  innocent  of  all  sources  of  enjoyment.     By 
this  means,  I  hoped  to  contribute  to  the  elevation 
and  the  happiness  of  the  industrial  classes  to 
which  I  belonged.     Finally,  my  plan  also  pro- 
vided for  a  school  of  art  suited  to  the  wants  of 
females,  during  the  day,  with  a  reading  room 
and  library  open  to  both  sexes,  from  eight  o'clock 
in  the  morning  until  ten  o'clock  at  night."    This 
design  was  carried  out  by  the  establishment  of 
the   "Cooper   Union   for   the  advancement  of 
Bcience  and   Art,"  after  the  erection  of  a  mag- 
nificent building  occupying  an  entire  block  be- 
tween  Third  and  Fourth  avenues  ami  Seventh 
and  Eighth  Streets.     The   deed  of  trust  devotes 
the  institution,    with    all    its    rents,  issues,  and 
profits,  to  the  instruction   and  elevation  of  the 
working  classes  of  the  city  of  New  York.     The 
original  cost  of  the  building  when  conveyed  to 
the  trustees  was  $630,000.    The  aggregate  re- 
ceipts, from  the  opening  of   the   institution  in 
L859,to  Jan.  1.,  L875,  amounted  to  $572,291.27, 
of  which  $502,720.69  were  from  rents.  $31,93  1.74 
from   dunations,   and   $37,635.84    from    sundry 


other  sources. 

i he  several  departments  from  L859  to  Is",;), 
were  s:>s;!.s ui.27.  and  the  total  expenditures 
on    building    and    education   to   dan.  1.,  I87f>, 


The  expenditures  for  carrying  on 


$1,213,840.85. 

The  course  of  instruction,  as  indicated  above 
in  the  words  of  the   founder,  has  been  gradually 
and  steadily  developed  ;  and   the  Cooper    Union, 
at  present,  takes  a  high    position   among  the  in- 
dustrial schools  of  thi'  country.    A  thorough  and 
practical  course  of  mathematical  and  scientific 
studies  in  connection  with  all  blanches  of  practi- 
cal  engineering  and    chemistry,   forms   a   cur- 
riculum of  five  veal's,  which  entitles  the  student 
to  the  diploma  and  the  medal  of  the  Cooper 
Union.  This  course  is  pursued  in  classes  of  free 
instruction  given  every  evening  of  the  week,  ex- 
cept Sunday  and  Saturday.  The  course  is  open 
to  both  sexes.   It  is  entirely  free,  as  is  all  the  in- 
struction given  in  every  department  of  this  in- 
stitution.    The  classes  of  the  scientific  depart- 
ment, are  held  in  the  evenings,  when  the  young 
people  who    attend  can  get  freedom    from  the 
daily  occupations  in  which  most  of  them  are  en- 
gaged.    In  all  branches  of  study,  however,  both 
in  the  scientific  and  in  the  art  departments,  a  cer- 
tificate of  proficiency  is  given  to  any  pupil  who 
has  made  a  certain  degree  of   progress  in  any 
special   branch  of  study,  independently  of   the 
diploma  given  for  proper  attainments  made  in 
the  whole  course  of  studies  that  belong  to  the 
curriculum.  The  free  classes  in  art  are  held  both 
in  the  day-time  and  in  the  evening.     The  day 
classes  are  exclusively  for  women,  and  the  young 
men  attend  only  the  evening  classes.     In  these, 
may  be  studied,  under  careful  and  thorough  in- 
struction, all  those  methods  of  construction  and 
design  that  lie  at  the  basis  of  most  of  the  useful 
arts: — Perspective,  mechanical,  and  architectural 
drawing,  drawing  from  cast  and  life,  and  model- 
ing in  clay.     The  practical  application  of  these 
elementary  arts  of  design,  is  not  left  entirely  to 
the  student ;   but  classes  are  organized  also  for 
drawing  and  engraving  on  wood,  and  in  the  vari- 
ous departments  of  photography,  such  as  pen-  and- 
ink  drawings  from  which  negatives  are  taken, 
the  retouching  of    negatives,  and   painting  or 
crayon  drawing  on  positives.    It  is  contemplated 
to  introduce  other  applications  as  soon  as  practi- 
cable, so  as  to  bring  every  department  of  element- 
ary instruction  close  to  the  practical  life  and  re- 
munerative employment  of  each  student,  while 
he  or  she  remains  at  school,  or  immediately  on 
leaving  it.     The  corps  of  instructors,  hi  1K7">, 
numbered  20,  of  whom   3  were  ladies,  and  the 
number  of  pupils  was   2.S7S.  a  greater  number 
than  in  any  previous  year.    The  trades  and  occu- 
pations    most    largely  represented     among     the 

pupils  of  the  Union  were  the  clerks  and  book- 
keepers (369),  machinists  and  iron-workers  (."{(Hi), 
carvers  and  turners  (293),  engravers  and  lithog- 
raphers |2lil).  teachers  and  students  (140).  The 
free  reading  room  was  visited  during  the  year 
1S74  1st.)  I.v  ,"isl,7!)s  persons,  a  daily  average 
of  nearly  2.0011.  In  the  library  there  are  about 
L 6,000   volumes,  and  the   books  drawn  by  the 


182 


COOTE 


COPYING 


readers  numbered  1 29,(»~>r>.  The  board  of  trust- 
ees have  also  established  a  department  of  consul- 
tation to  assist  the  inventors  and  manufacturers 
of  new  processes;  and,  during-  the  year  1*7-4  to 
187"),  more  than  .'!;"><>  persons  applied  for  advice. 
As  the  popular  lecture  is  now  recognized  in 
America  as  a  standing  institution,  the  trustees 
have  provided  that  two  courses  of  lectures,  from 
six  to  twelve  each,  shall  be  annually  given  in  the 
large  hall  of  the  Cooper  Union,  during  the  course 
of  each  six  months,  on  subjects  connected  with 
social  or  physical  science.  -Men  of  a  high  class 
are  selected  as  lecturers,  who  being  distinguished 
in  their  several  departments  and  well-known, 
draw  large  audiences,  fully  taxing  the  capacity 
of  the  hall,  though  it  accommodates  more  than 
2,000  people.  Besides,  there  are  several  smaller 
halls  in  the  building  of  the  Cooper  Union,  in 
which  free  lectures  are  given  by  the  several  pro- 
fessors on  chemistry,  natural  philosophy.  English 
literature,  elocution  and  rhetoric,  art,  and  artistic 
economy. 

COOTE,  Edward,  a  noted  English  teacher, 
and  the  author  of  the  English  School-Master,  one 
of  the  most   famous  of  school-books,  first  pub- 
lished in  London,  in  Mi'_'7.      A  good  idea  of  the 
character  and  contents  of  this  quaint  old  hook 
may  be  obtained    from  the  title-page,  of  which 
the  following  is  a  copy  : 
The 
ENGLISH 
School-Master. 
Teaching  all  liis  Scholars,  of  what    age    so  ever, 
the  most  easy,  short,  and  perfect  order  of 
distinct  Beading,  and  true   Writing 
our  English-tongue,  that  hath 
ever  yet  been  known  or 
published  by  any. 
And  further  also  teacheth  a  direct  course,  how  many 
unskilful   persons   may   easily   both    understand   any 
hard  English  words,  which  they  shall  in  Scriptures, 
Sermons,  or  else-where  hear  or  read;  and  also  be  made 
able  to  use  the  same  aptly  themselves  :  and  generally 
whatsoever  is  necessary  to  be  known  tor  the  English 
speech;  bo  that  he  which  hath  this  book  only  needeth 
to  buy  DO  other  to  make  him  lit  from  his  Letters  to 
the  Grammar-School,  for  an  Apprentice,  or 
any  other  private  ase,  so  far  as  concerneth 
English  :    And  therefore  it  is  made 
not  only  for  *  Children,  though  the 
first  book  be  nicer   childish 
for  them, but  also  (brother) 
especially  for  those  that 
are  ignorant    in  the 
Latin  Tongue. 
In  the  next  page,  the  School- Master  hangeth  forth  his 
Table  to  the  view  of  all  beholders,  setting  forth  some 

oi  the  chief  Commodities  ot  his  profession. 
Devised  for  thy  sake  tint  wantesi   any  part  of  this 
skill;  by  Edward  Ooote,  Master  of  the   Free-School 

in  S:i in t  Edmund's-  Bury. 

Perused  and  approved  by  publick  Authority;   and 

now  tin  10 lime  Imprinted:   with  certain  Copies 

to  write  ''.v.  at  lite  end  of  this  Book,  added. 

Printed  by  A.M.  and  It.  K.  for  the  company  of  Stationers 

IG80. 

The  following  verses, extracted  from  this  hook, 

give  a  picturesque  idea  of  Coote's  mode  of  school 
management  and  discipline  : 

THE  Sr    ,|ii    i|.-\i\  -I  I    i:   10    111-   S(    lit  >1. Alts. 

"  My  child  and  Bcbolar  take  good  heed 
unto  the  worda  that  here  are  set, 

Aid  aee  i hou  do  ■    ■   ly , 

or  else  be  sure  thou  si. ait  b  i  neat. 


First,  I  command  thee  God  to  serve, 

then,  to  thy  parents,  duty  yield  ; 

Unto  all  men  be  courteous, 

and  mannerly,  in  town  and  field. 

Your  cloathe  unbuttoned  do  not  use, 
let  not  your  hose  ungartered  be  ; 

Have  handkerchief  in  readiness, 

wash  hands  and  face,  or  see  not  me. 

Lose  not  your  books,  ink-horns,  or  pens, 
nor  girdle,  garters,  hat  or  baud, 

Let  shoes  l»-  tyed.  pin  shirt-band  dose, 
keep  well  your  hands  at  any  hand. 

If  broken-hosed  or  shoe'd  you  go, 

or  slovenly  in  your  array. 
Without  a  girdle,  or  untrust, 

then  you  and  I  must  have  a  fray. 

If  that  thou  cry,  or  talk  aloud. 

or  books  do  read,  or  strike  with  knife  ; 
Or  laugh,  or  play  unlawfully, 

then  you  and  I  must  be  at  strife. 

If  that  you  curse,  miscall,  or  swear, 

if  that  you  pick,  filch,  steal,  or  lye  ; 

If  you  forget  a  scholar's  part. 

then  must  you  sure  your  points  uutye. 

If  that  to  school  you  do  not  go, 

when  time  doth  call  you  to  the  same  ; 

Or,  if  you  loiter  in  the  streets, 

when  we  do  inert,  then  look  for  blame. 

Wherefore,  my  child,  behave  thyself, 

so  decently,  in  all  assays. 
That  tlem  may's!  purchase  parents'  love, 

and  eke  obtain  thy  master's  praise." 

Sec   !?AK.v\Kn,  /v  I 'm;  it  it  ,,i  i  il  Biography,  8.  t. 
Ezekiel  Gheever. 
COPY-BOOKS.     See  PENMANSHIP. 

COPYING,  in  school  education,  has  several 
applications:  ill  Writing  or  drawing  ley  imita- 
tion from  tin  original,  which  constitutes  an  es- 
sential part  of  primary  instruction,  since  the  eye 
must  be  trained  to  the  observation  of  forms,  as 
well  as  the  hand  to  execute  them.  Hence,  the 
first  lessons  in  writing  largely  consist  in  practic- 
ing the  pupil  in  copying  ( 1 )  the  elements  of  let- 
ters,—  straight  lines,  curves,  etc.;  (2)  letters; 
(3)  words;  and  (4)  sentences.  In  connection  with 
this  copying,  much  incidental  instruction  is 
required,  all  of  which,  however,  is  addressed  to 

the    faculty    of     imitation.      (See     PENMANSHIP.) 

Rudimentary  instruction  in  drawing  must  be  of 
a  similar  character,  beginning  with  lines  in 
various  positions  and  relations  to  each  other. 
then    passing   to  simple    figures,  ami    thence    to 

more  complex  forms ;  but.  in  till  these,  it  is  the 
eve  that  must  be  trained  through  the  faculty  of 
imitation,  simultaneously  with  the  gradual  ac- 
quisition of  manual  skill  by  means  of  constant 
practice.     (See  Dr  \\\  ing.) 

(II)  The  copying,  from  1 ks,  of  selected  pas- 
sages in  prose  and  poetry  is  a  very  useful  exer- 
cise, if  properly  and  systematically  performed. 
Of  course,  this  belongs  to  a  later  stag.'  of  ele- 
mentary instruction,  that  is.  after  the  pupil  has 
learned  to  write  with  some  degree  of  facility: 
and.  when  the  utmost  accuracy  is  insisted  upon, 
it  will  be  found  an  effective  means  of  imparting 
habits  of  correct  spelling,  punctuation,  and  the 

use  of  capital  letters:  and  will   also  have  a  very 

beneficial  effect  upon  the  pupil's  style,  impressing 

upon  his  memory  a  great  variety  of  words  and 
phrases,  and  thus  aiding  him  to  acquire  fluency 

and    accuracy    of    expression.      It    was    on    this 

principle  that  Demosthenes  copied  the  history  of 


fORPERTUS 


CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


183 


Thucydides  so  many  times ;  since  he  desired  to 
■catch  the  style  of  composition  peculiar  to  that 
it  writer.  What  is  particularly  necessary  in 
the  use  of  language,  both  oral  and  written,  is 
practice;  and,  without  superseding  exercises  in 
dictation  and  composition,  both  of  which  are  in- 
dispensable, copying,  as  here  described,  should 
be  treated  as  an  essential  part  of  the  school 
work. 

(Ill)  The  term  copying  is  also  applied  to  the 
reprehensible  practice,  often  found  to  exist  in 
classes  and  schools  that  are  imperfectly  disci- 
plined, of  one  pupil's  transcribing  by  stealth 
what  has  been  written  by  another.  Weak  or 
idle  pupils  will,  if  they  are  permitted,  in  this 
way  avail  themselves  of  the  work  of  their  neigh- 
bors, thus  failing  to  receive  the  benefits  of  the 
instruction  given  to  the  class,  and.  at  the  same 
time,  deceiving  the  teacher.  The  effects  of  this 
practice  are.  therefore,  bad  intellectually  and 
morally,  and  all  necessary  vigilance  should  be 
ezercis  sdby  the  teacher  to  prevent  or  suppress  it. 

CORDERIUS.  Mathurin  (/•>.  Cordier), 
a  celebrated  Protestant  school-teacher,  born  in 
France,  in  1471),  and  died  in  1504.  One  of  his 
most  distinguished  pupils  was  Calvin,  who  ded- 
icated to  him  one  of  his  works.  He  published 
several  text-books  for  schools,  among  which  the 
best  known  is  CoUoquia  Sckolastica  (Scholastic 
Colloi»ii 'si,  published  in  1564.  This  work  was 
long  and  extensively  used  in  giving  instruction 
in  the  Latin  language  ;  and,  indeed,  is  one  of  the 
most  noted  school-books  ever  published. 

CORNELL  COLLEGE,  at  Mount  Vernon, 
Iowa,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  founded  in  1857  for  the  edu- 
cation of  both  sexes.  The  institution  has  three 
spacious  buildings.  The  college  campus,  em- 
bracing about  twenty  acres,  is  beautifully  de- 
signed by  nature,  and  commands  one  of  the 
finest  prospects  in  the  country.  The  college  pos- 
sesses one  of  the  largest  and  best  collections  of 
minerals  and  fossils  in  the  AVest,  a  chemical 
laboratory,  and  a  library  of  over  4,000  volumes. 
The  college  property  is  valued  at  $65,000,  and 
the  productive  funds  amount  to  $40,000.  Free 
tuition  is  given  in  the  preparatory  and  collegiate 
departments  to  disabled  soldiers  and  orphans  of 
soldiers.  Five  scholarships,  endowed  with  $500 
each,  have  been  founded  for  the  purpose  of  edu- 
cating destitute  young  men  preparing  for  the 
ministry.  The  beneficiaries  are  exempt  from  all 
charges  of  tuition  and  incidental  fees.  There 
are  a  preparatory  department,  with  classical  and 
scientific  courses,  and  a  collegiate  department, 
with  a  classical  course,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts;  a  scientific  course,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science;  and  a  civil 
engineering  course,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Civil  Engineering.  The  young  men 
are  required  to  practice  military  drill  under  an 
officer  of  the  army  detailed  by  the  secretary  of 
war  as  professor  of  military  science  and  tactics  ; 
a  system  of  light  gymnastics  has  been  provided 
for  the  young  women.  In  1873 — 4.  there  were 
25  instructors,  and  405  preparatory  and  54  col- 


legiate students.  The  Rev.  Win.  F.  King,P.  D., 
is  ( 1 876)  the  president. 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY,  at  Ithaca, 
N.  Y..  was  chartered  in  1865,  and  opened  in 
L868.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  Ezra  Cornell, 
of  Ithaca,  who  gave  for  its  establishment  $500,000 
and  over  200  acres  of  land,  to  be  used  as  a  farm 
and  as  a  site  for  the  university  buildings.  He 
has  since  made  other  donations  amounting  to 
Several  hundred  thousand  dollars.  The  state  trans- 
ferred to  the  university  its  agricultural  land-scrip, 
granted  by  Congress,  representing  D'.Mi.oon  acres, 
the  proceeds  to  form  an  endowment  for  general 
and  industrial  science  and  art.  The  grounds  lie 
a  short  distance  east  of  the  village,  nearly  400 
feet  above  Cayuga  Lake,  and  command  a  splen- 
did view.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  South 
Budding,  North  Bunding,  McGraw  Budding, 
Sibley  College,  laboratory  Building,  Cascadilla 
Place,  University  Chapel,  and  Sage  College  for 
women  (the  gift  of  Henry  W.  Sage,  of  Brook- 
lyn), who  by  the  action  of  the  trustees,  in  1872, 
are  admitted  to  the  university  on  the  same  terms 
and  conditions  as  men.  The  value  of  the  build- 
ings, grounds,  and  apparatus  is  $700,000;  the 
amount  of  productive  funds,  $1,153,999.  The 
yearly  income  is  $107,500.  State  students  to 
the  number  of  1 28  (one  from  each  assembly  dis- 
trict of  New  York)  may  be  admitted  each  year. 
These  state  students  are  selected,  by  yearly  com- 
petitive examinations,  from  the  various  public 
schools  and  academies  maintained  by  the  people 
of  New  York.  For  state  students,  for  students 
in  agriculture,  and  for  all  resident  graduates  pur- 
suing post-graduate  courses,  there  is  no  charge 
for  tuition  or  for  the  use  of  the  library  and  col- 
lections; but  for  all  others  the  tuition  fee  is  $20 
a  term,  or  SfiO  a  year.  Some  of  the  students  sup- 
port themselves  wholly,  or  in  part,  while  pursuing 
their  studies,  by  laboring  on  the  farm,  in  the 
machine-shops,  or  in  the  printing  establishment, 
for  which  they  receive  from  the  university  the 
usual  rate  of  wages.  Skilled  labor  is  mostly  in 
demand. 

The  points  in  which  this  university  differs  from 
most  of  the  other  institutions  of  learning  in  the 
United  States  may  be  summed  up,  in  brief,  as 
follows:  (1)  The  addition  to  the  ordinary  govern- 
ing faculty  of  non-resident  professors  and  lec- 
turers, some  of  whom  deliver  each  year  courses 
of  lectures  upon  subjects  in  the  investigation  of 
which  they  have  acquired  a  high  reputation; 
(2)  Liberty  in  the  choice  of  studies ;  (3)  The 
prominence  given  to  studies  which  are  practically 
useful  ;  (4)  The  absence  of  a  marking  system 
determining  the  relative  rank  of  each  student  in 
his  class;  (5)  The  non-sectarian  character  of  the 
institution. 

The  instruction  is  comprised  in  four  great 
divisions  :  general  courses,  optional  courses,  spe- 
cial courses,  and  post-graduate  courses.  The 
general  courses  are  four  in  number,  namely:  in 
arts,  in  literature,  in  science,  in  philosophy.  The 
course  in  arts,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts,  extends  through  four  years.  It  includes 
the  Greek  and  latin  languages,  and  is  similar  to 


184 


CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


the  usual  academic  course  in  the  other  colleges 
and  universities  of  the  United  States.  During  the 
first  year,  no  option  is  allowed  in  the  choice  of 

studies.  Iii  the  second  year,  everything  is  op- 
tional, except  Greek,  Latin,  and  the  exercises  in 
elocution  and  rhetoric.  During  the  third  and 
fourth  years,  everything  is  optional,  except  the 
studies 'in  the  departments  of  philosophy  and 
letters.  During  the  first  and  second  years,  Lit  in 
and  <  rreet  are  required  four  times  a  week  each  : 
and  after  that  they  may  be  pursued  through  the 
two  remaining  years  so  as  to  occupy  twelve  out 
of  the  fifteen  hours  of  recitation  per  week.  The 
course  iu  literature,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Literature,  extends  through  four 
years.  It  differs  from  the  course  in  arts  in  re- 
quiring no  Greek,  and  is  characterized  by  a  lar- 
ger amount  of  attention  to  the  modern  languages 
and  English  literature.  The  course  in  science, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science,  ex- 
tends'through  four  years,  and  includes  five  hours 
a  week,during  the  last  year,devoted  to  someone 
science  as  a  specialty.  Its  peculiar  features  are 
the  study  of  mathematics,  of  the  French  and 
German  languages,  and  of  the  historical,  phys- 
ical, moral,  and  political  sciences.  The  course  ill 
philosophy,  also  of  four  years,  is  designed  to  be  a 
scientific  course  of  a  higher  grade  than  the  pre- 
ceding.    Latin  is  required  for  admission,  as  in 

the  courses   in   arts  and    literature.      It    leads  to 

the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Philosophy.   Optional 

courses  are  those  which  the  student  may  & 
for  himself.  In  do  course  is  it  necessary,  for 
the  attainment  of  a  degree,  that  the  studies 
should  be  followed  exactly  in  the  prescribed  or- 
der; and,  in  the  general  courses,  equivalents  are 
accepted,  in  some  cases,  for  the  studies  indi- 
cated, provided  they  are  of  the  same  general 
character.  The  special  courses  differ  from  the 
general  courses,  not  only  in  the  studies  which 
they  include, but  also  in  the  important  fact,  that 

while  the  general  courses  have  chiefly  in  vi  « 

the  culture  of  the  mind,  the  special  courses  aim 
rather  to  tit  students  more  immediately  for  some 
oik'  of  the  departments  of  productive  industry. 
There    are   eleven    special    courses:     namely,   (I) 

agriculture,  with  a  full  course  of  four  years. 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Agriculture; 

'J  i  architecture,  with  a  full  course  of    four  years. 

Leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Architecture: 
(3)  chemistry  and  physics:  il)  civil  engineer- 
ing, with  a  full  course  of  four  years,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Civil  Engineering; 
(5)  history  and  political  science:  (6)  languages, 
uprising  three  schools  of  the  ancient  lan- 
guages, oi  living  Asiatic  and  oriental  languages, 
and  of  modern  languages;  (7)  mathematics  and 
astronomy;  (8)  mechanic  arts,  with  a  full  course 
of  four  years,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Mechanical  Engineering;  (9]  military  science: 

(10)    natural    history,    comprising    the  school   of 

botany,  the  scl 1  of  geologj  and  palaeontology, 

and  the  school  of  zoologj  ;  (11)  philosophy  and 

letters,  with  a  school  of    philosophy  and  a  school 

of  letters,  the  latter  having  a  department  of 
Anglo-Saxon  and  English  literature,  and  a  de- 


partment of  rhetoric  and  general  literature.     No 
regular  post-graduate  courses  have  been  arranged. 
The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Veterinary  Science  is 
conferred  on  students  who  pursue  a  four  years' 
course  in  that  study  in  the  agricultural  depart- 
ment.   The  advanced  degrees  of  Master  of  Arts. 
Master  of  Science,  Doctor  of  Philosophy.  Civil 
Engineer,   Doctor  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  and 
Architect,  are  conferred  on  holders  of  correspond- 
ing graduate  degrees  upon  fulfilling  certain  pre- 
scribed conditions,  and  passing  an  examination. 
The  general  faculty  is   divided  into  13  special 
faculties.     The  special  faculties  are  those  of  (1) 
agriculture,  (2)  architecture,  (3)  chemistry  and 
physics,  (4)  civil  engineering.  (5)  history  and  po- 
litical science,  (6)  ancient  and  Asiatic  languages, 
(7)  North  European  languages,  i1-1  South  Euro- 
pean languages,  (9)  mathematics.  (10)   the  me- 
chanic  arts,  (il)  military  science, (12)  philosophy 
and   letters,   (13)    natural    history.      There   are 
professorships  of  history:  South  European  lan- 
guages; moral  and  intellectual  philosophy:  North 
European  languages;  agricultural  chemistry:  com- 
parative anatomy  and   zoology;    English  litera- 
ture (non-resident);    English  history  (non-resi- 
dent); veterinary  medicine  and  surgery:  constitu- 
tional law  (non-resident);  general,  economic,  and 
agricultural  geology;   botany,   horticulture,  and 
arboriculture;  mechanical  engineering  and  ma- 
chine construction:  mechanics  applied  to  agri- 
culture (non-resident):  analytical  chemistry  and 
mineralogy;   German  literature   (non-resident); 
organic  cnemistry  and  chemistry  applied  to  man- 
ufactures  (non-resident);     Latin   language   and 
literature:  <  '<  reek  language  and  literature:  rhet- 
oric and  general  literature:  architecture;  Amer- 
ican  history   I  non-resident  |  :     Anglo-Saxon    and 
English  literature;    physics  and  experimental 
mechanics;  military  science  and  tactics:  Span- 
ish  and    Italian:    mathematics;    civil    engineer- 
ing:  living  Asiatic  languages:   agriculture:   and 
I  lebrew  and  oriental  literature  and  history  (non- 
resident).     In    L875 — 6,  there  were   23   resident 
and  8  non-resident  professors.  12  assistant  profes- 
sors, and    L0   instructors.    The  following  is  a 
summary    of    the    students   for   that    year:     In 
science  L9  I.  literature  45,  philosophy  IT.  arts  43, 
agriculture  1 7.  architecture  32,  chemistry  D3,  en- 
gineering 82,  mechanic  arts  56,  natural   history 
17,  resident  graduates  12.     In  the  fourth  year, 
or  senior  studies,  there  were  81, in  junior  studies 
110.   in    sophomore    studies    135,    in    freshman 
studies  154.    Total,  deducting  repetitions,  531. 
At  the  commencement  in  1874,  7-_'  degrees  were 
conferred,  namely:  B.  A..  I  ;  B.  Lit..  I  ;  B.  Ph., 
3;   B.  S..  30;   B.  Agr.,  2;  B.  Arch..  6;   It.  0.  B., 
L5;    B.  M.  E.,  1  :    M.S..  "J:  C.  E.,  4;   Ph.  D..  1; 
in  L875  the  number  of  graduates  was  52.    The 
whole  number  of  alumni  at  the  latter  date  was 

:t.V_\       The  university    library    contains      17,000 

volumes.  The  museums  comprise  valuable  col- 
lections in  the  departments  of  agriculture,  archi- 
tecture botany,  geology  and  mineralogy,  mili- 
tary science,  zoology  and  physiology,  and  in  the 
fine  arts.  Male  candidates  for  admission  must 
be  at  leasl  sixteen,  females  seventeen  year-  oi 


CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT 


185 


Bge,  and  must  pass  a.  thoroughly  satisfactory  ex- 
amination in  the  following  subjects  :  (1)  geogra- 
phy. ■-!  English  grammar,  including  orthogra- 
phy and  syntax,  (3)  arithmetic,  and  (4)  algebra 
through  quadratic  equations.  This  general  ex- 
amination will  admit  them  to  the  university  as 
optional  students,  or  as  students  in  the  special 
courses  of  agriculture,  chemistry,  and  physics. 
For  other  courses  there  are  some  additional  re- 
quirements. Andrew  D.  White,  LL.D.,  has  been 
the  president  of  the  university  since  its  opening. 
CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT,  or  the  in- 
fliction of  physical  pain  as  a  means  of  discipline 
in  the  education  of  children,  has  the  sanction  of 
high  authority  and  time-honored  example;  but 
in  recent  times  has  fallen  considerably  into  dis- 
repute and  disuse.  Its  necessity  and  propriety 
have  been  much  discussed;  and  there  are,  prob- 
ably, but  few  subjects  in  connection  with  prac- 
tical education  upon  which  more  diverse  opinions 
are  entertained  :  some  contending  that  a  resort 
to  corporal  punishment,  in  families  and  schools, 
is  legitimate  and  necessary,  others,  that  it  is  a 
"relic  of  barbarism,"  and  should  never  be  em- 
ployed, but  that  children  can  be,  and  always 
should  be,  governed  by  the  use  of  "moral  sua- 
sion,"— an  appeal  to  their  reason,  their  sensibil- 
ities, and  their  sense  of  right.  Anciently,  the 
propriety  of  this  mode  of  educational  coercion 
seems  to  have  been  scarcely  questioned.  Sol- 
omon is  emphatic  in  his  approval  of  it,  in  proof 
of  which  the  following  citations  from  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  are  often  used  : 

•  "He  that  spareth  his  rod  hateth  liis  son;  but  lie 

that  loveth  him,  chasteneth  him  betimes." — xm,  24. 

"Foolishness  is  bound  in  the  heart  of  a  child ;  but 

the  rod  of  correction  shall  drive  it  far  from  him." — 

XXII,  15. 

"  Withhold  not  correction  from  the  child;  for  if  thou 
beatest  him  with  a  rod,  lie  shall  not  die.  Thou  slialt 
beat  him  with  a  rod,  and  shalt  deliver  his  soul  from 
hell."— xxiii,  13,  14. 

"Correct  thy  son  and  he  shall  give  thee  rest,  yea, 
he  shall  give  delight  unto  thy  soul." — xxix,  17. 

"Whom  the  Lord  loveth  he  correcteth ;  even  as  a 
father  the  son  in  whom  he  delighteth." — m,  12. 

"  Chasten  thy  sou  while  there  is  hope,  and  let  not 
thy  soul  spare  for  his  crying." — xix,  18. 

"  The  rod  and  reproof  give  wisdom ;  but  a  child  left 
to  himself  bringeth  his  mother  to  shame." — xxix,  15. 

Whether  the  practice  enjoined  in  these  scrip- 
tural texts  is  to  be  considered  as  sanctioned 
thereby  or  not,  its  existence,  if  not  its  usefulness 
and  necessity,  has  been  recognized  at  all  times 
and  in  all  countries.  Horace  refers  to  it  when 
he  says,  "Memini  [carmina]  quce  plagosum  mihi 
parvo  Orbilium  didare"  (1  remember  the  verses 
which  Orbilius,  my  flogging  (or  feruling)  school- 
master, used  to  dictate  to  ine,  when  a  boy). 
Juvenal  speaks  of  this  school  discipline  as  a 
matter  of  course:  El  nos  ergo  manum  ferulce 
mbdtucimus;  or,  as  translate!  1  by  Badham, 

"And  we  ourselves  .nice  snatch'd  the  hand  away 
From  prone  descending  rod,  as  well  as  they." 

St.  Paul  speaks  in  a  similar  manner  of  the  use 
of  the  rod  as  a  means  of  family  discipline  : 
'•  Whom  the  Lord  loveth  he  chasteneth,  and 
seourgeth  every  son  whom  he  receiveth  ;"  and 
again,  -  God  dealeth  with  you  as  with  sons ;   for 


what  son  is  lie  whom  the  father  chasteneth  not?" 
(Hebrews,  xii,  6,  7.)  St.  Augustine  says,  in  his. 
Confessions, "  Discipline  is  needful  to  overcome 

our  puerile  sloth,  and  this  also  is  a  part  of  tliy 
government  over  thy  creatures,  0  God,  for  the 
purpose  of  restraining  our  sinful  impetuosity. 
Prom  the  ferules  of  masters  to  the  trials  of  mar- 
tyrs, thy  wholesome  severities  may  be  traced." 
Mehmclithon  confessed  that  his  teacher  made  him 
learn  by  using  the  rod.  {Nihil  patiebatur  me 
omiitere;  quoties  errabam  dabat  plagas  mihi.) 
And  he  remarks.  "  Thus  he  made  me  a  gramma- 
rian. 1  le  was  the  best  of  men  ;  he  loved  me  like 
a  son,  and  I  loved  him  like  a  father,  and  I  hope 
we  shall  both  meet  in  heaven."  Dr.  Johnson 
uniformly  testified  in  favor  of  corporal  punish- 
ment in  schools.  To  Langton  he  said  on  one  oc- 
casion," My  master  whipped  me  very  well;  with- 
out that,  sir,  1  should  have  done  nothing.-'  Gold- 
smith said,  "  It  is  very  probable  that  parents  are 
told  of  some  masters  who  never  use  the  rod,  and 
are,  consequently,  thought  the  properest  instruct- 
ors for  their  el  li  Id  ten  ;  but,  though  tenderness  is 
a  requisite  quality  in  an  instructor,  yet  there  is 
often  the  truest  tenderness  in  well-timed  correc- 
tion." Ooleridg  •  s  iys,  "  I  had  r.^e  just  flogging;'' 
the  cause  being  that  he  told  his  preceptor,  that 
he  "hated  the  thought  of  being  a  clergyman,"  be- 
cause he  was  an  infidel.  "For  this,"  says  he, 
"Bowyer  flogged  me,  —  wisely,  as  I  think, — 
soundly,  as  I  know.  Any  whining  and  sermon- 
izing would  have  gratified  my  vanity,  and  con- 
firmed me  in  my  absurdity."  (See  Coleridge's 
Table  T<dJi.)  Locke,  who  was  very  much  averse 
to  the  use  of  the  rod,  both  in  families  and  schools, 
says,  "  There  is  one,  and  but  one,  fault  for  which 
I  think  children  should  be  beaten  ;  and  that  is. 
obstinacy  or  rebellion.  And  in  this,  too,  I  would 
have  it  ordered  so,  if  it  can  be,  that  the  shame  of 
the  whipping,  and  not  the  pain,  should  be  the 
greatest  part  of  the  punishment." 

Nothing,  however,  has  been  so  grievously  and 
shockingly  abused  by  parents  and  teachers  as 
corporal  punishment,  in  all  its  various  and  loath- 
some forms, — flogging,  flagellation,  caning,  whip- 
ping, scourging,  beating  with  birch  twigs,  thongs, 
the  ferule  (a  flat  piece  of  wood,  generally  with  a 
hole  in  the  broad  part),  etc.,  etc.  When  the  vile 
and  unnecessary  cruelties  perpetrated  upon  chil- 
dren by  these  various  instruments  are  considered,, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  corporal  punishment  ap- 
pears to  many  persons  altogether  revolting, — a 
thing  to  be  banished  forever.  Montaigne  says, 
'•  Do  but  come  in  when  the  youths  are  about 
their  lesson,  and  you  shall  hear  nothing  but  the 
outcries  of  boys  under  execution,  and  the  thun- 
dering of  pedagogues  drunk  with  fury;"  and 
again,  "  I  Tow  much  more  decent  would  it  be  to 
see  their  classes  strewed  with  leaves  and  flowers, 
than  with  bloody  stumps  of  birch  !"  It  is  a  sad 
fact  that,  in  whatever  countries  the  rod  has  been 
used.it  has  degenerated  into  an  instrument  of 
cruelty  and  torture.  Says  Cooper,  in  The  Jfis- 
tory  of  the  Rod,  ■■  It  is  recorded  of  a  Suabian 
school-master  that,  during  his  fifty-one  years' 
Superintendence  of  a   large  school,  he  had  given 


186 


CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT 


911,500  canings,  121,000  floggings,  209,000  cus- 
todes,  130,000  tips  with  the  ruler,  and  10,200 
boxes  on  the  ear.  It  was  further  calculated  that 
he  had  made  700  boys  stand  barefooted  on  peas, 

6,l)0<)  kneel  on  a  sharp  edge  of  w 1.  5,000  wear 

the  fool's-cap,  and  1.700  hold  the  rod."  Girls  as 
well  as  boys,  and  even  young  women,  in  schools 
of  high  repute  and  attended  by  the  children  of 
people  of  rank  and  fashion,  it  was  once  the 
custom  to  subject  to  the  most  disgraceful  and 
indecent  flagellation.  In  a  poem  entitled  The 
Terrors  of  the  Rod,  published  in  L815,  the  whole 
scene  is  depicted. 

"  Thi:  governess  now  takes  her  stand, 
The  birchen  scepter  in  her  hand: 
With  lofty  air.  inspiring  awe, 
Ami  upraised  arm  to  inforce  the  law. 
She  shakes  the  whistling  twigs,  and  then, 
Whip — whip— whip — whip — indicts  the  pain  : 
Mow  pauses     while  miss  roars  aloud 
Sad  warnings  to  the  little  crowd — 
Crying,  'Ohl  dear  ma  am.  pray  give  o'er, 
I  never  will  do  so  no  more.' " 

On  such  occasions,  it  seems  to  have  been  in- 
sisted that  the  other  children  should  be  witnesses 
of  the  pain  and  disgrace  of  their  fellow-pupil. 
Thus  Shcnst one  in  The  Schoolmistress,  describ- 
ing such  a  scene,  says, 

•■ Brandishing  the  rod,  she  doth  begin 

To  loose  the  brogues,  the  stripling's  late  delight! 
And  down  they  drop,  appears  his  dainty  skin, 
Fair  as  the  furrj  coat  "I  whitest  ermilin." 

I  Jut  the  most  touching  incident  of  the  affair  is 
the  presence  of  the  offender's  sister. 

"0  ruthful  scenel  when  from  a  nook  obscure, 
His  little  sister  doth  his  peril  see." 

And  as  the  punishment  proceeds,  the  sym- 
pathies of  the  little  girl  are  painfully  excited. 

"No  longer  can  she  now  her  shrieks  command. 
And  hardly  she  forbears,  through  awful  fear, 
To  rusheii  forth,  and,  with  presumptuous  haud, 
To  stay  harsh  justice  in  its  mid  career." 

The  "  horsing."  as  it  was  called,  that  is,  the 
mounting  of  the  boy  to  be  punished  on  the  back 
of  another  boy,  was  a  practice  that  must  have 
debased  and  hardened  all  concerned.  In  the 
Sjurtnh))'  (No.  L68),the  master  of  Eton  School 
at  that  time  is  described  as  a  brutal  tyrant. 
"  Many  a  white  and  tender  hand,"  says  the 
writer,  "which  the  fond  mother  had  passionately 
kissed  a  thousand  and  a  thousand  times,  have  I 
Been  whipped  until  it  was  covered  with  blood; 

fierhaps  for  smiling,  or  for  going  a  yard  and  a 
lalf  out    of  a   gate,  or   for  writing  an  o  for  an  </, 

or  an  a  for  an  o."  Dr.  Johnson,  although  an 
advocate  of  judicious  corporal  punishment,  had 
been  the  victim  of  ite  abuse.    "  The  master,"  he 

said,  "was  severe,  and  wrong-headedly  severe,  I  fe 
used  to  heat  us  uiiinercitnll\  :  and  he  did  not 
distinguish  between  ignorance  and  negligence; 
for  he  would  heat  a  boy  equally  for  D01  knowing 
a  thing  as  for  neglecting  to  learn  it.  For  in- 
stance, lie  would  call  a  boy  up.  and  ask   him    the 

latin  for  candlestick,  which  the  boy  could  not 

expect    to   be  asked.      Now.  sir,  if  a    hoy  could 

answer  every  question,  there  would  be  no  Deed 

of  a    master   to   teach   him."     So   necessary   was 

the  rod  deemed,  that  it  was  made  an  instrument 
of  vicarious  punishment  in  the  case  of  princes; 
for  whose  offenses  other  lads,  called  whipping- 


boys,  were  made  to  suffer.  Of  this  numerous 
instances  are  sometimes  cited.  Plutarch  gives 
one  in  speaking  of  his  tutor  Ammonius.  "  Our 
master."  says  he,  "  having  one  day  observed  that 
we  had  indulged  ourselves  too  luxuriously  at 
dinner, at  his  afternoon  lecture, ordered  hisfreed- 
man  to  give  his  own  son  the  discipline  of  the 
whip  in  our  presence :  signifying,  at  the  same 
time,  that  he  suffered  this  punishment  because 
lie  could  not  eat  his  victuals  without  sauce.  The 
philosopher  all  the  while  had  his  eye  upon  us, 
and  we  knew  well  for  whom  this  example  of 
punishment  was  intended."  Langhome,  in  the 
Life  of  Plutarch,  commenting  upon  this  in- 
cident, remarks.  "  This  mode  of  punishment  in 
our  public  schools,  is  one  of  the  worst  remains  of 
barbarism  that  prevails  among  us." 

Dr.  Cotton  .Mather,  in  his  elegy  on  "  Master 
Ezekiel  Oheever"  (see  Cueevkr),  refers  thus  to 
the  severities  of  teachers  in  his  time  : 

••Tenuis.  Be  strict ;  But  yet  be  Gentle  too: 

Don't  l>,\  fierce  Cruelties  fair  Hopes  undoe. 

I  'nam  not,  that  they  who  are  to  Learning  slow, 

Will  mend  bj  Arguments  in  I'irio. 

Who  keeps  the  Golden  Fleece,  Oh,  let  him  not 
A.  Dragon  be,  tho'  he  tiara  Tongues  have  got. 
Why  can  you  not  to  Learning  find  the  way, 
But  thro'  the  Province  of  Severia  t 
'Twas  Moderates, who  taught  Origen  ; 
\  Youth  which  pro  v.  1  one  of  the  best  of  men. 
The  Lads  with  Honour  first,  and  Reason  Bale; 
Blowes  are  but  for  the  Refractory  Fool." 

The  abuses  referred  to,  and  especially  the 
strong  tendency  to  cruelty  and  excess  in  the  in- 
fliction of  corporal  punishment,  have  led  to  the. 
most  earnest  and  emphatic  denunciation  of  it  in 
every  form,  and  the  advocacy  of  its  total  aboli- 
tion. In  some  places,  all  resort  to  this  kind  of 
discipline  is  strictly  prohibited,  and  expulsion 
substituted  in  its  place.  The  opinions  of  educa- 
tors in  regard  to  the  expediency  of  this  measure 
are  very  diverse.  Lyman  Cobb,  an  extreme  and 
enthusiastic  advocate  of  exclusive  moral  suasion, 
expresses  the  sentiment  of  probably  the  entire 
class  of  thinkers  to  which  he  belonged.  "I  con- 
scientiously believe  thai  corporal  punishment,  as 
a  means  of  moral  discipline,  is  adverse  to  the 
proper, full,  and  happy  development  of  the  social, 
moral,  religious,  and  intellectual  character  of 
those  who  are  flogged  ;  and  beca use.  also,  I  be- 
lieve it  has  a  degrading  and  hardening  influence 
on  those  who  receive  it,  and  on  those  who  inflict 

it."      Here,  it  will  be  perceived,  the  argument  is 

twofold,  (I)  Corporal  punishment  is  hurtful  and 

degrading  to  those  who  receive  it  ;  (2)  It  de- 
grades and  hardens  the  sensibilities  of  those  who 
inflict  it.  The  lirst  proposition  cannot  be  main- 
tained as  generally  true:  since  there  are  in- 
numerable examples  to  prove  that  those  who 
have  been  habitually  .subjected  to  the  severest 
discipline  of  this  kind  in  their  youth,  have  grown 
up  to  be  men  of  the  highest  character  for  talent, 

benevolence,  and  worth.  (Sec  Busby.)  The 
eases  of  Johnson,  I  'oleridge.  etc.,  already  referred 
to,  are   instances  of   this.     The   .second    point  of 

the  argument  would  seem  to  be  pretty  well 
established  by  the -history  of  the  rod;"  since 

we  see  persons  who  have  been  accustomed  to  in- 
flict pain  upon  others  in  this  way  become  harsh, 


CORPORA  I.  PCMSHMKNT 


187 


tyrannical,  and  unfeeling.  At  any  rate,  if  this 
is  not  the  invariable  rcsult.it  appears  to  be  quite 
generally  the  effect  of  an  habitual  administration 

of  this  kind  of  discipline.  (Jeorge  IS.  Knicrson 
says, "  The  great  objection  to  corporal  punish- 
ment is  the  fact  that  it  excites  angry  passions. 
not  only  in  the  child,  but  in  the  master,  and 
more  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former.  My  own 
experience  teaches  me  that  the  effect  is  almost 
necessarily  bad  on  the  individual  who  inflicts  the 
pain.  It  excites  a  horrible  feeling  in  him — a 
reeling  which  we  might  conceive  to  belong  to 
evil  spirits."  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  how- 
ever, that  school-masters,  in  the  past,  were  en- 
trusted with  an  almost  unlimited  authority  and 
power  over  their  pupils;  and  few  persons  are  so 
constituted  as  to  be  able  to  exeereise  any  such 
p  >wer  for  a  long  period,  without  greatly  abusing 
it.  At  the  present  time,  no  such  authority  ex- 
ists; and  neither  public  opinion  nor  the  law 
would  permit  teachers  to  commit  with  impunity 
the  barbarities  charged  upon  them  in  former 
times.  Very  many,  perhaps  nearly  all.  of  the 
arguments  against  corporal  punishment  maybe 
shown  to  be  objections  to  its  abuse  rather  than 
to  its  legitimate  use.  Thus.it  is  stated  that  the 
punishment  is  often  inflicted  in  anger,  that  it  is 
frequently  excessive,  sometimes  administer.  1 
without  proper  care  and  discrimination, or  in  an 
improper  manner,  or  with  unsuitable  instru- 
ments. All  this  is  true  :  and,  perhaps,  it  may 
be  truthfully  alleged,  that  where  corporal  punish- 
ment is  permitted  at  all,  these  abuses  are,  to 
some  extent,  unavoidable.  The  only  questions, 
however,  to  be  discussed  are,  Is  corporal  punish- 
ment ever  necessary  as  a  means  of  discipline ; 
and.  if  necessary,  in  what  cases,  and  under  what 
restrictions,  should  it  be  permitted  ?  The  first 
question  being  decided  in  the  negative,  the  sec- 
ond would,  of  course,  be  disposed  of  ;  since  noth- 
ing but  necessity  can  justify  the  infliction  of 
physical  pain  upon  others.  Nor  does  the  show- 
ing that  corporal  punishment  is  useful  as  a 
]  an  >mpt  and  expeditious  mode  of  punishing  the 
offenses  of  children  prove  its  necessity ;  all  will 
admit  that  its  concomitants  and  tendencies  are, 
in  many  respects,  so  much  to  be  avoided,  that 
any  other  effectual  mode  of  discipline  is  to  be 
preferred.  In  judging  of  its  necessity,  we  are  to 
consider  il)  the  nature  of  the  child  to  be  gov- 
erned, (2)  the  circumstances  under  which  school 
or  family  discipline  is  to  be  carried  on,  and  (3) 
the  agents  by  whom  the  child  is  to  be  instructed 
ami  controlled.  All  sentimentalism  is,  of  course, 
to  be  eliminated,  ami  the  facts  of  experience 
alone  are  to  be  appealed  to.  We  must  take 
human  nature  as  it  is,  and  not  as  we  would  wish 
it  to  be.  We  must  consider  the  selfishness,  will- 
fulness, idleness,  and  spirit  of  mischief  that  must 
be  controlled  or  exorcised  before  instruction  can 
accomplish  its  purpose;  and  before  concluding 
that  corporal  punishment  is  never  necessary,  we 
must  be  prepare  1  to  say.  that,  under  all  circum- 
stances, and  with  all  available  instrumentalities. 
this  control  can  be  effected  without  any  appeal 
to  physical  coercion.     Are  there  not  children  so 


self-willed,  so  bent  upon  mischief,  so  determin- 
edly wayward,  and  at  the  same  time  so  devoid 
of  sensibility  or  moral  sense,  that  there  is  no 
way  of  controlling  them  except  through  the  fear 
of  bodily  pain?  Most  educators  say,  from  their 
own  experience,  that  there  are.  The  average 
nature  of  children  is  of  this  character,  though 
varying  in  degree.  They  are  ruled  by  their  pro- 
pensities, while  the  elements  of  moral  restraint 
are  undeveloped,  and  hence  inoperative.  Says 
Dr.  Dwight.  "  The  parents' will  is  the  only  law 
to  the  child;  yet,  being  steadily  regulated  by 
parental  affection,  is  probably  more  moderate. 
equitable,  and  pleasing  to  him.  than  any  other 
human  government,  to  any  other  subject.  It  re- 
sembles the  divine  government  more  than  any 
other.  Correction  which  is  sometimes  considered 
the  whole  of  government,  is  usually  the  least 
part  of  it,  a  part  indispensable  indeed,  and  some- 
times efficacious,  when  all  others  have  failed." 
.John  Locke,  an  enemy  to  corporal  punishment, 
admits  that  sometimes  children  are  so  obstinate, 
that  they  can  be  subdued  by  no  other  means. 
Mrs.  WiHard,  for  many  years  principal  of  the 
Troy  Female  Seminary,  said  in  1847.  "I  believe 
that  corporal  punishment  should  always  be  re- 
ported to  as  soon  as  other  modes  of  discipline 
tail,  and  I  have  known  some  young  persons 
whose  consciences  were  so  weak,  and  who  had 
so  much  of  the  animal  in  them,  that  the  rod 
would  be  for  them  the  most  beneficial  mode  of 
punishment."  D.  P.  Page,  an  educator  of  long 
experience,  great  moral  force,  and  singular  kind- 
liness of  nature,  fully  admitted  the  necessity  of 
corporal  punishment  as  a  last  resort.  "  I  do  not 
hesitate,"  he  says,  "  to  teach  that  corporal  inflic- 
tion is  one  of  the  justifiable  means  of  establish- 
ing authority  in  the  school-room.  To  this  con- 
clusion I  have  come  after  a  careful  consideration 
of  the  subject,  modified  by  the  varied  experience 
of  nearly  twenty  years,  and  by  a  somewhat  at- 
tentive observation  of  the  workings  of  all  the 
plans  which  have  been  devised  to  avoid  its  use 
or  to  supply  its  place."  Horace  Mann,  one  of 
the  most  enthusiastic  advocates  of  moral  suasion, 
yet  recognized  the  necessity  of  corporal  punish- 
ment in  some  cases.  "Punishment,"  he  says, 
"should  never  be  inflicted  except  in  cases  of  the 
extremest  necessity  :  while  the  experiment  of 
sympathy,  confidence,  persuasion,  encourage- 
ment, should  lie  repeated  forever  and  ever."  ,\n 
English  teacher  says,  ••  It  is  necessary  for  a  child 
to  learn  that  the  violation  of  law.  whether  of 
school,  society,  or  Cod.  brings  inevitable  suffer- 
ing. The  sense  of  right  is  so  imperfectly  devel- 
oped in  children,  that  one  of  the  ways  of  im- 
pressing upon  a  child  that  right  is  right,  and 
wrong  is  wrong,  is  by  showing  that  suffering  fol- 
lows from  one.  enjoyment  and  a  sense  of  satis- 
faction from  the  other."  (  The  Educational  Re- 
porter  (Txmdon,  .July  1..  1*74.)  Corporal  pun- 
ishment is  sanctioned  by  Kosenkranz  in  Peda- 
gogics  as  <t  System.  "  This  kind  of  punishment," 
he  says."  provided  always  that  it  is  not  too  often 
administered,  or  with  undue  severity,  is  the 
proper  way   of    dealing   with   willful   defiance. 


188 


( <<  >RPOR  AL  PUNISHMENT 


with  obstinate  carelessness,  or  with  a  really  per- 
verted will,  so  long  or  so  often  as  the  higher  per- 
ception is  closed  against  appeal."  Under  pecu- 
liarly favorable  circumstances. — a  condition  of 
things  which  may  be  considered  ideal,  that  is. 
where  the  home  training  of  the  pupils  of  a  school 
has  been  judicious  and  correct,  where  all  have 
been  taught,  from  their  earliest  years,  to  obey 
their  elders  and  superiors:  and  this  not  by  vio- 
lence and  severity,  but  with  gentleness  and  firm- 
ness ;  and  moreover,  where  the  teacher  or  teach- 
ers of  the  school  are  gifted  with  the  same  talents 
for  discipline, — under  such  circumstances,  most 
educators  would  agree  that  a  resort  to  corporal 
punishment  would  scarcely  ever,  if  at  all,  be 
necessary.  I  hit  such  are  not  the  circumstances 
under  which  children  are  instructed  in  school. 
This  point  is  ably  presented  by  Horace  Mann. 
"  The  children  who  attend  school,"  says  he.  "en- 
ter it  from  that  vast  variety  of  homes  which 
exist  in  the  state.  From  different  households, 
where  the  widest  diversity  of  parental  and 
domestic  influences  prevails,  the  children  enter 
the  school  room,  where  there  must  be  compara- 
tive uniformity.  At  home  some  of  these  chil- 
dren have  been  indulged  in  every  wish.  Haltered 

and  smiled  upon  for  the  energies  of  their  low 
propensities,  and  even  their  freaks  and  whims 

enacted   into   household   laws.      Some  have   been 

so    rigorously    debarred    from    every    in sent 

amusement   and    indulgence,    that    they    have 

opened  for  themselves  a  way  to  gratification, 
through  artifice,  and  treachery,  and  falsehood. 
Others,  from  vicious  parental  example,  and  the 
corrupting  influences  of  vile  associates,  have 
been  trained  to  bad  habits,  and  contaminated 
with  vicious  principles,  ever  since  they  were 
born  ; — some  being  taught  that  honor  consists  in 
whipping  a  boy  larger  than  themselves;  others, 
that  the  chief  end  of  man  is  to  own  a  box  that 
cannot  be  opened,  and  to  get  money  enough  to 
fill  it  ;  and  others,  again,  have  been  taught,  upon 
their  fathers'  knees,  to  shape  their  young  lips  to 
the  utterance  of  oaths  and  blasphemy.  All 
these."  as   hi'   says.  "  must   be   made   to  obey  the 

same  general  regulations,  to  pursue  the  same 
studies,  and  to  aim  at  the  same  results."  More- 
over, the  teachers  who  are  to  control  these  diverse 
characters  and  dispositions,  are  persons  of  im- 
mature age  ami  experience,  with  little,  if  any, 
special     preparation,     ami     often     morally     and 

temperamentally  unfitted   for  the  work;   and, 

therefore,   as    he    further   says.  "He   who  denies 

the  necessity  of  resorting  to  punishmenl  in  our 

schools,  virtually  affirms  two  things:  ( I  |  That 
this  greal  uumber  of  children,  scraped  up  from 

all  places,  taken  al  all  ages  and  in  all  conditions. 
Can  he  deterred  from  tin'  wrong  and  attracted  to 

the  right  without  punishmenl  ;  and  (2)  That  the 
teachers    employed    to    keep    their    respective 

BChools,  are  in  the  present  condition  of  things, 
able  to  accomplish    so  glorious  a  work.      Neither 

■  if  these  propositions  I   ;it   presenl  prepared 

to  admit.      He  also  prudently  remarks,  that  "it 

is  Useless,  or  worse  than  useless,  to  say.  that  such 

or  such  a  thine  can  lie  done,  and  done   imme- 


diately, without  pointing  out  the  agents  by  whom 
it  can  be  done." 

These  considerations  assume,  that  every  avail- 
able agency  has  been  employed  before  corporal 
punishment  is  resorted  to  :  for  all  educators  are 
agreed  upon  the  point,  that  this  kind  of  dis- 
cipline is  only,  if  ever,  justifiable  as  a  dernier 
ressort;  that  is,  after  every  possible  substitute 
for  corporal  punishment  has  been  used.  There 
is  then  one.  and  only  one,  alternative,  as  far 
as  school  discipline  is  concerned,  and  that  is 
expulsion.  To  this  it  is  objected  that  to 
expel  a  pupil,  and  particularly  from  a  public 
school,  is  to  acknowledge  the  inadequacy  of  the 
means  to  restrain  him.  "  The  vicious  and  ig- 
norant scholar,"  says  1).  P.  Page,  "is  the  very 
one  who  most  needs  the  reforming  influence  of  a 
good  education.  Sent  away  from  the  fountains 
of  knowledge  and  virtue  at  this,  the  very  time 
of  need  !  And  what  may  we  expect  for  him  but 
utter  ruin?"  In  the  city  of  New  York,  corporal 
punishment  has  been  prohibited  in  the  public 
schools  since  L870,  expulsion  being  substituted 
for  it.  In  the  superintendent's  report  for  L873,the 
following  statement  is  made  :  "  There  is  a  large 
class  of  hoys  whom  our  schools  do  not  and  can- 
not restrain,  and  whom,  therefore,  they  cannot, 
benefit,  but  must  send  adrift,  to  find  their  way 
inevitably  to  the  reformatories  and  prisons,  after 
having  committed  those  injuries  to  the  com- 
munity which  our  school  system  was  designed  to 
prevent."  It  is  further  stated.  "  There  are  pupils, 
the  sons  of  widowed  mothers,  who  cannot  be 
restrained  at  all  at  home:  and  when  these  are 
turned  from  the  school  they  are  lost  indeed.  To 
these  children  the  city  owes  an  education,  and 
in  order  to  be  able  to  bestow  it,  it  is  bound  by 
every  obligation  of  right  and  duty  to  govern 
them:  and  if  its  chosen  officers  expel  them, they 
evade  a  most  solemn  responsibility."  On  the 
other  hand,  in  Chicago,  in  which  corpora]  punish- 
ment, though  not  prohibited  by  positive  law.  has 
been  abandoned  for  se\eral  years,  the  superin- 
tendent states  [Annual  Report  for  L874 
••  Suspensions  for  misconduct,  the  greal  bugbear 
in  the  sight  of  apologists  for  the  use  of  the  rod. 
have  been  far  less  frequent  than  in  the  years 
when  corporal  punishment  was  in  vogue.  The 
most  favorable  year  under  the  old  regime  gave 
US  one  suspension  for  each  22.0110  pupils  in  daily 
attendance.  The  past  year  shows  but  one  suspen- 
sion for  each  48,888  pupils  in  daily  at  tendance.'' 
He  also  states  that  "a  greater  good  has  been 
secured  at  less  cost  than  by  the  old  methods. 
The  chief  element  of  cost  has  been  time  spent  in 
discipline:"  and  added  to  this,  is  "  loss  of  school 
time  li\  enforced  absence."  The  superinten- 
dent of  St.  Louis  {Annual  Report  for  1869  70) 
Bays  "  Corpora]  punishmenl  is  still  inflicted  in 

the  schools  of  our  city,  but  I  am  glad  to  Say  in 
fewer  eases  every  succeeding  year.  .  .  .  Ex- 
perienced teachers  affirm  that  they  think  it  im- 
possible to  do  without  it."  The  Report  of  the 
same  superintendent   for   1873—4    says.  "We 

have  had  but  very  few  cases  of  corporal  punish- 
ment,  when    compared    with    former   years,    but 


CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT 


189 


still  tlif  cumber  is  quite  large  when  brought 
together. ..  .Our  general  average  is  now  about 

1,000  rases  per  quarter  for  j>5.lil)0  pupils.  Six- 
teen years  ago,  there  was  one  hundred  times  (his 

amount  pro  rata."  The  superintendent  of  Balti- 
more (Annual  Report  for  L875)  says,  "  The  rules 
of  the  Hoard  allow  the  infliction  of  corporal 
punishment  by  the  principals  in  cases  of  necessity: 
hut,  it  must  lie  said  to  their  credit,  that  they 
have  used  the  power  but  seldom.  ..  .It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  the  day  is  not  distant  when  corporal 
punishment  will  he  with  us  a  thing  of  the  past." 

This  kind  of  punishment  still  survives  in  most 
Americanand  English  schools;  but  the  frequen- 
cy and  severity  with  which  it  was  formerly  in- 
flicted would  not  be  tolerated  at  the  present 
time.  The  opinions  of  practical  teachers  are 
generally  in  its  favor;  but  the  tendency  of  public 
opinion  is  towards  its  abolition,  notwithstanding 
all  that  may  be  said  in  its  support  as  being,  un- 
der proper  regulations,  a  wholesome  and  neces- 
sary means  of  discipline.  In  Germany,  corporal 
punishment  is  permitted  in  the  public  schools, 
for  certain  offenses,  as  resistance  to  the  teacher's 
authority,  obscenity,  irreverence,  etc.;  but  its  in- 
fliction is  limited  by  strict  regulations.  In  the 
school  law  of  Prussia,  adopted  in  L845,  it  is  pro- 
vided that  no  punishment  shall  be  administered 
exceeding  "  the  bounds  of  moderate  parental  dis- 
cipline." and  that  the  teacher  may  be  prosecuted 
fur  inflicting  any  excessive  .punishment.  Another 
loeal  ordinance  provides  that  "  corporal  punish- 
ment may  be  inflicted,  but  only  after  the  lessons 
are  over,  with  parental  moderation  and  a  due  re- 
gard to  the  physical  condition  of  the  child." 
Blows  with  the  fist,  or  on  the  head,  are  strictly 
prohibited.  Similar  laws  prevail  in  the  cantons 
of  Switzerland.  In  France,  the  law  of  1850, 
which  is  still  in  force,  prohibited  all  corporal 
punishment  in  the  primary  schools  ;  and  the  sub- 
stitutes for  it  are  such  punishments  as  bad 
murks,  confinement,  the  imposition  of  tasks, 
placing  the  names  of  delinquents  on  a  roll  of 
dishonor,  etc.  In  Russia,  corporal  punishment 
was  prohibited  in  the  primary  schools  at  a  very 
early  date  ;  but,  in  1820,  was  restored  under  cer- 
tain restrictions.  In  1862,  a  statute  was  pro- 
posed for  the  government  of  the  schools  without 
corporal  punishment ;  and  this  statute  was  sub- 
nutted  to  ( ierman  educators  for  their  criticism  and 
suggestions.  Of  the  twenty-one  who  presented 
opinions,  eleven  opposed  the  abolition  of  corporal 
punishment,  and  two  favored  it.  while  eight  ex- 
pressed no  opinion  on  that  part  of  the  statute. 
The  statute  was  finally  so  modified  as  to  leave 
the  decision  of  the  question  to  the  local  boards. 

The  school  codes  of  the  United  States  are  gen- 
erally silent  in  regard  to  the  right  of  teachers  to 
inflict  corpora]  punishment;  but  there  are  nu- 
merous judicial  decisions  in  favor  of  this  light. 
By  English  and  American  law,  a  parent  may 
correct  his  child  in  a  reasonable  manner,  and  the 
teacher  is  in  loco  parentis  (see  2  Kent,  205; 
1  Blackstone,  453 ;  9  Wendell's  Reports,  355  ; 
27  Maine,  280  ;  32  Vermont,  123 ;  2  Devereux 
and  Battle,  365  ;  4  Gray,  37.)     In  the  last  deci- 


sion mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massa- 
chusetts held  that  &  ferule  is  a  proper  instru- 
ment of  school  punishment.  There  are  numerous 
decisions  which  support  this  authority  even  while 
the  pupils  are  going  to  or  returning  from  school. 
In  a  case  reported  in  'A'l  Vermont,  1 L4, the  judges 
of  tin'  Supreme  Court  unanimously  held  that 
"the  supervision  and  control  of  the  master  over 
the  scholar  extends  from  the  time  he  leaves  home 
to  go  to  school  till  he  returns  home  from  school." 
The  decisions  of  many  of  the  state  superintend- 
ents have  also  sanctioned  this  doctrine.  Pupils 
of  all  ages  are  equally  amenable  to  such  punish- 
ment.    (See  27  Maine,  266.) 

As  to  the  offenses  for  which  corporal  punish- 
ment should  be  inflicted,  and  the  proper  mode 
of  inflicting  it,  the  following  suggestions  (of  a 
practical  teacher)  would  probably  meet  with 
universal  approval  from  those  who  claim  that 
this  mode  of  discipline  is,  in  certain  cases,  indis- 
pensable: (1)  It  should  be  reserved  for  the 
baser  faults.  A  child  should  never  be  struck  for 
inadvertencies,  for  faidts  of  forgetfulness,  for  ir- 
ritability and  carelessness,  or  for  petty  irregular- 
ities. It  is  a  coarse  remedy,  and  should  be  em- 
ployed upon  the  coarse  sins  of  our  animal  nat- 
ure. (2)  When  employed  at  all,  it  should  be  ad- 
ministered in  strong  closes.  The  whole  system 
of  slaps,  pinches,  snappings,  and  irritating  blows, 
is  to  be  condemned.  These  petty  disciplines 
tend  to  stir  up  anger,  and  rather  encourage  evil 
in  the  child  than  subdue  it.  (3)  In  administer- 
ing physical  punishment  to  a  child,  the  head 
should  be  left  sacred  from  all  violence.  Pulling  the 
hair  or  the  ears,  rapping  the  head  with  a  thimble 
or  with  the  knuckles,  boxing  the  ears,  slapping 
the  cheeks  or  the  mouth,  are  all  brutal  expedients. 
These  irritating  and  annoying  practices  are  far 
more  likely  to  arouse  malignant  passions,  than 
to  alleviate  them.  (4)  The  temper  with  which 
you  administer  punishment  will,  generally,  excite 
in  the  child  a  corresponding  feeling.  If  you 
bring  auger,  anger  will  be  excited  ;  if  you  bring 
affection  and  sorrow,  you  will  find  the  child 
responding  in  sorrowful  feelings  ;  if  you  bring 
moral  feelings,  the  child's  conscience  will  be 
excited.  Anger  and  severity  destroy  all  the 
benefit  of  punishment ;  love  and  firmness  will, 
if  anything  can,  work  penitence  and  a  change 
of  conduct. —  See  H.  Mann,  Lectures  and  An- 
nual Reports  on  Education,  new  edition  (Boston, 
L872) ;  Remarks  on  the  Seventh  Animal  Report 
of  the  Hon.  Harare  Mian/. hy  the  Association  of 
Masters  of  the  Boston  Public  schools  (Boston, 
L844) ;  I!<  ■/>/>/  to  the  same,  by  Horace  Mann  ( Bos- 
ton. L844) ;  Penitential  Tears  (Boston,  1845); 
Lyman  Cobb,  The  Evil  Tendeney  of  Corporal 
Punishment  [N.  Y.,  1847) ;  Cooper,  A  History 
of  tl/>'  Hod  (London);  K  \iu.  Rosenkranz,  Ped- 
agogics as  a  System,  trans,  by  Anna  C.  Brackett 
(St.  Louis,  1872) ;  Hecker,  Scientific  Basis  of 
Education  (N.  Y.,  1868);  CuRRTE,  Principles 
aial  Practice  of  Common-School  Education 
Edinburgh) ;  Pillans,  Rationale  of  Discipline 
Kdinburgh,  1852).  (See  also  Aphorisms,  Edu- 
cational ;  Authority  ;  and  Discipline.) 


190 


CORVALLIS  COLLEGE 


COURSE  OE  INSTRUCTION 


CORVALLIS  COLLEGE  (State  Agri- 
cultural), at  Corvallis,  Benton  county.  Oregon, 
was  founded  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
in  1868,  and  is  still  under  its  control.  The  state 
agricultural  college  was  made  a  department  of  it 
in  1872.  The  value  of  the  college  property  is 
$10,000;  the  endowment  consists  of  90,000 
acres  of  agricultural  college  land  -ranted  by 
Congress.  The  sum  of  $5,000  is  annually  re- 
ceived from  the  state.  The  institution  embraces 
a  primary  department,  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment, and  a  collegiate  department.  The  last 
comprises  the  following  schools:  (1)  School  of 
Physics:  (2)  School  of  Mathematics;  (3)  School 
of  Moral  Science:  (!)  School  of  Language ;  (5) 
School  of  History  and  Literature;  (61  School  of 
Engineering;  (7)  Special  studies  of  Agriculture. 
In  chemistry  and  mathematics  there  are  three 
classes  (junior,  intermediate,  and  senior),  and  in 
Greek  and  Latin  two  (junior  and  senior).  There 
are  four  degrees  conferred  in  this  institution  : 
(1)  The  degree  of  A.  M.,  conferred  on  all  who 
complete  the  course  in  the  study  of  physics, 
mathematics,  moral  philosophy,  history,  ami 
literature  ami  language;  (2)  The  degree  of  A. 
B.,  on  such  as  complete  the  course  in  the  schools 
of  physics,  moral  philosophy,  mathematics,  and 
ancient  languages;  (3)  The  degree  of  U.S..  on  such 
as  complete  the  course,  in  the  schools  of  physics, 
mathematics,  moral  philosophy,  engineering,  and 
the  special  department  of  agriculture;  (4)  The 
degree  of  Graduate  of  a  School,  on  such  as  com- 
plete the  course  in  any  school.  The  title  Pro- 
ficient is  granted  to  any  candidate  for  degrees 
who  passes  two  successful  examinations,  one  of 
which  must  be  final.  Both  sexes  are  entitled  to 
the  privileges  of  the  college.  The  tuition  varies 
from  8(>  to  $15  (gold)  per  term,  the  college  year 
being  divided  into  three  terms.  An  extra  fee 
of  S.">  is  charged  for  each  modern  language.  The 
law  provides  for  the  free  tuition  of  sixty  young 

men,  over  sixteen  years  old,  who  are  known 
as  */"/>•  students.  In  1ST.'!  I,  then'  were  <>  in- 
structors and  134  students,  of  whom  32  were  in 
the  agricultural  department.  The  Dumber  grad- 
uating was  I  (B,  S.);  the  whole  number  of 
alumni.  Is.  B.  L.  Arnold.  A.  M.,  is  (187(5)  the 
president. 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION,  or  Course 
of  Study,  is  a  seriesof  subjects  E  instruction 
or  study,  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they 

should  be  pursued,  and  grouped  or  divided  into 
les,  each  to  be  completed  in  a  certain  time. 
Such  an  arrangement  of  studies  is  sometimes 
called  a  graded  course,  and,  especially  in  superior 
instruction,  a  curriculum.  When  these  various 
subjects  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  daily  or- 
der of  exercises,  showing  the  time,  or  the  number 

of  lessons,  to  be  given  to  each  Subject,  it  consti- 
tutes the  school  programme. 

In  order  that  the  objects  of  intellectual  edu- 
cation may  be  fully  attained,  it  is  of  tin  greatest 
importance  that  the  course  of  instruction  should 
be  judicious  in  respect  to  several  points:  (1)  The 

tion  of  BUbjeCtS  :  (2)  Their  order  0T  arrange- 
ment ;  (3)  The  number  prescribed  for  simultane- 


ous study  ;  (4)  The  division  of  the  course  into 
grades,  with  a  definite  time  assigned  for  the  com- 
pletion of  each.  The  first  of  these  considerations 
is  of  paramount  importance;  since  the  subjects 
of  study  constitute  not  only  the  basis  of  intel- 
lectual culture,  but  the  source  of  necessary  in- 
formation. Two  points,  consequently,  are  to  be 
considered  in  this  selection  :  (1)  The  value  of 
the  subjects  as  means  of  culture ;  (2)  Their 
importance  as  sources  of  information.  In  the 
early  stages  of  education,  the  first  of  these  con- 
siderations should,  without  doubt,  have  the 
preference;  but,  as  education  advances,  the 
second  claims  an  increasing  degree  of  attention 
until,  in  the  sphere  of  technical  and  professional 
edueation.it  becomes  almost  the  exclusive  aim. 
We   cannot,    therefore,  decide   upon  a  course  of 

instruction  without  considering  the  nature  of  the 
mind  to  be  educated  as  well  as  the  objects  for 
which  it  is  to  be  educated.  In  elementary  or 
primary  education,  the  necessary  subjects  of  in- 
struction maybe  grouped  into  the  following: 
(1)  Language,  including  reading  and  elocution, 
spelling,  the  analysis  and  definition  of  words, 
grammar,  and  composition;  (2)  Rudimentary 
Mathematics,  including  arithmetic,  mental  and 
written,  algebra,  and  geometry:  (3)  Elementary 
Science,  or  a  knowledge  of  thin;/*,  graded  from 
the  simple  perceptive  facts  of  object  instruction 
up  to  the  rudiments  of  geography,  natural  histo- 
ry, physiology,  physics,  astronomy,  etc.;  (4) 
History;  (5)  Graphics,  -writing,  drawing,  etc.; 
(6)  Athletics, — gymnastics  or  calisthenics.  To 
these  may  be  added  music,  vocal  or  instrumental, 
which  constitutes  a  part  of  esthetics.  In  addition 
to  these  branches  of  study,  in  some  cases,  the  rudi- 
ments of  a  foreign  language  are  also  taught.  The 
distinction  between  primary  and  secondary  in- 
struction not  being  definitely  fixed  as  to  subjects, 
some  of  those  mentioned  above  may  be  deemed 
(\elusively  appropriate  to  the  higher  grade. 
For  proper  mental  discipline,  there  must,  how- 
ever, be  instruction  in  things  as  well  as  words, — 
the  perceptive  and  coiiccptive  faculties  must  be 
trained  as  well  as  the  expressive  faculties,  so 
that  the  mind  may  be  stored  with  ideas  and 
their  representatives  in  language.  A  proper 
discrimination  between  primary  and  secondary 
instruction  depends  upon  (1)  the  kind  of  in- 
struction, and  (2)  the  subjects  of  instruction. 
Science  taught  in  the  high  school  is  a  very  differ- 
ent thing  from  science  in  the  primary  school ; 
in  the  one  case  we  address  to  a  much  greater 
extent  the  higher  faculties,    abstraction,  general- 

ization,  reasoning,  etc.  :  in  the  other,  chiefly  the 
perceptive  and  coiiccptive  faculties.  The  Sub- 
jects of  elementary  instruction  have  beenclassi- 
lieil  by  an  eminent  educator  as  follows:  "(1) 
Reading  •  >/"/  Writing — the  mastery  of  letters; 
(2)  Arithmetic  the  mastery  of  numbers;  (if) 
Geography  the  mastery  over  place;  (4i  Gram- 
mar the  mastery  over  the  word  :  (.">)  History — 
the  mastery  over  time." 

In  schools  of  secondary  instruction  (high 
Bchools,  academies,  etc.),  the  course  includes  also 
language  —  the  vernacular,   and   one   or   more 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION 


1!)1 


modern  languages,  and  also  the  rudiments  of 
Latin  and  Greek,  particularly  in  preparatory 
schools;  mathematics,  including  algebra,  geom- 
etry, trigonometry,  mensuration,  etc.;  science 
(taught  as  such  i.  including  physics  and  chemistry, 
astronomy  (descriptive, at  least),  physiology, etc.; 
to  which  arc  usually  added  English  literature. 
rhetoric,  the  elements  of  mental  and  moral  phi- 
losophy, etc.  What  properly  belongs  to  a  high 
school  or  academic  course  is,  however,  far  from 
being  settled  ;  indeed,  to  tix  the  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  primary  and  secondary  instruction 
has  scarcely  been  attempted  ;  hence,  what  should 
constitute  the  course  of  study  in  schools  of  this 
grade  is  an  open  question,  which  is  usually  de- 
termined by  the  circumstances  and  special  aim 
of  the  school.  Thus,  the  course  for  a  business 
college,  for  example,  is  very  different  from  that 
of  a  collegiate  or  preparatory  school.  The  theo- 
ry of  the  common-school  system  in  the  United 
States  requires  that  the  pupil  should  enter  the 
high  school  with  a  good  knowledge  of  the  studies 
already  mentioned  : — at  least,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  geography,  English  grammar,  and 
the  liistory  of  the  United  States ;  but  it  is  a 
great  error  to  suppose  that  these  subjects  can  be 
fully  mastered  by  an  immature  mind.  "  Until 
all  education."  says  a  thoughtful  teacher,  "shall 
agree  as  to  the  precise  culture  power  of  each 
study,  as  well  as  to  the  exact  value  of  its  impart- 
ed information,  and  shall  determine,  to  the  satis- 
faction of  all,  what  particular  faculties  each  calls 
into  activity,  and  just  how  the  calling  into  action 
of  these  faculties  educates  a  man.  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  establish  a  course  of  study  which  all 
shall  acknowledge  as  absolutely  the  best." 

In  institutions  for  superior  instruction  (col- 
leges and  universities),  the  courses  of  study  are 
also  various,  but  they  all  include  the  departments 
of  classics,  mathematics,  scientific  studies,  litera- 
ture, philosophy,  and  modern  languages.  In  the 
American  colleges,  elective  courses  have,  within 
a  few  years,  become  quite  general.  (See  Boston- 
University,  and  Colleges.)  The  courses  of 
study  prescribed  in  the  different  cities  of  the 
United  States  for  the  elementary  public  schools, 
differ  considerably  as  to  subjects,  number  of 
grades,  and  time  assigned  for  the  completion  of 
the  course.  The  states  do  not  prescribe  any  uni- 
form course  :  in  regard  to  which  fact  Mr.  Francis 
Adams,  in  7%e  Free  School  System  of  the  Ui>it>-<l 
States  1875),  says,  "  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
American  educationists  do  not  appear  to  recog- 
nize that  the  absence  of  uniformity  in  study  and 
examina'ion  weakens  their  system.  The  nearest 
approach  to  a  uniform  course  of  study  which  has 
ever  been  attempted  by  any  state,  is  to  prescribe 
the  text-books  which  shail  be  used,  and  when 
this  has  been  done,  it  has  been  sometimes  re- 
sented, and  the  cry  of  centralization  has  been 
raised.  It  is  obvious  that  it  would  be  a  great 
advantage  to  statesmen  and  statisticians,  and  to 
the  nation  at  large,  if  there  were  some  test  by 
which  the  progress  of  scholars  in  each  state  could 
be  definitely  ascertained."  The  diverse  circum- 
stances, however,  uf  schools  in  the  rural  districts, 


of  the  larger  "union  schools,"  and  of  schools  in 
chics,  appear  to   preclude   the   possibility  of  a 
state  course  of  instruction,  except  within  certain 
limits.     On  the  other  hand,  it  maybe  said  that 
the  prescribing  < >f  a  course  of  instruction — at  least 
to  the  extent  of  defining  the  subjects  to  be  taught, 
would  go  far  towards  settling  the  principles  of 
common-school   education,  and  preventing  the 
abusesof  which  complaint   is  sometimes  made. 
Thus,  Deputy  State  Superintendent  Danforth  of 
New   York,  in  addressing  the  State  Teachers' 
Association,    at    the    convention    of     August, 
1873,  said,  "  Our  courses  of  study,  in  too  many 
instances,  indicate  a  disposition  for  the  display 
of  ostentatious  learning  rather  than  useful  cul- 
ture.    The  desire  for  showy  acquirements,  treat- 
ing the  mind  as  a  receptacle  for  the  storing  of 
facts,  irrespective  of  their  use  in  giving  mental 
nourishment  and  cultivating  power,  is  a  perni- 
cious evil."     The  complaint  that  the  courses  of 
study  prescribed  for  the  common  schools,  particu- 
larly   in    many   of   the   cities  of   the  Northern 
States,  are  burdensome  in  their  requirements, 
has  frequently  been  made.     In  this  connection, 
Mr.  Francis  Adams  remarks,  "  Our  [the  English] 
elementary  course  is  generally  longer  than  the 
American ;  and  yet  ours  is  nothing  like  so  ambi- 
tious a  course.  There  is  another  difference  between 
the  two  courses.     In  England,  our  attention  is 
pretty  much  confined  to  the  'three  R's ;  in  Amer- 
ica, what  we  call '  special  subjects'  are  taught  all 
along  the  line.      A  foreign  language  is  often 
commenced  in  the  lowest  grade  of  the  primary 
school."  In  prescribing  a  course  of  instruction  for 
elementary  schools,  the  special  province  of  such 
schools  should  be  kept  steadily  in  view, — to  give 
to  their  pupils  the  keys  of  knowledge,  reading, 
writing,  etc.,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  discipline 
their  minds  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  acquire 
and  use  knowledge  in  discharging  the  duties  of 
their  after  lives. 

The  division  of  the  Course  of  Instruction  into 
grades  is  sometimes  made  by  topics,  and  some- 
times by  text-books;  and  each  method  has  its 
advocates.  The  former,  it  is  claimed,  gives  more 
freedom  to  the  teacher — more  scope  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  intelligent  discrimination  and  original 
treatment ;  the  instruction  proceeds  to  a  greater 
extent  from  the  living  teacher,  since  there  is  less 
inducement  to  confine  it  to  a  mere  hearing  of 
recitations.  The  subject  is  the  paramount  con- 
sideration; the  text-book,  secondary.  The  teacher, 
and  the  pupil  also  as  far  as  possible,  is  requi red 
to  consult  various  books,  to  compare  their  state- 
ments, to  correct  their  errors;  and  thus,  while 
perhaps  a  particular  text-book  is  used  as  a  basis 
for  the  instruction,  a  more  general  knowledge  of 
the  subject  is  imparted  than  is  contained  in  any 
single  work.  Thus,  if  the  study  is  the  history  of 
the  United  States,  to  one  grade  is  assigned  the 
Colonial  History ;  to  another,  the  period  of  the 
Rfptthition  and  the  Establishment  of  the  Federal 
(rorcrirmriit,  etc.;  while,  if  the  division  were  by 
book,  it  would  be  necessary  that  all  the  schools 
should  use  the  same,  and  a  certain  number  of 
pages  would  be  assigned  to  each  grade.     For  ab- 


192 


COUSIN 


CRAMMING 


solute  uniformity,  of  course,  the  second  plan  is 
preferable ;  but  some  educators  claim  that  uni- 
formity may  be  carried  too  far,  constituting  a 
Procrustean  standard,  and  tending  to  deprive 
the  instruction  of  one  of  its  most  essential  qual- 
ities,— its  adaptability  to  different  minds.  Evi- 
dently the  topical  system  makes  more  demands 
upon  the  teacher;  and  this.it  is  claimed,  con- 
stitutes its  great  advantage,  since  it  necessitates 
better  information,  higher  culture,  and  more  real 
teaching  ability.  What  kind  of  development,  it 
is  asked,  can  result  from  the  mere  hearing  of  rec- 
itations? And  what  kind  of  influence  can  be 
exerted  by  a  teacher  that  never  goes  beyond  the 
narrow  scope  of  the  school  text-book?  Not  that 
the  legitimate  use  of  text-books  is  to  be  discour- 
aged, but  only  a  servile  dependence  upon  them: 
and  it  is  claimed  that  the  prescribing  of  topics 
rather  than  hooks,  tends  to  prevent  this.  Says 
I ».  I*.  Page,  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teach- 
ing, "  A  teacher  who  is  perfectly  familiar  with 
what  is  taught,  has  ten  times  the  rivacityof  one 
who  is  obliged  to  follow  the  very  letter  of  the 
book."  For  the  courses  of  instruction  of  com- 
mon schools  in  the  different  cities,  see  the  titles 
of  the  same  ;  the  courses  in  the  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning  are  given  each  under  its  re- 
spective title.  No  attempt  has  been  made  here 
to  show  what  in  regard  to  moral  and  religious 
training  properly  belongs  to  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion for  public  or  private  schools.  The  various 
considerations  appertaining  to  these  topics  will 
be  found  under  the  titles  .Moral  Education,  and 
Religious  Education.  —  See  How  to  Teach 
(X.  Y.,  1874);  Wells,  A  Gh-aded  Course  of  In- 
struction for  Public  Schools  (N.  Y.,  18G2); 
Francis  Adams,  The  Free  School  System  of  we 
United  States  (London,  1875);  Thomas  Hill,  The 
True  Order  of  Studies  (N.  Y.,  187(5). 

COUSIN,  Victor,  a  French  philosopher,  and 
the  founder  of  systematic  eclecticism  in  philos- 
ophy, was  born  Nov.  28,  L792,  and  died  Jan.  L5, 
I  867.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  student  at 
the  Li/fi'i'  Churli'undjtw,  and  in  1*12,  was  made 
assistant  Greek  professor  at  the  Ecole  Nbrmale. 
I  lis  early  studies  were  rather  in  the  direction  of 
belles-lettres,  hut  he  soon  turned  his  attention 
to  philosophy.  Roger  Collard  had  already  re- 
volted against  the  sensationalism  of  Locke  as 
deprave.  I  by  Oondillac,  and  had  introduced  the 
Scotch  philosophy  into  Prance.  For  a  while. 
Cousin  was  an  ardent  disciple  of  Reid  ;  and.  in 
L815,  he  became  an  assistant  professor  of  philos- 
ophy with  Roger  Collard,  and  lectured  both  at 
the  Ecole  Nbrmale  sun/A  at  the Sorborvne.  In  L817, 
he  visited  Germany,  and  became  acquainted  with 
the  Kantian  philosophy, which  badagreal  influ- 
ence upon  his  later  teachings.  In  L821,  his  lec- 
tures were  suspected  of  a  bad  political  tendency, 
.■ml  were  indefinitely  suspended,  in  L824,  he 
went  to  Germany  again,  .and  was  arrested  in 
Dresden  on  the  charge  of  belonging  to  the  Car- 
bonari, and  sent  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  six  months.  During  this  stay  in 
Germany,  he  became  acquainted  with  Kegel, 
Bchleiermacher,  and  Scheuing.     In  1820,  he  re- 


turned to  Paris  ;  and,  in  1827,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne.  During 
this  period  of  enforced  silence,  he  published  an 
edition  of  Proclus  and  Descartes,  and  also  part 
of  a  translation  of  Plato,  which  was  completed 
in  1840.  After  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Council  of  Public  In- 
struction, and  later  a  director  of  the  Ecole  Nbr- 
male. In  1840,  he  became  minister  of  public 
instruction,  which  position  he  held  for  only  a 
few  months,  owing  to  the  unsettled  condition  of 
politics.  He  was  friendly  to  the  revolution  of 
IMS,  but  never  had  any  political  importance 
under  the  empire.  His  eclecticism  was  based  on 
the  doctrine  that  philosophy  has  always  been 
either  sensualism,  idealism,  scepticism,  or  mysti- 
cism. I  lis  constant  oscillation  of  opinion  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  each  of  these  systems  has  some 
truth  in  it ;  and  the  true  philosophical  method, 
doubtless,  is  to  take  from  each  of  them  the  true, 
and  reject  the  false.  Without  some  standard  of 
selection,  the  product  must  be  a  mere  philosoph- 
ical medley  ;  and  such  was  the  result  in  this 
case.  Still  Cousin's  eloquence  and  his  exalted 
moral  views  combined  to  make  his  lectures  very 
popular.  The  crowds  at  the  Sorbonne  recalled 
the  days  when  William  and  Abelard.had  dis- 
puted there.  He  reorganized  the  system  of 
primary  instruction  in  France,  and  arranged  the 
course  of  studies  for  the  normal  school.  He  also 
published  several  very  full  and  valuable  reports 
upon  public  instruction  in  Prussia  and  Holland. 
These  have  been  translated  into  English.  Cousin 
was  an  ardent  believer  in  religious  education. 
Purely  secular  instruction  he  thought  more  likely 
to  do  mischief  than  good.  A  complete  edition 
of  his  works  is  published  in  French  :  and  trans- 
lations of  his  more  important  works  have  ap- 
peared in  English. — See  Ripley.  Philosophical 
Miscellanies  (Boston.  1838);  0.  W.  Wight, 
Translation  of  Cousin's  Course  of  Modern  Phi- 
losophy  (N.  V..  L855),  and  his  Lech/res  on  the 
Trin',  die  Beautiful,  a/idthe  (>tiiid(S.  Y„  1857); 
Cousin's  Report  on  the  State  if  Education  in 
Holland, translated  by  Homer  (London,  1838); 
and  Report  on  the  stale  of  Public  Instruction  in 
Prussia;  with  Plans  of  School-Houses,  trans- 
lated by  Austin  (London,  1834). 

CRAMMING,  a  term  used  in  regard  to  edu- 
cation, to  denote  the  fault  of  tilling  the  mind 
with  facts,  without  allowing  it  sufficient  time  to 
arrange  and  generalize  them,  to  compare  them 

with    its    previous   acquisitions,  Or  to  determine 

their  real  significance,  as  related  to  general  prin- 
ciples. It  is  thus  a  kind  of  mental  stuffing,  and, 
consequently,  is  opposed  to  the  true  object  of 
education,  which,  as  the  word  etymologically 
considered  implies,  is  Dot  to  pour  something 
into  the  mind,  hut  to  bring  out,  by  appropriate 
exercise,  its  latent  faculties,     in  college  phrase, 

Students  are  said  to  eram  for  an  examination, 
when    they  make   preparation   with  undue  ha-te, 

impressing  upon  their  memory,  by  repetition,  a 

mass  of  things  about  which  they  expect  to  be 
questioned,  hut  which,  when  the  examination  is 
over,  they  immediately  forget.      Such  a  process 


CRECHE 


CRIME  AND  EDUCATION 


193 


is  exceedingly  injurious  to  the  mind,  since  it  is  a 
misdirection  of  its  powers,  wasting  them  at  a 
time  when  they  should  be  all  steadily  employed 
in  the  formation  of  those  habits  of  acquisition 

and  thought,  which  constitute  the  basis  of  a 
sound  intellectual  character. 

In  elementary  education,  cramming  is.  there- 
fore, especially  pernicious  :  and  it  is  at  this  Stage, 
that  it  is  the  most  likely  to  occur.  It  may  as- 
sume various  forms,  but  chiefly  the  following: 
(1)  Crowding  the  memory  with  verbal/brwiwfoe, 
— definitions,  rules,  statements  of  facts,  names  in 
geography,  dates  in  history,  etc. ;  (2)  Overtask- 
ing  the  powers  of  the  mind  with  a  multiplicity 
of  studies,  or  with  such  as  are  not  adapted  to  its 
immature  condition,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be 
comprehended  ;  (3)  Undue  haste  in  instruction, 
so  that  the  pupils  are  compelled  to  commit  to 
memory  what  they  have  had  no  time  properly 
to  digest  in  their  minds.  Cramming  may  be  the 
result  cither  of  the  ignorance  of  the  teacher,  or 
of  circumstances  which  compel  him  to  violate 
the  correct  principles  of  education  for  some 
special  end,  as  the  preparation  of  pupils  for  a 
public  exhibition  in  which  they  may  make  an 
imposing  display  of  their  superficial  acquire- 
ments. (See  Exhibition.)  Such  a  sad  perver- 
sion of  the  teacher "s  work  as  this  implies  is  of 
too  frequent  occurrence  ;  for  parents  and  patrons 
are  too  fond  of  witnessing  such  displays,  and 
there  are  teachers  whose  eagerness  for  praise  or 
patronage  is  sufficient  to  overcome  their  sense  of 
the  true  object  of  their  vocation.  They  seem  to 
work  more  for  their  own  petty  ambition  or 
pecuniary  gain  than  for  the  true  welfare  of  their 
pupils.  The  evil  of  this  is  not  alone  with  the 
pupil,  but  is  shared  by  the  teacher  himself  ;  for 
by  merely  cramming  the  minds  which  it  is  his 
duty  to  educate,  he  fails  to  realize  in  himself 
the  best  results  of  giving  instruction ;  since, 
while  "he  may  have  the  exquisite  pleasure  of  see- 
ing the  growth  of  his  pupils'  minds,  he  may  also 
have  the  higher  satisfaction  of  feeling  the  growth 
of  his  own." — See  Blackie,  On  Self -Culture 
(Edinburgh,  1875). 

CRECHE,  a  French  word  signifying  a  crib 
or  manger,  but  used  in  France,  Belgium,  and 
some  other  countries  in  Europe  to  designate  a 
kind  of  infant  asylum  (in  remembrance  of  the 
manger  of  Bethlehem).  These  institutions  are 
supported  and  managed  by  either  private  per- 
sons or  corporations.  One  of  the  most  noted, 
and  a  model  of  its  class,  is  the  famous  Creche 
Marie-Henriette,  at  Antwerp,  named  after  the 
queen  of  Belgium.  This  asylum  originated  in 
circumstances  caused  by  the  cholera,  in  1866. 
The  ravages  of  the  epidemic  were  very  great  in 
Belgium,  but  especially  in  the  city  of  Antwerp, 
causing  extreme  suffering  and  distress  among 
the  poorer  classes  of  the  population.  Many 
children  were  deprived  of  one  or  both  of  their 
parents,  and  thus  left  helpless  and  destitute. 
Others  suffered  almost  as  much  in  consequence 
of  the  sudden  destitution  of  their  parents.  In 
order  to  afford  relief  to  these  unfortunates,  the 
creche  was  opened  in  January,  186 
13 


through 


the  efforts  of  a  number  of  philanthropic  ladies 
ami  gentlemen;  and  since  that  time  has  con- 
tinued to  afford  an  asylum  to  hundreds  of  poor 
children,  both  boys  and  girls.  When  the  parents 
arc  living,  a  small  charge  is  made  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  child  according  to  the  amount  of 
their  earnings.  The  institution  is  not  a  hospital, 
sick  and  diseased  children  not  being  received. 
Every  child  aged  15  days,  or  at  most  3  years, 
whose  parents  reside  in  the  city, can  be  admitted 
to  the  cr&che.  The  utmost  care  is  taken  of  the 
inmates,  both  as  to  their  nurture  and  discipline. 
No  corporal  punishment  is  permitted  ;  and  ten- 
der treatment  is  enforced  by  minute  regulations, 
both  sanitary  and  educational.  Perhaps,  the 
most  important  function  of  the  creche  is  the 
care  taken  of  young  children  during  the  day, 
while  their  parent  or  parents  are  engaged  in 
their  work.  Thus,  mothers  may  leave  their  in- 
fants in  the  morning,  and  take  them  away  in  the 
evening,  at  a  charge  of  5  centimes  (about  1  cent) 
per  day,  or  25  centimes  per  week  in  case  of  pre- 
payment. This  feature  of  the  creche  distin- 
guishes it  particularly  from  other  classes  of  infant 
and  orphan  asylums. 

CRIME  AND  EDUCATION.  The  rela- 
tion between  crime  and  education  has,  of  late, 
engaged  the  attention  of  philanthropists,  educa- 
tors, and  statisticians.  The  progress  of  statistical 
research,  in  modern  times,  seems  to  have  estab- 
lished the  fact  that  there  is  a  much  larger  per- 
centage of  illiterates  among  the  criminal  classes 
of  society  than  in  the  total  population  of  any 
country.  Thus  the  criminal  statistics  of  France, 
in  1870,  showred  that  the  educated  criminals  as 
compared  with  the  entire  educated  population, 
were  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  9,291  ;  while  the 
illiterate  criminals  were  as  1  to  41,  compared 
with  the  whole  number  of  illiterate  persons ; 
thus  proving  the  proportion  of  criminals  in  the 
uneducated  classes  to  be  226  times  as  great  as 
that  of  the  educated  classes.  The  facts  thus  far 
published  on  this  subject  are,  however,  still  very 
incomplete ;  but  they  invariably  tend  to  prove 
that  the  uneducated  constitute  the  class  of  so- 
ciety most  prone  to  crime.  It,  therefore,  fol- 
lows, that  every  advance  made  toward  the  re- 
moval of  illiteracy  must  have  a  tendency  to  re- 
duce also  the  number  of  crimes.  It  is  also  evi- 
dent that  the  more  complete  the  statistical  in- 
formation which  can  be  obtained  of  the  criminal 
classes  of  all  the  countries  of  the  world,  the  bet- 
ter will  statesmen  and  educators  be  enabled  to 
establish  with  certainty  the  true  relation  exist- 
ing between  crime  and  education.  There  are 
still,  unfortunately,  countries  in  which  it  is 
thought  that  the  government  has  discharged  its 
duty  with  regard  to  the  criminal  classes,  when  it 
has  enacted  criminal  laws  for  the  punishment  of 
crime,  and  erected  prisons  and  penitentiaries. 
The  criminal  is  treated  more  as  an  offender 
against  society  who  deserves  to  be  punished  and 
restrained  from  doing  any  more  harm,  than  as  an 
unfortunate  member  of  society  who  should  be  re- 
formed. Great  progress,  however,  is  of  late  no- 
ticeable in  the  legislation  of  almost  every  civil- 


194 


CRIME  AND  EDUCATION 


bed  country.  The  intellectual  and  moral  con- 
dition of  criminals  is  more  thoroughly  studied 
than  before ;  the  causes  which  lead  to  crimes  are 
more  earnestly  investigated,  and  the  agencies 

which  are  calculated  to  reform  criminals  are 
more  eagerly  employed.  The  improvement 
which  has  already  been  achieved  is,  to  a  great 
extent,  due  to  the  prison  congresses  held  in  the 
Dinted  States,  as  well  as  in  Europe.  The  first 
congress  of  this  kind  was  proposed  by  the  in- 
spector general  of  prisons  in  Belgium,  Ducpe- 
tiaux,  and  was  held  in  Frankfort  on  the  Main. 
in  1845.  The  must  important  was  the  Inter- 
national Prison  Congress,  chiefly  arranged  by 
Dr.  Wines  of  New  York,  and  held  in  London, 
in  1872.  A  second  international  congress  is  to 
be  held  in  Europe  in  LS77.  A  permanent  com- 
mission for  the  promotion  of  penitentiary  reform, 
organized  by  the  congress  of  London,  met  in 
1874,  at  Brussels,  and  in  L875,  at  Bruchsal,  in 
the  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  Germany.  In  the 
United  States,  national  prison  congresses  were 
held  in  1870  at  Cincinnati,  in  1872  in  Balti- 
more, and  in  L874  in  St.  Louis.  The  labors  of 
these   congresses,  while  being  chiefly  devoted   to 

the  improvement  of  prisons  and  of  prison  life. 

have  also  shed  a  flood  of  light  on  the  causes  that 
product;  crinics.  Beltrani  Scalia,  one  of  the 
foremost  prison-reformers  of  Italy  of  the  presenl 
century,  estimates  the  illiterates  among  the  con- 
victs of  Belgium,  Denmark,  the  Netherlands. 
Italy.  Saxony,  and  Sweden  at  about  one  half  of 
the  entire  prison  population  of  those  countries. 
Recent  official  returns  show  that  the  percentage 
of  those  who  could  not  read  on  entiling  prison, 
was  56  in  Austria.  49  in  Belgium, 87  in  France, 
4  in  Baden,  12  in  Bavaria.  17  in  Prussia,  60  to 
!>2  in    the  different    provinces  of  Italy,  about    10 

in  the  Netherlands,  and  :5()  in  Switzerland.  In 
Ireland,  22  per  cent  of  males,  and  <i."5  per  cent  of 
females  were  illiterate.  In  England,  H4  percent 
of  the  persons  committed  to  county  or  borough 
prisons,  were  totally  ignorant.      In  regard  to  the 

United  States.  Mr.  J.  B. Sanborne  of  Massachu- 
setts, in  a  report  prepared  for  the  International 
Prison  Congress  of  London,  says  that  the  gen- 
eral condition  of  American  prisoners  in  point  of 
education  is  low.  yet  they  are   not   so   extremely 

illiterate  as  criminals  are  in  many  countries,  if 

we  except  the  colore!  criminals  of  the  South. 
In  Massachusetts,  for  a  period  of  eight  years 
past,  the  statistics  show  very  nearly  on,'  third  of 
all  prisoners  to  be  wholly  illiterate:  yet.  in  the 
highesl  prison  at  ( 'harlcstown.  the  proportion  of 
illiterate  convicts,  since   the   beginning  of    L864, 

has  been  scarcely  more  than  I  in  In.  Partial  re- 
ports from  seventeen  states,  including  only  three 
from  the  middle  and  western  states,  show  that 
of  ,iu   aggregate   of    L10,538   prisoners,  B2,812 

COUld  read  and  write.  ,").!t:',l  could  read  only,  and 
21,650  had  no  education.  The  totally  ignorant 
were  thus  aboiii  22  per  cent  of  the  criminal 
population:  inclusive  of  those  who  could  read 
Only,  they    would    amount    to   25    per   cent.      A 

large  number  of  those  who  could  read  ami  write. 

Were  also  found  to  be  very  deficient,  and  the  ag-  ! 


gregate  number  of  those  "  very  deficient  in  edu- 
cation" was  estimated  at  about  50  per  cent  of 
the  criminal  population.  There  was  a  great 
diversity  in  regard  to  ilbteracy  among  criminals 
of  different  groups  of  states.  In  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania,  the  totally  ignorant,  or  those  un- 
able to  read  and  write,  were  19  per  cent;  but 
those  very  deficient,  at  least  60  per  cent.  In 
five  north-western  states,  the  totally  ignorant 
were  40  per  cent,  the  very  deficient,  75  per  cent: 
in  four  states  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Pacific,  the  totally  ignorant  were  21  per  cent,  the 
very  deficient,  50  per  cent ;  in  rive  far  southern 
states,  the  totally  ignorant  were  <>••  per  cent,  the 
veiy  deficient.  85  per  cent.  According  to  the 
census  of  1870, the  number  of  illiterates  above  10 
yearsof  age  was,  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
4  per  cent  of  the  population;  in  the  central  states. 

Hi  per  cent ;  in  the  western  and  Pacific  states.  .'! 
percent  :  and  in  the  South.  22  per  cent.  A  com- 
parison of  these  figures  which  give  the  total  num- 
ber of  illiterates,  with  the  number  of  illiterate 
criminals,  shows  that  the  illiterate  classes  of  the 

population  furnish  a  disproportionately  large  con- 
tingent to  the  number  of  criminals.  The  causes  of 
this  fact  are  plain.  Ignorance  unfits  a  man.  to  a 
considerable  extent,  for  earning  bis  daily  bread, 

and.  in  most  cases,  dooms  him  to  abject  poverty  : 
the  want  of  intellectual  culture  is.  moreover,  gen- 
erally COUpled  with  a  lack  of  the  feeling  of  self- 
respect  and  moral  responsibility,  thus  leaving  the 
poor  victim  an  easy  prey  to  the  many  tempta- 
tions which  society  offers.    That  education  is  a 

force  restraining  vice  and  crime,  appears  to  be 
clearly  established  by  two  very  important  facts: 
(1)  Wherever  education    is  diffused   among  the 

people,  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  criminals  to 
the  whole  population  diminishes:  and  (2)  In  all 
countries,  the  criminal  class  is  mainly  fed  by  the 
ignorant  class.  The  conviction  that  the  absence 
of  education  tends  to  increase  crime,  has  induced 
educators  and  statesmen  to  strive  to  prevent  this 
evil  by  tin'  introduction  of  compulsory  education 
laws.  (See Compulsory  Education.]  The  friends 

of  this  policy  charge  such  states  as  fail  to  require 
that  all  children  should  be  educated,  with  pro- 
ducing the  \ery  crime  for  which  the  criminal  is 
punished.    Opinions  differ,  however,  as  to  the 

effect    of  compulsory   education    in    diminishing 

crime,  and  as  to  the  responsibility  of  the  state 
government  for  uneducated  criminals.  Alison, 
in  the   History  of  Europe,  boldly  asserts  the 

whole  doctrine  to  be  a  fallacy,  and  presents  sta- 
tist ies  to  pro\  c  that  crimes  are  more  numerous 
where  education,  that  is.  what  is  usually  con- 
sidered education,  is  diffused.  ■•  Experience," he 
says.  ••  has  now  abundantly  verified  the  melan- 
choly truth,  that  intellectual  cultivation  has  no 
effect    iii   arresting   the  source-  of  evil  in  the 

human  heart  ;  that  it  alters  the  direction  of 
ciiinc.  but  docs  not  alter  its  amount."  Herbert 
Spencer  asserts,    in    Social   Statics,   that    "  we 

have   no    evidence    that    education,  as  commonly 

understood,  is  a  preventive  of  crime."  Fletcher, 
in  Summary  of  the  Moral  Statistics  of  England 
and    Wales,  Says,    that    the   comparison    of    the 


CRIME  AND  EDUCATION" 


CRUELTY 


195 


fT-iniiiial  and  educational  returns  of  England  and 
o&er  countries  of  Europe,  "lias  afforded  no 
sum  nl  statistical  et  tdencem  favor  of,  and  as  little 
against,  the  moral  effects  associated  with  instruc- 
tion.as  actually  disseminated  among  the  people." 
These  are,  undoubtedly,  extreme  views,  and  can- 
not be  accepted  in  the  light  of  more  recent  sta- 
tistical information.  They  present,  however,  a 
strong  argument  in  favor  of  improving  the  qual- 
ity as  well  as  the  quantity  of  education  diffused 
among  the  people,  and  especially  of  the  impor- 
tance of  moral  training  as  well  as  intellectual  in- 
struction. (See  Moral  EmJCATlOlT,  National 
Education,  and  Public  Schools.) 

While. every  one  must  hope  that  the  steadily 
increasing  diffusion  of  education  will  be  found  a 
powerful  aid  in  reducing  the  number  of  crimes, 
all  prison-reformers  of  the  present  day  agree  in 
expecting  a  reformatory  influence  upon  convicted 
criminals  through  the  means  provided  for  their 
instruction.  The  provisions  made  in  this  respect 
in  the  United  States  are  still  inadequate;  but 
great  progress  has  been  made  of  late  years.  Li- 
braries are  common,  33  prisons  in  1873  reporting 
50,603  volumes,  being  an  average  of  1,535  to 
each.  In  some  prisons,  the  convicts  have  the 
benefit  of  schools,  individual  instruction  in  their 
cells,  and  lectures.  Secular  instruction  is  reg- 
ularly afforded  in  the  prisons  of  California,  Illi- 
nois, Indiana.  Kansas.  Kentucky,  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  New  Hampshire,  Oregon,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Rhode  Island,  and  Wisconsin.  In  some 
of  these  states,  a  school  is  held  once  a  week  ;  in 
others,  two  or  five  evenings  a  week.  The  prisons 
of  most  European  countries  are  also  generally 
provided  with  a  school  and  a  library.  In  the 
so-called  houses  of  correction,  which  are  intended 
for  the  treatment  of  those  convicted  of  higher 
offenses,  the  educational  element  naturally  occu- 
pies a  more  conspicuous  place  than  in  the  state 
prisons.  Still  more  is  this  the  case  in  the  institu- 
tions for  the  treatment  of  juvenile  offenders. 
(See  Reform  Schools.) 

An  important  discovery  recently  made  by  sta- 
tistical science,  has  sometimes  been  quoted  against 
those  who  hope  that,  as  education  increases, 
crime  will  decrease.  It  has  been  found  that  in 
the  number  of  crimes  committed  in  a  country, 
the  annual  reports  exhibit  the  same  regularity, 
as  in  finances,  commerce,  and  other  departments 
of  civilized  life ;  and  the  inference  has  been 
drawn  from  this  fact,  that,  however  valuable 
education  may  be,  no  notable  influence  there- 
from on  the  amount  of  crime  need  be  expected  ; 
since  that  is  unalterably  fixed.  This  steadiness  in 
the  amount  of  crime  was  observed  by  Madame 
de  Stael,  and  is  made  much  of  by  Buckle,  in  his 
History  of  Civilization.  Statistically  it  was 
proved  bythe  great  Belgian  statistician  Quetelet, 
who  adduces  an  aiTay  of  figures,  which  appear 
to  render  his  position  impregnable.     Some  have 

garded  this  as  a  law  of  fatality:  but  Quetelet 
himself  states,  that  this  apparently  invariable 
proportion  depends  upon  the  moral  condition  of 
society,  and,  that  if  this  be  changed,  the  appa- 
rency uniform  proportion  of  crime  will  change  in 


the  same  degree. — See  Animal  Reports  of  the 
lr.  S.  (hmiHissioner  qf  Education  tor  1872,-3, 
l:  Alison.  History  qf  Europe,  from  1815  to 
L851,  vol.  i.,  and  Miscellaneous  Essays,  h.  v.  The 
Future;  Buckle,  History  qf  Civilization  in 
EiKjhtud  (London,  1857 — 61);  Poktkr,  T/ie 
Progress  of  the  Nation  (Lond.,  183(5 — 43)  ; 
Spencer,  Social  Statics  (London,  1850) ;  Quete- 
let, La  Statistique  Month-,  in  vol.  xxi.  of  Mem. 
de  I'Acad.  de  Belgique  (Brussels,  1848). 

CRUELTY  (to  Animals)'is  a  prevailing  trait 
in  the  characters  of  children  who  have  not  been 
specially  trained  to  habits  of  kind,  considerate, 
and  humane  feeling  and  conduct.  The  activity 
of  a  child's  nature,  its  love  of  sport,  and  its  un- 
developed sympathies  predispose  it  to  acts  of  in- 
considerate cruelty.  Thus,  Locke  remarks.  "Some 
children,  when  they  have  possession  of  any  poor 
creature,  are  apt  to  use  it  ill  ;  they  often  torment 
and  treat  very  roughly,  young  birds,  butterflies, 
and  such  other  poor  animals  as  fall  into  their 
hands,  and  that  with  a  seeming  kind  of  pleasure. 
This  should  be  watched  in  them,  and  if  they  in- 
cline to  any  such  cruelty,  they  should  be  taught 
the  contrary  usage,  for  the  custom  of  tormenting 
and  killing  beasts  will  by  degrees  harden  their 
minds  even  towards  men  ;  and  they  who  delight 
in  the  suffering  and  destruction  of  inferior  crea- 
tures, will  not  be  apt  to  be  very  complacent  or 
benign  to  those  of  their  own  kind."  The  neces- 
sity of  cultivating  in  children  the  spirit  of 
humanity,  is  inculcated  by  all  who  have  written 
on  the  subject  of  moral  training.  Says  one,  "  I 
am  far  from  thinking  that  the  early  delight  which 
children  discover  in  tormenting  flies,  etc.,  is  a 
mark  of  an  innate  cruelty  of  temper ;  because 
this  turn  may  be  accounted  for  upon  other  prin- 
ciples. But  most  certainly,  by  being  unrestrained 
in  sports  of  this  kind,  they  may  acquire  by 
habit  what  they  never  would  have  learned  by 
nature,  and  grow  up  in  a  confirmed  inattention 
to  every  kind  of  suffering  but  their  own.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  supreme  court  of  judicature  at 
Athens  thought  an  instance  of  this  sort  not  be- 
low its  cognizance,  and  punished  a  boy  for  put- 
ting out  the  eyes  of  a  poor  bird  that  had  unhap- 
pily fallen  into  his  hands."  Hogarth  in  the 
series  of  paintings  entitled  Tlie  Progress  of 
<  hruetty,  illustrates  this  vice  in  its  several  stages 
of  formation,  the  first  picture  showing  children 
engaged  in  various  barbarous  di versions.  The 
effect  is  heightened  bythe  contrast  of  a  youth 
who  intercedes  to  prevent  cruel  outrage  to  a 
poor  dog,  offering  a  book  to  the  inhuman  young 
tyrant.  To  this  picture  the  following  lines  are 
annexed : — 

What  various  scenes  of  cruel  sport 
Tlio  infant  race  employ; 

What  future  baseness,  must  import 
The  tyrant  in  the  boy! 

Behold  a  youth  of  gentler  look  ; 

To  save  the  creature's  pain, 
"O  tal<e  !"  lie  cries,  "here  take  my  book;" 

But  tears  and  book  are  vain. 

Learn  ficom  this   fair  example,  you 

Whom  Bavage  sports  delight, 
Hew  cruelty  disgusts  the  view. 

While  pity  charms  the  sight. 


196 


CULTURE 


All  children  are  not  equally  addicted  to  such 
cruel  sports ;  but  perhaps,  if  we  exclude  certain 
extreme  and  abnormal  cases,  it  may  be  said,  that 
this  inclination  is  found  to  exist  in  youths  whose 
fearless  courage,  resolution,  and  activity,  if  prop- 
erly trained,  would  make  them  exceedingly  use- 
ful, if  not  illustrious,  in  after  life.  The  genus 
of  glory  or  of  infamy  exist  in  the  mind  of  the 
young  child;  and,  doubtless,  in  many  cases,  are 
precisely  the  same,  expanding  into  one  or  the 
other  according  to  the  circumstances  by  which 
they  are  fostered.  "It  would  be  curious."  says 
a  celebrated  writer,  "  to  trace  the  human  mind 
either  to  the  perfection  of  greatness  or  to  the 
completion  of  crime;  to  trace  the  hero  from  his 

!>lay  at  'prisoner's  base,  where  he  domineered  over 
hs  schoolmates,  to  the  battle  by  which  he  gains 
or  loses  an  empire— the  murderer  from  spinning 
a  cock-chafer,  or  taking  a  bird's  nest,  to  the  mo- 
ment when  his  hand  is  dyed  in  the  blood  of  the 
heart  he  has  stabbed,  or  the  throat  he  has  cut." 

The  need  of  specially  educating  the  sympa- 
thetic affections  in  order  to  counteract  this  strong 
tendency  in  youthful  minds,  is  t  bus  clearly  shown, 
and  many  methods  of  accomplishing  this  result 
are  suggested  by  educators.  Habitual  training, 
not  mere  precepts,  can  alone  effect  this.  Locke 
points  out  a  number  of  ways  of  instilling  such 
habits  ;  such  as  accustoming  children  to  be  gentle 
and  considerate  to  their  pets,  to  be  kind  to  each 
other,  and  to  treat  servants  and  dependents  with 
civility  and  consideration.  "Children."  says  he, 
"should  be  accustomed  from  their  cradles  to  lie 
tender  to  all  sensible  creatures,  and  to  spoil  and 
waste  nothing."  Especially  should  they  be  cor- 
rected in  cruelly  treating  those  animals  whose  ex- 
ternal appearance  is  repugnant.  "  Children,"" 
says  Maria  Edgeworth,"  should  not  be  taught  to 
confine  their  benevolence  to  those  animals  which 
are  thought  beautiful ;  the  fear  and  disgust 
which  we  express  at  the  sight  of  certain  unfori  - 
unate  animals,  whom  we  are  pleased  to  call  ugly 
and  shocking,  are  observed  by  children,  and 
these  associations  lead  to  cruelty."  Another 
writer,  in  this  connection,  remarks.  "  It  might  be 
of  service  in  order  to  awaken,  as  early  as  possible, 
in  children  an  extensive  sense  of  humanity,  to 
give  them  a  view  of  several  sorts  of  insects,  as 
they  may  be  magnified  by  the  assistance  of 
glasses,  and  to  show  them  that  the  same  evident 
marks  of  wisdom  and  goodness  prevail  in  the 
formation  of  the  minutest  insect,  as  in  that  of 
the  most  enormous  leviathan."  In  the  same 
spirit  are  the  strong  lines  of  Cowper  : — 

Ye,  therefore,  who  Love  mercy,  teach  your  sons 
Tolovi    It  too.    The  sprin^-timo  of  our  years 
In  Boon  dishonored  and  defiled  In  most 
By  building  ills,  that  .-isU  a  prudent  hand 
To  i  bed  them.  But,  alas  !  none  Booner  shoots, 
If  unrestrained,  into  luxuriant  growth, 
Than  Cruelty,  most  dev'lish  of  them  all. 
(See   -Moi:  \i.    Edi  0  LTION.) 

CULTURE,  a  term  used  to  denote  the  im- 
provement of  the  human  character  by  means  of 
discipline,  training,  or  self-exertion.  It  is  used 
in  both  an  active  and  a  passive  sense;  in  the 
former,  implying  the  use  of  all  necessary  means 
and  agencies  to  cultivate  the  human  faculties, 


and  in  the  latter,  the  result  of  their  operation. 
!  'ulture  comprehends  both  development  and  re- 
finement; that  is.  not  simply  bringing  into 
active  exercise  the  latent  powers  of  the  mind  or 
1 « ii  ly,  but  adding  thereto  a  nice  and  careful  dis- 
crimination as  to  their  proper  or  improper  ex- 
ercise, with  a  due  regard  to  the  circumstances 
which  require  their  employment.  Thus  a  man 
of  culture  not  only  is  able  to  express  his  thoughts 
in  suitable  and  impressive  language,  but  knows 
how  to  adapt  his  language  to  the  persons,  the 
place,  and  the  occasions  winch  caD  for  this  ex- 
pression ;  nor  does  he  give  utterance  to  his 
thoughts  except  when  it  is  proper  to  do  so. 
Hence,  culture,  in  its  mature  stage,  not  only  im- 
plies power,  but  restraint,  both  belonging  to  the 
inner  nature  of  the  individual.  There  are  as 
many  kinds  of  culture  as  there  are  departments 
of  human  nature,  or  special  faculties,  to  be  cul- 
tivated and  improved.  Thus,  culture  may  be 
I  ihysieal,  intellect  via  1.  nu  >ral.  si  liritual.  and  esthetic, 
according  as  its  scope  is  the  improvement  of 
the  powers  and  susceptibilities  of  the  body,  the 
intellect,  the  moral  sentiments,  the  soul,  or  the 
taste.  General  culture  implies  that  everything 
constituting  the  character  of  the  individual  has 
been  brought  to  as  high  a  degree  of  improvement 
as  is  possible.  Special  culture  has  reference  to 
a  particular  department  of  human  nature,  or  to 
the  development  of  power  in  a  certain  direction. 
Thus,  the  culture  of  the  poet,  the  painter,  the 
orator,  the  teacher,  the  lawyer,  or  the  clergyman 
is  special,  developing  faculties  needed  in  the  par- 
ticular vocation  of  each.  Special  culture,  how- 
ever, does  not  exclude  general  culture  ;  for  no 
man  need  be  merely  a  practitioner,  or  worker  in 
any  narrow  sphere  of  effort.  The  object  of 
higher  education  is  to  give  this  general  culture 
as  a  basis  for  that  which  is  necessarily  special,  or 
technical. 

The  real  instrumentality,  in  a  certain  sense 
the  only  one,  by  which  culture  can  be  effected, is 
self-exertion.  None  of  the  faculties,  whether  of 
the  spirit,  mind,  or  body,  can  be  cultivated  ex- 
cept by  exercise.  Thus  a  person  can  never  learn 
to  compose  by  studying  grammar  and  rhetoric, 
nor  to  think  and  reason  by  committing  to  mem- 
ory the  rules  of  logic.  If  he  would  learn  to 
write,  or  to  think  and  reason,  he  must  write  and 
think  and  reason,  on  the  same  principle  and  in 
the  same  w-ay  as  a  perfon  learns  to  swim,  or  a 
child  to  walk.  This  exercise  is  the  individual's  own 
work;  but  the  exercise  may  be  unsuitable  and 
injurious,  and,  therefore,  needs,  at  first,  the  care- 
ful guidance  of  experience.  Hence,  the  need  of 
an  educator,  until  the  individual  has  acquired 
suiliciciit  knowledge  and  experience  indirect  the 

exercise    himself.      This    shows    the    relation   of 

education  and  culture,  the  one  being  the  handmaid 
of  the  other.  The  instruments  of  culture  vary 
with  its  special  scope.     For  those  of  physical 

Culture,   we    must    learn    what    a    knowledge   of 

physiology  and  experience  in  gymnastics  dictate; 

those  of  intellectual  culture  can  be  judiciously 
selected  only  by  studying  the  laws  which  regulate 
the  operations  of  the  mind.     But  we  are  par- 


OU  MBERLA  NT)  r  \  I V  ERSITY 


CURTIS 


197 


ticularly  to  be  on  our  guard  in  supposing  that 
intellectual  culture  can  spring  from  the  mere 
study  of  other  persons'  ideas.  True  culture  of 
this  kind  can  alone  come  from  (I)  a  patient, 
laborious,  and  diligent  acquisition  of  ideas  of  our 
own,  by  observation  and  reflection;  and  (2)  the 
study  of  the  experience  of  other  minds,  and  its 
verification,  as  tar  as  possible,  by  that  of  our 
own.  "The  original  and  proper  sources  of 
knowledge,"  says  Professor  Blackie,  "are  not 
In  inks,  but  life,  experience,  personal  thinking, 
feeling, and  acting."  And  again,  "All  knowl- 
edge which  comes  from  books  comes  indirectly, 
by  reflect  ion.  and  by  echo;  true  knowledge 
grows  from  a  living  root  in  the  thinking  soul: 
and  whatever  it  may  appropriate  from  without, 
it  takes  by  living  assimilation  into  a  Living  or- 
ganism, not  by  mere  borrowing."  (See  Self- 
Gutture,  Edinburgh,  ls"5.)  This  is  simply  an 
emphatic  and  illustrative  expansion  of  the  gen- 
eral principle  above  stated  ;  namely,  that  to  cul- 
tivate our  faculties,  we  must  properly  exercise 
them.  No  moral  culture  can  be  secured  by  the 
study  of  ethics ;  legitimate  objects  for  the  exer- 
cise of  the  moral  feelings  must  be  sought  for  and 
discovered;  and.  more  especially,  the  will  must 
be  trained  so  that  it  will  obey  the  voice  of  rea- 
son and  conscience,  even  amid  the  mightiest 
tempest  of  passion  and  desire.  Related  to  this. 
is  the  culture  of  the  soul — a  culture  which  is 
paramount  to  all,  and  to  which  every  other  spe- 
cies of  culture  is  subservient ;  and  just  as  one 
can  learn  to  walk  only  by  walking,  to  think  only 
by  thinking,  and  to  live  nobly  only  by  acting 
nobly  on  every  occasion,  so  one  can  only  advance 
in  spiritual  culture  by  communing,  by  prayer 
and  contemplation,  with  the  Great  Spirit,  the 
Father  of  mankind,  and  the  Creator  of  the  uni- 
verse. True  Christian  culture  comprehends  the 
development  of  a  capacity  to  do  right,  and  to  be 
right,  in  every  relation  which  we  bear  to  each 
other,  and  to  our  .Maker,  simply  by  applying  the 
general  principle  herein  enunciated,  of  active 
beneficence,  based  upon  the  simplest  principles 
of  moral  and  religious  truth.  (See  Education.) 
CUMBERLAND  UNIVERSITY,  at  Leb- 
anon, Tenn.,  was  founded  by  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church  in  L842.  The  value  of  its 
buildings  and  grounds  is  $20,000.  The  institution 
comprises  a  business  college  and  telegraph  insti- 
tute (at  Nashville)  ;  a  preparatory  school ;  a  col- 
legiate department,  with  a  classical  course  of 
four  years,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts,  and  a  scientific  course  of  three  years,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science;  a 
Bchool  of  civil  engineering  with  a  two  years'  course, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Civil  Engineer;  a  law 
.'■school  :  and  a  theological  school.  The  degrees  of 
Master  of  Arts  and  Doctor  of  Philosophy  are 
conferred  upon  graduates  who  pursue  prescribed 
post-graduate  courses  of  study.  A  plan  has  been 
adopted,  by  which  non-resident  students,  through 
a  system  of  correspondence  and  examinations, 
may  receive  the  benefits  of  the  college  courses. 
In  L874 — ">,  there  were  13  instructors  and  391 
students   (deducting  repetitions)  ;  namely,  com- 


mercial. 127;  telegraphic.  38;  preparatory,  (if,  ; 
collegiate,  85;  law,  70 ;  theological,  28.  The 
university  library  contains  about  7,000  volumes. 
The  presidents  have  been  as  follows  :  F.  If.  Cos- 
sitt,  I).  I)..  L842— 4;  J.  C.  Anderson,  l>.  I».. 
L844— 1866;  B.  W.  McDonald,  D.  D„  LL  D., 
L867— 1872;  Nathan  Green,  A.  M..  L.  B. 
(chancellor),  the  present  incumbent,  appointed 
in  1872. 

CURIOSITY,  or  the  desire  to  know,  is  a 
very  important  clement  of  the  mind,  in  its  rela- 
tion to  education.  The  basis  of  the  success  of 
the  teacher  is  the  attention  of  the  pupil;  and 
while  many  instructors  may  appeal  to  the  sense 
of  fear  to  compel  attention,  he  only  can  make  a 
beneficial  and  lasting  impression  upon  the  learn- 
er's mind,  who  arouses  his  attention  by  awaken- 
ing a  genuine  interest  in  the  thing  to  be  learned; 
that  is,  by  stimulating  his  curiosity  to  know  that 
of  which  lie  has  become  sensible  that  he  is  ig- 
norant. This  feeling  is  natural  to  children,  as 
being  the  active  principle  of  their  minds.  Nature 
has  implanted  it  for  many  and  wise  reasons ; 
and,  therefore,  it  should  not  be  repressed,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  should  be  stimulated  and  en- 
couraged. This  is  strongly  enjoined  by  Locke, 
in  Tliomjlils  an  Education.  "As  children,''  he 
says,  "should  never  be  heard  when  they  speak  for 
any  particular  thing  they  worrld  have,  unless  it 
first  be  proposed  to  them,  so  they  should  always 
be  heard,  and  fairly  arrd  kindly  answered,  when 
they  ask  about  anything  they  would  know  arrd 
desire  to  be  informed  about.  Curiosity  should 
be  as  carefully  cherished  in  children,  as  other- 
appetites  suppressed.-'  Many  educators,  both 
parents  and  teachers,  often  err  in  frowning  upon 
children  for  asking  questions,  and  thus,  especially 
in  the  case  of  those  who  are  timid  and  diffident, 
seriously  impair  a  mental  activity  which  could 
have  been  made  an  important  means  of  edu- 
cation. Of  course,  curiosity  should  not  be  allowed 
to  degenerate  into  inquisitiveness  or  forward- 
ness ;  but  should  be  kept  within  its  natural  and 
proper  limits  :  that  is.  as  Locke  says.  "  whenever 
reason  would  speak,  it  should  be  hearkened  to." 

CURRICULUM.  See  Course  ok  Instruc- 
tion. 

CURTIS,  Joseph,  a  distinguished  friend  of 
education  in  the  city  of  New  York,  was  born  in 
Newtown,  Ct.,  in  1T82,  and  died  in  New 
York,  April  12.,  1856.  He  became  a  resident 
of  that  city  at  the  age  of  16,  arrd  early  mani- 
fested a  dispositiorr  for  active  beneficence.  He 
served  for  several  years  as  the  secretary  of  the 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Pauperism,  and 
was  active  in  all  the  public  charities  of  the  day. 
As  a  member  of  the  Manumission  Society,  he 
ardently  cooperated  with  Peter  A.  day.  Cadwal- 
lader  ('olden.  Isaac  M.  Kly,  and  others  in  secur- 
ing the  state  act  of  manumission,  which  was 
passed  in  1817;  and  he  was  afterward  one  of 
the  leading  spirits  in  establishing  the  New  York 
House  of  Refuge,  of  which  he  took  charge  for 
about  a  year-,  thus  initiating  the  then  novel  en- 
terprise of  attempting  to  reform  juvenile  delin- 
quents (Us2.">).     Crevious  to  this,   in   1820,  he 


198 


CT'RTIUS 


DAKOTA 


was  instnimental  in  opening,  at  Flatbush,  L.  I., 
the  first  Sunday-school  for  free  blacks.  Mr. 
( 'urtis  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Pub- 
lic School  Society  of  the  city  of  New  York,  of 
which  he  continued  to  be  ;nt  active  and  devoted 
member  until  its  dissolution  in  1853, when  he 
was  chosen  one  of  the  fifteen  members  of  that 
society  who,  for  a  time,  were  to  represent  it  in 
the  Board  of  Education.  He  had  been  a  diligent 
and  sagacious  business  man.  and  always  eminently 
practical;  but  he  suffered  great  losses  through  the 
effects  of  the  war  of  1  sl'2 — 15.  Few  lives  have 
been  marked  so  deeply  and  constantly  with  deeds 
of  genuine  philanthropy  and  Belf-sacrificing 
benevolence,  as  was  that  of  Joseph  <  'urtis.  not 
onlj  in  his  public  life,  but  in  the  inner  circle  of 
domestic  privacy.  —  See  \V.  ( >.  Boi  bne,  History 
of  the  Public  School  Society  (N.  V..  1870); 
It.  K.  Pbiece,  A  Half  Century  with  Juvenih 
Delinquents  (N.  V..  1869);  Barnard's  Journal 
of  Education,  vol.  i.:  < '.  .M.  Sedgwick,  Memoir 
of  Joseph  Curtis,  a  Model  Man  i  \.  Y.,  1858). 

CTJRTIUS,  George,  a  German   philologist 
and  author  of  school  hooks,  was  horn  at  Liiheck. 

in  L820,and  studied  philologyal  the  universities 
of  Berlin  and  Bonn.  In  L842,  he  was  appointed 
teacher  at  Blochmann's  Institute  (see  Bloch- 
manm  at  Dresden;  in  L845,  he  became  lecturer 

at  the  university  of  Berlin ;  in  1849,  extraordi- 


nary, and  in  1851,  ordinary  professor  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Prague  ;  in  ls.">4.  professor  in  Kiel;  and 
in  1 S62,  professor  in  Leipsic,  where  he  also  be- 
came one  of  the  directors  of  the  philological 
seminary.  Curtius  endeavored  to  use  the  results 
of  comparative  linguistics  to  a  larger  extent  than 
had  previously  been  done  in  the  study  of  Latin 
and  Greek,  and  was  the  first  who  wrote  a  gram- 
mar of  the  (neck  language  for  schools  from  thi> 
stand-point.  This  work  {(.rru'diiscltr  Si-huhp'tim- 
maiik,  Prague,  Ls">2  :  11th  edit..  1875),  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  best  text-books  in  the  prov- 
ince of  the  classical  languages,  and  has  not  only 
been   extensively   introduced    into    the    German 

gymnasiums,  but  has  been  translated  into  many 
foreign  languages.  The  principles  which  are 
carried  out  in  this  book,  are  elucidated  in  a  spe- 
cial work,  called  Erlduterungen  zu  meiner  grie- 
chischen  Schulgrammaiik  (2d  ed..  Prague.  L870), 
and  in  many  essays  of  his  Studien  zur  lateini- 
schen  und  griechischen  Grammatik  (8  vols., 
Leips.,  1808 — 75).  In  another  work.  Grundziige 
der  griechischen  Etymologie  (2  vols..  4th  ed., 
Leips.,  L873),  he  undertook  to  find  a  strictly 
scientific  basis  for  <  bvek  Lexicography.  He  also 
wrote  Zur  Chronologie  der  i?idogerrnanischen 
Sprachforschung  (2ded.,  Leips.,  1873),  and  Das 
Verbum  der  griechischen  Sprache  (1st  vol., 
Leips.,  1873). 


DACIER,  Andre,  a  noted  French  scholar, 
born  at  Oastres  in  1651,  died  in  Paris,  in  1 7212. 
He  published  translations  of  several  classic 
authors,  among  them,  Plutarch's  Lirrs.  Aris- 
totle's Poetics,  the  (Ed  i pus  and  Electra  of 
Sophocles,  the  works  of  Horace,  and  some  of 
Plato's  dialogues.  He  was  one  of  the  39  schol- 
ars selected  to  edit  the  celebrated  series  of  the 
classics  i«  usum  delphini,  prepared  by  order  of 
I. oiiis  XI  V..  for  the  instruction  of  the  dauphin. 
To  this  scries  he  contributed  an  edition  of  Pom- 
ponitis  Pestus  and  of  Valerius  Placcus.  llewas 
appointed  keeper  of  the  library  of  the  Louvre; 
and.  iii  L 7 13,  became  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
I  Vendi  Academy. 

DACIER,  Anne,  wife  of  Andre  Dacier.and 
illustrious  for  her  extraordinary  attainments  in 
classical  (especially  Greek)  scholarship,  was  born 
in  L 654,  and  died  in  1 7*Jo.     Her  father  was  the 

eminent  scholar  Tanneguy-I  A'fevre,  by  whom  she 

was  educated.  Her  marriage. in  L683,  to  Andre 
Dacier,  who  had  been  her  fellow-pupil  under  her 
lather's  instruction,  was  humorously  styled  the 
"mania-cut  Greek  and  Latin."  She,  with  her 
husband,  assisted  in  preparing  classics  for  the  use 
of  the  dauphin,  contributing  editions  of  Floras, 

KutropiuS,    \  melius  V  ictor,  and  s<  >uic  others.   She 

published  also  translations  of  some  of  the  plays 
of  Plautus  and  Terence.  Homer,  Aristophanes, 
etc.  In  profound  and  accurate  scholarship,  and 
acuteness  of  mind,  she  is  generally  thought  to 

have  excelled    her  h  ,IIM«'  I    llUshalld. 


DACTYLOLOGY  (Gr.  S&ktuKoc,  a  finger), 
a  method  of  communicating  ideas  by  means  of 
signs  made  with  the  fingers,  composing  what  is 
called  the  manual  or  finger  alphabet,  and  em- 
ployed by  the  deaf  and  dumb.  There  are  two 
alphabets  of  this  kind:  (1)  the  single-band  al- 
phabet, the  origin  of  which  dates  back  to  Bonet 
(q.  v.),  and  which  is  used  every-where  except  in 
•  beat  Britain,  and  is  gaining  ground  there;  and 
(2)  the  two  hand  alphabet,  which  was  originally 
invented    by    I'algarno   (<].  v.).     The   former   Off 

these  alphabets  was  brought  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection  by  the  abbe  de  I'Epee  and  the  abbe 
Sicard  (q.  v.).  (See  Deaf-Mdtes,  and  Pkk.t. 
IIakvkv   P.) 

DAKOTA  was  organized  as  a  territory 
March  '_'..  L861,  being  formed  from  the  terri- 
tories of  Minnesota  and  Nebraska.  In  L868,  a 
portion  of  the  extensive  territory  of  Dakota  was 
taken  to  form  the  territory  of  Wyoming.  All 
this  region  originally  formed  a  part  of  Louisiana. 

purchased  from  Prance  in  L803.     According  to 

the  census  of  L870,  the  area  of  Dakota  comprises 
1  .">(). 932  square  miles:  and  its  population,  at 
that  time,  was  L4,181.  The  first  permanent 
white  settlements  were  made  in   L859,  in  what 

are    now    the   counties    of    Yankton,    ('lay.    and 

Union;   but    there  was  but  little  immigration 

into  the  territory  until  L866, 

Educational   History.     The   first    legislature 

met  in  March.  1862;  but  DO  School  law  was  en- 
acted until  L867,  when  an  act  was  passed  by  the 


DAKOTA 


103 


territorial  assembly,  providing  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
county  superintendents,  district  directors,  and 
hoards  of  Bchool  trustees.  This  law  was  ap- 
proved Jan.  ;{..  L868.  In  L869,  another  law  was 
passed,  which  directed  the  election  of  a  territo- 
rial superintendent,  who  should  report  annually 
to  the  legislature,  and  county  superintendents, 
who  were  to  report  annually  by  the  loth  of 
November.  The  immediate  government  of  the 
Behool-district  was  intrusted  to  a  district  hoard. 
composed  of  a  director,  a  clerk,  and  a  treasurer. 

Annual  school  meetings  were  to  be  held  in   each 

district  on  the  last  Saturday  in  March.  The 
district  clerk  made   the  annual   enumeration  of 

children;  and  no  district  that  had  not  maintained 
a  school  three  months  during  the  year,  was  en- 
titled to  any  portion  of  the  school  fund.  Politics 
and  sectarianism  were  excluded  from  the  schools. 
In  1870,  a  genera]  improvement  in  the  schools, 
and  an  increase  in  attendance,  were  remarked  ; 
the  number  of  children  receiving  instruction  be- 
ing 1.1  11.  out  of  a  population  of  14,181,  and  the 
tries  of  teachers  ranging  from  $25  to  $100  per 
month,  .Much  trouble,  however,  was  caused  by 
the  want  of  uniformity  in  text-books.  In  1871, 
the  school  law  was  repealed,  and  a  new  one  en- 
acted. In  1873,  this  was  amended,  the  number  of 
schools  iu  the  territory  at  that  time  being,  by  an 
approximate  estimate,  100,  and  the  number  of 
children  of  school  age  being  5,31  2.  of  whom  2,006 
were  reported  as  enrolled  in  the  schools.  About 
$22,000  were  raised  that  year  for  school  pur- 
poses. The  territorial  superintendents  have  been, 
James  S.  Foster,  1869 — 71;  J.  M.  Turner,  1871 
—3;  E.  W.  Miller,  1873—5;  and  J.  J.  Mcln- 
tyre.  elected  in  1875,  and  still  in  office  (1876). 

School  System.  —  The  principal  school  officer 
under  the  present  law  is  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  who  is  elected  biennially.  He 
is  permitted  to  choose  a  deputy  who  must  reside 
in  that  portion  of  the  territory  north  of  the  46th 
parallel  of  latitude.  His  duties  are  to  exercise 
a  general  supervision  over  the  schools,  and  to 
hold,  in  connection  with  the  county  superin- 
tendents, annual  teachers'  institutes,  attendance 
upon  which  is  expected  from  all  teachers  ap- 
plying for  certificates.  To  defray  partially  the 
expenses  of  these  institutes,  the  sum  of  $100  is 
appropriated  from  the  treasury.  The  territorial 
superintendent,  also,  grants  teachers'  certificates, 
fixes  the  grades  of  county  certificates,  prescribes 
the  text-books  to  be  used  in  the  schools,  and 
makes  an  annual  report  to  the  governor.  <  'ounty 
superintendents  are  elected  by  the  people  bien- 
nially. They  divide  their  counties  into  school- 
districts,  examine  teachers,  grant  certificates  valid 
for  3  months  or  a  year,  apportion  the  school 
moneys,  and  report  annually  to  the  territorial 
superintendent.  District-school  boards,  com- 
posed of  three  officers,  a  director,  a  clerk,  and  a 
treasurer,  are  elected  annually.  Deriving  their  au- 
thority directly  from  the  people  of  the  district  by 
vote  at  the  annual  meetings,  their  power,  within 
the  law,  i>  supreme  in  everj  thing  that  relates  to 
the  building,  purchasing,  or  renting  of  school- 


houses,  the  supply  of  furniture  or  apparatus,  the 
employment  oil  teachers,  or  the  direct  govern? 
ment  of  the  schools  of  their  districts.  They  are 
authorized  to  send  scholars  from  their  own  dis- 
tricts to  the  graded  or  high  schools  of  other  dis- 
tricts within  a  reasonable  distance,  the  tuition  fee 
for  which  may  be  paid  from  the  teachers'  fund. 
The  voters  at  the  annual  meeting,  or  at  a  special 

meeting  called  for  the  purpose,   prescribe  the 

lengl  li  of  time  the  s<  hools  shall  be  k(  | it  open  each 
year,  and  specify  whether  their  portion  of  the 
school  fund  shall  lie  applied  to  the  support  of 
summer  Or  winter  schools.  No  district  is  entitled 
to  any  portion  of  the  public  fund  unless  it  shall 
have  forwarded  to  the  county  superintendent  its 
annual  report,  within  40  days  of  the  time  speci- 
fied for  holding  the  annual  meeting,  nor  unless 
it  shall  have  kept  open  a  school  for  3  months 
during  the  previous  year.  Each  district  may 
raise  annually  by  tax  on  taxable  property  a  sum 
for  school  purposes,  not  to  exceed  one  per  cent  of 
the  valuation.  County  or  town  assessors  are 
directed  to  tax  every  voter  $1  annually  for  the 
support  of  the  schools,  to  which  is  added  an  ad- 
ditional tax  of  2  mills  on  the  dollar.  The  schools 
are  free  to  all  children  between  the  ages  of  5  and 
21  years,  and  the  number  of  such  children  in 
each  district  is  made  the  basis  for  the  apportion- 
ment of  the  school  fund. 

Educational  Condi  lion. — The  number  of  or- 
ganized school  districts,  in  1875,  was  2!)6  ;  the 
number  of  schools,  172.  The  school  revenue  was 
as  follows  : 

From  county  tax $13,138.41 

"    district  tax 15,512.49 

"    other  sources . .     3,952.23 

Total $32,603.13 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 

For  teachers'  wages $18,045.88 

"    buildings,  repairs,  rent,  etc.    9,985.01 
"     incidentals  and  furniture. . .    4,572.26 

Total $32,603.13 

The  following  are  the  principal  items  of  school 
statistics  for  1H75: 

Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5  to  21  years)  8,343 

"  "       enrolled  in  the  schools 4,428 

Number  of  teachers,  both  sexes 208 

Normal  Instruction. — No  school  has  yet  been 
estabbshed  for  the  training  of  teachers,  the 
sparseness  of  the  population  not  permitting 
it.  An  annual  teachers'  institute,  however, 
is  held,  the  legal  session  of  winch  is  10  days. 
Four  such  institutes  have,  thus  far,  been  con- 
vened, with  a  general  attendance,  on  the  part  of 
the    teachers    of    the   territory. 

The  provisions  made  in  Dakota  for  any  thing 
further  than  elementary  instruction  are,  of  course, 
very  limited,  the  smallnessof  the  population  rend- 
ering all  attempts  in  this  direction,  up  to  the 
present  time,  premature.  Writing  in  1876,  the 
territorial  superintendent  says:  "We  have  no 
regularly  formed  school  associations,  except  in 
si  Hue  of  the  older  counties,  which  are  beginning 
to  organize  county  teachers'  associations."  The 
only  school  of  a  higher  grade  than  elementary, 
is  an  academy  at  Yankton. 


200 


DAI.C  ARXO 


DAME  SCHOOLS 


DALGAENO,  George,  an  ingenious  Brit- 
ish scholar,  teacher,  and  writer,  chiefly  noted  for 
his  publications  on  the  art  of  teaching  deaf- 
mutes,  lie  was  born  at  Aberdeen  about  1627, 
and  died  at  Oxford  in  L687.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Aberdeen,  and  subsequently 
taught  a  school  at  Oxford  for  about  30  years. 
His  two  celebrated  publications  are  Ars  Signo- 
rum,  vulgo  Character  Universalis  et  Lingua 
PhUosophica  (London,  L661),  and  Didascah- 
cophus,ot  The  Deaf-Mute's  Tutor  (Oxford,  1 081). 
The  former  of  these  was  an  ingenious  attempt  to 
construct  a  system  for  representing  ideas  by  ar- 
bitrary signs,  and  presents  a  very  full  and  quite 
accurate  exposition  of  the  principles  of  deaf- 
mute  instruction  ;  the  latter  work  was  designed 
"to  bring  the  way  of  teaching  a  deaf  man  to 
read  and  write,  as  near  as  possible  to  that  of 
teaching  young  ones  to  speak  and  understand 
their  mother-tongue."  I  >algarno  also  invented  a 
two-hand  alphabet,  from  which  the  one  subse- 
quently adopted  in  England  appears  to  have 
been  derived.  His  collected  works  were  re- 
printed in  1  vol.  -Ito,  in  Edinburgh  (1834). — 
See  Chambers,  Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen  ;  Edinburgh  Review  (July, 
1835);  Annals  of  the  Deof  and  Dumb,  vol.  ex., 
in  which  Didascalocophus  is  reprinted. 

DAME  SCHOOLS,  the  uame  given  in  Eng- 
land to  small  elementary  private  schools  kept  by 
women,  and  attended  by  young  children,  both 
boys  and  girls.  Schools  of  this  kind  formerly 
abounded,  every  village  and  hamlet  having  its 
dame  school.  Shenstone  in  the  School-mistress 
gives  a  probably  correct,  although  satirical  de- 
scription of  such  a  school  and  of  the  dame  that 
presided  over  it. 

"In  every  village  marked  with  little  spire, 

Embowered  In  trees,  and  hardly  known  to  fame, 
There  dwells,  in  lowly  shed,  and  mean  attire, 

A  matron  old,  whom  we  school-mistress  name; 
Who  boasts  unruly  brats  with  birch  to  tame: 

They  grieven  sore,  in  piteous  durance  pent. 
Awed  by  the  power  of  this  relentless  dame; 

Ami  oftentimes,  on  vagaries  idly  bent, 
For  unkempt  hair,  or  task  um-onned, are  sorely  shent." 

Although,  owing  to  the  present  ample  provi- 
sion, in  England,  for  better  instruction  through 

the  national  schools,  the  need  of  dame  schools  no 
longer  exists,  yet  they  still  linger  in  large  num- 
bers, and  obstruct  the  proper  working  of  the 
Education  Act.     In  theSchool  Board  Chronicle 

of  Feb.  (I.,  L875,  there  is  the  following  suggestive 

complain!  :  "  It  is  within  the  power  of  a  few  il- 
literate old  people  to  set  the  elementary  educa- 
tion act  at  QOUght,by  giving  the  name  of  schools 
to  the  miserable  places  in  which  it  is  their  mis- 
fortune to  dwell,  and  professing  to  impart  in- 
struction to  children  whose  parents  are  desirous 
of  evading  the  school  board's  by-laws."  This 
would  seem  to  confirm  the  descriptions  of  these 
schools  given  by  Dickens  in  some  of  his  novels. 
of  which  the  following  is  a  specimen  :  "The  pu- 
pils ate  apples,  and  put  straws  down  one  an- 
other's backs, until  Mr.  Wbpsle's  great  aunt  [the 
school-mistress,  or  dame]  collected  her  energies, 

and  made  an  indiscriminate   totter  at  them  with 

a  birch  rod.     A  tier  receiving  the  charge  with 


every  form  of  derision,  the  pupils  formed  in  line-, 
and  buzzingly  passed  a  ragged  book  from  hand 
to  hand.  The  book  had  an  alphabet  in  it.  some 
figures  and  tables,  and  a  little  spelling;  that  is 
to  say — it  had  once. "  This  description  gives  an 
idea  of  the  interior  of  one  of  these  schools,  and 
the  following,  from  (rood  Words,  is  intended  to 
represent  the  exterior : 

•■  The  less  pretentious  kind  of  Dame's  School  chiefly 
differs  from  the  brass-plate  kind  in  that  it  is  less  pre- 
tentious, otherwise  they  are  pretty  equal  in  their  in- 
efficiency. The  mistress  of  the  humbler  school  is  not 
called  a  governess,  but  "the  missis,"  or  "the  old  lady." 
The  missis  not  uiifrequently  keeps  a  shop  as  well  as  a 
school  :  the  scrawl  announcing  that  a  school  is  "kept 
here,"  appearing  in  the  window  in  conjunction  with  a 
pair  of  crossed  "  church-warden  pipes,"  a  couple  of 
bottles  of  sweets,  half  a  dozen  high-dried  herrings, 
and  a  box  id' such  sundries  as  thread,  tape,  and  stay- 
laces,  and  her  school  is  supported  on  the  same  ground 
as  her  shop— because  it  is  "  close  handy."  Their 
"handiness"  is  the  strong  point  of  these  schools;  if 
they  ceased  to  be  handy  they  might  as  well  takedown 
their  banner,  and  close  their  doors.  Hence  it  comes 
that  one  or  more  of  them  is  to  be  found  in  almost  every 
street,  of  quarters  inhabited  by  the  industrious  poor. 
The  mothers  in  such  quarters  will  tell  you  that  they 
are  glad  to  be  rid  of  their  children  tor  a  few  hoars  in 
the  day,  and  thankful  to  have  a  place  to  send  them  to, 
where  they  will  be  out  of  danger  and  out  of  mischief. 
So  they  "pack  them  oil'"  to  the  old  holy's." 

The  existence  of  dame  schools  in  England  has 
recently  been  much  complained  of.  inasmuch  as 
parents  can  comply  with  the  compulsory  attend- 
ance law .  or  evade  it.^  penalties,  by  sending  their 
children  irregularly  to  these  schools;  and  large 
numbers  of  them  (sometimes  called  private  ad- 
venture schools)  have  sprung  up,  within  the  last 
two  or  three  years,  tor  that  express  purpose.  The 
evil  is  difficult  to  control  without  more  stringenl 
penal  legislation  than  public  opinion  in  England 
is,  as  yet.  fully  prepared  for. 

In  the  United  Slates,  the  country  district 
schools  are  generally  taught  by  young'  women ; 
but  the  law  requires  that  they  should  be  regu- 
larly certificated  teachers.  To  one  such  the 
beautiful  lines  of  Longfellow  probably  refer. 
which  may.  with  interest,  be  contrasted  with 
Shenstone's  quaint  description  of  the  school 
dame  of  his  time. 

"She  dwells  by  e;reat  Kanhawa's  side, 

in  valleys  green  and  cool, 
And  all  her  hope  and  all  ber  pride 

Are  in  her  village  school. 

Her  soul,  like  the  transparent  air 

That  robes  the  lulls  above, 
Though  not  of  earth,  encircles  there 

All  things  with  arms  of  love. 

And  thus  she  walks  amid  her  airls. 

With  praise  and  mild  rebukes ; 

Subduing  e'en  rude  \  lllage  churls, 

Bj    her  angl  lie  looks." 

Some  of  the  private  or  ■•select"  schools  of  the 
in  ies  answer,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  the  English 
dame  schools,  but  are  of  much  higher  grade  of 
efficiency.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  as  education 
becomes  more  diffused  among  all  classes  of  so- 
ciety in  England,  the  possibility  of  ••  illiterate  old 
people"  keeping  a  school  with  the  chance  of  ob- 
taining any  patronage  whatever,  will  become  en- 
tirely a  thing  of  the  past. 


DANA 


DANCING 


201 


DANA,  James  Dwight,  an  eminent  Amer- 
ican scientist,  teacher,  and  author, born  at  CJtica, 
N.  V..  in  1813.  He  was  educated  at  Y ale  Col- 
lege, where  he  afterward  served  as  an  assistant 
tii  Professor  Silliman,  and  subsequently  (1855) 
succeeded  him  as  professor  of  chemistry.  He 
published  several  works  of  importance  in  the  de- 
partments of  natural  history,  geology,  and  min- 
eralogy. His  school  text-books  have  been  ex- 
tensively used  :  among  which  maybe  particular- 
ly mentioned  his  System  of  Mineralogy,  ">th  ed. 
(1858),  and  M,niti<d  of  Geology  (1863).  Since 
1846,  he  has  been  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts, founded 
in  1819,  by  the  elder  Silliman. 

DANCING,  and  Dancing-  Schools.  Dan- 
cing, as  a  means  of  expressing  by  movements 
and  gestures  of  the  body  the  emotions  of  the 
mind,  is  found  among  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth.  In  the  Old  Testament,  the  fiance  is  spoken 
of  universally  as  symbolical  of  rejoicing,  and  is 
often  coupled,  for  the  sake  of  contrast,  with 
mourning.  Sacred  dances  were  performed  on 
the  solemn  anniversaries  of  the  .lews,  the  per- 
formers usually  being  a  band  of  females  who 
volunteered  their  services,  although  there  are 
not  wanting  instances  also  of  men's  joining  in  the 
dance  on  these  seasons  of  religious  festivity.  King 
David  danced  on  the  auspicious  occasion  of  the 
ark*s  being  brought  up  to  Jerusalem;  and  his 
example  was  imitated  by  the  later  Jews,  who  in- 
corporated the  dance  with  their  favorite  usages, 
as  an  appropriate  close  of  the  joyous  occasion  of 
the  feast  of  the  Tabernacles.  The  members  of 
the  Sanhedrim,  the  rulers  of  the  synagogues, 
doctors  of  schools,  and  all  who  were  eminent  for 
rank  or  piety,  accompanied  the  sacred  music 
with  their  voices,  and  leaped  and  danced  with 
torches  in  their  hands  for  a  great  part  of  the 
night,  while    the  women   and    common  people 

I  n  »ked  on.  The  Jewish  dance  was  performed  by 
the  sexes  separately.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
the  diversion  was  promiscuously  enjoyed,  except 
perhaps  at  the  erection  of  a  deified  calf,  when, 
in  imitation  of  the  Egyptian  festival  of  Apis,  all 
classes  of  the  Hebrews  intermingled  in  the  frantic 
revelry.  Among  the  Egyptians,  dancing  formed 
a  part  of  the  religious  ceremonies,  and  was  also 
common  in  private  entertainments.  In  Greece, 
the  gods  themselves  were  represented  as  pas- 
sionately fond  of    the    diversion ;    and    in   the 

I I  unan  empire,  it  was  a  favorite  pastime,  resorted 
to  not  only  to  enliven  feasts  but  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  domestic  joy.  It  was,  however,  con- 
sidered beneath  the  dignity  of  persons  of  rank 
and  character  to  practice  it.  Under  the  patron- 
age  of  the  Roman  emperors,  the  art  was  carried 
to  the  utmost  perfection  ;  the  favorite  mode  be- 
ing  that  of  pantomime,  which,  like  that  of  the 
modern  ahnehs,or  Arab  dancing  women,  was  often 
of  the  most  licentious  description.  In  the  early 
Christian  church,  the  dance  was  introduced  on 
the  festival  days  of  martyrs  and  other  saints,  as 
well  as  on  occasions  of  great  ecclesiastical  solem- 
nities. Subserpiently,  dances  connected  with 
masquerades  became  a  universal  habit  in   the 


Roman  Catholic  world  at  Shrovetide,  on  the 
day  of  St.  Y  it  ns  (hence  the  name  of  St.  Vitus's 
dance),  and  on  thai  of  Corpus  Christi;  and  the 
"Jumping    Procession"  at    Echternach,  in  the 

grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg,  which  was  instituted 
in  honor  ot  the  cessation  of  the  St.Y  it  ns's  dance, 

and  w  Inch  consists  in  all  the  participants' jumping 

two  steps  forward  and  one  step  backward,  is  still 
celebrated  with  great  solemnities,  and  attended 
by  large  crowds  of  devout  people.  In  all  the 
Christian  churches  of  Germany,  there  was,  in 
early  times,  an  elevated  portion,  which  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  other  parts  of  the  churches  and 
called  cJ/or  (from  the  (.'reek  ,i  "/<<"/.  dance  or  dan- 
cing place,  English,  choir).  Upon  this  the  priests 
danced  every  Sunday  and  festive  day.  Every 
church  festival  had  its  own  peculiar  dances;  and, 
on  the  vigils,  the  most  zealous  and  virtuous 
(  hi  istians  assembled,  during  the  night,  before 
the  doors  of  the  churches,  for  singing  and  dan- 
cing. Thus,  like  other  arts,  dancing  was  long  an 
art  chiefly  in  the  service  of  religion.  This  char- 
acter it  has  now  lost  almost  entirely  ;  but  a  few 
small  sects  in  the  United  States,  like  the  Shakers 
and  Rappites,  still  observe  it  as  part  of  their 
religious  worship. 

In  proportion  as  dancing  became  disconnected 
from  the  church  and  religion,  it  assumed  greater 
prominence  as  a  social  enjoyment,  both  in  the 
family  life  and  at  great  popular  festivals.     At 
court  celebrations,  spring  and  fall  festivals,  har- 
vest homes,  and  especially  wedding-feasts,  dancing 
came  to  be  looked  upon  as  an  indispensable  part 
of  social  enjoyment;  and  peculiar  kinds  of  dances, 
as  the  ballet,  were  introduced  into  the  theaters. 
Every  country,  and  almost  every  province,  pro- 
duced its  own   national    dance,  reflecting   and 
representing  the  character  of  the  people.    In  all 
these  dances,  two  elements  may  be  observed,  the 
social  and  the  artistic.     The  latter  has  attracted 
the  interest  of  many  educational  writers  who  have 
viewed  dancing  as  a  gymnastic  exercise  especially 
suited  for  promoting  graceful  manners  and  devel- 
oping the  sense  of  the  beautiful.     (See  Calis- 
thenics.)     It  is,  however,  chiefly  the  element  of 
sensuous  enjoyment  which  has  given  to  dancing 
the  prominent  position  which  it  holds  at  present 
among  popular  amusements.     rihe  characteristic 
feature  to  which   it  owes  this  prominence,  and 
which,  more  than  anything  else,  distinguishes  it 
from  the  dancing  of  the  ancient  world,  is  the 
participation   in   its  performance  of  persons  of 
both  sexes.     Among   all  classes  of  society,  the 
dance  has  thus  become   the  means  of  affording 
an  occasion  to  the  sexes  of  forming  an  acquaint- 
ance with  each   other  ;  and.  hence,  except  when 
properly  restricted,  has  been  viewed  as  a  prolific 
source  of  moral  danger  and  excess.     Religious 
writers  of  all   denominations   have  accordingly 
ried  with  each  other  in  warning  young  persons 
against  the  dangers  of  the   ball;   still  there  has 
been    considerable    difference     in     the    position 
taken  by  different  churches  in  regard  to  dancing 
in  general.     Many  of  the   Protestant   churches 
absolutely  prohibii  their  members  from  dancing; 
while  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  been  less 


202 


DARTMOUTH   COLLEGE 


strict  in  its  denunciations,  raising  its  warning 
voice  more  against  the  abuses  than  against  the 
practice  itself. 

The  prevalence  of  dancing  as  a  social  amuse- 
ment and  the  esteem  in  which  it  is  held  as  a  part 

of  the  sessary  preparation  for  polite  society, 

naturally  prompt  all  parents  who  have  no  re- 
ligious or  moral  objection  to  the  practice  to  have 
their  children,  especially  their  daughters,  in- 
structed in  (lancing.  No  provision  has  anywhere 
been  made  for  it  in  any  public-school  system  ; 
but,  in  private  schools  and  boarding-schools,  il 
is  quite  common  to  tin<l  that  the  prospectus  in- 
cludes dancing  among  the  extras  in  which  in- 
struction may  lie  received.  This  is  less  frequently 
the  case  in  Protestant  than  in  Catholic  semi- 
naries, and  in  American  than  in  European 
schools.  The  large  majority  of  pupils,  however, 
who  are  instructed  in  dancing,  receive  their  in- 
struction in  special  dancing  schools  or  academies. 
the  number  of  which  is  immense.  It  is  a  matter 
of  course  that,  as  a  general  rule,  this  latter  class 
of  schools  cannot  offer  so  good  a  supervision  of. 
its  pupils  as  the  former.  See  CzERWINSKI,  Gre- 
schichte  der  Tanzkunst  (Leipsic,  1862). 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE,  at  Hanover. 
New  Hampshire,  was  chartered  in  L769.  The 
first  class  graduated  in  1771.  It  originated  in  a 
school  for  Indian  youth  established  at  Lebanon, 

Connecticut,  by  the  Rev.  I>r.  \\  Ik  clock,  the  first 

president,  and  was  named  after  Lord  Dartmouth, 
who  subscribed  to  a  fund  for  the  school.    The 

college  is  not  by  its  charter  under  the  control  of 
any  religious  denomination,  but  a  large   majority 

of  the  trustees  have  usually  been  Orthodox  Con- 

-re-ationalists.  The  buildings  front  on  a  line 
campus  on  an  upland  plain  near  the  ( 'onnecticut 
river.  The  institution  has  extensive  philosophical 
apparatus  ;  and  an  astronomical  and  meteorolog- 
ical observatory,  with  a  telescope,  made  by  Clark, 
of  9.4  inches  aperture  and  12  feet  focal  length;  j 
a  museum  of  geology  and  natural  history:  a 
chemical  laboratory;  and  a  gymnasium.  The 
libraries  contain  53,900  volumes.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  its  endow- 
ments, which,  in  all  the   departments,  amount  to 

about  0525,000.  The  college  comprises  an  aca- 
demic department,  the  Chandler  Scientific  de- 
partment, the  New  Hampshire  college  of  Agri- 
culture   and     the    Mechanic     Arts,     the    Thayer 

.school  of  Civil  Engineering,  and  a  medical  de- 
partment. Funds  have  recently  been  given  to 
establish  a  law  department.  While  the  college 
adheres,  in  general,  to  the  idea  of  a  settled  and 

well  -balanced  curriculum,  it  admits,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  elective  principle.  (1)  There  is  a 
choice,  as    students  enter,    between  the  three  UB- 

der-graduate  departments,  —  academic,  scien- 
tific,   and    agricultural       (2)     In    each    of    these 

departments,  a  partial  course  may  he  taken,  em- 
bracing  two.  at    least,  of   the    prescribed    studies, 

and  securing  an  appropriate  testimonial.  (3)  In 
the  scientific  department,  there  is  a  choice  in  the 

last  year,  and  in  the  agricultural  department  in 
the     laSl      tWO     years,    between    different     courses 

i     fhere  are,  also,  a  number  of  options  between 


particular  studies.  The  course  in  the  academic 
department  is  one  of  four  years,  and  leads  to  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  The  cost  of  tuition 
is  S!)(l  a  year.  Aid  is  afforded  to  indigent  stu- 
dents chiefly  in  the  form  of  scholarships,  usually 
yielding  070  per  annum,  but  in  some  cases  Slot). 
Of  these  there  are  |  1876)  more  than  120.  Tlie 
Chandler  Scientific  Department  was  established 
by  a  resolution  of  the  trustees,  in  L852,  in  accep- 
tance of  the  sum  of  050,000, bequeathed  to  them 
in  trust  by  Abie!  <  'handler  for  the  establishment 
and  support  of  a  permanent  department  or  school 
of  instruction  in  the  practical  and  useful  arts  of 
life,  comprised  chiefly  in  the  branches  of  mechan- 
ics and  civil  engineering,  architecture  and  draw- 
ing, the  modern  languages  and  English  literature, 
together  with  book-keeping,  &c.  The  course  is 
of  four  years,  and  leads  to  the  degree  of  Bache- 
lor of  Science.  In  the  last  year,  there  are  two 
courses,  —  the  general  course  and  the  civil  en- 
gineering course.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  060  a 
year.  At  the  session  of  the  legislature  of  New 
Hampshire  in  L866,  an  act  was  passed  establish- 
ing the  New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture 
and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  on  the  basis  of  the  con- 
gressional laud  grant, and  authorizing  its  location 
at  Hanover,  and  its  connection  with  Dartmouth 
College. 

The  course  of  instruction  embraces  three 
years.  During  the  first  year,  all  the  students 
pursue  the  same  studies.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  second  year,  they  are  required  to  select  either 
the  special  course  of  agriculture  or  the  course  of 
mechanic  arts.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Sci- 
ence is  conferred  upon  those  who  have  completed 
the  entire  course  of  agriculture  or  mechanic  arts 
and  have  passed  the  final  examination.  The  cost 
of  tuition  is  £.'50  a  year.  There  are  twelve  free 
scholarships,  covering  the  charge  for  tuition, 
one  for  each  senatorial  district,  established  in 
connection  with  the  congressional  grant.  Several 
scholarships  have  also  been  established  by  the 
I  Ion.  John  ( 'onant,  one  for  each  town  in  ( 'heshire 
County.  There  are  other  scholarships  available  to 
worthy  applicants  from  any  part  of  the  state. 

There    is  an   experimental   farm  of    L65  acres  in 

the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  college  buildings, 

which  furnishes  opportunity  to   the  students  for 

remunerative  labor.  The  college  has  also  re- 
cently purchased  200  acres  of   woodland    adjoin- 

ing  the  farm.  The  Thayer  School  of  Ci\il  En- 
gineering was  established  in  1 870,  in  pursuance 

of  a  donation  of  070,000  from  the  late  Gen.  Syl- 

vanus   Thayer,  for  the  establishment  of   a  special 

course  of  instruction  in  civil  engineering.     It  is 

essentially,   though    not    formally,  postgraduate. 

The  course  of  study  is  of  two  years.  The  degree 
of  Civil  Engineer  is  conferred  on  those  whose  pro- 
ficiency is  such  as  to  secure  a  ivcominendat  ion 
from  the  board  of  overseers.  The  cost  of  tuition 
is   060    a    year.      The    medical   department    was 

founded  in  1797,  and  was  formerly  known  as  the 
New  Hampshire  Medical  College.  It  has  mu- 
seums of  anatomy,  materia  medica,  and  pathol- 
ogy. The  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  is  oon- 
Pi  ii.d  after  examination.     Every  candidate  must 


dayidsox  collkck 


DEAF-MUTES 


203 


Number 

of 

Number  of 

ins  true-tors. 

students 

17 

284 

17 

76 

14 

29 

3 

6 

9 

84 

in-  twenty-one  years  of  age.  have  attended  two 
full  courses  of  lectures  at  some  regularly  author- 
ised medical  school,  one  of  which  must  have 

been  at  this  institution,  ami  must  give  satisfac- 
tory evidence  thai  he  has  devoted  three  full 
years  to  his  professional  studies,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  some  regular  practitioner,  the  time  Bpenl 
at  lectures  being  included.  There  is  a  lecture 
term  as  well  as  a  recitation  term.  The  fee  for 
lectures  is  S77.  and  for  recitations  S-10.  Tin1 
statistics  for  1ST.") — 0  arc  ;us  follows  : 


Departments. 

Academic 

Scientific 

Agricultural 
Engineering 

.Medical 


Total  (deducting  repetitions)  35  479 

According  to  the  triennial  catalogue  of  1873, 
the  whole  numberof  alumni  was  3,907.  of  whom 
2,077  were  living.  The  following  is  the  list  of 
presidents  :  Eleazar  Wheelock,  D.  I).,  1769 — 79; 
John  Wheelock,  LL.  I).,  1779 — 1815;  Francis 
Brown,  D.D.,  1815—20:  Daniel  Dana,  D.D., 
1820—21;  Bennet  Tyler,  D.  D.,  1822— 28 ;  Na- 
than Lord.  D.D..  LL.  D.,  1828—63;  and  Asa 
D.  Smith.  D.  D..  LL.  D.,  the  preseut  inciuubeiit, 
appointed  in  1863. 

In  1816,  the  state  legislature  vested  the  prop- 
erty of  the  college  in  a  new  corporation,  and 
changed  its  title  to  Dartmouth  University.  This 
act  led  to  the  famous  Dartmouth  College  case, 
in  which  Daniel  Webster  made  his  celebrated 
argument  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States.  That  tribunal,  in  1819, declared 
the  action  of  the  legislature  void,  as  being  in 
contravention  of  that  clause  of  the  constitution 
which  prohibits  any  state  from  passing  laws  im- 
pairing the  obligation  of  contracts. 

DAVIDSON  COLLEGE  is  situated  in 
Mecklenburg  Co.,  N.  C,  on  the  line  of  the 
Atlantic,  Tennessee,  and  Ohio  Railroad,  twenty- 
three  miles  north  of  Charlotte.  The  name 
of  the  post-office  is  Davidson  College.  It  was 
chartered  in  1838,  and  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Presbyterians.  Its  buildings  contain  spa- 
cious chapels,  society-halls,  and  lecture-rooms,  to- 
gether with  pleasant  dormitories  sufficient  for  a 
large  number  of  students.  Its  libraries,  cabinets, 
and  apparatus  are  well  provided  for,  and  are 
constantly  receiving  accessions.  The  site  of  the 
college  and  of  the  adjacent  village  is  remarkably 
healthy,  being  free  from  malaria  and  other  local 
causes  of  sickness.  The  value  of  its  grounds, 
buildings, aud  apparatus  is  SI  50.000  ;  the  amount 
of  its  productive  funds.  $85,000;  of  scholarship 
funds,  SI 0,000.  The  college  year  is  divided  into 
two  tenns,  and  the  cost  of  tuition  is  $30  for  the 
first  term,  and  Sin  for  the  second.  <  andidates  for 
the  ministry  are  not  required  to  pay  for  tuition 
while  under  the  care  of  some  Presbytery.  The 
college  has  a  classical  course  of  four  years,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  a 
scientific  course  of  three  years,  leading  to  the  de- 
greed Uachelor  of  Science.     Students  not  wish- 


ing to  take  a  regular  course,  but  to  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  particular  branches  are  permitted 
to  do  so  at  the  discretion  of  the  faculty.  In 
1ST.!  ^4,  there  were  six  professors,  one  adjunct 
professor.  1  17  students  (classical.  9s  ;  scientific, 
15;  eclectic,  I),  9,000  volumes  in  the  libraries, 
and  351  alumni.  The  presidents  have  been 
as  follows:  the  Rev.  I!.  II.  Morrison.  D.  D., 
1  years;  the  I  lev.  Saml.  Williamson,  D.  1).,  13 
years  ;  the  I  lev.  Drury  Lacy,  D.  1).,  6  years  :  the 
Rev.  J.  L.  ELirkpatrick,  D.  D.,  6  years;  the  Rev. 
O.  W.  Mcl'hail.  D.  D.,  LL.  D..  5  years.  There 
is  now  (lsT(i)  no  president,  Prof.  John  R.  Rlake, 
M.  A.,  having  been  chairman  of  the  faculty 
since  1871. 

DAVIES,     Charles,    a    noted    American 
mathematician  and  teacher,  born  at  Washing- 
ton, Ct.,  in  1798;  died  at  Fishkill,  X.    V.,  in 
1876.  Lie  graduated,  in  1 815,  at  the  West  Point 
Academy,  and  subsequently  filled,  in  the  same, 
the  positions  of  tutor,  assistant  professor,  and 
professor  of  mathematics,  the  latter  from  1823 
to  1837.  He  afterward  occupied  a  similar  position 
iu  Trinity  College,  J  iartford,   aud  subsequently 
in  the  University  of  the  city  of  New  York,  and 
in  Columbia  College,  of  the  latter  of  which  he 
was  made  emeritus  professor.     Prof.  Pavies  was 
chiefly   known    by    his    series    of    school    and 
college  text-books  in   the   various  departments 
of    mathematical    study,    which    have    had    a 
wide    circulation.      He   also    published    Logic 
of  Mathematics,  and  in  connection  with  Prof, 
(jr.  W.  Peck,  a  Mathematical  Dictionary  ami 
Cyclopaedia  of  Mathematical  Science  (X.  Y., 
1855). 

DAY,  Jeremiah,  a  noted  American  edu- 
cator and  author,  and  the  president  of  Yale  Col- 
lege from  1817  to  1846.  He  was  born  in  New 
Preston,  Ct.,  Aug.  3.,  1873,  and  died  in  New 
Haven  Aug.  22.,  1867.  His  chief  publications 
were  An  Introduction  to  Algebra  (1814),  Men- 
suration of  Siqierficies  and  Solids  (1814),  Plane 
Trigonometry  (1815),  and  Navigation  and  Sur- 
veying (1817);  also  .4//  Inquiry  on  the  Self-De- 
termining Power  of  the  Will,  or  Contingent 
Vol il ion  (1838),  and  An  Examination  of  Presi- 
dent Edwards's  Inquiry  as  to  the  Freedom  of 
the  117//(IS41).  President  Day  was  a  close  and 
vigorous  thinker,  and  as  a  teacher  was  distin- 
guished for  the  clearness  and  simplicity  of  his 
methods  of  illustration.  His  kindness  of  heart 
and  urbanity  of  demeanor  secured  the  respect  of 
all  who  knew  him.  both  friends  and  pupils.  An 
address  commemorative  of  his  life  and  services, 
was  delivered  in  L867,  by  president  Woolsey.his 
successor  in  Yale  College. 

DEAF-MUTES,  or  Deaf  and  Dumb,  a 
class  of  persons,  scattered  throughout  every  na- 
tion in  a  greater  or  less  proportion,  who  cannot 
lieai-  the  sound  of  the  human  voice,  and,  conse- 
quently, lose  that  sympathetic  association  which 
exists  between  the  organs  of  hearing  and  speech, 
so  that  the  latter  are  rendered  inactive.  The 
decennial  enumerations  of  the  United  States  and 
Greal  Britain,  and  the  censuses  of  most  of  the 
countries  of  continental  Europe,  have  supplied 


204 


DEAF-MUTES 


statistical  information  as  to  the  number  of  deaf- 
mutes.  The  proportion  to  the  population  is 
quite  diverse,  varying  in  Europe  from  ,1  in  l.nno 
to  1  in  2,000.  In  the  United  States,  the  average 
proportion  is  1  in  2380;  while  in  England  it  is 
about  1  in  2,000.  Heme,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
actual  number  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  is  quite 
large.  According  to  the  census  of  L870,  the  total 
number   in  the    United  States  was  L6.205,  of 

whom  8,916  were  males:  and  7,289,  females.  The 
number  between  the  ages  of  5  and  20  was  re- 
ported as  7,648.  In  many  cases,  they  are  deaf 
from  birth;  in  others,  the  loss  of  hearing  is 
caused  by  accident  or  disease  at  an  early  age.  or 
in  some  cases,  later  in  life;  but  deafness  is 
almost  always  followed  by  a  loss  of  speech,  from 
disuse  of  the  organs  and  a  want  of  ability  to 
modulate  the  voice.  In  the  first  few  months  of 
life,  little  difference  can  be  perceived  between  the 
child  who  lias  its  hearing  perfect,  and  the  one 
born  deaf.  The  effect  of  sound  is  not  often 
thought  of  by  the  parents  and  friends,  in  some 
instances,  till  the  child  is  two  years  of  age  :  and, 
even  when  deafness  is  suspected,  the  means  em- 
ployed to  ascertain  the  fact  are  often  such  as  to 
confound  the  nervous  condition  of  the  whole  body 
with  that  of  the  portion  solely  connected  with 
the  ear.  In  former  times,  the  little  one  was  con- 
sidered as  a  doomed  being,  and  sorrow  took  the 
place  ot  joy  in  the  breast  of  the  parents.  Among 
some  nations,  deaf  persons  were  regarded  as  be- 
ing under  the  curse  of  Heaven.  Among  some 
barbarous  nations,  they  were  called  monsters,  and 
put  to  death  when  three  years  old.  or  as  soon 
as  their  deafness  was  satisfactorily  ascertained. 
They  were  considered  by  the  Romans  and  some 
contemporary  nations. if  not  as  positive  idiots. yet 
as  deficient  in  intellect,  and,  consequently,  were 
abridged  of  their  civil  rights;  as  we  find  in 
the  code  of  Justinian.  Oondillac,  at  a  compara- 
tively recent  period,  denied  them  the  faculty  of 
memory    and    the    power    of    reasoning.      Many 

parents,  even  at  the  present  time,  consider  them- 
selves disgraced  by  having  a   deal   and  dumb 

child,  ami  studiously  conceal  the  fact  from  the 
world.       Such    children    have    been,    in    almost 

every  age,  regarded   as   beings    between    man 

and   the   brute   creation  with    respect  to   mental 

capacity  and  endowment ;  but,  if  we  reflect  but 
a  moment,  we  shall  find  that  the  result  of  being 

deaf  and  dumb,  is  to  be  ignorant,  not  to  be  weak, 

— ignorant  of  science,  ignorant  of  history,  of 
morality,  and.  above  all.  ignoranl    of   religion, 

and  thus  virtually  "without  God  in  the  world.'' 
The  limited  circle  of  purely   intellectual  ideas 

which    these    unfortunates    possess.    i,>    a    natural 

consequence  of  their   limited    intercourse  with 

those    around    them.      They  are    shut    out    from 

communion  with  the  world  in  things  which  in- 
terest others,  from  a  knowledge  of  literature  and 
history,  and,  in    many    cases,  from    all    mean.--   of 

amusement,     in   some  cases,  it    has   happened 

that     they    h;i\e    beeiiine    idiots,  consequent     Upon 

the  Qon-employmen1  of  the  natural  powers  of 

the  mind.  In  other  cases,  they  have  become  de- 
ranged by  the  indulgence  of  headstrong,  impel 


uous  passion,  in  the  absence  of  a  control  of  judg- 
ment :  by  fretful  impatience  at  the  dim  percep- 
tion of  unknown  or  unattainable  excellence  seen 
in  others;  by  a  total  unfitness  for  nearly  all  the 
occupations  of  their  fellow  beings  ;  by  an  entire 
exclusion  from  the  vast  stores  of  knowledge  dis- 
played to  their  view  in  books;  or  by  an  igno- 
rance of  the  truths  of  religion.  All  these  causes 
operating  upon  a  sensitive  nature,  may  easily  un- 
set tie  the  reason. 

Such  was.  and  is.  the  sad  condition  of  the  un- 
educated deaf  and  dumb,  and  by  many  it  was 
asserted  to  be  irremediable.  St.  Augustine  de- 
clared it  was  beyond  the  resources  of  art,  and 
even  the  limits  of  possibility,  to  instruct  the 
deaf  and  dumb;  and.  in  proof  of  it,  he  quoted, 
Romans,  x.  IT.  "  Faith  cometh  by  hearing,  and 
hearing  by  the  word  of  <!od."  I  he  poet  Lucre- 
tius expressed  in  the  following  lines  the  opinion 
prevalent  in  his  time  : 

To  instruct  the  ileal',  no  art  can  reach: 

No  ear.-  improve  them,  and  no  wisdom  teach. 

Pliny, however,  mentions  that  Quintus  Pedius, 
a  relative  of  Augustus,  though  a  congenital  deaf- 
mute,  became  a  distinguished  artist. 

But  a  brighter  prospect  at  last  dawned  upon 
these  unfortunates.  Research,  observation,  and 
philanthropy  have  overturned  the  opinions  held 
by  the  ancients.  I  leaf-mutes  are  now  acknowl- 
edged to  possess  intellectual  faculties  in  common 
with  other  persons;  and, although  deprived  of 

the  sense  of  hearing  and  the  faculty  of  speech, 
they  are  found  to  be  capable  of  attention,  of  re- 
flection, of  memory,  of  imagination,  and  of  judg- 
ment, as  well  as  of  the  ability  to  communicate 
their  thoughts,  their  desires,  and  their  wants,  to 
t  heir  more  favored  fellows. 

According  to  the  Venerable  Bede,  St.  John  of 
Beverley,  bishop  of  Hagulstadt,  taught  a  dumb 
man  to  speak.  Bede  also  described  a  manual 
alphabet  in  his  [>*■  Loquda  per  Gestum  Digi- 
torum.  This  hook  was  first  printed  in  L 532, and 
its  plates  showing  the  finger  alphabet  are  prob- 
ably the  earliest  illustrations  of  dactylology  in 

existence.  Efforts  were  made  in  the  early  part  of 
the  1  6th  century,  to  imparl  instruction  to  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  but  to  only  a  limited  number.  The 
first  .systematic  attempt    to  educate  deaf-mutes 

was  that  of  Pedro   I" se  de  Leon,  at  Ona,  in 

Spain,  about  L 550,  who  taught  two  or  three  to 

read,  write,  and    articulate.      Later,  Juan  I'ablo 

Bonet,  also  in  Spain,  taught  a  few,  and  published, 
in  L620,  a  treatise  on  the  subject,  with  a  manual 

alphabet,  the  same  which  is  now  used  in  Europe 

and  America.  (See  Bonet.)  Some  learned  men 
in   Italy  also  taught  single  persons;  as  Cardan, 

who    instructed    the    prince    of     Carignan,    and 

I'ietro  di  Castro,  who  instructed  the  Prince  oi 

Savoy.  A  number  of  works  on  the  instruction 
ot  the  deaf  and  dumb  were  published  in  Spain. 
Italy,  and  Holland,  before  L650.  In  1653,  Dr. 
John  Wallis  instructed  two  deaf-mutes,  and  was 
the  first  practical  instructor  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  in  England.  In  L667,  Van  Belmont,  a 
native    of    Holland,    published   a    tract,   entitled 

Alphabetum  Natures,  in  which  he  explained  the 


DEAE-MUTKS 


205 


process  of  reading  from  the  lips.  The  two-hand 
alphabet,  now  used  in  England,  was  invented 
by  Dalgarno,  in  L680.  (See  Dalgarno.)  In 
L749,  Rodriguez  Pereira  exhibited  some  pupils 
before  the  ieademyof  Sciences,  at  Paris,  who 
oould  read  and  converse  audibly; but  lie  kept  his 
method  secret,  ami  it  perished  with  him.  In 
L754,  Samuel  lleinicke  taught  one  pupil  suc- 
cessfully: and,  in  1774.  he  opened  a  school  at 
Leipsic,  which  was  the  first  of  the  kind  established 
by  any  civil  government.  This  school  still  exists, 
and  its  success  in  teaching  articulation  led  to  the 
adoption  of  that  system  in  most  of  the  German  in- 
siiiuti  >ns.  In  1755,  the  abbe  Del'Epee,  through  a 
fortuitous  circumstance,  commenced  his  labors 
among  the  indigent  deaf  and  dumb,  in  France, 
and  founded  a  school  in  Paris,  which,  after  a  few 
vcars.  became  the  Royal  Institution  of  Prance. 
Be  used  the  natural  language  of  signs  as  the  in- 
strument of  instruction.     He  was  succeeded  by 


the  abbe  Sicai'd.  one  of  whose  pupils,  Laurent 
<  Here, accompanied  Rev.  Thomas  1 1.  ( rallaudet  to 
the  United  States,  and  aided  him  in  establishing 
the  American  Asylum  at  Hartford.  Ct.,  under 
the  patronage  of  the  New  England  states; 
and  from  that,  institutions  have  sprung  up  in 
many  of  the  United  States.  From  these  insti- 
tutions, many  deaf-mutes  have  gone  forth  into 
the  world,  and  have  become  eminent  in  various 
walks  of  life.  In  our  own  country,  we  may 
name  Le  ( derc,  as  a  teacher ;  Levi  S.  Backus, 
as  an  editor  ;  <!.  \Y.  boring  and  \V.  Whiton,  as 
teachers  and  writers;  J.  Nack,  as  a  poet;  E.J. 
Maun,  J.  R.  Burnet,  and  A.  Xewsam,  as  writers  ; 
J.  Carlin,  as  an  artist;  Alice  Cogswell,  as  a 
writer  ;  and  Mary  T.  Peet,  as  a  poetess. 

The  following  table  gives  the  name,  location,  etc. 
of  all  the  institutions  in  the  United  States  for  the 
teaching  of  deaf-mutes,  according  to  the  Report 
of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  for  lb 74. 


Institutions  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  in  the  United  States. 


NAME 


American  Asylum 

New  York  Institution 

Pennsylvania  Institution 

Kentucky  Institution 

Ohio  Institution 

Illinois  Institution 

Virginia  Institution 

Indiana  Institution 

Tennessee  School 

North  Carolina  Institution 

Georgia  Institution 

South  Carolina  Institution 

Mi— uuii  Asylum 

.Michigan  Institution 

Wisconsin  Institution 

St.  Mary's  Institution 

Louisiana  Institution 

Iowa  Institution 

Mississippi  Institution 

Texas  Institution 

Colombia  Institution 

Alabama  Institution 

California  Institution 

St.  Bridget's  Institution 

Minnesota  Institution 

National  Deaf-Mute  College 

Kansas  Asylum 

Inst,  for  Improved  Instruction 

Clarke  Institution 

Maryland  Institution 

Arkansas  Institution 

Nebraska  Institution 

Pittsburgh  Day  School 

Bostoo  Day  School 

Whipple's  Home  School 

St.  Joseph's  Inst,  for  Mutes 

West  Virginia  Institution 

Oregon  Institution 

Inst,  for  Colored  Blind  &  Deaf-Mutes.. . 

School  of  Articulation 

Colorado  Institute 


LOCATION 


Hartford,  Ct 

New  York  City 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Danville,  Ky 

Columbus,  0 

Jacksonville,  111 

Staunton,  Va 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

Raleigh,  N.  C 

Cave  Spring,  Ga 

Cedar  Springs,  S.  C. . 

Fulton,  Mo 

Flint,  Mich 

Delavan,  Wise 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Baton  Rouge,  La , 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa.. . 

Jackson,  Miss 

Austin,  Tex 

Washington,  D.  C 

Talladega,   Ala 

Oakland,  Cal 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Fairbault,  Minn 

Washington,  D.  C 

Olathe,  Kan 

New  York  City 

Northampton,  Mass.. . 

Frederick,  Md 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

Omaha,  Neb 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Boston,  Mass 

Mystic  River,  ct 

Fordham,  N.  Y 

Romney,  W.  Va 

Salem,  Oreg 

Baltimore,  Md 

Aurora,  N.  Y 

Colorado  Springs,  Col . 


a 

<w  o 

053 

a 


1817 

1817 

1821 

1823 

182 

1837 

1839 

ls44 

1*44 

1845 

1845 

1849 

1851 

1851 

1852 

1854 

1855 

is;,.", 

1856 
1856 
1857 
I860 
1860 
1860 
1862 
1864 
186ti 
1867 
1867 
1867 
1868 
L869 
1869 
L869 
1869 
|ni;>.i 
1*70 
1870 
1872 
1871 
1874 


CONTROL 


Directors 

Corporation . 
Directors.. . . 

State 

State 

State 

State 

State 

Trustees 

State 

Trustees 

State 

State 

Trustees 

Trustees 

Trustees 

Trustees 

State 

Trustees 

Trustees 

National 

State 

State 

R.  Cath 

State 

National 

Trustees 

Association.. 

Private 

State 

Directors  . . . 

State 

Municipal  .  . . 
School  Board 

Private 

Private 

Regents 

State 

Trustees 

Private 

State 


0 


275 
584 
271 
103 
468 
430 

96 
334 
136 
138 

52 

204 

19 

176 
80 
51 

157 
51 
44 

113 
68 
66 

104 

80 
92 

70 
104 
84 
35 
43 
65 
12 
40 
52 
30 
12 
6 
12 


o 

—1  u  a 

-*^ 
CO 


104,000 
50,000 
17,000 
81,000 
72,000 
40,000 
70,000 
28,000 
40,000 
14,500 

33,000 
52,000 
35,000 
8,500 
22,000 
31,000 
15,000 
10,000 
88,000 

1S,(I()() 

36,000 
26,000 
16,500 


30,000 

33,000 

h;, 111  in 

2,000 

6,000 

525 

25,000 

10,000 

5,000 


.•*} 


a> 


3 

•522 

.a 


250,000 
543,000 
325,000 
125,000 
800,000 
340,000 
160,000 
685,000 
150,000 
50,000 
40,000 

150,000 
375,000 
110,000 

40,000 
200,000 
170,000 

50,000 

50,000 
500,000 

75,000 
300,000 

125,000 

33,000 


175,000 
55,000 
18,000 
45,000 


35,000 
60,000 

20,000 

17,000 

7,000 


$175  per  pupil  from  the  New  England  States. 


206 


DEAF-MUTES 


DEBATING 


The  first  institution  for  the  education  of  deaf- 
mutes  in  the  United  States  was  opened,  as  stated 
before,  in  Bartford,  Ct.,  April  15.,  1817,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Rev.  'I'll.  EL  Gallaudet.  (See 
Gallaudet.]  Associated  with  him  was  Laurent 
(  Mere,  one  of  the  most  talented  of  Sicard's  pupils, 
who  had  accompanied  Mr.  Gallaudet  on  his 
return  to  the  united  States  after  a  visit  to 
Europe,  which  he  had  made  to  acquire  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  methods  of  deaf  mute  instruction. 
At  first,  the  Connecticut  institution  had  only 
7  pupils,  but  accessions  during  the  year  made 
the  number  33.  Congress,  soon  afterward,  do- 
nated tu  it  a  township  of  wild  land,  the  proceeds 
of  which  now  form  a  fund  of  $339,000.  This 
gift  led  to  its  assuming  the  name  of  American 
Asylum.  The  New  York  Asylum  was  opened 
in  1818.  The  fundamental  principles  on  which 
nearly  all  the  American  institutions  are  con- 
ducted, are  those  first  introduced  by  De  L'Epee, 
modified  as  shown  to  be  necessary  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  acquirement  of  language  and  an  ad- 
vancement in  knowledge.  There  are  now  about 
2.">0  schools  for  (leaf-mutes  in  the  world.  In  L850, 
there  were  227  in  Europe,  and  23  in  America. 
MMie  greater  Dumber  in  Europe  teach  articulation 
alone:  while,  in  America,  more  dependence  is 
placed  upon  acquiring  the  ability  to  use  written 
language.  MMie  first  regular  school  for  deaf-mutes 
in  Great  Britain  was  that  established  near  Edin- 
burgh by  Thomas  Braidwood,  and  from  this 
have  descended  the  present  public  institutions 
for  deaf-mute  instruction  in  Great  Britain.  (See 
Braidwood,  and  Peet,  II.  P.) 

Systems  qf  Instruction.  —  Two  methods  or 
systems  of  teaching  are  in  use  (with  some  molli- 
fications) in  nearly  all  the  institutions  in  the 
world.  One  is  that  of  articulation  and  lip- 
reading  (sometimes  called  the  German  method, 
because  used  in  most  of  the  German  schools), 
the  other  that  of  writing,  or  the  sign  lan- 
guage. Both  have  their  special  advocates;  and 
each  it  is  claimed,  possesses  superior  facilities, for 
educating  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In  teaching  ar- 
ticulation, the  pupil  is  placed  before  the  teacher, 
who  begins  with  the  vowels,  and  requires  the 
pupil  to  watch  the  motions  he  makes  with  his 
mouth,  lips,  and  throat  :  he  places  the  pupil's 
hand  upon  his  own  throat,  so  as  to  feel  the  dif- 
ferent movements,  and  then  imitate  them  him- 
self. When  he  has  succeeded  in  some  degree, 
the  consonants  are  introduced   and  practiced  for 

a  longer  or  shorter  time,  according  to  the  ability 

or  aptitude  of  the  pupil.  Simple  words  are  then 
introduced,    and    their    meaning    illustrated    liy 

pointing  ou1  the  object,  action,  etc.;  and  as  prog- 
ress IS  made  ill  this,  qualities  and  actions  are 
introduced.     This  course  must  be  continued,  and 

the  lessons  repeated,  till  the  pupil  can  read  the 
lips  of  the  tcadicr.  and  communicate  his  own 
thoughts,  in  questions  and  answers,  [leading 
must  then  be  taught ;  and  the  knowledge  of  lan- 

ge    already    acquired  aids  the  pupil  ill  under- 
standing what   he  reads.     It   will  be  apparent 

that  this  18  a  work  requiring  much  time  and 
patience  on  the  part  of    the  teacher  as  well  as  of 


the  pupil,  merely  to  acquire  the  meaning  of  the 
words  and  their  proper  pronunciation.  Most  of 
the  Institutions  in  the  United  States  give  more 
or  less  instruction  in  articulation,  generally  in 
special  departments.  The  (Marke  Institution,  the 
Boston  Day  School,  the  X.  Y.  Institution  for 
Improved  Instruction,  and  Whipple's  Home 
School  make  articulation  a  specialty.  This  mode 
of  teaching  is  especially  adapted  to  the  condition 
of  semi-niutes,  who  still  retain  some  remnant  of 
the  ability  to  use  spoken  language.  Experience 
has  shown  that  children  deprived  of  the  sens, 
of  hearing  can  learn  by  means  of  sight  and  feel- 
ing, to  distinguish  the  various  elements  of  speech, 
to  read  them  from  the  speaker's  lips,  and  to 
imitate  them  in  articulation. 

The  other  method,  writing  and  sign-making, is 
substantially  taught  in  the  following  manner: 
An  object  is  shown  to  the  pupil,  as  for  example, 
a  cat.  and  the  natural  sign  made  for  it.  an  out- 
line is  then  drawn  on  the  slate,  and  c-a-t  is  writ- 
ten in  the  outline  ;  the  same  sign  is  applied  to 
the  name  as  was  applied  to  the  object  and  the 
outline:  and  the  pupil  thus  learns  the  word. 
The  object  is  removed  and  the  outline  rubbed 
out;  the  same  sign  is  used  for  the  word  alone. 
and  the  pupil  soon  associates  it  with  the  object. 
Other  objects  are  presented,  and  the  same  proc- 
ess repeated.  MMie  color  of  the  cat  is  then  taught: 
as,  if  black,  that  is  joined  to  the  name,  and  black 
nil   is    learned  ;    then   action    is    represented,   as 

black  r,ii  eats  ;  and  then  the  object  follows,  2>&zc& 
cat  eats  meat    MMie  phrases  are  lengthened  as 

the  pupil  proceeds,  and  short  stories  are  related 
by   signs,  and    written   down   by   the   pupil,  the 

proper  distinctions  being  made  at  the  time,  so 
that  the  pupil,  in  a  short  time,  is  enabled  to  use 
language  properly.  An  important  feature  of 
this  method  is.  that  the  pupil  begins  at  once  to 
learn  words  which  convey  meaning,  without  the 
slow  process  of  learning  the  alphabet,  the  single 
letters  of  which  convey  no  ideas;  and  in  this 
manner  the  mind  is  quickened,  and  incited  to 
redoubled  activity  by  the  knowledge  gained.     As 

this  proceeds,  the  pupil  becomes  familiar  with 

the  printed  as  well  as  the  written  characters, and 

soon  understands  short  simple  phrases;  and  then 

only  a   few   months  arc   required  to   enable    the 

pupil  to  understand  elearly  what  is  related  to 
him.  —  See  John  Wallis,  Letter  to  Thomas 
Beverley  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
(»ct..  L698);  Joseph  Watson,  Instruction  of  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb  (London.  1809);  De  YEvkk. 
La  veritable maniere etc  (Paris.  [784),  English 
translation  (London,  L801) ;  American  Annals 
of  the  Beaf  and  Dumb;  Svi.i:.  .1  Summary 
qf  the  Researches  etc  <f  It-  P.  Peet  (Wash. 
L873);  Reportofthe  Institution  for  the  Improved 
Instruction  of  Deaf-Mutes  \  S.  V..  1st  I):  in  the 
Appendix  to  which  will  be  found  a  Statement 
of  the  method  of  teaching  articulation  and  lip- 
reading:  Aniti'.il  Reports  qf  the  U.  S.  Commis- 
sioner qf  Education  for  1871,    2,    3,     I. 

DEBATING  is  often  employed  as  an  ex- 
ercise in  schools  for  young  men  [and  sometimes 
in  those   for  the  other  sex),  in  order  to  afford  a 


DECIMAL  NOTATION 


DEFINITIONS 


207 


means  fo*  practice  in  extemporaneous  speaking, 
and  an  incentive  to  the  study  and  investigation 
of  subjects  of  scholastic  or  general  interest. 
When  bo  used,  it  should  be  carefully  regulated, 
both  as  to  the  questions  selected  for  discussion  and 
the  manner  in  which  the  debates  are  conducted. 
The  usual  rules  of  debate  should  be  strictly  en- 
forced, and  the  participants  confined  to  the  ex- 
act subject  considered,  and  required  to  use  lan- 
guage  of  undoubted  propriety.  The  rules  of 
parliamentary  debate  may  be  made  a  subject  of 
formal  study  auxiliary  to  the  practice  of  debat- 
ing, and.  in  this  way.  the  students  partly  pre- 
pared for  public  life.  The  debating  societies  con- 
nected with  colleges  have  usually  been  considered 
a  very  important  source  of  practical  culture; 
-They  are.''  says  RicElligott, "capable  of  splendid 
service  in  the  course  of  education;  and  not  only 
splendid,  but  peculiar;  a  service,  in  fact,  for 
which  it  is  impossible  to  find  any  sufficient  sub- 
stitute. Their  appropriate  sphere,  morever, 
us  to  be  in  connection  with  collegiate  institu- 
tions. There,  at  all  events,  we  have  a  right  to 
expect  from  them  the  best  possible  results;  for 
there  they  may  have  the  benefit  of  wise  and 
constant  supervision."  —  See  McElligott,  The 
American  Debater  (N.T.,  1855);  and  Debatimj. 
a  Means  of  Educational  Discipline,  in  Bar- 
nard's Journal  of  Education,  vol.  in. 

DECIMAL  NOTATION,  the  ordinary 
method  of  expressing  numbers  on  a  scale  of  ten, 
ten  units  of  any  order  being  equal  to  one  unit 
of  the  next  higher  order.  The  first  lessons  in 
arithmetic  should  give  the  pupil  a  clear  idea 
of  the  principle  of  this  notation.  This  can  be 
done  by  means  of  the  numeral  frame  (q.  v.). 

DECLAMATION,  or  the  formal  delivery 
of  set  speeches  or  of  memorized  pieces  of  ora- 
tory, is  a  school  exercise  of  considerable  im- 
portance, when  conducted  in  a  proper  manner 
and  with  a  due  regard  to  its  special  uses  and 
limitations.  The  objects  chiefly  to  be  gained  by 
exercises  of  this  kind  are  the  following :  (1)  The 
training  and  culture  of  the  voice  ;  ('_')  Practice 
in  elocution  ;  (3)  The  habit  of  speaking  in  pub- 
he  with  confidence,  ease,  and  grace  ;  (4)  The 
cultivation  of  a  taste  for  public  speaking;  (5)  An 
improvement  of  the  pupils'  style  of  composition. 
In  the  education  of  boys  and  young  men  partic- 
ularly, these  are  all  points  of  great  importance, 
inasmuch  as  the  ability  to  speak  effectively  in 
public  is  of  great  value  in  all  civilized  commu- 
nities. The  practice  of  declamation  may,  how- 
ever, be  carried  too  far,  and  may  thus  engender 
an  artificial  style,  and  a  taste  for  mere  verbal 
and  elocutionary  display,  without  sufficient  re- 
gard to  the  sentiment  expressed  or  to  the  occasion 
of  their  utterance,  indeed,  it  ha-  been  held  by 
some  that  those  who  have  excelled  as  declaimers 
in  school,  have  rarely  become  effective  speakers 
in  after  life :  but.  if  this  is  the  case,  it  has  re- 
sulted rather  from  the  abuse  of  the  exercise  than 
from  its  legitimate  use.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  long  practice  in  declaiming  exclusively 
memorized  pieces  may  produce  a  habit  that  is 
calculated  to  interfere   with  the  acquisition  of 


the  power  of  extemporaneous  speaking;  and, 
consequently,  in  the  advanced  stages  of  instruc- 
tion there  is  need  of  resorting  to  exercises  in  off- 
hand speaking  in  order  to  correct  this  tendency. 
In  declamation,  as  in  composition,  the  young  and 
uncultured  mind  is  prone  to  extravagance,  pa r- 
ticularly  in  the  use  of  ornament.  Those  tonus 
of  expression  and  modes  of  delivery  that  are  ap- 
propriated to  the  higher  regions  of  thought  and 
emotion  are  very  apt  to  be  brought  in  on  occasions 
when  their  inaptness  makes  them  ridiculous.  As 
in  composition,  the  pupil  should  be  trained  to 
express  his  thoughts  in  the  simplest  and  most 
direct  manner;  so  in  declamation,  he  should  be 
kept  from  the  higher  flights,  except  in  special 
Subjects,  and  be  trained  to  moderation  and  self- 
restraint  both  in  voice  and  action. 

The  following  points  should  be  carefully  at- 
tended to  in  giving  elementary  instruction  in 
declamation:  (1)  The  piece  to  be  declaimed 
should  be  well  studied,  not  only  in  its  language, 
but  in  regard  to  the  thoughts,  emotions,  reason- 
ing, etc.  which  it  may  involve,  and  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  was  originally  spoken,  as 
well  as  the  character  of  the  speaker;  (2)  Minute 
rudimentary  criticism  should  be  rendered  unnec- 
essary by  sufficient  preliminary  training  in 
enunciation  and  other  departments  of  elocution, 
as  wTell  as  in  the  use  of  gesticulation ;  (3)  The 
various  kinds  of  gestures  having  been  taught,  the 
pupil  should  be  allowed  great  freedom  in  respect 
to  their  use  ;  (4)  The  spirit,  and  not  simply  the 
form,  should  be  the  object  aimed  at  in  the  in- 
struction ;  and  no  piece  should  be  assigned  to  a 
pupil  to  speak  which  is  beyond  his  capacity  to 
understand  and  appreciate.  The  pupils  of  the 
common  schools  are  generally  not  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced to  receive  theoretical  instruction  in  rhe- 
torical delivery  ;  but  this  should  find  a  place  in 
the  course  of  instruction  of  colleges,  academies, 
and  schools  of  a  higher  grade  in  general.  Even 
the  pupils  of  elementary  schools,  however,  may 
be  benefited  by  appropriate  exercises  in  recita- 
tion and  declamation  :  thus,  the  speaking  of 
easy  and  interesting  dialogues  by  two  or  more 
children  will  be  found  one  of  the  best  methods 
to  impart  to  young  pupils  a  practical  knowledge 
of  the  elementary  rules  of  declamation,  besides 
cultivating  a  natural  style  of  speaking. 

DEFINITIONS,  a  branch  of  elementary 
education,  generally  used  to  designate  instruction 
in  the  meaning  of  words.  The  operations  of  a 
child's  mind  naturally  lead  to  a  knowdedge  of 
words  as  representatives  of  ideas;  and.  at  quite 
an  early  age,  a  child  acquires  a  very  extensive 
vocabulary  of  terms  and  the  ability  to  apply 
them  properly,  since  they  are  learned  not  by 
formal  statement  or  definition,  but  by  hearing 
them  used,  and  by  subsequent  practice  in  using 
them  in  connection  with  tin-  actual  objects  or 
conceptions  which  they  represent,  in  this  way, 
the  words  which  young  children  learn  make  but 
little  impression  upon  their  minds  as  words ;  but 
they  are  so  intimately  associated  with  the  objects. 

actions,  and  qualities  which  they  represent,  that 
they  convey  to  the  mind  the  same  ideas  as  the 


208 


DEFINITION'S 


DEGREES 


objects,  actions,  etc.  themselves.  The  school  ex- 
ercises or  lessons  designed  to  increase  the  child's 
vocabulary,  or  to  teach  the  meaning  of  words 
found  in  books,  often  disregard  this  natural 
method  of  acquisition,  ami  attempt  to  teach  the 
meaning  of  individual  words  by  means  of  their 
approximate  synonyms,  without  any  regard  to 
their  application, or  use  in  phrases  and  sentences. 
Without  an  embodiment  of  words  in  actual 
speech,  the  recitation  of  formal  definitions  is  of 
no  use.  After  sufficient  illustration  of  this  kind, 
the  pupil  should  be  required  to  tell,  in  his  own 
language,  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  question, 
which  the  teacher  can  then  correct.  No  exercise 
in  synonyms  is  of  any  value,  but  on  the  con- 
trary, rather  injurious,  until  the  meaning  of 
words  has  been  thus  explained.  In  oral  lessons 
in  definitions  to  classes,  one  pupil  maybe  re- 
quired to  use  the  given  word  in  a  phrase  or  sen- 
tence, another  to  explain  its  meaning,  and  an- 
other to  give  a  brief  definition  by  a  synonymous 
phrase  or  word.  Very  simple  words,  the  meaning 
of  which  is  already  known  to  the  child,  should 
not  be  given  for  formal  definition:  since  properly 
to  define  such  words,  requires  a  nice  discrimina- 
tion in  the  use  of  language,  and  a  minuteness  of 
analysis  beyond  the  capacity  of  a  young  chili  1. 
A  full  exercise  of  this  kind  should  comprise  the 
following:  (1)  To  pronounce  it;  (2)  To  use  it  in 
the  construction  of  a  phrase  or  a  sentence;  (3)  To 
define  it  ;  (4)  To  write  a  sentence  illustrating  its 
meaning  and  use.  |A  written  exercise  for  the 
whole  class,  each  pupil  writing  a  different  sen- 
tence.) Instruction  in  the  derivation  of  words 
and  the  meaning  of  the  common  prefixes  and 
suffixes  should  be  commenced  at  an  early  stage. 
(See  Etymology.) 

Every  subject  of  instruction  has  its  definitions, 
or  precise  statements  of  elementary  truths,  con- 
stituting the  basis  of  the  science;  and  it  is  an 
important  consideration  as  to  the  proper  time 
and  method  of  teaching  them.  The  teacher  is 
very  apt  to  err  in  requiring  them  to  be  com- 
mitted to  memory  before  the  mind  has  been  suf- 
ficiently Impressed  with  the  elementary  ideas 
which  they  involve.  In  I  fair  to  Teach  (X.  V., 
L873),  we  find  this  quite  fully  and  emphatically 
expressed:  "One  of  the  most  serious  abuses  to 
which  the  employment  of  elementary  text-books 
is  liable,  is  the  practice  of  requiring  the  pupil  to 
Commit  to  memory,  wrbittini,  all  tin- definitions 
of  a  subject  before  teaching  the  subject  itself,  so 
BJB  I"  enable  the  pupils  to  understand  the  nature 
of  the  things  defined.  It  is,  of  course,  most 
logical  in  the  scientific  treatment  of  a  subject  to 
place  the  deli  nit  inns  first,  and  the  reasoning  based 
upon  them  afterward;  but  this  is  not  the  order 
of  investigation.  The  definitions  are  the  results 
of  an  induction  based  upon  the  facts  obtained 
by  observation  :  they  are  generalizations  of  those 
facts,  and  are  unintelligible  to  those  entirely  un- 
acquainted with  the  facts  themselves.  Thus  the 
order  of  investigation  is  inductive;  the  treatment 
is  deductive,  ami  in  elementary  teaching  the 
method  Bhould  conform  rather  to  the  former 

than  to  the  latter.      (Jive  the  pupil  accurate  and 


vivid  conceptions  of  the  facts,  encourage  him  to 
observe  the  phenomena — to  collect  an  experience 
of  his  own  :  tell  him.  or  let  him  learn  from  the 
book,  what  has  been  discovered  by  the  experience 
of  others ;  and  when  the  facts  thus  obtained 
form  a  sufficient  groundwork,  lead  his  mind  to 
the  proper  induction,  after  which  the  definition. 
principle,  or  rule,  based  upon  it,  comes  naturally, 
and  will  be  thoroughly  understood,  The  defini- 
tions thus  taught  should  be  brief  and  accurate  in 
language,  and,  as  a  general  thing,  should  be  com- 
mitted to  memory  verbatim,;  for  great  skill  is 
required  to  construct  a  good  definition,  and  it  is 
of  the  greatest  value  to  the  scholar  and  thinker 
to  have  bis  mind  well  stored  with  these  land- 
marks and  guide-posts  of  knowledge.''  The 
distinction  between  the  description  and  the  de- 
finition of  a  thing  should  be  kept  in  view  by  the 
teacher.  The  former  may  include  a  statement 
of  all  the  qualities  and  properties  of  the  object 
described  :  the  latter  should  include  what,  being 
peculiar  to  the  object,  distinguishes  it  from  all 
other  objects  of  the  same  kind.  At  first,  chil- 
dren should  be  taught  rather  by  descriptions 
than  definitions:  for  the  latter,  while  forming 
necessary  standards  of  judgment  for  the  mind, 
generally  do  not  give,  of  themselves,  complete 
ideas  of  the  thing's  defined. 

DEGEEANDO.     See  GfiRANDO. 

DEGREES  are  titles  of  rank  conferred  upon 
students  in  colleges  and  universities,  as  evidence 
of  their  proficiency  in  the  arts  and  sciences, 
or  upon  learned  men  as  a  testimony  of  their 
literary  merits.  At  first,  the  terms  master 
and  doctor  were  applied  indifferently  to  any 
person  engaged  iii  teaching  in  the  university.  In 
process  of  time,  the  term  master  was  restricted 
to  teachers  of  the  liberal  arts,  and  the  term 
doctor  to  divinity,  law,  and  medicine.  When 
regulations  were  established  to  prevent  unquali- 
fied persons  from  teaching,  and  an  initiatory 
stage  of  discipline  was  prescribed,  these  terms 
became  significant  of  a  certain  rank,  and  of  the 
possession  of  certain  powers,  ami  were  Killed 
gradi/s,  steps  or  degrees.  The  passing  of  the 
initiatory  stage,  said  to  have  been  first  instituted 
by  Pope  Gregory  IX.  [1227—1241),  conferred 
in  any  of  the  four  faculties  the  title  of  bachelor 
fbaccalaureus),  and  an  additional  course  of  dis- 
ci).line  and  examination  was  necessary  in  order 
to  obtain  that  of  master  or  doctor.  A  degree 
intermediate  between  bachelor  and  doctor  was 
that  of  licentiate.  This  is  no  longer  in  use  in 
England,  except  in  Cambridge,  as  a  degree  of 
medicine.  In  Germany  the  degree  of  Liceniiat 
now  exists  only  in  the  theological  faculty.  The 
title  of  Master  of  Arts  originally  implied  the 
right,  and  even  the  duty,  of  publicly  teaching 
some  of  the  branches  included  in  the  faculty 
of  arts;  but  this  custom  has  now  fallen  into 
general  disu.se.  The  title  of  doctor  seems  to 
have  been  conferred,  for  the  first  time,  in  the 
1 2th  century,  at  the  university  of  Bologna  ;  and 
the  ceremonial  of  investiture  was  drawn  up 
by  the  learned  Irnerius.  The  university  of 
Paris  almost  immediately  followed  in  the  foot- 


DEGREES 


209 


I  is  of  Bologna,  the  first  reception  of  doctors 
Laving  taken  place  in  the  year    L145,  in  favor 
dt    Peter  Lombard   and  Gilbert  de  la  Porree, 
the  greatest  theologians  of  the  day.     At  a  later 
period,  the  emperors  were  accustomed  to  confer 
upon  the  universities  the  right   of  appointing 
doctors  of  law  by  their  authority  and  in  their 
name.     The   example    of    the   emperors    was 
speedily  followed  by  the   popes,  who  conferred 
the  same  right   in  reference  to  the  canon  law. 
In  England,  the  degree  of  doctor  was  not  given 
until   the  time  of   King  John   (1207).      In  the 
middle  ages,  the  title  of  Doctor  of  Laws  con- 
ferred, in  some  countries,  great   privileges;  and 
the  possession  of  the  title  was  requisite  for  some 
of  the  higher  officers  in  church  and  state.    In 
most  civilized  countries,  the  acquisition  of  the 
title  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  is  still  required  pre- 
vious to  an    authorization,  by  the  state  govern- 
ment, of  medical  practice.     The  titles  Doctor  of 
Theology  and  Doctor  of  Law,  or  of  Laws,  have 
still  to  be  acquired  by  professors  of  these  branches 
of  learning  in  universities  and  colleges  ;  but  they 
are  also  conferred  honoris  causa  upon  distin- 
guished theologians,  jurists,  and  statesmen.     In 
the  United  States,  the  conferring  of  degrees  is 
carried  to  an  extent  which  was  formerly  unknown. 
While  in  Germany  there  are  only  about  twenty 
universities  which  have  the  right  to  confer  de- 
grees, and  in  England  a  still  smaller  number,  there 
are  in  the  United  States  more  than  300  chartered 
colleges    which  are  entitled  to   this  right;  and 
they  generally  make  a  very  liberal  use  of  it  at 
the  annual  commencement.  All  the  graduates  of 
American  colleges  and  universities  receive  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  after  three  years 
standing  have  the  title  of  Master  of  Arts  con- 
ferred upon  them.     The   former  is  made  con- 
tingent   in    the    United    States  as  well  as  in 
England,  upon  the    result  of    a  previous  ex- 
amination ;   but  the  latter  is  conferred,  in  due 
course  of  time,  without    any  further  require- 
ments.    In  Germany,  the  title  Master  of  Arts 
has  fallen  into  disuse,  and  the    philosophical 
faculty,  which  corresponds    to   the   faculty  of 
arts  in  the  United   States,  confers,  instead   of 
it,  the  title  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy.     In  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  especially  in  the  United 
States,  a  number  of  new  degrees  have  been  cre- 
ated.   The  diploma  of  Doctor  of  Music  is  given 
in  England,  the  United  States,  and  Germany. 
Women  have  been,  until  very  recently,  the  re- 
cipients of  academic  degrees  in  only  very  excep- 
tional cases :  but,  with  the  progress  of  the  supe- 
rior education  of  females,  and  the  admission  of 
women  to  some  of  the  highest  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, all  the  degrees  which  have  so  long  been  the 
monopoly  of  the  one  sex.  begin  to  be  accessible 
to  both.     (See   Co-education   of   the    Sexes.) 
The  annual  reports  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Education  afford  complete  statistics  of  all  the 
degrees  conferred  each  year  by   American  col- 
leges, universities,  and  schools.     Below  is  given 
a  list  of  the  various  degrees  which  were  conferred 
in  1 874,  with  the  usual  abbreviations  employed 
to  designate  them. 
14 


The  colleges  for  females  confer,  in  the  place  of 
the  title  Bachelor  (of  Letters,  of  Arts,  of  Liberal 
Arts),  the  title  Graduate,  though  they  retain  the 
abbreviations  L.  !>.,  A.  B.,  and  B.  L.  A. 

A.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Arts. 

A.  L.,  Laureate  of  Arts. 

A.  SI.,  Muster  of  Arts. 

A.  s..  Sister  of  Arts. 

1!.  A..  Bachelor  of  Agriculture. 

B.  Arch.,  Bachelor  of  Architecture, 

B.  C.  K..  Bachelor  of  Civil  Engineering. 
B.  L.  A.,  Bachelor  of  Liberal  Arts. 

B.  M.  E.,  Bachelor  of  Mining  Engineering. 

C.  E.,  Civil  Engineer. 

C.  &  M.  E..  Civil  and  Mining  Engineer. 

D.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

D.  C.  L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Laws. 

D.  D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 

D.  D.  M.,  Doctor  (A  Dental  Medicine* 

D.  E.,  Dynamic  Engineer. 

D.  Sc,  Doctor  of  Science. 

L.  B. ,  Bachelor  of  Letters. 

LL.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.  D.,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

L.  Sc.  Laureate  of  Science. 

M.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.  D.  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

M.  E.,  Mining  Engineer. 

M.  E.  L.,  Mistress  of  English  Literature. 

M.  L.  A.,  Mistress  of  Liberal  Arts. 

M.  L.  L.,  Mistress  of  Liberal  Learning. 

M.  Be,  Mistress  of  Science. 

Mis.  Mas.,  Mistress  of  Music. 

Mus.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Music. 

Mas.  D.,  Doctor  of  Music. 

Ph.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 

Ph.  D.,  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Sc.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Science. 

Sc.  M.,  Master  of  Science. 

S.  T.  I).,  Sacrae  Theologiae  Doctor. 
As  the  title  Doctor  of  Medicine,  when  con- 
ferred by  a  medical  faculty,  alone  entitles  its 
holder  in  some  countries  to  practice,  attempts 
have,  in  many  cases,  been  made  by  incompetent 
persons  to  purchase  it,  and  by  dishonest  persons 
to  make  money  by  selling  it.  The  greatest  noto- 
riety, in  this  respect,  has  been  gained  by  a  so- 
called  faculty  of  medicine  in  Pennsylvania,  which 
carried  on  the  sale  of  the  title  of  Doctor  of 
Medicine  for  a  considerable  time,  not  ordy  in  the 
United  States,  but  all  over  P]urope,  until  the 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania  put  a  stop  to  this 
nefarious  business.  In  Germany,  an  article  by 
the  historian  Theodor  Mommsen  (in  Preussische 
Jahrbucker  xxxvn.  1.)  severely  censured  several 
of  the  universities  of  the  minor  states  for  pro- 
moting absent  candidates  who  had  merely  sent 
in  a  written  dissertation,  and  prostituting  the 
honor  of  German  science  for  mercenary  purposes. 
The  article  produced  a  profound  impression,  and, 
early  in  1876,  induced  all  the  incriminated  uni- 
versities to  abolish  the  promotiones  in  absentia. 
Many  writers,  in  modern  times,  have  main- 
tained, that  "degrees  have  always  been. and  must 
continue  to  be,  utterly  worthless."  Among  those 
who  severely  censured  the  way  in  which  degrees 
formerly  were  and,  in  general,  still  are  conferred, 
was  Dr.  Adam  Smith,  in  his  Wealth  of  Na- 
tions.  The  same  writer  more  fully  develops  his 
views  in  a  letter  on  Dr.  Cullen,  which  is  given  in 
Dr.  McCulloch's  edition  of  that  work.  He  con- 
tends that  the  value  of  a  degree  must  always  de- 
pend on  the  disinterested  character  of  the  parties 


210 


DELAWARE 


who  confer  it,  and  that,  therefore,  the  system 
hitherto  pursued  in  universities  of  having  aca- 
demical distinctions  awarded  by  the  parties  en- 
gaged in  preparing  the  candidates  to  receive 
them,  must  be  regarded  as  a  wholly  inadequate 
test  of  literary  or  scientific  merit.  A  change  in 
this  system  was  inaugurated  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  London  I  Diversity  (q.  v.),  in  which 
the  right  of  conferring  degrees  is  vested  in  aboard 
from  «rhich  the  professors  are  excluded.  In  Ger- 
many, a  different  reform  has  been  proposed  by 
Prof.  Moiinnsen  of  Berlin,  who,  after  severely 
denouncing  tin-  abuses  existing  in  some  of  the 
German  universities,  urges  in  another  essay 
[Preussische  Jahrbucher,  April  1876)  the  estab- 
lishment of  strict  uniformity  in  the  conferring 
of  academical  degrees.  The  universities  favor- 
able to  reform  are  called  noon  to  unite,  and  to 
request  the  governments  either  to  recognize  ex- 
clusively the  degrees  conferred  by  universities 
belonging  to  the  union,  or  to  abolish  entirely  the 
institution  of  academic  degrees.  In  France,  the 
right  of  conferring  degrees  was  one  of  the  mosl 
hotly  contested  points  of  the  new  law  on  superior 
education,  adopted  by  the  national  assembly  in 
187;").  'This  [aw  abolishes  the  monopoly  of  the 
state  faculties  in  conferring  degrees,  and  gives  the 
right  possessed  by  state  faculties  also  to  special 
juries  consisting  of  professors  partly  of  the  state 

faculties,  and  partly  of  the  free  faculties  author- 
ized by  the  new  law. 

DELAWARE,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  having  an  area 
of  2,120  sq.  m.,  and  a  population,  in  L870,  of 
125,015,  of  whom  102,221  were  whites,  and 
22,794,  colons  1  persons. 

Educational  History. — The  original  constitu- 
tion of  the  state  contained  a  general  provision 
for  the  encouragement  of  education;  but,  through 
want  of  specific  enactments  on  the  pari  of  the 
Legislature,  it  was  for  a  long  time  of  little  prac- 
tical value.  In  L813,  the  secretary  of  state. 
Willard  Hall,  suggested  to  the  legislature  a  svs- 
tem  of  popular  education:  bul  no  immediate 
action  was  taken.  In  L829,  a  bill  providing  for 
the   establishment    of    free    schools    was    passed, 

embodying  substantially  the  views  suggested  by 
the  secretary  of  state,  who  has  always  been  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  the  present  system. 
The  law  then  enacted  has  remained,  in  all  essen- 
tial respects,  the  school  law    of    the    state   to   the 

present  day.  slight    modifications   only   having 

Been  made  from  time  to  time.    The  constitution 

of  the  state, framed  in  1 831,  declares  il  to  be  the 

duty  of  the  legislature  to  pro\  ide  for  "  establish- 
ing schools,  and    promoting   aits   and    scieni 
In   L  837,  the  Scl I  fund  of  the  stale,  established 

in   L796,  was  increased  by  the  additi< f  the 

income  of  the  United  States  surplus  revenue 
fund.     Dp  io   L852,  the  counties  were  divided 

into  SChdbl-districtS,  to  each  of  which  full  power 

was  granted  to  establish  a  school  or  not.  accord- 
ing to  its  pleasure.  In  L852,  the  BChool  law 
was    revised    by    the    legislature,    bul     was    not 

materially  changed.     Educational  interests  were 

left    to    the    voters   in  each   school  district,   their 


action  consisting  in  holding  an  annual  meeting,, 
at  which  any  number  of  voters  constituted  a 
quorum.  Their  business  was  to  elect  a  school 
committee,  consisting  of  a  clerk  and  two  com- 
missioners, and  to  decide,  by  a  majority  vote, 
what  sum  should  be  raised  for  a  school-house,  or 
a  free  school.  The  same  year,  an  act  was  passed 
by  the  legislature  for  the  benefit  of  the  public 
schools  in  Wilmington,  which,  by  this  act,  be- 
came permanently  separated  from  the  public 
school  system  of  the  state.  In  L855,  the  prop- 
erty of  colored  people  in  Wilmington  was  ex- 
empted from  taxation  for  school  purposes.  In 
L861,  a  free-school  act  was  passed,  which  author- 
ized the  levy  of  a  yearly  tax  in  each  district  of 
the  State.  I'y  an  act  passed  March  2.")..  1875, 
the  school  system  was  remodeled, and, in  its  gen- 
eral features,  assimilated  to  that  existing  in 
most  of  the  other  states.  The  first  state  super- 
intendent appointed  was  James  II.  Groves,  in 
L875. 

School  System. — The  state  board  of  education 
consists  id'  the  secretary  of  state,  the  auditor,  the 
president  of  Delaware  College,  and  the  state 
superintendent  of  five  schools.  It  holds  an  an- 
nual meeting  at  which  the  president  of  Delaware 

College  acts  as  chairman,  and  the  auditor,  as 
secretaiy.  It  designates  what  text-hooks  shall 
be  used  in  the  schools,  settles  all  controversies 
between  the  state  superintendent  and  the  school 
commissioners  on  the  one  hand,  and  subordinate 
officers  on  the  other,  and  issues  uniform  blanks 
for  the  use  of  teachers.  The  state  superintendent 
i-  appointed  annually  by  the  governor.  He 
visits  each  school  once  a  year,  examines  and 
licenses  teachers,  keeps  a  full  and  accurate 
record  of  the  schools,  their  condition,  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  attending  them,  tin1  qualifications 
of  the  teachers,  methods  of  instruction,  discipline, 
and  all  other  mat  ters 'necessary  to  the  making  of 
an  annual  report  to  the  governor.  <'<>///i/>/ 
Superintendents,  one  for  each  county,  are  ap- 
pointed annually  by  the  governor,  their  duties 
being,  to  correspond  with  school  committees  and 

teachers,  "to  aid  them  with  .advice,  to  supply 

proper  forms,  to  collect  information,  and  tore- 
port  to  the  general  assembly  the  state  of  the 
districts,   and    such    matters  as    they  shall   deem 

proper."    Three  school  committeemen  are  elected 

in  each  of  the  districts,  one  each  year,  the  term 
of  office  being  three  years.  Their  dutiis  are, 
to    assess    and    levy    the    annual    school    tax,   to 

i    the  sites  for  school    buildings,   to  build 

sd l-houses,    to  supply   furniture  ami  fuel,  to 

employ  teachers,  and    to  see  that  the  schools  are 

kept  open  as  I'  'lie  as  the  funds  w  ill  permit.  'I  he 
school  c  immittee  levies  in  each  district  of  New- 
castle Co.  SI  (III  for  the  support  of  the  schools: 
of  kenl  Co.  $50;  and  of  Sussex  Co.  $30,  the 
maximum  additional  amount  in  each  being,  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  1861,  $400  for  general  school 
purposes,  and  $500  for  the  building  and  repair 

of  school-houses.  The  schools  are  open  to  all  white 

children  over  five  years  of  age.     In  1875,  provi* 

sion  was  made  for  the  education  of  colored  chil- 
dren, by  the  taxation  of  colored  citizens,  and  the 


DELAWARE 


211 


establishment  of  separate  schools,  from  the  pro- 
ceeds of  such  taxation,  by  the  Delaware  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Education  of  Colored  People.  The 
permanent  school  fund,  which  consists  of  the 
share  of  the  state  in  the  surplus  revenue  distrib- 
ute! I  by  the  general  government  among  the  sev- 
eral states,  the  proceeds  arising  from  marriage 
and  tavern  licenses,  and  from  various  other 
sources,  has  yielded  for  several  years  an  annual 
income  of  about  $30,000. 

icational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
schools  reported  by  the  superintendent  in  L875, 
was  309.    The  school  revenue  was  as  follows: 

From  local  taxation $159,733.68 

"     permanent  fund 33,001.37 

Total $192,735.05 

The  expenditure  per  capita  of  average  attend- 
ance was  $9.64.  The  school  statistics  show  the 
following : 

Xatuber  of  pupils  enrolled 19,8S  1 

"      "  teachers  employed 430 

average  monthly  salary  of  teachers $28.2 

Normal  Instruction. — Special  training  is  given 
to  teachers  in  the  Wilmington  Normal  School, 
and  at  Delaware  College.  Newark,  in  which  a 
course  has  been  organized  for  the  purpose.  The 
graduates  of  the  former  find  employment  prin- 
cipally in  the  schools  of  the  city.  It  employs 
.'!  teachers,  and  holds  its  sessions  in  the  eveniii", 
and  on  Saturdays.  The  course  provided  for  the 
training  of  teachers  in  Delaware  College,  by  act 
of  the  legislature,  in  1873,  is  open,  free  of  charge, 
to  10  students  from  each  county,  who  shall  bind 
themselves  to  teach,  after  graduation,  not  less 
than  one  year  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state. 
The  time  required  for  the  completion  of  this 
course  is  3  years.  The  branches  pursued  are  those 
included  in  the  literary  course  of  the  college,  ex- 
cept Latin  and  modern  languages,  with  special 
instruction  in  methods  of  teaching.  Candidates 
for  admission  to  this  course  are  appointed  by  the 
members  of  the  legislature.  They  must  be  not 
less  than  16  years  of  age,  of  good  moral  character, 
and  of  average  proficiency  in  English  studies. 
Diplomas  are  granted  at  the  end  of  the  3  years' 
course  ;  while,  for  one  year  or  more,  but  Less 
than  3  years,  certificates  are  given  indicative  of 
the  proficiency  acquired.  The  Delaware  State 
Normal  University,  at  Wilmington,  was  incorpo- 
rated in  ls(;7,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  an 
advanced  course  to  teachers.  It  was  authorized 
to  confer  all  degrees  customary  with  universities. 
and  to  grant  diplomas.  The  special  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  School  Teaching  was  conferrable 
upon  such  students  in  the  normal  department  as, 
upon  examination,  were  found  qualified,  and 
the  degree  of  Master  of  School  Teaching  upon 
such  as  had  been  actually  engaged  in  teaching 
for  3  years  after  graduation.  In  L871,  however, 
the  charter  of  the  university  was  repealed,  but 
the  students  held  a  meeting  shortly  after,  at 
which  it  was  resolved  to  continue  the  institution 
without  state  aid.  It  is  divided  into  4  depart- 
ments :  a  primary  school,  a  select  school,  a  me- 
chanical and  commercial  school,  and  a  high  and 


normal  school. —  Teachers'  Institutes  have  been 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  city  of  Wil- 
mington.   The  new  law,  however,  requires  the 

state  superintendent  to  hold  one  annually  in  each 
county  for  three  days,  all  the  teachers  of  the 
county  being  required  to  attend.  The  Delaware 
State  Teachers'  Association  was  organized  in 
Wilmington,  in  December,  L875. 

Secondary  Instruction. — Graded  schools  exist 
in  nearly  all  of  the  large  towns  of  the  state  ;  and, 
in  the  city  of  Wilmington  all  of  the  schools  are 
of  this  character.  'I  he  course  of  study  in  the 
latter  requires  3  years.  The  branches  taught  are 
those  usually  pursued  in  high  schools,  latin  and 
German  having  been  added  to  the  studies  of  the 
course,  in  1873,  though  the  study  of  them  is  op- 
tional. Craded  schools,  also,  are  in  existence  in 
Dover,  Smyrna,  Frederica,  Milford, Georgetown, 
and  Milton.  Between  35  and  -II)  private  paro- 
chial, and  charity  schools  and  academies  are 
known  to  exist  in  the  state,  many  of  which  af- 
ford instruction  usually  classed  as  secondary. 

Superior)  Instruction. —  1  he  only  institution 
which  affords  opportunities  to  males  for  a  higher 
education  is  the  Delaware  College  (q.  v.),  at 
Newark.  The  Wesleyan  Female  College,  at 
Wilmington,  was  organized  in  1839.  It  has  two 
regular  courses  of  study,  of  4  years  each,  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate,  besides  partial  courses 
for  special  purposes.  It  has  a  library  of  3,600 
volumes,  and.  in  1873,  reported  8  professors  and 
instructors,  and  137  students. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — The 
agricultural  department  of  Delaware  College 
furnishes  instruction  to  such  students  as  intend 
to  devote  themselves  to  the  business  of  agricult- 
ure, while  they,  at  the  same,  time  attend  to  the 
studies  that  constitute  a  liberal  education.  The 
grant  of  90,000  acres,  made  by  Congress  to  the 
state  for  the  founding  of  an  agricultural  college, 
has  been  given  to  this  institution.  It  provides  a 
scientific  and  an  agricultural  course,  admission 
to  which  is  granted  to  students  of  good  moral 
character  who  are  14  years  of  age,  and  who  suc- 
cessfully pass  an  examination  in  geography,  arith- 
metic, the  elements  of  algebra,  English  grammar, 
history  of  the  United  States,  and  "such  branches 
as  form  the  basis  of  a  complete  English  educa- 
tion."' The  time  required  for  the  completion  of 
each  course  is  3  years,  the  instruction  in  the  agri- 
cultural department  being  supplemented  by 
practical  exercise  in  farming,  gardening,  and  the 
work  of  the  nursery.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Philosophy  is  conferred  by  the  scientific  depart- 
ment; that  of  Graduate  in  Agriculture,  by  the 
agricultural  department.  In  1872,  the  admission 

of  females  to  the  college  classes  was  authorized. 
the  conditions  of  admission  being  the  same  as  in 
the  case  of  males.  The  result  is  said  to  have 
been  very  satisfactory.  No  special  provision  is 
made  by  tin-  state  for  the  instruction  of  the  deaf 
ami  dumb,  the  blind  or  the  imbecile;  i  eh  con  un- 
caring for  its  own.  or  the  state  bearing  the  ex- 
pense of  their  care  in  the  institutions  specially 
provided  for  the  purpose  by  the  neighboring 
state.  Pennsylvania. 


212 


DELAWARE  COLLEGE 


PEXMAKK 


DELAWARE  COLLEGE,  at  Newark, 
Del.,  was  chartered  in  1h(>7  and  opened  in 
ls7u.  It  includes  the  state  agricultural  college, 
established  by  the  congressional  land  grant.  The 
value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  ami  apparatus  is 
$50,000;  the  amount  of  its  productive  funds, 
$83,000;  the  number  of  volumes  in  its  libraries, 
6,000.  The  farm  of  the  professor  of  agriculture, 
embracing  about  70  acres  of  well-improved  land 
adjoining  Newark,  is  used  as  an  experimental 
farm.  Agricultural  students  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  defraying  a  part  of  their  expenses  by 
labor.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  institution  is 
$24  for  the  first  term  of  the  year,  $18  tor  the 
second,  an  1  $28  fur  the  third.  Each  county  in 
the  state  is  entitled,  by  a  law  passed  in  1869,  to 
have  ten  students  educated  at  the  college  free  of 
charge  for  tuition.    The  members  of  the  legisla- 

ture    are    vested  witli    authority  to    make    these 

appointments,  each  member  having  the  right  to 
make  one  nomination. 

In  1^7'_'.  tin'  trustees  authorized  the  admission 

of  females    to   the  College  classes  upon    the  same 

conditions  as  male  students.  There  are  four 
courses  :  the  classical, of  four  years,  leading  to  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts;  the  s  %entific,  includ- 
ing agriculture,  of  three  years.  Leading  to  the  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of  Philosophy;  the  literary, 
of  three  years,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Literature;  and  the  normal,  of  three  years. 
Those  not  desiring  to  take  any  one  of  the  regular 

courses  may  pursue  selected  studies.  The  lit- 
erary course  is  similar  to  the  classical,  but  omits 
the  higher  mathematics, and  substitutes  one  of 
tlie  modern  languages  for  Greek.  It  is  specially 
designed  for  female  students,  but  may  be  pursue  I 
by  all  such  as  prefer  it  to  any  one  of  the  other 
courses.  The  course  of  stu  ly  in  the  normal  de- 
partment embraces  all  those  branches  of  learn- 
ing which  arc  include  1  in  the  literary  course, 
Willi  tlie  exception  of  Latin  and  the  modern 
languages,  for  which  is  substituted  instruction  in 
the  higher  essentials  of  a  thorough  English  educa- 

tion,  and  in  the  best  and  most  approved  methods 
of  teaching.  Students  who  obligate  themselves  to 
teach  in  tlie  free  schools  of  the  state  for  not  less 
than  one  year  receive  tuition  free.  In  L874 — 5, 
there  were  8  instructors  and  5  I  students  in  Dela- 
ware College.  At  the  commencement  in  1875,12 
degrees  were  conferred  ;  namely,  A.  13.,  3  ;  Ph. 
I'..  '.:  B.  I...:-.  William  II.  I'uruell,  LL.  D.,  is 
(  L876)  the  president. 

DELPHIN  CLASSICS,  an  edition  of  the 
Latin  classics  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  dauphin 
(in  USU  /'  jihiiii)  by  older  of  Louis  XIV., 
under  the  editorship  of  Bossuet  and  Buet,  tu- 
tors to  the  dauphin.  The  compilers,  39  in  num- 
ber, were  selected  by  1 1  net  from  the  hot  scholars 
of  the  time.  The  plan  of  the  work  comprises 
a  continuous  gloss  in  the  margin,  and  copious 
foot-notes,  explaining  the  text.  The  different 
works  are  edited  with  very  unequal  merit  ;  and. 

whole,   the   series    has  ceased   to   have  any 
special    \alue    iii    comparison   with    more  recent 

and      more      accurate     editions.  See      II  M.I.AM. 

Literatur   >•/  Europi .  vol.  n. 


DENISON  UNIVERSITY,  at  Granville, 

Ohio,  under  the  control  of  the  Baptists,  was 
founded  in  ls.'Jl.  The  buildings,  three  in  num- 
ber, are  situated  on  a  hill,  north  of  the  town,  less 
than  600  yards  from  the  public  square,  the  site 
containing  24  acres,  nearly  half  of  which  is  oc- 
cupied by  a  grove  of  old  forest  trees.  The  uni- 
versity and  society  libraries  contain  about  11.000 
volumes.  The  cabinet  contains  a  good  collection 
of  shells,  and  of  specimens  in  geology,  mineral' 
Ogy,  zoology,  and  aiclueology.  The  value  of  its 
grounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus  is  $90,000;  the 
amount  of  its  productive  funds.  $190,000.  The 
university  comprises  a  preparatory  department 
and  a  collegiate  department,  the  latter  having  a 
classical  course  of  four  years,  leading  to  the  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  a  scientific  course 
of  three  years,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Science.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  college  is 
Si::  for  the  fall  term,  and  $10.50  each  for  the 
w  inter  and  spring  terms  ;  in  the  preparatory  de- 
partment, it  is $10  and $7  respectively.  Students 
for  the  ministry  may  be  received  a-  beneficiaries 
of  the  Ohio  Baptist  Educational  Society,  which 
Supplies  them  with  from  $80  to  si. "ill  per  annum 
besides  free  tuition.  In  1875 — li.  there  were  !*  in- 
structors, and  71  collegiate  and  S<  I  preparatory 
students.  The  number  graduating  in  L875 
was!).  The  Rev.  E.  Benjamin  Andrews,  A.M., 
is  (1876)  the  president. 

DENMARK,  a  kingdom  of  Europe,  has  an 
area  of  L4,753  sip  m..  and,  in  1  874,  had  a  popula- 
tion of  1 ,874,000.  Almost  the  entire  population 
(over  99  per  cent)  belongs  to  the  established 
Lutheran  Church ;  and  all  public  religious  in- 
struction is.  accordingly,  based  on  the  original 
Augsburg  confession. — Few  countries  have  un- 
dergone so  many  vicissitudes  of  fortune  as  Den- 
mark. During  the  middle  ages,  it  was  one  of  the 
most     powerful     empires    ot     northern     Europe. 

Jutland  and  the  Danish  isles  became  the  early 
home  of  a  warlike  Gothic  tribe,  the  piratical 
Danes  or  Normans.  King  Gorm  the  Old  sub- 
jected all  the  chieftains  to  his  Sovereignty  in  the 
beginning  of  the  1  Ot  li  century.    <  'anute  the  Great, 

after  1024,  extended  the  Danish  rule  over  Nor- 
way, Bouthem  Sweden,  and.  for  a  short  period, 
even  over   England.      Under  the  two  Walde- 

mars.  in  the  I  2th  and  I  3th  century.  Mecklenburg, 

I  lolstein,  Pomerania.and  the  present  Baltic  prov- 
inces of  Russia  were  added  to  the  empire. 
During  the  civil  wars  following  their  reigns. 
many  of  these  compicsts  were   lost.  The  so-called 

Calmar  Union  of  L397,  by  which  Queen  Margaret 

united    Denmark,   Sweden,  and    Norway,  was  of 

short  duration.     Under  Christian  UL,  in  1537, 

the  Reformation  was  introduced.  In  1  660,  south- 
ern Sweden,  and  in  ISllall  Norway  wa  -  reded 
to  Sweden:  and  by  the  unfortunate  war  of 
1864,  against   Austria  and  Prussia,  after  which 

the  duchies  of  Bchleswig,  I  lolstein,  and  l.auen- 
hurg  were  re-united  with  Germany,  the  area  of 
the  kingdom  was  reduced  to  iis  above-stated  ex- 
tent (e  elusive  of  Iceland,  the  Faroe  isles,  and 
the  colonies).  Owing  to  the  new  liberal  eon- 
stiiittiou  of  1849  (revised  in  L865),  the  industry, 


DENMARK 


'213 


commerce,  and  finances,  as  weD  as  the  literary 
and  educational  institutions  of  the  country  are 
at  present  in  a  flourishing  condition. 

History  of  Public  Instruction. — With  the  in- 
troduction  of  Christianity,  in  965,  convent  and 

CAthedral  schools  Were  opened:  and,  since  the 
twelfth  century,  while  Latin  was  the  only  written 
language  of  the  time.  •■  Latin  schools"  for  clerics 
and  laymen  of  the  higher  classes  and  trades,  were 

established  in  Viborg,  Ribe,  Odense,  Copenhagen 

(1(>40).  ami  other  towns.  These  institutions 
were  greatly  improved  by  the  church-reformers, 
after  1.V57.  who  instituted  two  grades  of  Latin 
schools,  both  under  the  supervision  of  the  alergy, 
those  of  the  lower  grade  being  also  thrown  open 
to  the  children  from  the  country.  A  third  grade  of 
schools  forpoorboys  and  girls,  the  so-called  "writ- 
ing-schools" [scholce  vulgaris),  excluding  instruc- 
tion in  Latin,  were  supported  and  controlled  by 
the  municipal  authorities.  In  the  rural  districts, 
the  only  instruction  imparted  to  youth  con- 
sisted in  teaching  the  catechism,  in  weekly  les- 
sons, given  in  one  of  the  largest  residences, 
either  by  pupils  of  the  highest  class  of  the 
nearest  Latin  school,  on  Saturdays,  for  a  remu- 
neration of  free  lodging  and  board,  or  by  the 
sextons,  or  by  students  of  theology.  The  18th 
century  is  marked  by  a  quick  succession  of  im- 
portant stepstoward  the  perfection  and  extension 
of  the  system  of  instruction.  Bishop  Thestrup  of 
Aalborg cause*  1  six  parish  schools  to  be  established 
in  <  'opeiihagen.  King  Frederick  I  V.i  1699— 1730) 
had  '_'4U  substantial  school-houses  built  on  the 
royal  domains,  each  containing  a  school  room  and 
a  dwelling  for  the  teacher.  A  royal  decree  of 
17'JL  regulated  the  organization  of  these  schools, 
fixing  the  salary  of  the  teachers,  making  religion 
and  reading  obligatory,  writing  and  arithmetic 
optional  studies,  and  requiring  the  children  to 
attend  school,  from  their  .1th  to  their  8th  year, 
every  day  for  5  or  6'  hours,  and  after  this  period, 
only  half  a  day.  The  royal  example  was  followed 
by  many  noblemen  and  landed  proprietors,  who 
established  similar  schools  on  their  estates  for  the 
benefit  of  the  children  of  their  tenants.  The 
supervision  of  all  these  schools  was  assigned  to 
the  clergy:  but  a  general  system  of  public  in- 
struction was  not  introduced  until  173'.),  by  a  de- 
cree of  Christian  VI.  (1730 — 174(1),  ordaining 
the  establishment  of  common  or  parish  schools 
in  every  larger  village,  where  religion,  reading. 
writing,  and  arithmetic  were  to  he  taught  by 
school-masters  qualified  before  the  clergyman. 
The  schools  were  to  be  supported  by  a  revenue 
fund,  collections,  fines,  and  a  school  tax.  About 
•'in  Latin  schools,  in  the  smaller  towns,  were  abol- 
ished, and  their  funds  appropriated  for  the  com- 
mon-school fund.  The  general  introduction  of 
this  new  system  was,  however,  thwarted  by  the 
Opposition  of  many  landed  proprietors,  who 
maintained  their  territorial  autonomy  in  school 
matters.  A  new  and  liberal  era  was  inaugurated 
under  Frederick  VI.,  by  the  school  law  of  July 
29.,  L814,  the  principal  features  of  which  are  still 
in  force.  It  ordained  the  establishment  of  ele- 
mentary schools,  each  of  two  classes,  in  the  coun- 


try in  every  neigborhood  capable  of  supporting  a 

school,  and  of  two  schools  in  all  the  larger  villa 
of  an  elementary  burgher  school,  and,  if  feasible, 
also  of  higher  schools  and  evening  classes  for 
adults  in  every  town.  Attendance  was  made 
obligatory.  Pour  new  seminaries  for  the  edu- 
cation   of    qualified     teachers     were    erected    at 

Skaarup,  Lyngbye,  Jelling,  and  Ranum,  in  ad- 
dition to  that  of  Joenstrup, which  was  founded  in 
1791.  In  1828,  gymnastics  were  introduced 
into  all  the  schools  of  the  country.  A  decree  of 
1838  created  higher  burgher  schools  in  all  the 
towns.  In  1850,  the  gymnasia  of  Nyborg, 
Slagelse,  Nakskow,  Vorsingborg,  and  Klsinore 
were  transformed  into  higher  real-schools.  The 
laws  of  1850,  ls(l4.and  1869  regulated  the  exam- 
inations for  admission  to  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen, which  received  its  fundamental  statute  as 
early  as  1788. 

Primary  Instruction.  —  The  general  super- 
vision of  the  primary  schools  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  ministry  of  instruction  and  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs, while  each  one  of  the  seven  bishops  super- 
intends the  schools  in  his  diocese.  They  appoint 
all  teachers  in  the  rural  districts,  while  the 
school  board  of  the  Ami  (a  subdivision  of  a  dio- 
cese) appoints  the  teachers  in  the  cities.  The 
ministry  of  instruction  and  ecclesiastical  affairs 
consists  of  two  departments,  one  for  ecclesias- 
tical affairs,  the  primary  schools,  the  normal 
schools,  and  the  asylums  for  the  blind  and  deaf- 
mutes  ;  and  the  other  for  the  institutions  for 
secondary,  superior,  and  special  instruction,  the 
libraries,  the  scientific  and  art  collections,  the 
academy  of  fine  arts,  the  royal  theater,  and  the 
general  administration  of  the  ministry.  A  third 
department  was  organized  temporarily,  in  1855, 
for  the  elementary  schools,  but  was  abandoned 
again  in  1866.  'I  he  immediate  supervision  of 
each  school  in  the  country  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
district  school  board,  composed  of  the  clergy- 
man and  representatives  elected  from  the  parish. 
Above,  this  is  the  school  board  of  the  Amt.  com- 
posed of  the  Amtmand  (bailiff)  and  the  clerical 
superintendent.  In  the  cities,  the  immediate 
supervision  is  in  the  hands  of  a  board  consisting 
of  the  clergyman,  the  mayor,  and  a  number  of 
citizens  elected  to  that  position.  'I  he  duties  of  this 
board  coincide  with  those  of  the  district  school 
board  in  the  rural  district,  while  the  other  au- 
thorities are  common  to  both  city  and  country. 
Education  is  compulsory  according  to  the  laws  of 
May  •_'.,  L855,  and  Sept.  30.,  1864.  Every  child 
must  attend  school  from  the  seventh  year  of  age, 
and  the  parents  are  forced  by  fines  to  comply 
with  this  law  :  but  no  child  is  admitted  under 
six  years  of  age.  After  the  thirteenth  year,  a 
child  may  be  dismissed  upon  the  wish  of  its 
parents,  if.  in  the  opinion  of  the  school  board, 
it  has  received  a  sufficient  amount  of  education  ; 
and.  after  the  fifteenth  year.it  must  be  dismissed 
Upon  the  demand  of  its  parents.  The  school 
hours  are.  in  summer,  from  eight  to  eleven  in  the 
morning,  and  from  one  to  four  in  the  afternoon; 
and  in  winter,  from  nine  to  twelve  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  from  one  to  four  in  the  afternoon  ;  but 


214 


DENMARK 


few  rules  are  laid  down  for  the  management  of 
schools,  and  only  very  few  schools  have  printed 
rules.  For  disrespect  and  disobedience,  teach- 
ers may  resort  to  corporal  punishment,  while 
laziness  and  truancy  must  be  reported  to  the 
rector  or  principal  of  the  school,  who  inflicts  a 
proper  punishment  in  such  cases.  School  dia- 
ries have  been  introduced  in  all  the  classes  ex- 
cept the  highest.  For  every  recitation  the 
scholar  receives  a  mark  expressed  by  a  number, 
6  being  the  highest,  and  0  the  lowest.  At  the 
end  of  every  month,  the  marks  are  added  up, 
and  the  standing  for  each  ensuing  month  is  thus 
determined.  In  the  highest  class,  the  daily 
marks  are  discontinued,  and  a  monthly  report  is 
given  instead.  While  the  length  of  the  school 
term  is  generally  left  to  the  separate  school 
boards,  the  royal  decree  of  Jan.  27.,  1860,  fixed 
240  days  in  the  year  as  the  minimum  for  every 
school.  A  general  model  course  of  studies  for 
the  kingdom  does  not  exist.  Every  teacher  pre- 
pares his  own  course  of  studies,  which  must  be 
approved  by  the  school  board.  An  equal  free- 
dom prevails  in  regard  to  the  choice  of  text- 
books, and  in  the  methods  of  teaching  used.  In 
1819,  the  monitorial  or  Lancasterian  system  was 
introduced  into  the  military  school  in  Copen- 
hagen, by  a  young  officer  who  had  observed  it  in 
France.  The  king  took  great  interest  in  the  ex- 
periment, and  in  1822  the  system  was  recom- 
mended for  introduction  into  all  elementary 
schools.  It  was,  however,  severely  attacked  by 
Diesterweg  (see  Diesterweg),  and  gradually  feil 
into  disuse,  being  greatly  modified  in  those 
schools  in  which  it  still  exists.  Almost  every 
town  has,  besides  the  elementary  schools,  at 
least  one  higher  primary  school,  or  burgher  real 
school,  in  which  a  small  fee  is  charged.  The 
course  of  instruction  in  these  schools  embraces 
the  following  subjects:  Danish  language,  religion, 
arithmetic,  penmanship,  book-keeping,  the  rudi- 
ments of  algebra,  geometry  natural  history, 
natural  philosophy,  Danish  and  general  history, 
geography,  either  German,  French,  or  English, 
and  geometrical  drawing,  singing,  and  gymnas- 
tics. The  number  of  primary  schools  in  the 
country,  in  1867,  was  2,781,  the  number  of  male 
teachers  2,929,  female  teachers  59,  the  number  of 
children  of  school  age  200,761,  the  number  of 
children  attending  public  schools  194,198,  and 
the  number  of  children  attending  private  schools 
13,994,  making  the  total  number  of  children  un- 
der instruction  208,192.  The  cities  had,  in  1867, 
113  primary  schools,  with  422  male  and  54  fe- 
male teachers,  and  23,352  scholars,  of  whom 
6,161  attended  the  burgher  real  schools.  The 
salaries  of  the  teachers  in  the  cities  differ  con- 
siderably from  those  paid  in  the  country;  but 
both  in  city  and  country,  they  compare  very 
favorably  with  the  salaries  paid  in  other  parts  of 
Europe.  In  the  country,  the  remuneration  con- 
sists of  a  fixed  salary,  paid  partly  in  money  and 
partly  in  grain,  which  is  changed  into  money  ac- 
cording to  the  average  price  of  grain  for  the  past 
ten  years,  which  price  is  determined  annually. 
Teachers  also  receive,  for  their  services  as  sextons, 


the  sum  of  three  marks  (1  rix-dollar  @  6  marks 
=  $0.55.3),  payable  by  every  child;  and  there  is 
an  increase  of  salary,  according  to  age,  of  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty  rix-dollars.  Every  teacher  has 
a  house  free,  which  must  be  kept  in  repair  by 
the  parish,  and  a  certain  amount  of  school  land, 
and  he  receives  fuel,  and  such  provisions  as  eggs, 
milk,  etc.  Every  ten  years,  the  ministry  deter- 
mines for  each  position  the  money  value  of  all 
receipts,  based  on  the  average  prices  for  the  pre- 
ceding ten  years.  In  1867,  the  total  amount 
thus  determined  was  1,370,914  rix-dollars,  which, 
for  2, 5 (i(l  teachers,  gave  an  average  salary  of 
534  rix-dollars.  According  to  the  law  of  1856, 
one  half  of  the  teachers  in  every  city  receive,  be- 
sides free  lodging,  not  less  than  300  rix-dollars 
and  50  tons  of  barley,  while  the  other  half  re- 
ceive not  less  than  150  rix-dollars  and  50  tons 
of  barley,  so  that  no  teacher  receives  less  than 
300  rix-dollars,  taking  everything  into  account. 
The  average  salary  of  the  teachers  in  the 
cities,  in  1867,  was  690  rix-dollars.  Teachers 
throughout  the  kingdom  are  exempt  from  mili- 
tary duty.  Denmark  has  five  seminaries  for 
teachers,  —  in  Joenstrup,  with  51  pupils ;  in 
Skaarup,  with  75  pupils ;  in  Lyngbye,  with  31 
pupils ;  in  Ranum,  with  31  pupils  ;  and  in  Jel- 
ling, with  45  pupils ;  making  233  pupils.  Every 
seminary  has  three  classes,  the  course  of  each 
class  comprising  one  year.  No  pupfl  is  admitted 
to  the  lowest  class  under  17  years  of  age.  The 
course  of  studies  is  as  follows  for  all  three  classes: 
religion  ;  reading  and  the  Danish  language  and 

O  O  OCT 

literature ;  arithmetic  and  other  branches  of 
mathematics ;  penmanship ;  history  and  geog- 
raphy ;  natural  history;  lessons  on  education 
and  instruction  ;  music  ;  gymnastics;  drawing  ; 
catechisation.  For  some  years  past,  there  have 
been  established,  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, Peasants'  High  Schools,  which  are  attended 
by  young  farmers  who  come  together  at  their 
own  expense  during  the  winter  months.  In 
these  schools,  lectures  are  delivered  on  the  history 
and  institutions  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  sciences 
relating  to  agriculture.  The  plan  of  instruction 
depends  chiefly  on  the  wishes  of  the  pupils  and 
the  capacity  of  the  teachers,  who  are  generally 
graduates  of  the  university.  Of  these  schools, 
there  were,  in  1874,  49,  with  2,132  male  and 
1,003  female  pupils. — In  Copenhagen,  the  pri- 
mary schools  have  three  classes,  the  two  sexes  are 
instructed  separately,  and  the  course  of  studies  is 
a  little  more  extended  than  that  in  other  cities. 
According  to  the  law  of  1844,  modified  by  that 
of  1857,  the  schools  are  governed  by  a  board  of 
school  directors,  composed  of  the  chief  magistrate 
of  the  city,  the  burgomaster  who  has  charge  of 
school  affairs,  and  a  clergyman  of  the  city  ap- 
pointed by  the  minister  of  instruction.  The  im- 
mediate supervision  is  in  the  hands  of  a  super- 
intendent, who  has  a  seat  but  not  a  vote  in  the 
,  board  of  directors.  Every  ward  of  the  city  and 
suburbs  has,  furthermore,  its  own  school  com- 
mittee of  three  members.  The  schools  are  partly 
free  and  partly  pay  schools.  They  are  of  two 
kinds, — those  consisting  of  day  classes  in  which 


DENMARK 


DENOMINATIONAL  SCHOOLS     215 


the  school  time  is  six  hours  per  day,  and  half -day 
classes  which  are  taught  only  four  hours  per  day. 
On  May  1.,  1874,  the  aggregate  number  of  pupils 
in  the  schools  of  Copenhagen  was  22,747,  while 
the  number  of  children  of  school  age  was  27,275. 
Of  the  4,428  children  who  attended  no  school, 
4,286  received  private  instruction.  At  the  close 
of  1873,  there  were  149  private  schools,  with 
11,729  pupils.  Of  these  schools,  thirteen  re- 
ceived aid  from  the  state.  School  libraries  have 
been  introduced  in  all  the  schools.  They  are 
supported  partly  by  the  pupils,  and  partly  by 
state  aid,  and  are  under  the  control  of  the  teachers. 
Secondary  Instruction. — By  the  church  act  of 
1537,  Latin  schools,  of  from  three  to  four  classes, 
were  founded  in  all  the  cities  of  Denmark.  Owing 
to  the  different  wars  and  from  other  causes,  the 
condition  of  these  schools  was  not  very  favoraU*  . 
until,  in  1739,  Christian  VI.  considerably  dimin- 
ished their  number,  and  thus  obtained  the  neces- 
sary means  to  improve  the  financial  standing  of 
those  remaining.  At  the  sanii'  time,  the  course 
of  instruction  was  extended,  and  the  Danish  lan- 
guage introduced  as  a  study,  and  in  some  cases 
as  the  vehicle  of  instruction,  while,  up  to  that 
time,  instruction  had  been  given  in  the  Latin 
language  only.  Under  Christian  YIL  the 
course  of  studies  was  more  definitely  regulated, 
and  instruction  in  the  Danish  language  was 
introduced  into  all  the  schools.  The  schools 
then  made  steady  improvement,  until,  in  1850, 
they  received  their  present  form.  The  institu- 
tions for  secondary  instruction  now  comprise 
gymnasia,  fashioned  after  the  German  model, 
some  of  which  also  have  real  classes ;  burgher 
schools,  corresponding  to  the  German  real 
schools;  and  private  schools.  The  eourse  of  in- 
struction embraces  a  period  of  nine  years.  Pu- 
pils upon  entering  must  be  at  least  ten  years  of 
age,  and  must  pass  a  satisfactory  examina- 
tion in  various  branches.  The  course  of  study 
in  the  gymnasia  comprises,  besides  a  continua- 
tion of  the  studies  of  the  elementary  schools, 
Latin  and  Greek,  one  or  more  modern  lan- 
guages, natural  history,  and  natural  philosophy. 
The  course  of  study  in  the  burgher  schools,  com- 
prises Danish,  French,  German,  English,  history, 
geography,  arithmetic,  geometry,  natural  history. 
penmanship,  and  drawing.  The  total  number  of 
secondary  schools  at  present  is  26,  of  which  15  are 
gymnasia,  5  burgher  schools,  and  6  private  schools. 
The  number  of  teachers,  in  1873,  was  163  in  the 
gymnasia,  6  in  the  burgher  schools,  and  145  in 
the  private  schools,  making  a  total  of  314.  The 
number  of  pupils,  in  the  same  year,  was  1629  in 
the  gymnasia,  410  in  the  burgher  schools,  and  1437 
in  the  private  schools,  making  a  total  of  3,476. 
The  amount  paid  for  salaries  of  teachers,  in  1871, 
was  249,151  rix-dollars.  Among  the  oldest  and 
wealthiest  secondary  schools  of  the  kingdom,  are 
those  of  Soroe  and  Herlufsholm.  The  school  at 
Soroe  was  founded  in  1580.  In  1749,  it  was 
•changed  into  the  Knights"  Academy.  After- 
wards, a  classical  school  was  added ;  and,  in 
1849,  the  academy  was  discontinued,  so  that  only 
the  classical  school  remained,  which,  in  1870,  had 


160  scholars.     The  school  at  Herlufsholm  was 
founded  in  1565,  and,  in  1870,  had  95  scholars. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  University  of 
Copenhagen  was  founded  in  1478 — 9 ;  and  at 
present  comprises  four  facidties, — theology,  law, 
medicine,  and  philosophy.  It  has  a  well  equipped 
laboratory,  a  botanical  and  zoological  garden,  a 
museum  of  natural  history,  an  astronomical  ob- 
servatory, and  a  library  of  250,000  volumes.  In 
1873,  it  had  51  professors  and  about  1200  students. 

Special  Instruction. — The  schools  for  special 
instruction  are  as  follows  :  A  royal  veterinary 
and  agricultural  school,  with  16  professors;  a 
polytechnic  school,  with  13  professors;  two 
academies  of  fine  aits  ;  a  technical  school ;  and 
Sunday  improvement  schools.  Besides  these  in- 
stitutions, all  of  which  are  situated  at  or  near 
the  city  of  Copenhagen,  there  are  eight  schools 
of  navigation  at  various  places. 

Iceland,  a  dependency  of  Denmark,  was  first 
settled  about  870;  it  became  subject  to  Norway 
in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  to 
Denmark  in  1380.  The  first  formal  school  was 
established  upon  the  introduction  of  the  Christian 
religion,  near  the  end  of  the  10th  century  (981). 
At  present,  the  instruction  is  altogether  domestic; 
but  as  the  clergymen  are  forbidden  to  solemnize 
the  marriage  of  any  female  who  is  unable  to  read, 
very  few  natives  of  Iceland  are  found  who  can- 
not read  or  write.  The  only  public  school  in 
Iceland  is  the  college  at  lieikiavik,  which  has 
six  teachers  and  a  library.  Latin,  French,  and 
German  are  taught  in  the  college;  and  it  also 
has  a  theological  course. — See  Schmid,  Encyclo- 
jid'lie,  vol.  x.;  Barnard,  National  Education, 
vol.  II. 

DENOMINATIONAL  SCHOOLS  are 
schools  either  under  the  control  of  a  particular 
religious  denomination,  or  that  give  religious  in- 
struction according  to  the  dogmatic  tenets  of 
some  particular  church  or  sect.  Denominational 
schools  that  are  under  the  direction  and  super- 
vision of  the  church  authorities  of  a  parish,  are 
called  parochial  schools  (q.v.).  The  question 
whether  the  schools  supported  by  the  state  should 
have  a  denominational  character  or  not,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  educational  controversies 
of  the  present  age.  in  the  United  States  as  well 
as  in  almost  every  country  of  Europe.  The 
public-school  system  has  been  developed  in  close 
connection  with  both  church  and  state  ;  and,  in 
Em-ope.  until  a  recent  period,  it  has  been  the 
general  rule  to  give  to  the  public  school  a  de- 
nominational character.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion of  these  schools  includes  instruction  in  the 
creed  of  a  particular  religious  denomination,  to 
which,  moreover,  all  the  teachers  of  the  school 
must  belong.  The  Catholic  Church,  especially, 
insists  that  every  school,  from  the  lowest  primary 
up  to  the  university,  should  bear  a  distinctively 
denominational  character,  and  should  provide 
for  religious  instruction  as  a  part  of  the  regular 
course.  The  orthodox  and  conservative  Prot- 
estants in  Germany  and  in  other  countries  of 
the  European  continent,  generally  take  the 
same  view,  but  more  in  regard  to  the  common 


216 


DENOMINATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


schools  than  to  secondary  schools  and  univer- 
sities. Among  the  Liberal  party,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  the  ex- 
clusion of  all  instruction  in  the  tenets  of  a  partic- 
ular religion  from  the  stair  schools,  and  for  the 
abolition  of  every  religious  distinction  in  the  ap- 
pointment of  teachers.  They  demand,  in  the 
place  of  the  denominational  schools  (in  Germany 
called  Confessionssckulen),"  communal"  or  "na- 
tional" schools  ;  but  they  differ  among  them- 
selves as  to  whether  religious  instruction  is  wholly 
to  be  excluded.  Some  desire  that  there  should  be 
instruction  in  the  general  principles  of  religion 
and  morality,  instead  of  instruction  in  a  denomi- 
national creed, while  others  prefer  the  total  exclu- 
sion of  religious  teaching.    (See  Diesterweg.) 

The  Catholic  cyclopedia  of  education  by 
ltolfus  and  Pfister  (Real-Encydopadie  des  AV- 
ziehungs-  und  Unlerricktswesen$,airt.  t  'ommunal- 
sclnib'ii)  adduces,  among  others,  the  following 
arguments  in  behalf  of  denominational  schools. 
The  public  school  is  intended  not  merely  to  im- 
part instruction,  but  to  take  pari  in  the  work  of 
education.  Its  educational  Function  is  not  of  a 
preparatory  or  continuing  character,  but  it  is  to 
aid  and  to  accompany  borne  education.  The 
Litter  i>  based  on  religion,  without  which  a  good 
education  is  impossible.  A  school  which  does 
not  provide  for  religious  instruction  and  educa- 
tion, subjects  a  child  to  influences  directly  in 
conflict  with  the  education  received  at  borne. — 

Religious   instruction    is,   more    than    any    other 

branch,  suited  to  initiate  a  child  into  an  under- 
standing of  abstract  ideas.  It  offers  the  most 
interesting  material  for  exercises  in  reading  and 
writing,  and  for  the  development  of  the  intel- 
lectual as  well  as  the  emotional  faculties  of  the 
child.     It  is  unquestionably  better  suited  than 

mere  exercises  in  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic, to  establish  a  bond  of  affection  between 
teacher  and  pupil.  In  the  eyes  of  the  im- 
mense majority  of  people,  instruction  in  their 
own  religion  is  the  most  important  and  the  most 
desirable  that  can  be  given  to  their  children ; 

and.  hence,  the  authority  of  a  teacher  who  is  not 

permitted  to  give  religious  instruction,  must  be 

lowered  in  their  estimation.     The   public  Bel I 

is  supported  by  those  who   have  the  right  to 

demand    that    the   subject    to   which    they  attach 

the  greatest  importance  should  not  be  excluded 
from  the  course  of  instruction.  The  strong  con- 
victions of  a  teacher  manifest  themselves  chiefly 

in  his  religious  belief .      Schools,  therefore,  which 

compel  the  teacher  to  repress  everything  that  re- 
Sects  his  religious  convictions,  may  be  expected 

to  have  as  teachers  few  persons  of  linn  prin- 
ciples. Where  state  and  chinch  are  allied  iii  the 
supervision  of  denominational  schools,  the  state 
government  fully  knows  what  ideas  of  good  and 
bad,  of  virtue,  or  of  conscience  arc  taught;  but 
where  teachers  are  appointed  without  regard  to 
their  religious  news,  and  where  the  church  is 
excluded  from  superintending  the  instruction,  it 
will  be  impossible  to  keep  out  of  the  schools  the 
Boost  destructive  views  of  religion  and  morality, 
which  teachers  without   religious  principles  will 


find  it  easy  to  inculcate  indirectly  on  many  oc- 
casions.  When  undenominational  schools  are 
the  rule  in  a  community,  very  many  parents  are 
dissatisfied, and  private  institutions,  combining 
religious  with  other  instruction,  flourish.  But  it 
is  not  for  the  interest  of  the  state  that  a  large 
portion  of  the  population  should,  in  a  demon- 
strative niiinner.  express  its  want  of  confidence  in 
state  institutions,  and  patronize  schools  which 
have  been  organized  for  the  express  purpose  of 
neutralizing  the  effect  aimed  at  by  the  legislation 
of  the  state. 

The  Protestant  cyclopaedias  of  education 
edited  by  K.  A.  Schmid  {EncyclopacHe  des  Er- 
ziehungswesens  etc.,  and  P&dagogisches  Hand- 
buck,  art.  Confessions-  tend  Commimcdschu- 
A/'i.  take  the  same  view.  The  Padagogische 
Handbuch  says:  "  Religious  school  instruction 
is  specially  a  want  of  the  evangelical  child.  The 
church  of  the  Word  builds  itself  up  by  the  un- 
|  derstanding  and  recognition  of  the  Word  ;  there- 
fore her  children  must  be  supplied  with  religious 
knowledge;  Bible  history,  the  most  beautiful 
sentences  of  the  Bible,  and  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel  must  be  inculcated  for 
belief  and  practice  in  life;  the  treasure  of  the 
songs  of  the  church  must  be  opened  to  them  for 
edification;  and  they  must  Learn  to  join  in  the 
chorus  of  the  congregation.  The  Catholic 
Church. with  a  form  of  worship  which  captivates 
the  senses,  with  its  religious  ceremonies,  into 
which  even  small  children  are  introduced,  and 
which  are  constantly  practiced  by  its  members. 
produces  naturally  a  certain  religious  habit, 
which  interweaves  iiselt  with  the  ideas  and  emo- 
tional tendencies,  and  thus  proves  a  strong  bond 
of  union  for  the  church.  With  us.  the  mind  is 
chiefly  addressed  to  impress  religious  convic- 
tions: and.  hence,  to  exclude  religious  instruction 
from  our  schools  must  fatally  injure  the  relig- 
ious,   moral,    and    ideal    life   of    our    Protestant 

congregations." 

The  advocates   of  denominational  schools  also 
point     to     the     fact     that     the    results    llms    far 

obtained  by  the  undenominational  school  have 

failed  to  satisfy  even  the  most  zealous  among  its 
defenders.     Cue   of   the    leaders    of    the    Liberal 

party  of  Prussia,  Miquel,  in  a  speech  made  in 
the  Prussian  house  of  deputies,  March  L2.,  L875, 
said  :  ••  The  system  of  undenominational  schools 
in  the  Netherlands,  which  prohibits  teachers 
from  giving  religious  instruction,  but  provides 
that  time  and  permission  be  given  to  the  pupils 
to  receive  religious  instruction  from  the  clergy- 
men of  the  several  denominations  to  which  they 
belong,  was  introduced  under  the  liberal  ministry 
of  Thorbecke.  This  great  statesman  subsequently 
saw  and  acknowledged  to  me,  that  the  system,  in- 
stead of  promoting  friendly  relations  between 
different  religious  denominations,  had  widened 
the  breach.  The  pupils  of  the  public  schools 
either  received  no  religious  instruction  at  all, or 
being  instructed  by  clergymen,  became  more  at- 
tached to  denominational  differences,  than  would 
nave  been  the  case,  if  the  religious  instruction 

had  been  given  by  the  school-teacher.'' 


DENOMINATION  A  I,  SCHOOLS 


217 


Hut  although  the  fruits  of  the  undenomina- 
tional school  system  in  Holland  and  elsewhere 
have  tailed  to  satisfy  its  friends,  public  opinion 
in  Europe  appears  to  be  abandoning  more  and 
more  the  old  system  of  denominational  schools. 
The  new  school  law  of  Austria,  of  the  year  1S(1S, 
recognizes  the  principle  of  national  or  communal 
schools,  though  it  authorizes  the  churches  to 
establish  their  own  denominational  schools.  In 
Bavaria,  the  new  law  of  L873  gives  to  town  coun- 
cils the  power  to  consolidate  the  existing  denomi- 
national schools,  and  thus  to  form  undenomina- 
tional communal  schools;  and  many  towns  have 
made  haste  to  avail  themselves  of  the  privilege. 
The  leaders  in  the  great  conflict  of  the  state  gov- 
ernmentsof  Europe  with  the  Catholic  Church  con- 
cerning the  public  school,  all  favor,  more  or  less, 
the  undenominational  school.  In  England,  where 
the  traditional  distrust  of  the  government  in  mat- 
ters relating  to  the  school  is  still  very  apparent  in 
the  actual  condition  of  school  matters,  an  immense 
majority  of  all  the  schools  deriving  support  from 
the  government,  bear  a  strictly  denominational 
character.  The  advocates  of  secularism  in  state 
education  are.  however,  becoming  more  numerous 
and  more  powerful ;  and  even  those  who  favor 
denominationalism  are  beginning  to  endorse  the 
underlying  principle  of  undenominational  state 
education.  Says  Dr.  Higg.  in  National  Educa- 
tion, ■■  It  must  be  admitted  that,  if  the  state  is  to 
interfere  at  all  directly  in  the  matter  of  popular 
education,  its  own  function  and  responsibility 
should  certainly  be  limited  to  that  which  is  un- 
sectarian.  and,  if  it  were  possible,  would  most 
conveniently  be  limited  to  that  which  is  secular, 
in  instruction  and  restdts.  Here  I  find  myself, 
in  principle,  pretty  well  agreed  with  the  secular- 
ists. It  is  where  they  would  forbid  the  co-ope- 
ration of  ( 'luistian  organizations  and  of  Chris- 
tian teaching,  otherwise  provided,  with  the  func- 
tions and  work  of  the  state  in  popidar  education, 
that,  in  common  with  most  others,  I  am  obliged 
to  differ." 

In  the  United  States,  the  undenominational 
character  of  the  public  school  has  always  been 
its  most  distinctive  feature.  The  teaching  of  the 
doctrinal  tenets  of  particidar  denominations  is 
every-where  excluded  from  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion. In  many  states,  as  in  Arkansas,  Illinois, 
Kansas,  Kentucky,  Massachusetts,  Nevada,  Ne- 
braska. New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ohio,  South 
Carolina,  and  AYisconsin,  the  constitution  of  the 
state  expressly  forbids  sectarian  instruction  and 
control.  But  even  where  the  constitution  of  the 
state  has  not  sanctioned  the  principle  by  a  spe- 
cial provision,  the  practice  is  universally  the 
same.  The  growth  of  the  undenominational 
school  was  the  natural  fruit  of  the  voluntary 
system  which  pervades  all  American  institutions, 
and  which,  in  particular,  excluded  the  influence 
of  the  state  from  all  religious  matters.  Although 
in  the  United  States  there  is  no  state  church, 
as  in  the  states  of  Europe,  a  larger  number  of 
religious  denominations  than  are  found  any- 
where else,  live  together  in  the  possession  of 
equal  rights.     The  co-existence  of  various  de- 


nominations in  almost  every  one  of  the  numer- 
ous small  townships  which  do  not  need  more 
than  one  school,  would  have  made  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  number  of  schools  a  practical  im- 
possibility. Moreover,  the  separation  between 
church  and  state  has  caused  Americans  generally 
to  look  upon  religion  as  upon  something  belong- 
ing exclusively  to  the  family  and  to  the  church. 
The  proper  places  to  provide  for  religious  in- 
struction appeared,  therefore,  to  them  to  be  the 
family  and,  especially,  the  Sunday-school.  The 
only  religious  element  which  a  very  large  portion 
of  American  educators  desire  to  retain  in  the 
common  schools,  is  the  reading  of  a  passage  of 
the  Bible,  and  the  opening  of  the  school  by 
prayer.  Among  the  Protestants  of  the  United 
States,  this  view  has  still  decidedly  the  ascend- 
ency ;  and  several  state  constitutions  expressly 
provide  that  the  Bible  shall  not  be  excluded 
from  the  public  schools.     (See  Bible.) 

The  most  earnest  and  united  opposition  to  the 
undenominational  American  school  is  made  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  disapproves 
the  practice  of  having  the  Bible  without  note  or 
comment,  read  by  or  to  the  pupils  ;  it  complains 
of  the  reading  of  a  Protestant  version  of  the 
Bible  to  Catholic  children  as  an  injustice ;  but  it 
still  more  objects  to  any  system  of  instruction 
which  excludes  the  teaching;  of  religion  from  its 
regular  course.  It  has,  therefore,  put  forth  the 
claim  for  a  division  of  the  school  funds  of  the 
state  anions;  all  religious  denominations  in  a  fair 
proportion,  in  order  that  it  may  be  used  by  them 
for  the  support  of  denominational  schools.  This 
claim  of  the  Roman  Catholics  has  led  to  a  pro- 
tracted and  interesting  controversy,  which  is  not 
yet  ended.  The  fundamental  principle  on  which 
the  claim  is  based,  that,  from  an  educational  point 
of  view,  it  is  desirable  to  include  religious  teach- 
ing in  the  regular  course  of  instruction,  has  been 
conceded  by  not  a  few  of  their  opponents;  and 
cases  have  not  been  wanting  in  which  Protestant 
congregations  have  asked  for  the  support  of  their 
denominational  schools  out  of  the  public  funds. 
Some  eminent  statesmen  also,  like  Wm.  H.  Sew- 
ard, were  disposed  to  recognize  the  Catholic  de- 
mand as  being,  in  the  main,  fair,  and  to  concede  it. 
Public  opinion,  however,  in  the  progress  of  the 
controversy,  has  taken  a  very  determined  stand 
in  opposition  to  the  Catholic  view  and  in  favor 
of  the  undenominational  school.  The  majority 
of  the  American  people,  at  the  present  time,  un- 
doubtedly hold  that  religion  is  a  matter  entirely 
voluntary  and  individual,  which  every  person 
should  regulate  according  to  the  dictates  of  Ms 
own  conscience,  and  in  which  the  public  author- 
ities should  in  no  way  interfere  ;  that  churches, 
in  the  eyes  of  the  state,  are  only  voluntary  asso- 
ciations of  families  holding  the  same  religious 
views;  and  that  the  rearing  of  children  in  any 
religious  tenets  whatever,  should,  therefore,  be 
left  wholly  and  exclusively  to  the  families  and 
the  churches;  that  the  families  have  it  in  their 
power  to  supply,  in  Sunday-schools,  all  the  re- 
ligious instruction  they  desire  their  children  to 
receive  ;  that  the  state  has  no  right  to  tax  people 


218    DENOMINATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


DETROIT 


for  ecclesiastical  objects  ;  and  that  the  exclusive 
aim  of  schools  supported  by  the  public  funds 
should  be  to  tit  their  pupils  for  the  discharge  of 
their  civil  obligations.  To  the  most  interesting 
episodes  of  this  conflict  belongs  the  religious  con- 
troversy in  the  city  of  New  York  from  1840  to 
1842.  During  the  absence  of  bishop  Hughes  in 
Europe,  the  Catholics  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
in  L839,  organized  an  opposition  to  the  public- 
school  system.  On  his  return,  bishop  Hughes,  in 
1  840,  himself  took  the  lead,  and  drew  up  a  peti- 
tion to  the  common  council,  praying  thai  seven 
parochial  schools  should  be  designated  as  "en- 
titled to  participate  in  the  common-school  fund, 
Upon  complying  with  the  requirements  of  the 
law."  I  lis  demand  being  rejected  by  the  common 
council,  the  matter  was  brought  before  the  legis- 
lature; and  when  he  was  baffled  in  his  suit  there 
also,  he  recommended  the  Catholics  to  nominate 
independenl  candidates  in  the  ensuing  elections, 
thus  commencing  a  movement  which  developed 
into  considerable  strength.  The  controversy  was 
finally  settled  by  the  passage  of  the  act  of  April 
11.,  1  s 4 2 .  which  provided  that  "no  school  shall 
be  entitled  to, Or  receive,  any  portion  of  the  school 
moneys,  in  which  the  religious  doctrines  or  tenets 
of  any  particular  Christian  or  other  religious 
seel  shall  l>c  taught,  inculcated,  or  practiced,  or 

in  which  any  book  or  books  containing  compo- 
sitions favorable  or  prejudicial  to  the  particular 

doctrines  or  tenets  of  any  sect  shall  be  used." 
The  Catholic  bishops  have  since  taken  the  same 
ground  as  bishop  Hughes  ;  and.  in  many  cases. 
have  adopted  very  decisive  measures  against    the 

public  schools.  In  some  places,  as  in  Pough- 
keepsie.  N.  V.,  a  compromise  has  been  effected 
between  the  common  council  and  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  Catholic  congregations,  by  means 
of  which  thi'  parochial  schools  have  been  placed 
under  the  supervision  of  the  city  superintendent. 
and  thus  enabled  to  participate  in  the  school 
fund  of  the  city ;  but  on  the  whole,  public  op- 
pinion  appears  to  pronounce  itself  in  favor  of 
fully  carrying  out  the  principle  of  the  undenomi- 
national school, without  the  slightest  compromise. 

When  the  subject  was  agitated  in  Ohio,  in  the 
electoral  campaign  of  1ST  I.  the  state  conventions 
of  both  Republicans  and  Democrats  formally  de- 
dared  in  favor  of  the  principle  of  the  unsectarian 
school.     The   legislature  of   New  York,  in  April 

L876,  almost  unanimously  declared  itself  in  favor 
of  the  same  principle.  President  Grant,  in  his 
message  of  Dec  7,  L875,  thought  it  proper  to 
bring  this  matter  to  the  attend f  Congress, 

and  most  earnestly  recommended  thai  a  constitu- 
tional  amendment    should  be    submitted    to  the 

Legislatures  of  the  several  slates  for  ratification, 
making  it  the  duty  of  each  of  the  states  to 
establish  and  forever  maintain  free  Bchools  ade- 
quate to  afford  an  elementary  education  to  all 

the  children  within  its  limits,  irrespective  of  Bex, 

color,  birthplace,  or  religion,  fori  lidding  the  teach- 
ing, in  said  schools. of  religious,  atheist  ic,or  pagan 
tenets,  and  prohibiting  the  granting  of  any  school 

funds,  or  school  taxes,  or  any  pari  thereof. either 

DJ   legislative,  municipal,  or  Other  authority,  for 


the  benefit  or  in  aid,  directly  or  indirectly,  of  any 
religious  sect  or  denomination. — See  S.  S.  Rax- 
n  \i,i,.  History  of  Common  Schools  of  New  York 
(N.  Y.,1871);  BoESE,  Hi  stun/ of  the  School  System 
of  the  City  of  New  IW.'lX.  V..  IsC'.l  :'  IIas- 
SABD,  Life  of  Archbishop  Hughes  (N.  Y.,  1866); 
Potter, Religion  in  Public  Schools;  The  pro- 
posed substitution  of  sectarian  for  put, lie  free 
schools  (New  Haven,  1848):  Rigg,  National 
Education  in  its  Social  Conditions  and  Aspects 
(  London,  1873);  Mayo,  Tlie  Bible  in  the  Public 
Schools  (N.  Y..  1870);  Bourne.  History  of  the 
Public  School  Society  (X.  Y.,  1870):  Wimmer, 
Die  Kirche  und  Schule  in  Nordamerika  (Leips., 
L853);  Dulon,  Ueber  Schule,  deutsche  Schule, 
amerikan isclie Seliulc  und deutsch-amerikanische 
Schule  (Leips.,  1866);  Rolfds,  Wider  die  Com- 
munahchiden  (Mayence.  i  -'■'■'■  ;  Sickixger,  Die 
Communal&chulen  (Mayence.  Is71 1;  Becker, Der 
Streit  zwischen  Materialismus  und  Christen- 
thum  in  der  Schule  (3d  edit.,  Heidelberg,  lv71). 
DENTISTRY,  Schools  of.     See  .Medical 

Schools. 

DEPARTMENTAL  SYSTEM,  or  Sub- 
ject System,  a  method  of  school  organization 
in  which  each  department  of  instruction  or  sub- 
ject of  study  is  assigned  to  a  particular  teacher, 
instead  of  requiring  each  teacher  to  give  instruc- 
tion to  a  particular  class  in  all  the  branches  of 
study  pursued.  This  system  is  rarely  employed 
in  schools  for  primary  instruction;  but,  in  those 
of  a  higher  grade,  is  nearly  universal.  In  regard 
to  its  advantages  and  disadvantages,  as  compared 
with  the  class  system,  many  considerations  are 
urged;  and  the  experience  of  instructors  seems 
to  be  quite  diverse  as  to  its  success.  The  chief 
argument  in  its  favor  is,  that  it  would  narrow 
the  range  of  subjects  required  to  be  mastered  by 
a  single  teacher,  and.  in  this  way.  improve  the 
character  of  the  instruction  imparted.  For  other 
considerations  in  regard  to  this  question,  see 
Class. 

depravity.    see  moral  education. 

DES  MOINES,  University  of,  at  Des 
Moines.  Iowa. was  chartered  in  L865.    It  is  under 

the  control  of  the  Baptists,  and  admits  both  sexes. 

It  occupies  a  tine  park  Of  five  acres,  and  a  four- 
story  brick  building  on  an  eminence  command- 
ing  aline   view   01  the  city  and    vicinity.      The 

library  contains  2,000  volumes.  The  value  of 
its  building,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is  $50,000  ; 
the  amount  of  its  productive  funds  $40,000.  In 
L875  6,  there  were  <i  instructors  and  139  pre- 
paratory and  L8  collegiate  students.  The  lion. 
Frederick  Mottis  (1876)  president. 

DETROIT,  the  principal  city  of  Michigan. 
situated  on  the  N.  \Y.  side  of  the  Detroil  river, 
about  18  miles  from -Lake  Erie.    The  river  is 

only  about  a  half  a  mile  wide  at  this  point  : 
hence  the  name  of  the  city  (Pr.  Detroit,  narrow). 
The  population  of  this  city,  according  to  the 
census  of  L870,  was  79,597,  Of  whom  35,381  were 

of  foreign  birth,  and  of  these  nearly  13,000  were 

natives    of    Germany.      The    number  of    colored 

persons  \\as  2,325.  The  firsl  permanent  settle- 
ment   on   the  site  of  this  city  was  made  by  the 


DETROIT 


219 


French  in  1701.     In  17fi3,  it  passed  under  the 
government  of  the  Rnglish. 

Educational  History. — The  earliest  school  hav- 
ing any  authentic  record  is  that  of  the  Rev. 
David  Bacon,  established  in  1802.  Two  years 
afterward,  mention  is  made  of  two  other 
schools,  but  particulars  in  regard  to  them  have 
not  been  preserved.  A  theological  school  was 
opened  at  this  time  also;  but  the  fire  of  1805 
caused  it  to  be  discontinued.  About  this  time, 
the  firs!  tree  school  in  the  city  was  opened,  un- 
der Catholic  control,  near  St.  Ann's  Church,  on 
Lamed  street.  It  was  a  girls*  school;  and  an  in- 
teresting fact  in  regard  to  it  is,  that  three  dozen 
spinning-wheels  were  kept  in  the  school,  on  which 
the  pupils  were  taught  to  spin.  Information  in 
regard  to  schools  from  the  time  of  the  great  fire 
of  I  si >f>  to  1816,  is  exceedingly  meager.  A  so-  i 
called  common  school  was  opened  on  the  10th  of 
June,  L816,  by  a  Mr.  Danforth  of  New  England; 
and.  in  July  following,  he  had  40  pupils.  In 
1817,  the  governor  and  judges  passed  an  act  to 
establish  the  "Catholepisteiniad.  or  University  of 
Michigania".  The  energies  of  the  projectors  of  I 
this  formidable  institution,  however,  appear  to 
have  been  spent  in  the  production  of  its  name, 
and  the  passage  of  the  act  authorizing  its  estab- 
lishment, as  no  record  of  its  existence  can  be 
found,  though  the  result  of  the  act,  known  as 
the  ('atholepistemiad  Act,  was  an  increase  of 
the  public  taxes  by  15  percent,  the  establishment 
of  a  primary  school,  and  the  designation  of  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  and  English  grammar 
as  the  stui lies  to  be  pursued  in  it.  Instruction 
in  the  classical  department  of  this  primary  school, 
was  begun  in  1818.  The  same  year,  a  Lancas- 
terian  school  was  established,  which  in  1823, 
was  committed  to  the  care  of  John  Farmer, 
who  had  been  specially  designated  for  the  work 
by  the  trustees  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  a 
branch  of  which  had  been  established  in  Detroit. 
In  1 834,  on  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  city-hall 
was  erected  a  building  for  a  female  seminary, 
which  was  continued  till  1842.  In  1836,  AY. 
A.  Bacon  opened  a  select  school  on  the  site 
of  the  present  cathedral,  which  he  conducted 
for  38  years.  In  1838,  a  public  school  was 
opened  in  the  second  ward;  and,  in  1841,  the 
first  separate  coined  school  was  opened,  with  88 
pupils.  The  unsatisfactory  operation  of  the  school 
law,  however,  led  to  the  appointment,  in  1841,  of  a 
ial  committee  of  inspection,  which  reported 
that  there  were  27  schools  in  the  city,  furnishing 
instruction  to  714  pupils,  at  a  cost  of  $12,600; 
while  there  were  1,850  children  without  instruc- 
tion. The  result  of  this  examination  was  a  rec- 
ommendation that  the  legislature  be  petitioned 
for  an  amendment  of  the  city  charter  permitting 
the  creation,  by  annual  popular  vote,  of  a  board 
of  education,  and  direct  taxation  for  the  support 
of  the  schools.  The  opponents  of  this  proposition 
were  numerous;  but  the  measure  was  sustained 
by  the  people  at  an  election  ordered  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  was  embodied  in  a  law  Feb.  L8.,  1842. 
'  nder  this  law,  with  a  few  amendments,  the 

Schools   were    administered   till  1868,   when    the 


present  law  was  passed.  The  first  board  of  edu- 
cation met  March  lf>. .  L842,  consisting  of  twelve 
members,  including  the  mayor  and  recorder  of 
the  city,  ex  officio,  the  former  as  president.  Two 
years  afterward,  the  Bible  question  was  intro- 
duced, and  led  to  an  exciting  discussion  which 
lasted  a  year,  ending  in  a  compromise  which  pro- 
vided that  any  school  might  be  opened  by  read- 
ing a  portion  of  the  Bible  without  comment,  such 
reading  to  be  optional  with  the  teacher,  and  at- 
tended with  the  penalty  of  removal  in  case  of 
comment.  In  1847,  the  number  of  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  5  and  17,  was  2,239.  The  first 
graded  school,  known  as  the  Old  Capitol  School, 
was  opened  in  1848.  In  L 852,  the  question  of  a 
sectarian  division  of  the  school  fund  was  agitated; 
but  the  resulting  election,  in  L853,  expressed  the 
will  of  a  large  majority  of  the  people  in  opposi- 
tion to  such  division,  and  the  question  has  not 
been  revived.  The  first  high  school  was  estab- 
lished in  1858.  The  supervision  of  the  schools 
was  originally  confined  to  the  inspectors,  and  so 
continued  till  1863,  when  J.  M.  B.  Sill  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  office  of  superintendent.  1  lis  suc- 
cessor, in  1865.  was  Duane  Doty,  who  held  the 
office  until  1875,  when  Mr.  Sill  was  re-appointed, 
and  again  appointed  in  187(5,  for  3  years. 

School  System. — The  care  of  the  schools  is  in- 
trusted to  a  board  of  education,  consisting  of  two 
inspectors  from  each  ward,  elected  by  the  people 
biennially,  one  half  going  out  of  office  each  year. 
The  mayor  and  recorder  are  members,  ex  officio, 
but  without  vote.  The  board  appoints  annually 
a  superintendent,  whose  duties  are  those  usually 
discharged  by  such  officers.  The  schools  are  sup- 
ported by  an  annual  city  tax  of  not  more  than  5 
mills  on  every  dollar  of  real  and  personal  prop- 
erty. The  school  year  comprises  a  period  of  not 
less  than  3  months.  The  school  age  is  from  5 
to  20  years.  Connected  with  the  system  is  a 
public  library,  the  building  for  which  was  only 
recently  begun.  The  schools  are  divided  into 
three  classes :  primary,  grammar,  and  high 
schools.  The  total' number  of  schools,  in  1875, 
was  28,  including  2  evening  schools.  The  chief 
items  of  school  statistics  for  the  year  are  : 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5—20) 34,593 

"         "        "         enrolled 13,739 

Average  enrollment  (number  belonging) 9,294 

"        daily  attendance 8,760 

Number  of  teachers,  mules 9 

"         "         "  females 212 

Total 221 

Receipts  (1875) $211,690.23 

Expenditures  (1875) $169,503.69 

Total  valuation  of  school  property $735,192.00 

Besides  the  public  schools,  there  are  several 
Catholic  schools,  a  German  Lutheran  school,  a 
German-American  seminary,  and  several  public 
libraries  containing  aboul  40,000  volumes.  For 
information  in  regard  to  institutions  for  higher, 
professional,  and  special  instruction  see  Michigan. 
For  details  in  relation  to  the  early  educational 
history  of  Detroit,  see  \V.  I).  Wilkins,  Reminis- 
cences and  Traditions  of  the  Detroit  Schools, 
published  in  the  Twenty-eighth  Aim  mil  Report  of 
the  Boardof  Education  (Detroit,  1871). 


220 


DKYKLOPfNU   METHOD 


DEVELOPING    METHOD    is  a  term  in- 
troduced into  the  science  and  practice  of  peda- 
fchrough  the  philosophy  of  Herhart,  and 

popularized  among  Kurnpean  teachers  through 
its  greatest  followers,  Beneke  and  Biesterweg.  It 

means  an  education  of   the    natural   endowments 

of  the  individual  according  to  the  psychologic 
laws  of  human  development,  and  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  purposes  foreign  to  such  development.  The 
term,  in  some  respects,  is  a  misnomer,  as  it  im- 
plies far  more  than  it  expresses.  It  means  a 
system,  realized  in,  or  applicable  to,  a  variety  of 
educational  methods,  and  based  on  the  fundamen- 
tal principle,  that  human  nature  alone,  as  devel- 
oped and  shown  in  its  best  products  through  a 
long  historical  period,  should  be  the  guiding  star 
in  all  educational  efforts.  Herhart.  who  was  the 
first  among  the  German  philosophers,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  prevailing  speculative  philosophy, 
to  apply  the  method  of  induction  to  philosophy, 
and  who  based  his  system  on  inductive  psy- 
chology, and  treated  the  latter  mathematically, 
wrote  as  early  as  L806  a  work  on  pedagogy,  en- 
titled Vie  aUgemeine  Pcedagogik,  dbgeleitet  aus 
dem  Zweck  der  ffli'ziehung,  in  which  the  new 
drift  of  educational  ideas  inaugurated  by  Rous- 
seau and  Pestalozzi,  was  reduced  to  logical  prin- 
ciples, lie  was  the  first  in  history  to  render  in- 
telligible the  processes  in  the  human  soul  which 
lead  to  memory, comparison,  the  distinct  ion  of  im- 
pressions and  their  growth  into  mental  images, 
notions,  judgment  and  reason,  disposition  and 
will:  and.  in  so  doing,  he  reasoned  from  the 
established  facts  of  consciousness,  and  develope  I 
along  scries  of  mathematical  formulae,  as  evi- 
dences of  his  correctness  in  interpreting  the  facts. 
Beneke,  more  straightforward  than  I  [erbart,gave, 
in  his  Lehrbuch  der  Psychologie ate  Naturwissen- 
schaft  (1833),  and  Erziehungs- und  Unterrichts- 

lekre  (1835),  a  very  lucid  and  common-sense  ex- 
position of  this  new  system  of  psychology,  in  its 
application  to  pedagogy,  which,  through  Diester- 
weg's  practical  treatises  and  school  books,  grew 
almost  universally  popular  among  the  German 
teachers.  What  the  evolution  theory  is  in  modern 
natural  science  -  an  explanation  of  natural  effects 
from  natural  causes  according  to  general  laws 
that  can  be  verified  by  the  evidences  of  the  senses 

and   logical   reasoning,   that    is  the  developing 

method  with  regard  to  mental    facts  and  laws,  in 

matters  of  education.  The  founders  of  this 
system  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  reach  all  the  legiti- 
mate conclusions  which  may  ultimately  lie  drawn 

from  its  principle,  ami  which  were  drawn  by  the 
succeeding  generation  of  teachers.    The  system, 

aB  now  taught  and  practiced  by  men  like  hides 
and  some  of  FroebeTs  followers,  has  undergone  a 

series  of  gradual  improvements,  and  seems  capable 

"t  many  more;  since  human  nature  itself  is  a 
subject  that  receives,  through  the  constant  im- 
provement of  all  the  natural  sciences,  a  daily 
increasing    illustration.        NOT    is    there,   as    yet, 

a  tolerably  full  agreement  among  the  foremost 
pedagogical  writers  upon  what  may  be  consid- 
ered the  genuine  development  of  human  nature: 

but    the  principle    itself,  that    tin'    8] taneous 


growth  of  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind  into 
the  greatest  possible  harmony  should  be  facil- 
itated according  to  the  laws  of  normal  devel- 
opment, not  counteracted :  guided,  but  not 
curbed;  and  all  this  in  the  order  which  is  in- 
dicated by  nature  herself — this  principle  seems 
to  be  so  well  established,  that,  henceforth,  only 
its  interpretation  can  be  doubtful. 

This  new  psychology  sails  clear  of  all  the  rocks 
of  preconcerted  systems  and  of  the  maelstrom 
of  party  strife  ;  it  deals  with  none  but  demon- 
strable facts.  Such  facts  are,  that  there  is  no 
beginning  of  mental  action  in  the  newborn  child 
except  by  impressions  from  without;  that  the 
latter,  called  traces,  cannot  grow  into  distinct 
images  without  a  grouping  of  the  traces  in  an 
order  corresponding  to  the  outward  objects; 
that  we  can  verify  by  actual  experiment,  both 
with  animals  and  men.  the  laws  according  to 
which  equal  traces  strengthen  each  other,  similar 
ones  aggregate  and  form  opposites  to  dissimilar 
groups  of  traces  :  that  fugitive  impressions  have 
obscure  traces,  lasting  or  often  repeated  impres- 
sions, clear  traces:  that  one  trace  or  set  of  traces 
is  for  a  time  obscured  by  new  ones,  and  that  the 
consciousness  of  an  image  is  the  effect  of  either 
pleasure  or  pain  of  the  mind  in  consequence  of 
the  impressions,  etc.,  etc.  The  theory  goes  on  to 
show  that  all  the  higher  mental  processes  are  re- 
petitions of  the  photographic  action  of  the  first 
traces,  in  a  higher  order,  and  follow  with  mathe- 
matical exactness  their  laws.  A  normal  pedagogy 
is.  therefore,  possible,  independent  of  philosoph- 
ical systems.  Disputed  questions  of  physiology 
and  psychology  concern  only  unimportant  topics, 
and,  therefore,  may  be  ignored  and  left  to  the 
future  development  of  science;  but  it  is  all-im- 
portant, in  pedagogy,  to  demonstrate  clearly  all 
the  conditions  without  which  no  mind  can  grow, 
whatever  the  nature  of  mind  itself  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be. 

It  is,  therefore,  of  the  first  importance  to  cul- 
tivate the  action  of  the  senses,  the  gates  to  all 

mental  development,  in  such  a  way  as  to  render 
them  self-active  by  their  appropriate  combina- 
tion with  pleasure  and  pain:  next,  to  offer  to  their 
self  activity  a  succession  of  outward  impressions 
which  will  leave  distinct  and.  by  repetition, 
lasting  traces  and  the  most  complete  images  of 
objects,  accompanied  by  sensations  and  impulses. 
The   first   consciousness   being  tliusawakened.it 

follows  that  a  comparison  and  distinction  of  the 

representations  once  produced  must  lead  to  both 
clear  notions  of  their  single  features  and  clear 
consciousness  of  the  mind,  without  which  the 
origin  of  self-consciousness  would  be  retarded. 
and  its  growth  stunted.    The  latter  taking  its 

start  from  the  first  efforts  in  speaking,  language 
becomes  the  chief  means  Of  education,  audits 
proper  use  00  the  part  of  the  educator,  in  con- 
nection with  the  objects  designated,  the  way  to 
the  Subsequent  normal  development.  The  gap 
in  this  system  left  between  this  stage  and  the 
first  school  age  was  qoI  filled  until  Froebel. 
Btarting  from  a  somewhat  different  stand-point, 
invented  his  kindergarten  play-. 


DEVELOPING    MKTHOI) 


221 


(Jivat  stress  is,  in  this  system,  laid  CO)  tin-  <^i;ulual 
progress  of  education,  which,  alter  all.  is  little 

i v  than  instruction,  a  somewhat    one-aided 

culture  of  the  intellect,  the  imagination,  ami  the 
memory.  The  teacher  is  to  proceed  from  the 
simple  t<>  the  compound,  from  the  concrete  to 
the  abstract,  from  perception  to  reflection  in  the 
pupil,  from  examples  to  rules,  from/acts  to  laws. 
II  is  to  be  more  a  guide  than  a  teacher ;  he  is 
not  to  tell  his  pupils  any  thing  which  they  can  be 
Jed  to  find  out  themselves.  He  is  to  present 
them  just  mental  food  enough. and  no  more,  at  a 
time,  than  can  be  fully  digested  ;  and  that  food 
oindit  to  be  adapted  to  the  age  and  degree  of 
development.  Every  kind  of  mental  food  ought 
to  be  so  fully  digested  as  to  contribute  to  the  in- 
crease of  every  mental  faculty.  The  pupil  is  to 
be  rendered  his  own  teacher :  his  self-activity  is 
to  he  fostered  first,  last,  and  at  all  times. 

The  cultivation  of  the  memory  at  the  expense  of 
observation  and  reflection,  which,  in  all  routine 
teaching,  plays  so  prominent  a  part,  is  made  un- 
i  ssary  by  stimulating  the  mental  appetite  and 
digestive  power  of  the  pupil :  whatever  is  fully  un- 
derstood will  forever  remain  mental  property.  All 
mechanical  drill,  and  all  moral  preaching,  is  more 
hurtful  than  useful,  because  skill  in  the  learner  is 
to  grow  out  of  repeated  self-appropriation  con- 
nected with  that  pleasure  which  accompanies 
the  satisfaction  of  every  mental  appetite;  and 
b  cause  an  appropriate  mental  food  is  conducive 
to  moral  power.  Development  means  self  devel- 
opment, guided  by  well-developed  educators. 

It  is  evident  that  this  new  system  exacts  a  far 
higher  standard  of  abilities  and  attainments  in 
the  educator  than  ever  before  had  been  deemed 
necessary.  This  necessity  led  to  a  considerable 
improvement  in  the  course  of  training  of  pupil- 
hers  in  the  German  and  other  normal  schools. 
'•  The  teacher  is  the  school,''  was  the  maxim  in- 
culcated there.  If  he  be  the  proper  person 
destined  by  natural  gifts  and  prepared  for  his 
calling  by  a  careful  study  of  mental  phenomena 
and  a  long  theoretic  and  practical  training,  he 
will  make  up  for  the  short-comings  of  text-books, 
apparatus,  and  previous  education.  If  he  be  full 
of  enthusiasm  for  his  sacred  task  of  forming 
minds,  and  patient  in  all  his  laborious  methods, 
he  will  mould  his  pupils'  minds  and  morals  by 
means  of  their  self-development.  The  rational 
sobriety  of  this  system  wras  greatly  aided  by  the 
marvelous  spirit  of  self-devotion  and  educational 
enthusiasm  which  had  been  engendered  in  the 
teaching  fraternity  by  Pestalozzi ;  and  it  may 
be  called  a  fact,  that  hardly  ever,  or  anywhere, 
Was  there  done  such  intelligent  and  faithful 
work  in  thousands  of  schools,  and  for  so  scanty  a 
remuneration,  as  in  the  develo/rhi</-/»ir///od schools 
up  to  the  period  of  the  "  School  Regulations  " 
(Schidreg  illative). 

Among  the  reforms  in  special  methods  that 
followed  in  the  wake  of  this  system,  must  first 
be  mentioned  the  introduction  of  phonic  or 
phonetic  reading.  Spelling  was  altogether  super- 
seded, and  orthographical  writing  exercises  sub- 
stituted, based  on  a  few  rules  which  the  pupils 


had  to  deduce  for  themselves  from  a  comparison 
of  examples.  Griiser  ami  Vbgel  Improved  this 
method,  which  is  liable  to  lie  too  mechanically 
applied,  by  combining  it  with  the  writing-read- 
ing and  the  synihetico-analytic  methods.  The 
former  begins  with  analyzing  the  single  sounds 
of  which  the  words  consist  and  teaching  the 
written  signs  for  them,  and  continues  with 
writing  these  and  other  words;  printed  words, 
or  rather  sentences,  are  introduced  when  the 
pupils  can  read  all  written  letters,  and  there- 
after all  that  has  been  read  must  be  faultlessly 
copied.  The  latter  begins  with  sentences  that 
must  be  analyzed  into  their  component  words, 
and  the  words  into  their  component  sounds; 
the  corresponding  sigfts  (letters)  are  then  given, 
either  in  written,  or  in  printed  form  (or  in  both — 
Douais  method  exemplified  in  his  Rational 
Readers)  and  then  synthesis-reading  begins,  ac- 
companied with  constant  copying  exercises, 
which  must  be  faithfully  controlled.  Another 
improvement  has  been  effected  by  connecting 
penmanship  exercises  witli  the  first  writing  exer- 
cises by  means  of  time-beating  (Takischreiberi). 
The  object  is  to  prevent  the  formation  of  careless 
habits  instead  of  weeding  them  out  when  formed, 
which  is  still  further  aimed  at  by  reading  in 
concert,  alternately  with  individual  reading. 
In  arithmetic,  the  beginning  was  made  with 
mental  exercises  in  the  analytic  method ;  but 
there  is  a  great  variety  in  the  methods  of  con- 
necting analysis  with  ciphering,  and  in  the  extent 
to  which  it  is  carried.  Great  importance,  how- 
ever, is  universally  attributed  to  a  full  understand- 
ing of  the  value  of  numbers,  both  single  and  in 
their  decimal  orders.  Some  methods,  progressing 
through  concentric  circles  of  1 — 10,  10 — 100, 
100 — 1000,  etc.,  involve  within  each  circle,  all 
the  four  ground  rules ;  some,  only  addition  and 
subtraction  together,  and,  later,  multiplication 
and  division  together ;  some,  only  one  at  a  tin^ 
with  larger  concentric  circles,  etc.  Some  intro- 
duce the  elements  of  fractions  at  a  very  early 
epoch,  dividing  them  also  into  concentric  circles ; 
some  introduce  decimal  fractions  even  before 
common  fractions.  Object  lessons  in  special 
branches  according  to  the  older  (Pestalozzian) 
process  were  to  some  extent  crowded  out  when 
all  teaching  became  object  teaching;  yet  spe- 
cial object  lessons  in  zoology  and  botany,  geom- 
etry and  geography,  remained  favorite  branches 
in  most  plans  of  teaching.  The  method  of  teach- 
ing the  mother-tongue  is  also  very  variable  ;  but, 
through  all  that  variety,  a  tendency  is  conspic- 
uous to  make  the  most  of  the  pupil's  self-activity 
by  guiding  him  to  form  sentences  orally  and  in 
writing,  whether  for  orthographical,  grammat- 
ical, rhetorical,  or  elocutionary  purposes.  Gram- 
matical analysis  with  parsing  tills  far  less  time 
than  synthesis.  It  is  a  strange  fact  that  the 
study  of  Latin  and  Greek  has,  only  very  recently 
and  to  a  very  limited  extent,  been  subjected  to 
the  same  method;  but  the  modern  languages 
were  treated  in  the  analytico-synthetic  way  (this 
way  ought  not  to  lie  confounded  with  the  Ahn 
or  Ollendorf  method,  from  which  it   is  distin- 


222        DEVOTIONAL  EXERCISES 


DICKINSON  COLLEGE 


guished  by  scientific,  pedagogic  spirit,  and  a  far 
greater  efficiency).  This  method  may  be  called 
wager's  method.  There  is  an  endless  variety  of 
special  methods  in  all  branches  of  primary  and 
secondary  instruction,  which  it  is  not  necessary 
here  to  explain. 

It  is  useless  to  discuss  the  merits  and  short- 
comings of  special  methods,  since  any  one  of  them 
that  lias  passed  the  ordeal  of  a  practical  applica- 
tion in  the  school  room  may  be  called  good,  be- 
cause adapted  to  the  genius  both  of  the  teacher 
and  his  particular  class  of  pupils.  No  single  prac- 
tical method  can  claim  universal  applicability ; 
everyone  will  have  to  be  modified  to  be  adapted, 
not  only  to  every  other  teacher's  peculiar  de- 
velopment, but  also  to  that  of  every  other 
class  or  pupil.  He  is  a  bad  follower  of  the 
developing  method  who  treats,  year  in  and  year 
out,  every  new  class  of  pupils  according  to  a 
stereotyped  manner  for  each  branch  of  instruc- 
tion, instead  of  accommodating  himself  to  the 
wants  of  the  class.  The  developing  method 
means  nothing  more  nor  less  than  that  there 
shall  be  method  in  all  the  teacher's  doings.  —  a 
well-concerted  plan,  calculated  to  develop  every 
gift  of  each  pupil  by  educating  him  to  self- 
activity  in  every  branch  of  the  curriculum,  and 
to  produce  a  certain  degree  of  uniform  general 
development  without  neglecting  either  the  for- 
ward, or  the  backward  portion  of  his  class.  And 
high  as  this  standard  of  abilities  in  the  true  edu- 
cation may  he.  experience  proves  that  it  will  be 
almost  universally  realized,  if  the  position  of  the 
teacher  be  sufficiently  remunerative,  independent, 
and  honored,  to  attract  to  the  profession  all 
persons  born  to  be  teachers.  This  realization  has, 
moreover,  been  considerably  facilitated  by  the 
preparation  for  the  primary  classes,  which  may 
be  obtained  from  Proebel's  Kindergarten. 

DEVOTIONAL  EXERCISES.  See  Re- 
ligious Education. 

DIARY,  School,  a  daily  record  of  the  les- 
sons, recitations,  deportment,  etc.,of  pupils,  kept 
in  a  small  book  which  is  taken  home  each  day, 
or  each  week,  to  be  exhibited  to  the  parents, 
whose  inspection  is  attested  by  their  signature 
previous  to  the  diary's  being  returned  to  the 
teacher.  Thus,  a  constant  correspondence  is  kept 
up  between  parent  and  teacher,  the  former  being 
continuously  informed  of  the  child's  progress, 

merit  or  demerit, ami  behavior  :  and  thus  enabled 
intelligently  to  CO  operate  in  his  school  education. 
Instead   of    the  diary,  some   teachers  prefer  the 

monthly  report.     (Sec  School  Records.) 

DICKINSON  COLLEGE,  at  Carlisle,  l\i.. 
was  founded  in  L783.  Since  L 833,  it  has  been 
under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  prior  to  which  date  it  was  under  Pres 
byterian  control.  Promihenl  among  its  founders 
were  John  Dickinson,  firsl  governor  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  \h\  Benjamin  Rush  of  Philadel- 
phia.    Before  the  late  war.  its  patronage  was 

largely  from    the  South;   since   that  event,  it   has 

depended  for  patronage  chiefly  on  the  Middle 

Stales.  'The  value  of  grounds,  buildings,  and  ap- 
paratus is  si ."'ii.ooti;  the  amount  of  productive 


funds,  $175,000.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  merely 
nominal,  being  by  scholarships,  the  whole  expense 
of  which  is  #25  for  the  four  years'  course.  The 
board  of  trustees  have  recently  established  the 
following  departments  of  study,  and  propose 
to  carry  out  the  university  principle  of  elective 
courses,  as  far  as  the  means  at  their  command  will 
permit:  (1)  moral  science;  (2)  ancient  languages 
and  literature:  (3)  pure  mathematics ;  (4)  phi- 
losophy and  English  literature,  including  history 
and  Constitutional  law:  (5)  physics  and  mixed 
mathematics,  and  the  application  of  calculus  to 
natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  and  mechanics; 
((!)  chemistry,  and  its  application  to  agriculture 
and  the  arts:  (7)  physical  geography,  natural 
history,  mineralogy  and  geology  :  im  modern 
languages;  (9)  civil  and  mining  engineering, 
and  metallurgy.  The  scheme  embraces  much 
more  than  can  be  accomplished  in  four  years. 
Those  students  who  wish  to  obtain  the  collegiate 
degrees  are  required  to  devote  the  earlier  part 
of  their  course,  as  heretofore,  mainly  to  the 
elements  of  classical  learning  and  the  pure 
mathematics:  but,  for  the  latter  part,  certain 
studies  are  made  optional,  and  those  who  go 
through  any  of  the  prescribed  special  courses, 
obtain  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  equally 
with  those  who  complete  the  classical  course. 
These  special  courses  are  the  Scientific  Course, 
in  which  such  students  as  desire  arc  allowed  to 
substitute  practical  chemistry  for  the  Latin  and 
Creek  of  the  junior  and  senior  years,  and  the 
Biblical  Course,  in  which  students  preparing  for 
the  Christian  ministry  are  allowed  to  take  lie- 
brew  and  New  Testament  Creek  in  their  junior 
and  senior  years,  in  place  of  equivalent  studies, 
chiefly  mathematical.  A  partial  course,  of  about 
two  years,  and  embracing  such  studies  from 
the  regular  curriculum  as  bear  directly  upon 
any  special  vocation,  can  be  pursued  by  stu- 
dents not  intending  to  graduate.  The  college 
has  a  museum  containing  specimens  in  mineral- 
ogy, geology,  and  natural  history,  and  a  cabinet 
of  ancient  coins;  valuable  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus;  and  an  astronomical  ob- 
servatory, provided  with  an  achromatic  tele- 
scope. The  college  library  contains  about  8,000 
volumes;  those  of  the  I  '.elles-l  x'tt  res  Society 
and    the     Union     Philosophical     Society    about 

10,000  each.  In  L874  5,  there  were  7  pro- 
fessors and  88  students.  There  is  a  law  depart- 
ment under  the  charge  of  the  professor  of  law. 
The  presidents  of  the  college  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: Charles  Nisbet,  D.  D.,  L784-  Inn  ;  Rob- 
ert Davidson,  D.D.  (pro  tern.),  L804  9  ;  Jere- 
miah Atwater,  l».  D.,  L809— 15;  John  McKnight, 
I).  1).  I/toAvh.),  Lsifi —  1C;  John  Mitchell  Ma- 
son. I).  It..  L821  I  :  William  Neill,  D.  D.,1824 
9;  Samuel  B.  How,D.D.,1830  'J;  John  Price 
Durbin,  l».  D.,  L833  15 ;  Roberl  Emory,  D.  I>., 
IH  i  8;  Jesse  Truesdale  Peck,  D.  D..  L848— 
52;  Charles  Collins.  D.  D.,  L852  -60;  Herman 
Merrills  Johnson,  D.  D.,  L860— 7;  Robert  L 
Dashiell,  D.  1»..  L868  -72;  and  James  A. 
McCauley,  D.  I>..  the  present  incumbent,  ap- 
pointed in  IST'J. 


DICTATION 


DICTIONARY 


223 


DICTATION,  a  school  exercise  in  which  the 
teacher  reads  or  speaks  (dictates)  to  the  pupils 
what  is  to  be  written  by  the  latter  for  practice 
in  writing,  spelling,  etc.  Such  exercises  are  very 
useful,  not  only  to  give  accuracy  and  expertness 
in  writing  words  and  sentences,  but  to  train  the 
ear  to  the  read;  apprehension  of  spoken  language. 
In  this  respect,  it  supplements  copying,  which 
exclusively  disciplines  the  eye. 

DICTIONARY,  a  book  containing  a  list  of 
all  the  words  of  a  language,  alphabetically  ar- 
ranged, with  information  in  regard  to  their 
derivation,  meaning,  and  use.  The  Greek  word 
lexicon  is  frequently  used  to  designate  a  diction- 
ary of  the  words  of  a  foreign  language;  the 
term  glossary,  to  denote  a  collection  of  technical, 
obsolete,  or  other  words  requiring  special  de- 
finition or  explanation.  A  dictionary  of  facts 
is  entitled  an  eneycLypcedia,  if  it  embraces  the 
consideration  of  the  full  circle  of  sciences,  and 
a  cyclopaedia,  if  it  treats  of  a  special  depart- 
ment of  knowledge.  These  two  terms  are  not, 
however,  always  used  with  this  discrimination, 
but  are  often  applied  indifferently  to  any  com- 
plete collection  of  facts,  general  or  special,  ar- 
ranged under  alphabetical  headings.  To  such 
collections  the  terms  thesaurus  and  gazetteer  are 
also  applied,  the  latter  exclusively  to  a  geo- 
graphical dictionary. 

The  first  attempt  at  a  complete  collection  of 
the  words  of  the  English  language  was  the  Uni- 
versal Etymological  English  Dictionary  (Ixm- 
don.  1726),  by  Nathan  Bailey,  which  subsequent- 
ly formed,  in  part,  the  basis  upon  which  Dr. 
Johnson  compiled  his  great  work.  Johnson's 
Dictionary  appeared  in  1755,  after  seven  years 
of  constant  labor,  and  justly  entitled  its  author 
to  be  considered  the  founder  of  English  lexicog- 
raphy. It  was  greatly  enlarged  by  Todd  in  the 
editions  of  1814  and  1827.  The  most  important 
dictionaries  published  in  England  since  the  time 
of  Johnson  are  Walker's  (1791),  Enfield's  (1807), 
Booth's  (1835),  Smart's  (1836),  and  Richardson's 
(1837).  The  catalogue  of  works  of  this  kind  is, 
however,  very  extensive;  but  the  most  important 
is  the  elaborate  work  of  Dr.  Richardson,  entitled 
a  New  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language 
(2  vols.,  4to,  London,  1835 — 7).  Special  atten- 
tion is  given,  in  this  work,  to  the  etymology  of 
words  and  their  illustration  by  copious  citations 
from  standard  writers;  and  the  arrangement  is 
in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  primitives,  be- 
neath each  of  which  its  derivatives  are  grouped. 
Of  this  work,  Dean  Trench  remarks,  "  It  is  the 
only  English  dictionary  in  which  etymology  as- 
sumes the  dignity  of  a  science." 

The  first  dictionary  of  any  importance  published 
in  the  Dinted  States  was  the  firs!  edition  of 
Webster's  American  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language  (2  vols..  4to,  X.  V.,'l828).  Of  this 
work,  revised  and  enlarged  editions  were  published 
in  1840  and  L843,  during  the  life  of  the  author; 
but  in  1848,  a  new  edition,  revised  and  enlarged 
by  Prof.  Goodrich,  was  issued  at  Springfield, 
Mass.,  and  in  1*(>4.  a  still  larger  edition  was 
published  in  Springfield,  with  revised  etymologies 


and  much  additional  information  of  great  value. 
This  work  is  a  large  quarto,  of  1840  pages,  and 
contains  about  1  1  1.0(1(1  words.  The  elaborate 
illustrated  dictionary  of  Dr.  Worcester,  published 
in  1860,  is  also  a  work  of  nearly  the  same  size  as 
Webster's,  and  contains  about  104,000  words. 
This  work  is  more  conservative  in  its  orthography 
and  pronunciation  than  that  of  Dr.  Webster,  and 
is  generally  followed  in  the  New  England  states. 
The  authority  of  Webster's  Dictionary  is.  ho  we  via-, 
undisputed  in  most   parts  of  the  United  States. 

A  dictionary  is  strictly  a  work  of  reference, 
and  is  to  be  employed  exclusively  as  such  ;  hence, 
its  use  as  a  school  book  is  limited.  It  was  for- 
merly, in  some  schools,  the  custom  to  require 
pupils  to  learn  by  rote  the  spelling  and  definition 
of  words  from  abridged  dictionaries  and  exposi- 
tors, the  alphabetical  arrangement  of  words  be- 
ing  followed  in  the  assignment  of  lessons;  but 
this  absurd  practice  is  now,  probably,  entirely 
obsolete.  After  a  certain  degree  of  advancement 
in  learning  to  read,  it  is,  without  doubt,  of  im- 
portance that  the  pupils  should  be  supplied  with 
simple  dictionaries,  and  encouraged  to  refer  to 
them  for  information  in  regard  to  the  meaning 
of  the  difficult  words  which  they  meet  with  in 
their  reading  books.  This  will  serve  to  inculcate 
the  habit  of  frequently  consulting  the  dictionary 
in  their  subsequent  studies,  and  will,  in  this  way, 
lead  to  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  their  lan- 
guage, more  especially  its  orthoepy,  in  which 
most  persons,  even  those  of  considerable  culture 
otherwise,  are  apt  to  be  quite  faulty,  in  pur- 
suing this  method,  the  following  course  of  pro- 
cedure will  be  found  beneficial :  (1)  The  teacher 
assigns  a  certain  portion  of  reading  matter,  or  a 
certain  number  of  selected  words,  which  the 
pupil  is  to  study  critically  by  the  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary, as  far  as  may  be  necessary ;  (2)  The 
pupil  learns,  from  the  dictionary,  the  meaning 
or  definition  of  those  which  he  does  not  under- 
stand, and  next  studies  how  to  illustrate  their 
application  by  using  them  in  sentences,  or  by 
citations  from  standard  authors ;  (3)  In  an  ai  1- 
vanced  stage,  the  student  gives  more  critical  at- 
tention to  the  precise  shades  of  meaning  of  the 
words  usually  deemed  to  be  synonymous,  and 
learns  how  to  make  a  proper  discrimination  in 
the  use  of  such  words.  For  this  purpose,  such 
works  as  Roget's  Thesaurus  and  Crabb's  Syn- 
onyms will  be  found  important  auxiliaries  to 
the  una! nidged  dictionary  of  either  Webster  to 
"Worcester. 

To  the  teacher,  no  acquisition  is  more  impor- 
tant than  a  critical  knowledge  of  the  orthography. 
pronunciation,  meaning,  and  proper  use  of  words 
in  his  own  language;  and,  hence,  a  good  dic- 
tionary should  always  be  at  hand  for  the  deter- 
mination of  those  doubtful  points  which,  with 
even  the  besl  scholar  and  the  most  experienced 
teacher,  will  sometimes  arise.  A.  dictionary  is, 
therefore,  a  part  of  the  school  apparatus,  winch 
cannot  be  dispensed  with. 

In  the  study  of  a  foreign  language,  the  diction- 
ary is  needed  at  a  niueli  earlier  stage  than  in  the 
Study  of  the  vernacular  ;  although  modern  edu- 


224 


DICTIONARY 


cators  strongly  advocate  that  the  process  of  ac- 
quiring a  foreign  language  should  be  made,  as 
much  as  possible,  to  conform  to  the  maimer  in 
which  the  child  learns  to  speak  his  native  tongue. 
The  number  of  words  of  the  foreign  language 
which  can  be  learned  in  this  way  must,  however, 
be  always  quite  limited,  and  hence  the  constant 
need  of  consulting  the  dictionary.  It  is  aim!.' 
worthy  fact  in  this  connection,  that  the  science 
of  lexicography  has  been  developed  by  the  need 
of  dictionaries  to  facilitate  the  study  of  foreign 
languages,  not  the  native  tongue.  Though  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  even  some  of  the 
oriental  nations  before  them,  had  vocabularies  of 
the  winds  of  their  languages,  arranged  more  or 
less  in  alphabetical  order,  the  origin  of  complete 
dictionaries  is  no  earlier  than  the  time  when  the 
study  of  the  classics  was  revived  in  Italy.  The 
most  famous,  though  not  the  first  among  these 
was Calepino  (Latin  lexicon,  Reggio,  l.">02),from 
whose  name  is  derived  the  French  word  calepin 
(a  commonplace-book).  But  the  path  in  which 
modern  lexicographers  have  gained  so  much  dis- 
tinction was  first  opened  in  \')'.V1  by  Robert 
Stephens  (Fr.  Etienne  or  Estienne)  by  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Thesaurus  Linguae  Latinos  and 
Henry  Stephens's  Thesaurus  Lingual  Groscoe, 
published  in  1  572,  in  5  volumes,  but  abridged 
by  Scapula,  who  issued  in  1579  Lexicon  Grceco- 
Latinum  norma.  (See  Stephens.)  These  works 
were  the  first  notable  attempts  to  develop  the 
various  meanings  of  every  word,  and  to  make 
scientific  arrangement  no  less  an  essential  feature 
than  completeness  of  vocabulary.  Among  the 
most  prominent  of  the  succeeding  lexicogra- 
phers, are  Forcellini,  Scheller,  Freund,  and 
Georges  for  the  Latin,  and  Passow  for  the  Greek. 

Forcellini  was  chiefly  distinguished  for  illus- 
trating the  meaning  of  every  word  by  examples 
from  classical  authors,  and  the  Germans  just 
named  developed  this  feature  to  a  high  degree 
of  perfection.  The  first  Latin-English  dic- 
tionary was  edited  by  Sir  Thomas  Llyot  (Lon- 
don, 1538);  the  most  famous  was  that  of  Ains- 
worth  (q.  v.).  The  work  of  Forcellini  was  the 
basis  of  the  Latin-English  dictionary  of  Leverett 
(Boston,  L836),  and  that  of  Freund,  of  the 
Latin-English  dictionary  of  E.  A.  Andrews 
(New  York,  L856).  The  Creek  lexicon  of  Pas- 
sow  is  the  basis  of  the  Greek-English  lexicon  of 
Liddell  &  Scott  (Oxford,  L845J  and  its  Ameri- 
can revision  by  Drisler  (New  York,  L848).  It  is 
a  noteworthy  fact  in  the  history  of  English  and 
American  education,  thai  until  the  present  cen- 
tury the  Greek  language  was  studied  through 

the    medium    of    the    Latin,    and    there   were    no 

Greek-Enghsh,  but  only  Greek  Latin  lexicons. 
The  <  lermans,for  a  considerable  time  previously, 
had  published  lexicons  in  their  own  language, 
and  the  French  had  followed  their  example,  The 
first  Greek  English  lexicon  announced  (in  L81  I) 
was  thai  of  John  Pickering, which  was  based  on 
the  ( Ireek-Latin  dictionary  of  Schrevelius.  Bui 
before  Li  was  published  (Boston,  L826),  a  similar 
work,  the  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  of  John 
Jones  (London,  1823),  appeared  in  England.  The 


Lexicon  of  Donnegan  (London,  1827)  was  pro- 
fessedly,  in  substance,  a  translation  of  Passow's 
work:  and  Dunbar's  Greek  and  English  Lexi- 
con (Edinburgh,  1843)  was  chiefly  a  reprint  of 
the  second  edition  (1829)  of  Pickering's  work. 
Great  improvements  in  the  adaptation  of  the 
classical  dictionary  to  school  purposes  were  in- 
troduced by  [ngerslev's  Latin-German  Lexicon 
(1st  edit.,  1852;  4th,  1876).  Before  him,  it 
had  been  the  aim  of  lexicographers  in  general 
to  attain  the  greatest  possible  completeness 
of  words  and  their  different  meanings;  and 
the  works  of  smaller  compass  were  condensed 
abridgements,  [ngerslev  conceived  the  idea  of 
a  school  dictionary  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
term.  It  was  to  be  limited  to  those  writers 
whose  works  are  usually  read  in  classical  schools, 
and  was  designed  to  explain  sufficiently  every 
difficult  passage  occurring  in  any  of  this  class  of 
authors.  Ry  referring  in  succession  to  all  the 
synonyms  of  a  word,  and  only  defining  the  dis- 
tinctive meaning  of  the  word  itself,  the  syno- 
nymic element  of  the  language,  as  far  as  it  is  of 
value  for  the  pupil  of  a  Latin  school,  is  explained 
in  the  smallest  possible  compass.  The  poetic,  later, 
and  ante-classic  use  or  meaning  of  every  word  is 
pointed  out  by  appropriate  abbreviations:  the 
remainder  is  classic.  This  plan  has  met  with 
uuiversal  approval  among  German  scholars:  and 
a  number  of  other  works  have  since  been  pub- 
lished, the  most  important  of  which  are  those 
by  Georges  flsl  edit..  L864  ;  3d  edit..  1874),  and 
lleinichcn  ( Leips..  1864),  for  the  Latin:  and 
by  Benseler  (4th  edit.,  1872),  and  Schenkl  (3d 
edit.,  L867]  for  the  (deck.  The  lexicon  of  In- 
gerslev  is  the  basis  of  the  Latin-English  lexicon 
of  Crooks  and  Schem  (Philadelphia,  lH-~>7).  A 
Luge  number  of  special  dictionaries  to  classic 
authors,  especially  those  read  by  beginners,  have 
been  prepared,  but  many  educators  disapprove 

of  the  use  of  books  of  tliis  class.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  compilation  of  an  elementary  diction- 
ary specially  suited  for  the  study  of  the  Latin 
writers  read  by  beginners  has  been  recommended, 

and  a  good  work  of  the  kind  has  been  edited  by 

<  leorges  ( Laleinisch-deutsches  Schulworlerbuch, 
Leipsic,  1870). 

The  dictionaries  of  modern  languages  are 
either  unilingual.  intended  for  the  natives  of  a 
country,  or  bilingual,  intended  for  the  study  of  a 
language  other  than  the  vernacular.  The  former 
more  or  less  resemble  in  their  history  and  scope  the 
English  works  referred  to  above.  Many  works  of 
the  former  class  owe  their  origin  to  learned  socie- 
ties. Among  them  is  the  celebrated  Italian  diction- 
ary deUa  Orusca  (Vocabidario  degli  accademici 
dill, i  Orusca,  first  published  in  1612).  The  fame  of 
this  work  Ls, however, greater  than  its  real  merit. 
for  it  is,  in  fact,  only  a  dictionary  of  the  Tuscan 
dialect,  and  while  regarding  the  1  1th  century  as 
the  Augustan  age  of  Italian  literature.it  slighted 
the  distinguished  writers  of  the  With  century.  It 
was  subsequently  enlarged  and  unproved  (Flor- 
ence, 1729  -1738),  and  in  this  augmented  form 
is  still  the  standard  authority  for  the  Italian  lan- 
guage.— Spain  also  owes  its  largest  dictionary  to 


DICTIONARY 


DIDACTICS 


225 


the  Spanish  Academy  (6  vols.,  Madrid,  1726 — 
1739),  which  became  the  absolute  standard  of 
Spanish  orthography;  it  was. in  the  present  cent- 
ury, revised  and  greatly  enlarged  by  Salva  who 
added  more  than  20,000  words  (1st  edit,  L846). 
■ — France  is  indebted  for  the  first  noteworthy 
dictionary  of  its  language  to  Robeii  Stephens, 
who  published  a  French-Latin  dictionary  in  L539. 
The  dictionary  of  the  French  Academy  was  first 
published  in  L69  Land  soon  became  the  standard 
lexical  authority  of  the  French.  It  has  been 
from  time  to  time  revised:  and  a  seventh  edition, 
under  the  editorship  of  Patin,  was  to  be  com- 
pleted in  lSTl).  The  dictionary  of  the  Academy 
was  followed  by  a  considerable  number  of  other 
works,  the  most  important  of  which,  that  of 
Littre  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1863 — 1873),  is  regarded 
as  being,  in  many  respects,*even  superior  to  the 
dictionary  of  the  Academy,  and  entitled  to  a 
place  among  the  very  best  products  of  lexical 
ace.  —  The  history  of  German  lexicography 
is  traced  to  the  7th  century.  The  first  work  of 
lasting  value  was  the  German-Latin  dictionary 
of  Frisch  (Berlin,  1741).  Adelung's  dictionary 
(Leips.,  1774 — 1781)  was,  for  a  time,  a  classical 
work;  but  the  standard  work  of  German  litera- 
ture is  the  dictionary  of  the  brothers  Jacob  and 
Wilhelm  Grimm,  begun  in  1852,on  a  plan  more 
extensive  than  any  other  dictionary  of  any  mod- 
ern language.  It  is  to  include  every  word  used  in 
German  works  from  Luther  to  Goethe.  It  was 
continued  after  the  death  of  the  authors  by  Moritz 
lleyne.  Lutlolf  Hildebrand,  and  Karl  \Yeigand  : 
and  it  is  expected  that  the  whole  will  be  ready 
about  1890.  Of  other  German  dictionaries 
those  of  Sander's  are  highly  valued  and  have 
found  a  large  circulation  (  Wijrterbtich  tier  deut- 
schen  Sprache,  2  vols.,  Leips.,  1859 — 1867  ;  and 
Handworterbuch  der  denischen  Sprache,  Leips., 
1869). — The  standard  dictionary  of  the  Russian 
language  has  been  prepared  by  the  Russian  Acad- 
emy (4  vols.',  St.  Petersburg,  1847).  Most  of 
the  smaller  nationalities  of  Europe  have  like- 
wise their  national  dictionaries,  which,  though 
inferior  to  the  works  of  Grimm  and  Littre,  are, 
in  many  cases,  storedrouses  of  profound  learning 
and  indispensable  for  the  philosophical  study 
of  the  several  languages.  In  the  schools  of  all 
the  countries  referred  to,  the  use  of  this  class 
of  dictionaries  in  the  study  of  the  native  lan- 
guage is  less  frequent  than  in  England.  The 
bilingual  dictionaries  belong  to  the  same  class  as 
the  Greek  and  Latin  lexicons,  but  there  are  some 
marked  points  of  difference.  The  Greek  or  the 
Latin  lexicon  is  chiefly,  or  almost  exclusively, 
used  for  acquiring  the  ability  to  read  the  classic 
authors ;  a  speaking  ami  writing  knowledge  of 
either  of  these  languages  has  been  the  object  of 
study  in  only  few  cases,  and,  at  present,  even 
more  rarely  than  formerly;  therefore,  the  great 
majority  of  students  use  only  the  classic-modern 
dictionary,  and  but  very  few  the  modern-classic 
dictionary  ;  indeed,  many  distinguished  educa- 
tors regard  the  latter  as  entirely  superfluous.  In 
the  study  of  modern  languages,  on  the  contrary, 
the  object  of  study  is  to  speak  and  write  as  well 
15 


as  to  read  ;  and,  hence,  the  native-foreign  part  of 
the  dictionary  is  as  much  needed  as  the  foreign- 
native,  and  almost  wholly  supersedes  the  latter 
as  soon  as  a  good  knowledge  of  reading  has  been 
acquired.  As  modern  languages  are  living  and 
growing, while  the  classic  languages  are  dead  and 
fixed,  the  dictionaries  of  the  former  require  more 
frequent  revisions  and  larger  additions  than 
the  classic  lexicons, —  a  distinction  which  is  of 
practical  importance.  The  classic  languages  are 
studied  for  educational  and  scientific  purposes 
only;  the  modern  languages,  in  most  cases,  be- 
cause a  knowledge  of  them  is  believed  to  be  of 
practical  advantage.  As  a  general  rule,  a  greater 
degree  of  scholarship  may,  therefore,  be  looked 
for  in  the  classic  lexicon,  and  a  more  practical 
arrangement  in  the  modern  dictionary.  At- 
tempts to  compile  dictionaries  containing  the 
words  of  more  than  two  languages,  have  not 
been  wanting,  but  have  met  with  but  little 
favor.  The  alphabetical  arrangement  is  the 
universal  rule  in  all  dictionaries  ;  all  attempts 
to  substitute  any  other  having  always  failed. 
In  classical  dictionaries,  however,  for  begin- 
ners the  partial  combination  of  the  etymolog- 
ical with  the  alphabetical  arrangement  is  re- 
garded by  some  educators  as  useful  and  con- 
venient. The  dictionaries  of  oriental  languages 
are,  to  a  higher  degree  than  either  classical  or 
modern  dictionaries,  written  for  the  special  use 
of  scholars. 

The  great  progress  of  linguistics,  and,  espe- 
cially, of  comparative  linguistics,  has  made  it 
possible  for  modern  lexicographers  to  develop  the 
etymological  department  of  the  dictionary  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  render  works  of  an  earlier 
date  almost  useless.  There  is,  however,  a  great 
want  of  agreement  as  to  the  extent  to  which  it  is 
desirable  to  introduce  this  feature  into  school 
dictionaries.  In  the  classical  dictionary,  it  is 
the  general  rule,  to  give  at  least  as  much  of  ety- 
mological explanation  as  is  of  immediate  prac- 
tical value  to  the  pupil.  Of  the  dictionaries  of 
modern  languages,  some  give  etymological  ex- 
planations, and  some  wholly  omit  them.  As  a 
very  valuable  fruit  of  the  science  of  comparative 
linguistics  may  be  mentioned  the  etymological 
diet  i(  diaries  of  whole  families  of  languages.  One 
of  the  best  representatives  of  this  class  of  works 
is  the  Etymologisch.es  Wurterbuch  dei-  romani- 
schen  Sjirachen  by  Diez. 

As  in  the  study  of  languages,  whether  classical 
or  modern,  as  well  as  in  the  native  language,  the 
dictionary  is  an  important  school  book,  the 
teacher  should  not  omit  to  familiarize  his  pupils 
with  the  proper  way  of  using  it ;  and  it  is  there- 
fore, desirable,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  that 
the  pupils  of  a  school  should  be  all  supplied 
with  the  same  dictionary.  For  information  re- 
garding the  literature  of  dictionaries,  see  V.vit'.r.. 
LAteratur  tier  Grammatiken,  Leocica  und  Wbr- 
tersammlungen  aller  Spracken  der  Erde  (2d 
edit.,  revised  by  Julg,  Berlin,  1847). 

DIDACTICS,  the  theory  of  instruction,  as 
distinguished  from  that  of  education  in  its  nar- 
rower sense,  implying  simply  moral  education. 


226 


DIDACTICS 


DIESTERWEG 


It  is  commonly  treated  under  two  heads :  gen- 
eral didactics,  which  exhibits  the  philosophical 

principles  of  teaching,  and  the  conditions  of  its 
success;  and  special  didactics,  or  meihodics, 
which  applies  the  general  truths  to  the  several 
branches  of  instruction,  the  different  ages  to  be 

instructed,  and  the  various  individual  characters 
and  their  treatment.  The  distinction  1m 'tween 
didactics  and  pedagogy  in  the  narrower  sense  is 
made  only  for  the  sake  of  separate  scientific 
treatment,  as  it  is  universally  conceded  that  all 
instruction  can  be  rendered  a  means  of  moral 
education,  and  that  no  instruction  deserves  the 
same,  or  can  he  truly  successful,  without  a  cor- 
responding development  of  moral  power,  [n  any 
branch  of  instruction,  the  very  first  beginning 
presupposes  attention  on  the  pari  of  the  pupil, 
while  the  progress  made  will  depend  on  his  self- 
activity,  and  his  ultimate  mastership  on  his  full 
appropriation  of  all  the  moralpower  inherent  in 
I  he  branch  of  art  or  science  concerned.  On  the 
part  of  the  teacher,  moral  power,  engendered  by 
such  mastership, must  be  presupposed,  if  he  is  to 
impart  to  his  pupil  attention,  self-activity,  and 
love  for  the  subject.  In  regard  to  the  age  of 
the  pupil,  instruction  and  moral  education  bear 
to  each  other  a  changing  proportion.  During 
the  first  age,  from  earliest  infancy  up  to  the 
eighth  or  tenth  year,  the  so-called  formal  pur- 
pose of  education  prevails  in  importance;  the 
several  functions  of  the  youthful  mind  must  be 
made  self-active,  and  the  material  purpose  of 
didactics,  —the  acquisition  of  knowledge  or  posi- 
tive learning,must  be  made  a  mere  means  to  the 
former,  so  that  no  more  of  each  concentric  circle 
of  facts  be  given  to  appropriate  than  can  be  di- 
gested for  the  benefit  OI  each  function.  The 
second  age,  which  extends  to  the  beginning  of 
sexual  maturity,  is  the  one  during  which  instruc- 
tion and  education  should  be,  as  it  were,  in  equi- 
poise; while,  in  the  period  after  sexual  maturity, 
the  material  purpose,  that  of  the  acquisition  of 

knowledge  and  skill,  may  preponderate.  In  re- 
gard to  the  branches  of  instruction,  general  di- 
dactics shows  which  of  these  are  adapted  to  the 
several  stages  of  the  mental  and  moral  develop- 
ment of  the  three  ages,  and  which  concentric 
circle  of  facts  and  truths  of  every  science  and  art 

may  be  introduced  at  the  time  when  it  can  serve 

as  wholesome  mental  and  moral  food.  A  mosl 
important  distinction  is  made  between  the  peda- 
led and  the  scientific  treatment  of  every  sub- 
ject of  instruction,  the  latter  being  of  necessity 
systematic  and  synthetic,  while  the  former  should 
be  methodic  and  analytic  first,  synthetic  last  ; 
that  is  to  say,  should  introduce  every  object  of 

learning  at  BUch  a  time,  and  in  BUCh  a  manner, 
that  it  luav  he  mentally  and  morally  appropriated. 

Special  didactics,  commonly  designated  as  me- 
tkodics,  treats  of  the  pedagogical  means  proper 
in  each  branch  of  instructional  each  age  and 

8   of  development.      An   explanation   of    the 
l e   important     methods    of    didactics    will    be 

found  under  the  titles  of  the  various  branches.  In 
general,  however,  we  maj  state  thai  all  promi- 
nent educators  concur  in  holding  that  the  teacher 


is  every-where  the  best  method,  as  he  is  in  fact 
the  school  itself,  if  he  be  a  true  teacher.  It 
would,  however,  be  a  dangerous  error  to  sup- 
pose, on  that  account,  that  every  teacher  should 
be  left  free  to  invent  his  own  methods,  or  could 
be  expected  to  be  successful  without  an  acquain- 
tance with  the  best  methods  in  use.  This  error 
will  be  avoided  by  those  who,  on  the  one  hand, 
are  so  deeply  imbued  with  the  great  responsi- 
bility of  their  (Jailing,  as  to  feel  that  the  wisdom 
of  the  preceding  generations  of  great  teachers 
cannot  be  neglected,  and.  therefore,  that  the 
methods  devised  and  practiced  by  them  should 
be  made  a  subject  of  faithful  and  conscientious 
study:  but  who.  on  the  other  hand,  realize  the 
principle  that  the  most  approved  methods  can- 
not benefit  a  teacher  who  has  not  mentally  so 
appropriated  them  as  to  reproduce  them  accord- 
ing to  his  own  individuality,  and  to  be  able  to 
adapt  them  to  the  peculiar  wants  of  his  pupils, 
as  well  as  to  all  other  circumstances  in  which  he 
is  placed.  All  teaching  should  be  methodical  in 
every  aspect:  it  should  be  based  on  the  thorough 
appropriation  of  a  proper  system  of  pedagogy; 
and  it  should  be  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the 
teacher's  personality,  if  it  is  to  perform  its  proper 
office  in  the  work  of  real  education. 

DIESTERWEG,  Friedrich  Adolf  Wil- 
helm,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  educational 
writers  of  Germany,  in  the  present  century,  was 
born  at  Siegen,  Oct.  29.,  1790,  and  died  at  Berlin, 
July  7..  L866.  After  studying,  at  the  universities 
of  fierborn  and  Tubingen,  theology,  philosophy, 

mathematics,  and  natural  science,  he  became,  in 
INK),  a  private  tutor  at  Mannheim;  in  1811, 
teacher  at  the  secondary  school  of  Worms,  which 
at  that  time  was  French;  in  lNl.'],  teacher  at 
the  model  school  of  Frankfort;  in  1818, second 
rector  of  the  Latin  school  of  Elherfcld:  and,  in 
1820,  first  teacher  and  acting  president  of  the 
seminary  at   MeUTS.    While  in  the  latter  position, 

he  gained  a  reputation  both  as  a  teacher  and 

as  an  educational  writer,  which  Spread  through- 
Out  (  u'l'inany.  Be  not  Only  compiled  a  huge  num- 
ber of  school  books,  many  of  which  are  still  in 
extensive  use.  but  also  took  an  active  part  in 
all  the  educational  controversies  of  the  day.      In 

I  s •_» 7 .  he  founded  the  Rheinische  Blatter  fiir 
Unterricht  und  T2rziehung,a  quarterly  journal 

devoted  to  instruction  and  education,  with  special 

regard  to  elementary  instruction.     In   1832, he 

accepted  a  call  as  director  of  the  teachers'  semi- 
nary at  Berlin,  where,  as  an  advocate  of  sweeping 
and  radical  reforms,  he  had  to  contend  with  m. 
difficulties.  In  L 836,  the  Prussian  government 
sent  Diesterweg  to  Denmark,  to  observe  and  re- 
porl  on  the  monitorial  system  which  prevailed  in 
the  schools  of  that  country.  Diesterwegs  report, 
published  under  the  title  of  Bemerkunycn  und 
Ansichten  auf  einer  pddaqogischen  Reise  nach 
<!<■,,  ddnischen  Staaten  im  Sommer  L83(5 1  Berlin, 
1836),  was  adverse  to  the  Danish  system,  and 
called  forth  replies  from  /.errenner  and  others. 
In  L846,  Diesterweg  took  an   influential  part  in 

the    celebration,  by   the    German    teachers,   of  the. 

centennial  birth- lay  of  Pestalozzi,  and  in  found- 


niKSTKRWKCi 


227 


■m  an  institution  for  orphans,  as  an  appropriate 
monument  to  the  great  regenerator  of  modern 
popular  education. 

Diesterweg  was  very  obnoxious  to  the  political 
conservatives  and  the  orthodox  Protestants,  but 
maintained  himself,  amidst  constant  conflicts, 
until  IS  17.  when  the  minister  of  educational  and 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  Eichhorn,  suspended  him 
from  office.  Three  years  later,  in  L850,  hewas 
definitely  removed,  but  his  entire  salary  was 
left  to  him.  Henceforth,  he  devoted  his  time 
partly  to  literary  labors,  and  partly  to  the  advo- 
cacy of  his  views  in  the  town  council  of  Berlin 
and  the  Prussian  parliament,  to  both  of  which 
bodies  the  city  of  Berlin  elected  him  a  member. 
In  the  Prussian  parliament,  Diesterweg  was  the 
leader  of  the  opposition  to  the  principles  which 
the  Prussian  government,  at  that  time,  endeav- 
ored to  carry  into  effect,  in  the  state  school  system. 
and  especially  to  the  famous  "  three  school  regu- 
lations" (Schulregulative),  which  aimed  at  sub- 
stituting for  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi  the  most 
intimate  connection  between  church  and  school. 
Diesterweg  was  generally  regarded  by  the  teachers 
of  Protestant  Germany  as  the  leader  of  the 
party  which  demanded  an  entire  disconnection 
of  the  school  from  the  church ;  and,  by  his  own 
party,  he  was  looked  upon  with  sentiments  of 
profound  love  and  admiration.  When  he  cele- 
brated, Oct.  29.,  1865,  his  seventy-fifth  birthday, 
a  number  of  his  pupils  from  all  parts  of  Germany 
presented  him  with  a  silver  laurel  wreath. 

The  views  of  Diesterweg  concerning  the  rela- 
tion  between  religion  and  education  necessarily 
provoked  the  determined  opposition  of  those 
who  did  not  share  them,  but  even  his  opponents 
concede  the  excellence  of  many  of  his  school 
books.  Among  these  books,  may  be  mentioned 
the  following:  Lehrbuch  tier  maikemalischen 
Oeographie  und populdren  ERmmelskunde  (8th 
edit.,  Berlin,  1874);  Leitfaden  fur  den  Unter- 
richi  in  der.For.men-  und  Gr&ssenlehre  (3d  edit., 
Elberfeld,  1836);  Praklischer Lehrgang far  den 
Uhterrichl  in  der  deulschen  Sprache  (Part  1., 
6th  edit.,  Gutersloh,  1836;  Part  2.  and  3.,  5th 
edit.,  1836);  Praktisches  Rechenbuch  fur  Ele- 
mentar-  und  hdhere  Bilrgerschulen,  in  connec- 
tion with  Heuser  (part  1..  21st  edit,,  Gutersloh, 
1865;  part  2.,  1 1th  edit.,  L861;  part  3.,  4th  edit., 
I860);  Meihodisches  Handbueh  fur  den  Ge- 
Mtmmtunterricht  im  Rechnen,  also  in  connection 
with  Heuser  (2  vols.,  6th  edit.,  Gutersloh,  1864); 
and  the  Elementm--(l<'om<'ti'ie  (4th  edit,,  Frank- 
tort.  1874).  As  an  organ  for  the  dissemination 
of  his  views,  he  established,  in  L851,  in  addition 
to  the  Rheinische  Blatter,  his  Pddagogisches 
Jahrbuch,  of  which  one  annual  volume  appeared 
Jarly  until  his  death.  This  theory  of  in- 
struction and  education  is  fully  developed  in  the 
Wegweiser  zur  Bildung  fur  deutsche  Lehrer, 
which  he  published  in  union  with  Bormann, 
Luben,  Mager,  and  other  teachers  (5th  edit.. 
a,  1875).  lie  treats  in  this  work  of  the  prin- 
ciples according  to  which  man  should  be  in- 
structed and  educated  in  general,  and  of  the 
method  which  should  be  observed  in  teaching 


the  different  branches  of  instruction  in  particular. 
The  literature  on  every  subject  is  given  with 
critical  remarks.  As  the  aim  of  all  education  he 
regards  the  principle  of  "self-activity  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good." 
Christianity  he  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  sys- 
tem of  religion,  and  the  divisions  of  Christianity 
as  resulting  from  the  different  degrees  of  culture 
in  the  individuals  who  embraced  it.  His  opposi- 
tion to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  gradually 
assumed  a  tone  of  great  bitterness,  provoked  to  a 
great  extent  by  his  personal  conflicts  with  the 
Prussian  government.  He  was  outspoken  in  ad- 
vocating that  the  denominational  character  of  the 
public  school  should  be  abolished. and  that  unsec- 

tarian  "communal"  or  ^national  schools"  should 
be  established  in  their  place.  He  did  not  wish, 
however,  to  have  religious  instruction  excluded 
from  the  schools,  but  favored  an  instruction  in 
the  general  tenets  of  religion  by  the  teacher. 

Although  Diesterweg  devoted  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  elementary  schools,  he  also  wrote  on 
the  reform  of  the  secondary  schools,  and  still 
more  on  that  of  the  universities.  In  his  essay 
XJeber  </<«  Verderben  avf  deutschen  Universi- 
taten,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  work  Beitrage 
zur  Lebensfrage  der  Civilisation  (Essen,  1836), 
he  severely  censured  the  course  of  instruction 
pursued  at  the  German  universities,  and  con- 
tended that  the  method  of  teaching  should  be 
made  to  conform  to  the  wants  of  the  age, 
and  that  the  studies,  as  well  as  the  conduct  of 
the  students,  should  no  longer  remain  without 
superintendence  by  the  proper  authorities.  The 
universities  were  defended  against  these  charges 
by  Prof.  Leo,  of  Halle,  in  the  work  Herr  Dr. 
Diesterweg  und  die.  deutschen  Universitaien 
(Leipsic,  1866). 

8oon  after  the  death  of  Diesterweg,  a  number 
of  his  friends,  pupils,  and  admirers  determined 
to  establish,  in  commemoration  of  his  merits,  a 
Diesterweg-Stiftung,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
enable  a  number  of  competent  teachers  to  devote 
themselves  wholly  to  educational  labors  in  the 
spirit  of  Diesterweg.  The  Stiflieng  embraces  with- 
in the  scope  of  these  labors  educational  lectures, 
the  publication  of  educational  works,  inclusive  of 
a  continuation  of  Diesterweg's  Jahrbuch ;  and 
the  establishment  of  a  national  German  model 
school  on  the  basis  of  Diesterweg's  principles. — 
Sec  Knk.ciit,  Adolf  Diesterweg,  sein  Leben  >ni<! 
Streben  (in  Magazin  fin-   Padagogik,  1869) ; 

LaNGENBERG,     .1.    Dii'Sti'i'ireg,   sein    Let/en     und 

seine  Schriften  (Frankfort,  1869  ;  this  biography 
contains  a  complete  list  of  all  the  writings  of 
Diesterweg).      A  "Memoir"  of    Diesterweg  has 

appeared  in  Barnaed's  Journal  of  Education, 

in  which  are  also  published  translations  of  sev- 
eral essays  of  Diesterweg;  as,  Catechism  of 
Methods  of  Teaching,  School  Discipline  and 
Plans  of  Instruction,  Intuitional  and  Speaking 
Exercises.  A.  selection  from  the  works  of  Die- 
sterweg, with  a  biographical  introduction,  has 
been  published  by  Langenberg,  under  the  title, 
,  I.  Diesterweg,  Lichlstrahlen  aus  seinen  Schrif- 
ten (Leipsic,  1875). 


228 


DIFFIDENCE 


DILWORTII 


DIFFIDENCE,  or  an  instinctive  distrust  of 
one's  own  ability,  arising  from  peculiarities  of 
temperament  and  mental  constitution,  very  often 
characterizes  both  children  and  adults ;  and,  when 
it  is  excessive,  presents  a  very  serious  hinderance, 
in  respect  to  both  moral  and  intellectual  educa- 
tion, to  the  teacher  who  fails  to  study  sufficiently 
the  individual  characters  of  his  pupils,  or  who  is 
ignorant  of  the  proper  methods  of  addressing 
their  peculiar  traits,  so  as  to  guide  or  correct 
their  natural  tendencies.  K very  teacher  of  ex- 
perience is  aware  that  some  children  are  bold, 
forward,  confident,  or  conceited  ;  while  others 
are  timorous,  shy,  bashful,  and  diffident.  The 
former  seem  to  be  better  subjects  of  instruction. 
and  make  a  more  gratifying  return  for  the 
teacher's  efforts,  because  they  are  ready  to  make 
an  immediate  use  or  display  of  their  acquire- 
ments; while  the  others,  however  much  they 
may  have  learned,  fail  to  meet  the  ordinary  exi- 
gencies of  school  recitations,  examinations,  or 

public  exhibitions,  On  account  of  their  excessive 
self-restraint,  and  their  natural  shrinking  from 
any  trial  of  their  ability.  They  fail  because 
they  think  they  will  fail,  or  because  they  are  so 
sensitive  to  censure  or  unfavorable  criticism, 
that  they  are  paralyzed  by  the  apprehension  of 
it.  Of  this  peculiar  trait  the  poet  Cowperwas 
a  singular  example;  and  all  are  familiar  with 
the  sufferings  which  he  underwent  in  anticipa- 
tion of  the  performance  of   his   public  duties  as 

clerk  to  the  house  of  lords,  almost  unseating  his 
reason,  and  compelling  him  at  last  to  resign  the 
honorable  and  lucrative  position  which  his 
friends  had  obtained  for  him. 

This  peculiar  trait  of  character,  according  to 
Spurzheim,  is  the  '•effect  of  circumspection, 
combined  with  secretivencss  and  intellect;"  to 
which  may  be  added  deficient  sell' esteem,  and  a 
sensitive,  impressible  temperament.  When  the 
feeling  of  secretive ness,  or  shyness  is  predomi- 
nant,dilli  lence  assumes  the  form  of  hashfulness; 
when  cannon  is  the  leading  trait,  it  is  the  sense 
of  danger  that  restrains;  and  when  self-esteem 
is  dcticient.it  is  humility,  modesty,  or  an  extrav- 
agant impression  of  inability.  All  these  phases 
should  be  subjected  by  the  teacher  to  a  close  and 
discriminating  scrutiny, and  proper  means  should 
be  adopted  to  give  tone  and  balance  to  the  char- 
acter, as  one  of  the  most  important  results  of  a 

judicious   education.      Some  of   the    Inst    minds 

have  been  characterized  by  diffidence ;  but  gen- 
erally they  possessed  other  qualities  which  coun- 
teracted its  effects,  or  compensated  for  the  in- 
firmity. Washington  was  noted  for  his  modesty. 
arising,  without  doubt,  from  natural  diffidence 
mixed  and  tempered  with  firmness  a  id  an  un- 
usually strong  sense  of  moral  rectitude ;  bu1  he 

wis  also  distinguished    for  his  fearlessness  in  ih  • 

presence  of  extreme  peril,  showing  that  diffidenc 
i-  by  no  means  inconsis  enl  w ith  intrepidity 

In  dealing  with   children    who   possess   this 
trait,  the  teacher  should  use  everj  means  of  en 
couragei  bould  be  careful  not  to  place  the 

pupil  in  positions  in  ivhich  here  is  a  probability 
of  failure  and  disgrace,  and  should  aim  to  con- 


trol his  will  by  an  appeal  to  his  affections,  his 
love  of  approbation,  and  his  sense  of  right,  rather 
than  to  his  fear  or  his  sense  of  shame.  His  self- 
esteem  being  deficient,  everything  should  be 
done  to  cultivate  it,  and  he  should,  therefore,  be 
led  rather  by  praise  than  driven  by  censure  ;  but. 
above  every  thing  else,  in  a  child  who  is  want- 
ing in  self-esteem,  should  the  seeds  of  moral  prin- 
ciple be  planted;  so  that  if  he  is  not  governed  by 
pride  or  a  sense  of  personal  honor,  he  may  listen 
to  the  dictates  of  conscience.  The  principle  un- 
derlying  this  treatment  is.  to  counteract  the  bad 
effects  of  a  deficiency  in  certain  mental  qualities 
by  addressing  those  which  are  strong  or  excessive. 
1  leeker,  in  The  Scit  ntific  Basis  of  Education,  in 
this  connection  remarks,  "If  the  child  with  whom 
the  teacher  is  dealing  has  these  restraining  facul- 
ties large,  the  teacher,  on  that  account,  has  more 
difficulty  in  guiding  him,  but  has  the  conditions 
of  greater  success  it  he  can  succeed  in  doing  so. 
On  this  disposition  depends  the  character  of 
self-sustained  and  self-made  men." 

DILIGENCE,  the  virtue  of  constancy  in 
labor,  is  an  important, though  not  the  sole,  means 
of  success  in  any  branch  of  human  calling.  It 
is  a  function  of  the  will  power,  as  distinguished 
from  intellect  and  sensation,  and  is  of  sponta- 
neous growth,  whereverthe  occupation  is  akin  to 
the  inclination  and  productive  of  pleasure.  It 
can,  therefore,  artificially  be  engendered  only 
by  connecting  the  occupation  with  pleasurable 
emotions  that  are  not  foreign  to  the  subject. 
Where  the  latter  art'  missing,  only  dire  necessity 
can  keep  diligence  alive, — either  sonic  necessity 
from  natural,  or  from  positive  law.  But  then 
diligence  has  ceased  to  be  a  virtue,  though  it  may 
continue  as  a  habit,  mechanically  as  it  were.  In 
education,  diligence  is  more  powerful  than  nat- 
ural adaptation,  as  all  the  experience  derived 
from  the  history  of  great  men  shows.  It  is  the 
office  of  pedagogy  to  promote  diligence  in  the 

pupils  by  spontaneous  growth,  as  is  done  in  the 
kindergarten  system  of  education.  Where  such 
spontaneous  growth  has  not  been  effected  by  early 
influences,  an  artificial  growth  must  be  cultivated; 
but  the  pleasurable  emotions  to  be  connected 
with  the  occupation,  should  he  prompted  as 
little  as  possible  by  means  foreign  to  the  sub- 
ject, such  as.  for  instance,  outward  punishments, 
rewards,   purely     mechanical    discipline,  or    the 

stimulus  of  ambition.  Whatever  the  occupa- 
tion or  study  in  which  pupils  are  required  to 
engage,  they  should,  as  soon  as  possible,  be  in- 
duced to  take  a  lively  interest  in  it  for  its  own 
Bake;  because  Such  an  interest  will  arouse  into 
active  exercise  a!'  the  l»st  powers  of  their  minds, 
and  thus  lead  to  the  most  effective  and  salutary 
cdueai  tonal  discipline.  Besides,  the  habit  of  de- 
pending  upon   external    incentives. —  the  love  of 

distinction,  of  praise,  of  pleasure,  or  of  gain, 
must  necessarily  engender  selfishness,  and  thus, 
narrow  and  debase  the  mind  which  a  generouSi 
earnest  zeal  in  the  pursuit  of  a  praiseworthy  ob- 
ject would  expand  and  ennoble. 

DILWORTH,  Thomas,  an  English  teacher, 
and    the  author  of  several   very  successful  and 


DINTEE 

popular  school  text-books,  among 'which  were  a 
\,ir  Guide  to  the  English  Tongue  (London, 
L 740),  which  passed  through  more  than  forty 
editions,  and  a  Compendium  of  Arithmetic  (Lon- 
don, 17:*)-) :  also  77/.'  Book-keeper's  Assistant, 
Bvo.,  and  the  Schoolmaster's  Assistant,  L2mo. 
These  were  among  the  most  noted  school  hooks 
of  their  time.      Ddworth  died  in  17S0. 

DINTER,  Dr.  Gustav  Friedrich,  a  Ger- 
man educator,  was  horn  Febr.  29.,  1760,  at  Borna, 
in  Saxony.      He  received  his  first  education  at 
the  Furstenschule  of  Grimma,  where,  at  that 
time,  the  monitorial  system  was  in  use.  and  the 
best  Bcholarsof  the  upper  classes,  under  the  name 
of  ObergeseUen,  aided  in  the  instruction  of  the 
younger  pupils.      Dinter    greatly   distinguished 
himself  as  ObergeselL  and  gave  indications  of  the 
eminence  which  he   subsequently  attained  as  an 
educator.     After  studying  theology  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Leipsic,  and  being  for  five  years  tutor 
in  a  private  family,  he  was  appointed,  in  L787, 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Kit/.scher,  near  Borna.  Here 
he  gratuitously  receive!  1  y<  rang  men  into  his  house 
in  order  to  educate  them  as  school-teachers,  and 
soon  attracted  the  attention  of  the  highest  school 
boards  of  the  country  by  the  superior  knowledge 
which  his  pupils  showed  on  entering  the  normal 
school.     He  was,  therefore,  offered,  in  1  75* T.  the 
position  of  director  of   the  teachers"  seminary  at 
Fricdrichstadt-Dresden,   which  he  accepted,  al- 
though it  yielded  a  smaller  income,  hoping  to 
find  there  a  more   extensive  field  of  usefulness. 
In  consequence  of  his  able  administration,  the 
seminary  attained  a  high  reputation;  but.  as  his 
health  failed,  he  resumed,  in   1807.  the  charge 
of  a  village  church.      Again  he  received  young 
men   into   his   house,   and   prepared   them   for 
the  gymnasium,  employing  some  of  his  former 
pupils  as  assistants.     In  1816,  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment, appointed  him  consistorial  and  school 
councilor  at  Konigsberg.     He  found  the  schools 
which  he  had  to  inspect  in  a  deplorable  condition. 
When  he  made  his  first  tour  of  inspection,  there 
were   forty-two  rural  and  two  town  schools,  in 
which  not  a  single  child  was  able  to  write  a  let- 
ter.    Twelve   years   later,  all  the  boys  who  had 
been  regular  in   their  studies,  in   sixty  out  of 
sixty-seven  schools,   had   acquired   this  ability. 
One  year  after  settling  at   Konigsberg,  he  re- 
oeived,  in  addition  to  his  office  as  councilor,  an 
appointment  as  professor  at  the  university.     He 
was  an   indefatigable    writer,   working,  on  an 
average,  eighty-three   hours  a  week.     He  died 
May  29.,  I  831 .   As  a  theologian,  Dinter  belonged 
to  the  Rationalists'  school,   though  he  never  at-  I 
tacked  the  Evangelical  school.     His  merits  as  a 
school  inspector,  teacher,  and  educational  writer 
were  so  conspicuous,  and  his  life  was  so  pure,  that 
even    the    opponents   of    his   theological    views. 
without  exception,  recognize  the  prominent  posi- 
tion which  he  occupies  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion,    lie  exerted  a  considerable  influence  upon 
the  educational  system  of  Prussia,  by  introducing 
into  the  state  school   the  ideas  of  Basedow  and 
Pestalozzi,  which  heretofore  had  been  applied  only 
in  private  institutions.    He  was  a  master  of  rare 


DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST 


229 


eminence  in  the  use  of  the  catechetical  method 
of  instruction,  which,  through  his  influence,  not 
only  came  into  general  use.  but  was  sometimes 
carried  to  an  extreme.  He  insisted  that  women 
should  receive  an  education  not  inferior  to  that 
of  men,  since  woman  bears  the  most  prominent 
part  in  the  education  of  the  rising  generation. 
Mis  views  on  female  education  are  laid  down  in 
a  work,  entitled  Malvina.  Although  he  did  not 
begin  his  literary  activity  until  he  was  forty 
years  of  age,  he  is  entitled  to  a  place  among  the 
most  prolific  educational  writers  in  Germany. 
I  lis  complete  works  edited  by  Wilhelm  (1841— r- 
51  )  are  contained  in  42  volumes.  Theyare  divided 
into  four  sections:  the  lirst  containing  hisexeget- 
ical  writings  (12  vols.);  the  second,  the  catechet- 
ical (16  vols.). the  third,  the  pedagogical  (9  vols.), 
and  the  fourth  the  ascetical  works  (5  vols.).  The 
most  celebrated  of  his  works,  the  SchuUehrerbibel, 
has  been  severely  criticised  from  several  points  ; 
but  two  of  his  works,  entitled  Die  vorzuglichslen 
Regebi  der  Padagogik,  Methodik  und  Schul- 
meisterklugheit  (7th  edit.,  1836)  and,  Die  vorsug- 
lichsten  Regeln  der  Katechetik  (7th  edit...  1827), 
are  regarded  as  standard  works  of  imperishable 
value. — See  Dinter's  Leben,  von  ilim  selbst  be- 
schrieben  (Plauen,  1860);  Schmidt,  Geschichie 
der  Padagogik,  vol.  iv. 

DIPLOMA  (Gr.  6lirfc>u,a,  anything  doubled, 
or  folded),  a  term  anciently  given  to  a  formal 
certificate  of  authority,  because  such  documents 
were  usually  written  on  double  or  folded  waxen 
tablets.  In  more  modern  times,  the  term  was 
applied  to  a  royal  charter  or  to  any  governmental 
testimonial  of  authority,  privilege,  or  dignity. 
(Hence  the  science  of  state  documents  is  called 
diplomatics.)  The  term  is  now  chiefly  confined 
to  a  certificate  given  by  a  university,  college,  or 
other  literary  institution,  as  an  evidence  that 
the  person  upon  whom  it  is  conferred  has  at- 
tained a  certain  degree  of  scholarship  ;  or,  in  the 
case  of  professional  schools,  as  a  license  to  prac- 
tice a  particular  art. 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST,  or  as  they 
prefer  to  be  named,  "  The  Church  of  Christ, 
a  body  of  Baptists,  sometimes  called  by  their 
opponents  "  Campbellites,"  after  Thomas  Camp- 
bell and  his  son  Alexander  Campbell,  who  gave 
the  immediate  origin  and  distinctive  character 
to  the  denomination.  The  original  purpose  of 
Thomas  Campbell,  who  came  to  the  United 
States, in  1808,  from  Ireland,  as  the  minister  of  a 
Presbyterian  denomination  known  as  the  Seced- 
ers,  was  to  unite  the  various  denominations  of 
Christians  on  the  exclusive  basis  of  the  Bible. 
For  a  time,  the  congregations  organized  by  the 
two  Campbells  attached  themselves  to  a  Baptist 
association:  but.  in  L827,  a  distinct  ecclesiastical 
organization  ws  begun.  The  disciples  believe  in 
"baptism  for  the  remission  of  sins, '  and  practice 
weekly  communion.  In  church  government, 
this  denomination  is  congregational.  In  1874, 
a  committee  of  conference  was  appointed  to 
confer  with  the  Free  Will  Baptists  on  a  union  of 
the  two  denominations.  The  membership  in  the 
United   States,    chiefly    in    the    Southern  and 


230 


DISCIPLINE 


"Western  states,  is  estimated  at  about  500.000  ; 
in  the  British  Islands,  they  numbered,  in  1874, 
109  churches  ;  and  congregations  have  also  been 
established  in  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Australia.  They  have  always  taken  a  deep  in- 
terest in  education,  and  have  a  large  number  of 
academies  and  seminaries,  as  well  as  several  col- 
leges of  high  standing.  The  must  prominent 
among  their  literary  institutions  arc  Bethany 
College,  founded  by  Alexander  Campbell,  and 
presided  over  by  him  until  his  death  ;  Kentucky 
University,  at  Lexington,  Ky.;  the  Northwes- 
tern Christian  University,  at  Indianapolis.  Ind.; 
Abingdon  College,  at  Abingdon,  111.:  Eureka 
College,  at  Eureka,  111.;  and  Hiram  College,  at 
Hiram,  Ohio.  Female  colleges  have  been  estab- 
lished at  Columbia.  Mo..  Versailles  and  Jlar- 
rodsburg,  ky.aiid  Bloomington,  111.  Theological 
schools  are  connected  with  the  Kentucky  Uni- 
versity and  Eureka  College.  A  Bible  school  for 
colored  ministers  was  established  at  Louisville, 
K\\.  in  187  I.  The  number  of  Sunday-schools  in 
1874  was  2,450,  with  253,000  scholars.  For 
fuller  information  on  the  literary  institutions  of 
this  denomination,  sec  the  special  articles  on  the 
colleges  above  mentioned. 

DISCIPLINE  (Lat.  disciplina,  from  discere, 
to  learn),  a  term  which,  according  to  its  literal 
acceptation,  means  the  condition  of  a  disciple,  or 
learner;  that  is.  subordination  requiring  strict 
obedience  to  certain  directions  or  rules,  or  con- 
formity with  a  system  of  instruction,  having  for 
its  object  some  kind  of  training.  I  tence  the  word 
discipline  is  sometimes  used  in  an  active  sense  as 
synonymous  with  training  or  culture,  as  in  the 
expression  intellectual  or  moved  discipline.  Some- 
times it  is  employed  to  denote  school  govern- 
ment ;  and.  frequently  also  punishment  for  the 
commission  of  offenses.  The  word,  however, 
should,  particularly  in  education,  be  confined  to 
its  strict  meaning  as  above  defined.  Iii  all  teach- 
ing, there  is  need  of  attention  and  obedience  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil  ;  and  as  an  important  aim 
of  education  is  to  instill  certain  habits  as  a  basis 
for  the  formation  of  character,  the  learner  must 
be  required  constantly  and  punctiliously  to  con- 
form to  certain  rules  and  general  precepts;  and 
the  discipline  of  the  teacher  is  good  or  bad  in 
proportion  as  he  succeeds  in  enforcing  obedience 
to  these  oecessarj  rules.  In  large  schools,  the 
system  of  regulations  becomes  more  complicated, 

and  a  habitual   ready   attention   to   them   on   the 

ji.ni  of  tin'  pupils  produces  whal  is  technically 
called  order.  (See  Order.)  This  kind  of  dis- 
cipline assimilates  to  what  is  required  in  an 
army,  with  the  special  object  of  so  unifying  a 

large  number  of  men  that  they  may  be  moved  as 

a  single  person.  In  militarv  discipline,  the  indi- 
vidual is  sacrificed  to  the  genera)  object  to  be 

attained  l.y  its  enforcement  :   indeed,  he   has   no 

claim  to, consideration,  excepl  what  is  secondary 
and  subordinate.  The  danger,  in  the  manage- 
ment of  large  schools,  is  thai  the  same  principle 
will  be  applied,  the  interests  of  the  pupils  as  in- 
dividuals being  lost  sighl  of  in  the  endeavor  to 
enforce  mere  discipline  for  the  purpose  of  gen- 


eral management  or  show.  In  education,  how- 
ever, the  interests  of  the  individual  should  never 
be  disregarded.  School  machinery, — marching 
and  countermarching,  simultaneous  movements, 
J  the  motionless  gaze,  or  the  dead  silence  of  multi- 
|  tudes  of  children,  all  perhaps  trembling  under 
restraint,  certainly  constitutes  a  kind  of  disci* 
pline.  but  a  kind,  if  not  absolutely  pernicious,  of 
lint  little  educational  value.  Order  is  indispen- 
sable to  the  proper  working  of  a  school ;  but  it  has 
been  well  remarked  that  "good  order  involves 
impression  rather  than  repression  :  it  does  not 
consist  in  a  coercion  from  which  result  merely 
silence,  and  a  vacant  gaze  of  painful  restraint;  but 
it  proceeds  from  the  steady  action  of  awakened 
and  interested  intellect. —  the  kindling  of  an 
earnest  purpose  and  an  ambition  to  excel." 
Hence,  the  discipline  that  is  necessary  to  produce 
order  in  a  school  or  class,  is  of  secondary  im- 
portance, in  comparison  with  that  which  has  for 
its  object  to  train  the  intellectual  and  moral  nat- 
ure of  the  pupils  as  individuals.  "By  discipline." 
says  Currie,  "we  understand  the  application  of 
the  motives  which  prompt  the  pupil  to  diligent 
study  and  to  good  conduct  ;"  that  is,  such  mo- 
tives as  the  desire  of  the  approbation  of  teacher 

I  or  parent,  emulation,  or  the  desire  of  distinction, 
the  hope  of  reward,  and  the  fear  of  punishment. 
To  what  extent  these  motives  should  be  resorted 
to,  and  their  comparative  efficacy  in  dealing 
with  children  of  different  temperaments  and 
traits  of  character,  constitute  important  subjects 
for  careful  discussion.  (See  Government,  and 
Rewards.] 

All  moral  discipline  must  be  directed  to  the 
training  of  the  will :  and  it  is  in  this  connection 
that  the  consideration  of  motives  becomes  of 
primary  importance.  Educators  are  at  con- 
siderable variance  as  to  the  proper  methods  of 
controlling  the  will  of  children.  Some  advocate, 
in  all  eases,  an  application  of  the  law  of  kind- 
ness, and  contend  that  physical  force  should 
never  be  brought  in  to  coerce  or  restrain  even 

the    most    self-willed    pupil  ;    others   are   of  the 

opinion,  based  on  experience,  as  they  claim,  that, 

in  some  cases,  physical  punishment  is  indispen- 
sable. (See  Corporal  Punishment.)  The  best 
training  is.  without  doubt,  that  which  brings 
into  play  the  pupils  higher  nature,  and  leaves 
him  habitually  actuated  by  motives  derived  from 
it.  The  child  cannot  be  always  restrained  by 
fear,  that  is.  the  tear  of  immediate  physical 
pain  ;  and.  hence,  the  discipline  to  which  he  is  to 
be    subjected,  should    be    such    as   will    implant 

motives  and  principles  of  c luct  that  will  be 

effective  as  a  means  of  permanent  self  control. 
The  mere  subduing  of  the  will  of  children  is  not 
sufficient  ;  indeed,  it  may  be  injurious.  The 
aim  of    the  teacher  should    he   to    bring  the   will 

into  subjection  to  conscience  and  a  sense  of  right; 
iii  the  words  of  a  distinguished  educator,  "to  dis- 
courage the  child  in  the  proper  development  ol 

its  nature  has  a  tendency  to  crush  out  the  life  of 
the  child  rather  than   to  cultivate   that    life   into 

better  methods  of  thought  and  action."  The 
motives  brought    to   hear   in    the    school-room 


DISPUTATIONS 


DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA        231 


should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  those  which  will  be 
Operative  in  after  life.  Special  school  incentives, 
such  as  merit  marks  etc.,  are  useful  and  proper 
within  certain  limitations  ;  but  the  great  aim 
should  be  to  dispense  with  them,  and  substitute 
natural  for  artificial  motives— motives  that  will 
cling  to  the  child  during  his  whole  after  life. 
Unnatural,  overstrained  discipline,  that  is,  the 
exaction  of  a  precise  conformity  with  the  minor 
regulations  of  a  school,  not  only  crushes  out  the 
individuality  of  the  child  for  the  time,  but  in  its 
reaction  engenders  a  feeling  of  resistance  in  his 
mind,  which,  having  no  outward  demonstration, 
naturally  results  in  a  habit  of  deceit.  Nothing 
is  so  baneful  to  the  nature  of  a,  child  as  an  at- 
mosphere of  tyranny  and  arbitrary  power ;  and 
any  system  of  discipline  that  is  founded  exclu- 
sively upon  it.  must  produce  the  worst  effects 
possible.     After  all.  the  best  discipline,  even  if 

the  outward  order  should  not  be  so  exact,  is  that 
which  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  ] nipils  through 
the  consistent  example,  and  the  kindly  heart  tell 
sympathies  of  the  living  teacher,  whose  very 
presence  is  sunshine  to  his  school, and  who  quells 
waywardness  by  the  very  sublimity  of  his  pa- 
tience, firmness,  and  perfect  self- control.  (See 
Conscience,  Ci'lti-re  of.) 

DISPUTATIONS,  the  old  form  of  rhetor- 
ical exercises  in  which  candidates  for  degrees,  in 
the  universities,  were  formerly  required  to  ex- 
hibit their  powers.  Hence  the  term  wrangler 
as  applied  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land, to  those  who  have  attained  first-class 
honois  in  the  public  mathematical  examinations. 
These  disputations  occupied  a  very  prominent 
place  in  the  college  work  when  the  formal  .Aris- 
totelian or  syllogistic  logic  (dialectics)  was  much 
in  vogue,  as  being  the  most  valuable  of  all  ac- 
complishments, and  the  best  test  of  educational 
progress.  They  were  of  two  kinds  :  ordinary, 
or  those  performed  privately  in  term  time  for 
practice  ;  and  extraordinary,  or  those  performed 
publicly  as  the  necessary  qualifications  for  a  de- 
gree. The  exercise  finally  became  absurd  and  was 
held  up  to  ridicule.  The  following  gives  a  hu- 
morous description  of  the  method  of  disputation 
at  Oxford,  England,  in  the  last  century  : 

••  Tlic  persons  of  this   argumentative   drama    are 
three  :  namely,  the  opponent,  the  respondent,  ami  the 
moderator.    Tie'  opponent  is  the  person  who  always 
begins  the  attack,  ami  is  sure  of  losing  the  day.  being 
always  as  they  call  it)  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  ques- 
tion ;   though  oftentimes,  that  side   is  palpably  the 
right  side,  according  to  our  modern  philosophy  and 
discoveries.    Tin'  respondent  Bits  over  against  the  op- 
ponent, and  is  prepared  to  deny  whatever  he  affirms, 
and  always  comes  off  with  flying  colors,  which  must 
needs  make  him  enter  the  lists  with  great  fortitude  and 
intrepidity.     The  moderator  is  the  hero,  or  principal 
Character  of  the  drama,  and  struts  about  between  the 
two  wordy  champions  during  the  time  of  action,  to 
see  that  they  do  not  wander  from  the  question  in  de- 
bate; ami  when  he  perceives  them  deviating  from  it, 
u  them  -hovt,  and  put  them  into  the  right  road 
in;  for  which  purpose  he  is  provided  with  a  great 
quantity  of  subtle  terms  and  phrases  of  art ;  such  as, 
quoad  hoc  et  quoad  Mud,  formaliter  et  materioMer, 
dicamentaliter  et  transcendentalUei;  actualiter  et 
nlialiter,   directe  et  per  se,  reductive'  et  per  ai1- 
eidens,  entitativi  et  quidditative,  etc. 


The  same  author  characterizes  the  exercise, 
which  was  originally  designed  as  a  public  proof 
of  the  student's  progress  in  the  art  of  reasoning, 
as  "no  more  than  a  formal  repetition  of  a  set  of 
syllogisms  upon  some  ridiculous  question  in 
logic,  which  the  students  get  by  rote,  or,  perhaps, 
only  read  out  of  their  caps,  which  lie  before 
them  with  their  notes  in  them.''  On  which  abuse 
he  thus  enlarges  : 

" ■These  commodious*  sets  of  syllogisms  are  called 
strings,  and  descend  from  undergraduate  to  under- 
graduate, in  a  regular  succession;  so  that,  when  any 
candidate  for  a  degree  is  to  exercise  his  talent  in  ar- 
gumentation, he  has  nothing  else  to  do  but  to  inquire 
among  his  friends  for  a  string  upon  such  or  such  a  ques- 
tion, and  to  gel  it  by  heart,  or  read  it  over  in  Jiis  nap 
as  aforesaid." 

For  a  long  time  the  study  of  dialectics,  or  the 
art  of  logical  disputation,  occupied  a  prominent 

place  in  the  university  curriculum  both  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  continent;  and  young  men  were 
allowed  to  waste  their  time  and  intellectual 
energies  upon  these  useless  subtleties.  "In  the 
German  universities  of  the  14th  and  15th  cent- 
turies."  Von  Raumer  says,  "the  lectures  were 
accompanied  with  frequent  disputations,  in  which 
teachers  and  scholars  took  part.  The  regular  dis- 
putation day  was  Saturday.  Sophismata  and 
qua?sti< »><''*,  after  the  fashion  of  theses,  furnished 
the  basis  for  the  disputing.  The  purpose  of  them 
all  seems  to  have  been  not  so  much  to  deal  with 
the  truth  of  the  matter  as  with  the  form  ;  they 
were  dialectic  fencing  with  all  the  tricks  of  soph- 
istry, exhibitions  of  skill  in  arguing  for  and 
against  the  same  proposition."  As  scholasticism 
declined,  this  learned  trifling  became  obsolete; 
and  where  disputations  are  now  required  they 
are  merely  of  a  formal  character. —  See  Knox, 
Liberal  Education,  vol.  n.  (11th  ed.,  London, 
1795);  Von  Raumer,  Geschichle  der  Padagogik, 
vol.  v.,  trans,  in  Barnard's  German  Universities 
(N.  Y.,  1859). 

DISTRICT   OF  COLUMBIA,  the  federal 
district  in  which  the  capital  of  the  United  States 
has  been  located  since  November,  1800.    It  orig- 
inally consisted  of  portions  of    territory  ceded 
to  the   general   government   by  Maryland   and 
Virginia,  and  forming  a  square  of  10  miles,  and 
hence  having  an  area  of  100  sq.  m.,  (i4  on  the 
Maryland  side,  and  .'5(1  on  the  Virginia  side.     It 
was  organized  in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  ( 'ongress, 
passed  June  28.,  1790,  which  accepted  this  "dis- 
trict   of  territory"  for   the    "  permanent   seat   of 
government  of  the  United  States."  and  provided 
that    the  government  should  be  removed  from 
Philadelphia  to  that  place  on  the  first  Monday 
in  November,  1800.  The  portion  on  the  Virginia 
side  of  the  Potomac  was  retroceded  in  1846, 
leasing    64   sq.  m.   as   the   area   of  the  District. 
(harters  were  subsequently  granted  to  the  cities 
of  Washington  and  Georgetown,  and  the  District 
was     under     the     direct    control     of     Congress; 
the   people,    however,   having   no    representation 
therein   and  no  voice   in  the  election  of  the   pres- 
ident of  the  U.S.    In  L871,a  territorial  govern- 
ment was  organized,  the  charters  of  Washington 
and  Georgetown  were  repealed,  and  the  adminis- 


232 


DISTRICT  OF    COLUMBIA 


tration  of  the  affairs  of  the  District  was  com- 
mitted to  a  governor  and  legislative  assembly. 
By  ad  of  Congress,  June  20.,  L874,  the  territo- 
rial government  was  abolished,  and  the  adminis- 
tration was  vested  in  three  commissioners  to  be 
appointed  by  the  President  with  the  consent  of 
the  senate. 

Educational  History. — The  charter  of  the  city 
of  Washington,  amended  in  1804,  first  made 
provision  for  the  ••establishment  and  superintend- 
ence of  schools"  in  the  District;  and  au  act  of  the 
city  council,  the  same  year,  required  the  appoint- 
ment of  thirteen  trustees  to  carry  these  provi- 
sions into  effect.  Six  of  these  trustees  were  to  be 
chosen  by  those  persons  who  contributed  to  the 
support  of  the  schools.  Among  the  trustees  elected 
by  the  contributors  was  Thomas  Jefferson,  who 
was  made  president  of  the  firsl  board  convened. 
The  first  action  taken  by  the  new  hoar. I  contem- 
plated the  establishment  of  schools,  a  college,  and  a 
university — the  whole  to  constitute  an  institution 
■in  which  every  species  of  knowledge  essential  to 
the  liberal  education  at'  youth  may  eventually  be 

acquired."  As  the  result  of  this  action,  two 
schools  were  established,  which,  in  L809,  it  was 
resolved  to  merge  into  one.  About  this  time 
(1810),  the  citizens  of  <  leorgetown  applied  to  the 
corporation  of  their  city.  t<>  set  apart  a  lot  on 
which  suitable  school  buildings  might  be  erected. 
Their  application  is  supposed  to  have  been  suc- 
cessful, as  eiidit  months  afterward  the  ollieers  of 
the  city  attended  the  laying  of  tic  corner-stone 
of  a  new  school-house;  ami.  live  months  after 
that,  a  new  school,  organized  upon  the  Lancas- 
terian  plan,  was  opened.  In  L812,  the  sum  of 
§1,000  was  appropriated  by  the  council  for  the 
purpose  of  building  an  addition  in  which  the 
female  pupils  mighl  receive  separate  instruction. 
The  reputation  of  this  school  had  extended  >> 

far,  that  the  committee  of  the  Washington  school 
board,  on  receipt  of  a  letter  from  one  of  the 
teachers  of  the  <  leorgetown  school,  suggesting  the 
establishment  of  a  similar' school  in  Washington, 
acted  immediately  upon  the  suggestion,  and  pro- 
cured the  passage  of  an  order"thal  there  shall  be 

one  school  in  the  city  of  Washington,  as  near  as 
pracl  icable  in  the  center  thereof,  to  he  conduct, ■  1 
On  the  plan  of,    and   as  nearly   correspondent  as 

may  be  with  the  forms  observed  in,  the  Lan- 
casteriaii  School."  Congress,  meantime, by  a  joint 
resolution,  authorized  the  establishment  of  a  lot- 
tery for  raising  $10,000  to  be  used  in  the  organ- 
ization of  two  Lancasterian  schools.  These 
schools  must  have  been  established,  as  we  find 
the  board  of  trustees,  in  L813,  electing  officers 
and  supervisor}  committees  tor  the  Eastern  and 
Western  schools,  and  for  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Lancasterian  schools.  In  Is:;:!,  the 
subject  of  five  schools  in  the  District  appears  to 
have  engaged  the  attention  of  Congress,  hut 
nothing  decisive  was  done;  and,  on  the  4th  of 
Slay  of  that  year,  the  city  corporation  applied 
$200  for  the  relief  of  the  Georgetown  school. 

The  authorities  of  the  three  cities  Washington. 
Georgetown,  and   Alexandria,  in   ls:;7.   united  iii 

an  appeal  to  Congress  for  an  appropriation  for 


the  endowment  of  a  system  of  education  that 
should  embrace  the  whole  District  of  Columbia. 
by  which  the  children  of  all  might  equally  enjoy 
the  inestimable  advantages  of  a  liberal  education. 
The  effort,  however,  was  of  no  avail,  and  the 
schools  were  provided  for  by  private  contributions 
and  annual  appropriations  from  the  city  treasury 
till   1842,  when   the    corporation  of   the    city  or- 

dered  that  the  schools  should  be -taken  under  the 
exclusive  care  of  the  corporate  authority."  To 
this  end,  aboard  of  guardians  of  the  (ieorgetown 
school  was  appointed,  with  full  powers  to  pro- 
vide for  the  keeping  of  said  schools,  and  to  man- 
age the  same  for  the  public  interest.  In  1844, 
the  public-school  system  was  re-organized  by  the 
abolition  of  the  two  ward  boards,  and  the  creation 
of  a  new  board  of  twelve  trustees  with  ample 
power  for  the  complete  supervision  and  control 
of  the  schools.  These  were  to  be  open  to  all 
white  children  between  6  and  16  years  of  age, 
on  prepayment  of  a  tuition  fee  of  not  more  than 
50  cents  a  month,  the  pupils  furnishing  their 
own  books,  except  in  the  case  of  children  of  in- 
digent parents,  who  were  taught,  and  furnished 
with  books  five  of  <  ust.  'I  lie  same  act  appropriated 
$3,650  for  building  two  Bchool-houses,  ami  for 
renting  rooms  for  school  purposes.  Between 
L845  and  1848,  ten  new  primary  schools  were 
established,  tuition  fees  were  abolished,  and  a 
tax  of  SI  was  ordered  to  be  annually  levied  on 
everywhite  male  citizen  for  the  use  of  the  schools. 
The  changes  during  the  next  five  years  ( L849  to 
L853)  were,  the  establishment  of  13  new  pri- 
mary schools,  the  buying  of  lots,  and  building  ol 
new  school  -  houses,  the  increase  of  teachers*' 
salaries,  and  an  annual  average  appropriation  of 
about  $15,000.     In  1857,  an  attempt  was  made 

to  bring  the  public  -school  System  more  into 
conformity  with  the  system  which  had  been 
adopted  with  such  success  by  some  of  the  East<  rn 
states,  by  creating  the  office  of  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  making  an  assessment 
of  lo  cents  on  every  $100  of  taxable  property, 
but  it  was  not  successful.     In  L860,  the  attempt 

to  pass  so  much  of  the  original  act  as  related  to 
taxation,  was  renewed,  and  with  success. a  tax  of 
10  cents  on  the  $100  being  ordered.  Since  that 
time,  the  progress  of  the  schools  has  been  marked. 
In  1m;  I.  the  first  school  for  colored  children 
went  into  operation.  The  same  year,  Congress 
approved  an  act  to  organize  public  schools  in 
the  county  of  Washington,  exclusive  of  the 
cities  of  Washington  and  Georgetown.  'I  he 
first  obstacle  encountered  in  the  carrying  out  of 
this  law  was  a  disagreement  in  the  board  of  com- 
missioners in  regard  to  the  division  of  the  scl I 

fund  among  the  white  ami  colored  schools.  A 
decision  was  reached  in  -Inly:  and.  the  same  year, 
two  scl Is  were  opened,  affording  instruction  to 

loft  pupils.  The  following  Near,  five  schools 
were  opened,  and  the  few  schools  for  colored 
children   previously  existing  were  incorporated 

into  the  public-School  system.    Since  the  creation 

of  the  hoard  of  guardians  in  Georgetown,  in 
1842,  no  changes  except  those  incident  to  the 
ordinary  routine  of  a  successful  school  system  ares 


DISTRICT  OF    COLUMBIA 


233 


recoided.  The  act  of  Congress  which,  in  1871, 
placed  the  District  under  ;i  territorial  form  of 

government,  led  to  changes  in  the  form  and  com- 
position of  the  board  of  trustees,  ami  to  many  in 
the  details  * >t'  the  management  of  the  schools;  but 
the  efficiency  of  the  latter  was  in  no  way  im- 
paired. In  ls74.  the  srhool  boards  of  Washing- 
ton, Georgetown,  and  the  county  were  consoli- 
dated into  one  board  of  19  trustees,  of  whom  11 
were  residents  of  Washington,  3  of  Georgetown, 
and  5  of  the  county.  In  1869,  the  office  of  super- 
intendent of  public  schools  of  Washington  was 
created,  Zalmon  Richards  being  chosen  to  the 
position.  The  following  year,  he  was  succeded 
by  J.  ().  Wilson,  who  has  continued  to  discharge 
its  duties  to  the  present  time.  The  present  super- 
intendent of  colored  schools  for  the  cities  of 
Washington  and  Georgetown  is  G.  F.T.  Cook. 

School  System.— The  control  of  the  schools 
throughout  the  District  rests  with  the  board  of 
trustees  already  mentioned,  who  report  directly 
to  the  triumvirate  commission  created,  in  1874, 
for  the  government  of  the  District,  This  com- 
mission appi  tints  a  superintendent  of  white  schools 
in  Washington.  Georgetown,  and  the  county,  and 
a  superintendent  of  colored  schools  in  Washing- 
ton atnl  Georgetown.  No  permanent  school  fund 
exists,  the  schools  being  maintained  either  by 
special  appropriations  by  Congress,  or  by  direct 
taxation  and  voluntary  contributions.  The  second 
method — that  of  direct  taxation — has  been  most 
•effective,  the  amount  of  tax  per  dollar  of  aasessed 
property  for  the  support  of  the  white  schools  in 
the  District  and  county  having  been,  during  the 
past  year,  3. 1 1  mills  for  Washington,  and  3.7£ 
mills  for  Georgetown ;  the  amount  for  the 
colored  schools  was  3.3  mills  in  the  former,  and 
4  nulls  in  the  latter.  Tuition  is  free,  the  cost  of 
books  only  being  charged  to  scholars;  but,  in 
case  of  poverty,  this  charge  is  remitted.  The  legal 
school  age  is  from  6  to  17  years. 

Educational  Condition. — The  principal  items 
of  school  statistics,  for  the  year  1874 — 5,  are  as 
follows: 

Number  of  edncable  children, white. .     19,  ISO 

colored      9,328 


Total 

Number  of  children  enrolled,  white. . 
"        "  "         colored 


11,241 
6,489 


28,817 


Total 16,730 

Average  daily  attendance,  white 8,520 

"  colored..       3,924 


it  CC 


Total. 

Number  of  schools,  white 

"        colored 


166 
7.5 


12,444 


Total. 


241 


Average  number  of  teachers,  males, white.. .       9 
"         "        "         females    "...  164 


Total..  173 

Average  number  of  teachers,  males,  colored      2 

"  "  "  "  fpmulea         "  Rfi 


females 


86 


Total..  88 
Estimated  enrollment  in  private  and  paro- 
chial schools  for  the  year 6,837  | 


The  school  revenue  for  the  year  was: 

Loral  taxation  for  white  schools  $361,156.99 
All  other  sources        "  "  93,749.67 


Total $454,906.66 

Local    taxation     for     colored 

Bchoola $103,003.92 

All    other  sources  for  colored 

schools 71,454,12 


$174,458.04 
$334,547.36 


Total 

Expenditures 

Normal  instruction. — The  normal  school  at 
Washington  was  organized  in  187.'!,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  the  public  schools  of  the 
city  with  teachers.  The  proportion  of  female 
teachers  in  the  schools  is  so  large — 95  per  cent— 
that  no  provision  has  been  made  in  the  normal 
school  for  the  education  of  males.  The  number  of 
pupils  is  limited  to  20.  They  must  have  been,  before 
entering,  pupils  in  the  female  grammar  schools 
of  the  city,  and  at  least  17  years  of  age.  The 
course  of  study  is  oue  year  in  duration.  The 
number  of  pupils  who  received  certificates  last 
year  was  20  ;  the  number  who  received  diplomas, 
11.  At  the  normal  department  of  Howard 
University,  7  students  were  graduated. 

Secondary  Instruction. — Only  one  high  school 
is  in  existence  in  Washington  ;  namely,  that  for 
colored  children,  in  the  north-western  section  of 
the  city.  About  120  private  and  denominational 
schools,  and  academies  are  reported  in  the  Dis- 
trict, situated  principally  in  the  cities  of  Wash- 
ington and  Georgetown.  Of  these  schools,  110  are 
for  white  children,  and  10  for  colored.  The  Wash- 
ington Business  College  furnishes  instruction  to 
persons  of  all  age  and  both  sexes,  who  desire  to 
enter  mercantile  life. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  colleges  and  uni- 
versities are  as  follows  : 


NAME 

Location 

When 

found 

ed 

Denomi- 
nation 

Columbian  University  . . . 
Georgetown  College 

Washington 
Georgetown 
Washington 
Washington 

1822 
1789 
1858 
1866 

Baptist 
K.  C. 
R.  C. 
Non-sec. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.  — 
Schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  theology  exist  in 
connection  with  colleges  and  universities;  and 
scientific  instruction,  also,  is  to  a  certain  extent 
given,  but  no  special  institution  for  the  last 
exists.  Instruction  in  theology  is  given  to  colored 
students  preparing  for  the  ministry  by  the 
Wayland  Institute  established  by  the  colored 
Baptists.  The  National  University  Law  School  has 
3  instructors,  and  100  students.  The  National  Col- 
lege of  Pharmacy  was  organized  in  1872. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Columbia  Institu- 
tion for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  founded  by 
Amos  Kendall,  and  was  chartered  by  <  Ymgress 
in  1857.  Its  sources  of  revenue  are  tuition  fees, 
congressional  appropriations,  and  voluntary  con- 
tributions. In  addition  to  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment, it  has  a  collegiate  department — the  only 
college  for  deaf-mutes  in  the  world.  Its  course 
extends  over  11  years — 7  in  the  preparatory  de- 
partment, and  1  in  the  college. 


234 


DISTRICT   SCHOOLS 


DIVERSIONS 


DISTRICT  SCHOOLS. See  PlJBMC SCHOOLS. 

DITTES,  Friedrich.,  a  German  educator, 
was  born  Sept.  '2:5..  1829,  at  Irfersgriin  near 
Zwickau.  After  studying  at  the  university  of 
Leipsic  and  obtaining  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
teachers"  seminary  at  Gotha,  and  at  the  same 
time  "  Schviratk  "  (school-councilor).  In  1863, 
he  accepted  a  call  as  director  of  the  Pcedago- 
qium  of  Vienna,  which  had  just  been  established 
by  the  municipal  government  of  that  city.  In 
this  position,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  all  educational  questions  in  Austria  and 
Germany.  In  L873,  the  city  of  Vienna  elected 
him  a  member  of  the  lower  house  of  the  Aus- 
trian Reichsrath,  in  which  he  formed,  with  only 
four  other  members,  the  "democratic"  (radical) 
party.  Dittes  is  one  of  the  chief  representatives 
of  the  pedagogical  viewsof  Beneke  (q.  \  I, "which 
he  explained  and  defended  in  a  number  of  works. 
The  most  important  are  the  Following:  <<',->nn/- 
riss  der  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre  (4th 
edit.,  Leips.,  1874);  Methodik  der  Volksschuh 
(Leips.,  1874);  Lehrbuch  der  Psychohgie  und 
Logik  (Vienna,  1874);  Geschichte  der  Erziehung 
unddes  Unterrichts  (4th  edit.,  Leips.,  1875);  and 
Schule  der  Padagogik  (Leips.,  iJ-wfi).  These 
ii\ <•  works  present  a  complete  view  of  the  sci- 
ence of  education  and  instruction.  He  has  also 
edited  the  Padagogische  Jdhresbericht. 

DIVERSIONS.  An  important  part  of  the 
education  of  youth  consists  in  affording  them  an 
opportunity  for  natural,  unrestrained  diversions. 
in  which  they  may  have  free  scope  to  exercise 
mind  and  body,  particularly  the  latter,  accord- 
ing to  their  inclinations.  During  the  early 
period  of  childhood,  no  tasks  can  be  or  need  be 
imposed  to  guide  or  accelerate  the  natural  devel- 
opment of  the  mental  and  physical  faculties ; 
the  buds  of  humanity  open  of  themselves,  if 
their  condition  is  normal,  and  their  growth  is 
not  arrested  by  injudicious  interference.  At 
first,  nature,  as  a  wise  educator,  trains  through 
the   pleasurable   emotions;     for    the    impulses 

which  she  inspires  are  all  to  varied  activity,  and 
activity  is  delight  when  nerves  and  muscles  have 
the  spring  of  health  and  vital  energy.  A  few 
lessons  in  conscious  restraint  are  all  that  this 
period  requires  or  admits.  They  are  purely 
negative,  checking  the  violence  of  natural  im- 
pulse, not  urging  the  child's  activity  in  any  par- 
ticular direction.  This  is  the  education  of  home 
and  parents,  when  presided  over  by  love  and 
good  sense,  during  the  first  years  of  the  child's 
existence,    a  period  of  continous  diversion.  "A 

child,    before    its   fifth   year."  says    Isaac  Taylor, 

••and  even  later,  if  in  perfect   health,  does  not 

know  that  the  day  is   long:   for  the  infant  mind 

glides  down  the  stream  of  moments, conscious 

only  of  the  present,  ami  altogether  without 
thoughl  of  periods,  intervals,  and  measured 
seasons   of   duration;     the    infant    mind    has   no 

weariness    nor  disquietude  connected  with  the 

slow  numbering  of   hours,  days,  weeks,  months." 

When  the  age  for  serious  application  begins, 
the  season  for  tabor,  or  occupation  under  con- 


straint, the  educator  should  strive  to  make  the 
transition  as  easy  and  gentle  as  possible.  Fre- 
quent diversions  should  be  intermingled  with 
formal  exercises ;  and  much  will  be  gained  if 
those  exercises  be  made  to  partake  of  the  nature 
of  diversions,  by  having  the  characteristics  of 
novelty  and  variety,  and  by  stimulating  the 
child's  curiosity.  As  the  age  of  the  child  in- 
creases, passing  into  youth,  the  times  for  regular 
occupation  and  for  recreation,  or  diversions,  be- 
come more  distinctly  separated.  The  hoy  or  the 
girl  is  gradually  led  to  feel  that  there  are  du- 
ties to  be  performed,  as  well  as  sports  to  be  en- 
joyed; and  that  the  pleasure  received  from  the 
latter  will  be  greatly  increased  by  the  feeling 
that  it  has  been  earned  by  a  conscientious  de- 
votion to  the  former.  Hence,  under  no  circum- 
stances, should  youth  be  deprived  of  their  op- 
portunities for  free  and  innocent  recreations,  ex- 
cept as  a  penalty  for  misdoing  or  neglect  of 
duty.  The  office  of  diversions  is  twofold, — re- 
creation and  exercise.  The  former  is  absolutely 
essential  after  studious  employment,  to  refresh 
the  mind  :  and  the  latter  is  needed  to  give  health 
and  vigor  to  the  body.  Those  sports  arc  the 
best,  therefore,  which  combine  cheerful  relaxa- 
tion of  the  one  with  the  due  employment  of  the 
other.  "  Among  the  Jesuits,"  says  Disraeli,  "it 
was  a  Standing  rule  of  the  order,  that  after  an 
application  to  study  for  two  hours,  the  mind  of 
the  student  should  be  unbent  by  some  relaxation, 
however  trifling."  I  Joys,  if  left  to  themselves, 
will  take  violent  exercise,  and  thus  develop  their 
physical  powers  and  promote  their  growth  :  and 
girls  will  select  sports  of  a  lighter  character, — 
such  as  are  adapted  to  their  different  physical 
constitution.  It  is  a  serious  error  on  the  part  of 
parents  to  keep  their  boys  under  painful  re- 
straint, and,  from  solicitude  for  their  safety,  to 
debar  them  the  enjoyment  of  diversions  com- 
mon to  their  age,  because  attended  with  some 
degree  of  danger.  Excessive  maternal  tender- 
ness and  care  thus  exercised  must  result  in  ren- 
dering hoys  effeminate,  and  unfit  to  cope  with 
the  dangers  and  trials  of  subsequent  life.  The 
only  need  of  restraint  is  to  keep  hoys  from 
vicious  actions,  low  company,  petulance  and  a 
contentious  spirit  in  their  sports,  and  from  too 
daring  and  perilous  feats  of  agility  and  strength. 

Gymnastic  exercises  may  also  be  made  a  recrea- 
1  ion.  and.  when  carried  on  with  some  system, they 
constitute  an  important  part  of  a  regular  physical 
education.     (See  Gymnastics.)     What  may  be 

called  athletics,—  rowing,  swimming,  riding,  ball- 
playing,  cricket,  etc..  are  greatly  to  be  encour- 
aged in  the  maturer  periods  of  youth,  not  only 
on  account  of  their  effect  in  developing  physical 
vigor,  hut  because  they  keep  those  who  actively 
engage  in  them  from  those  vicious  indulgences 
which  constitute  the  great  peril  of  that  age. 
Cicero  well  said.  Maxime  Inn-  cetas  </  libidinir 
bus  est  arcenda,in  labore  corporis  exercenda. 
Milton  strongly  recommends  these  active  exer- 
cises in  his  tractate  Of  Education,  and  Locke  in 
Thoughts  concerning  Education  especially  en- 
joins "exercises  of    manual  arts."     As  for  the 


DOAXE  COLLEGE 


DRAWING 


235 


more  quiet  in-door  pastimes,  they  should  be  en- 
couraged with  moderation.  Cheaa  and  draughts 
may  be  permitted  :  but.  in  these  games,  particu- 
larly in  tlie  former,  there  is  great  danger  of  ex- 
cess; and  it  has  never  been  demonstrated  that  a 
good  chess-player  is,  on  that  account,  good  for 
any  thing  but  to  play  chess.  The  game  of  bil- 
liards gives  training  to  the  hand  and  the  eye, and 
involves  considerable  exercise,  moderate  but 
healthful  :  yet  it  maybe  doubted  whether  youth 
should  be  encouraged  to  engage  in  it.  because  of 
its  fascinating  character  and  its  tendency  to  draw 
their  attention  from  more  useful  and  necessary 
employments,  not  to  mention  the  dangerous  asso- 
ciations of  the  billiard  room.  'The  old-fashioned 
amusements  of  fencing  and  boxing  had  much  to 
recommend  them,  but  they  belonged  to  a  state 

of  society  in  which  they  were  deemed  useful  as 
accomplishments,  and  encouraged  the  develop 
ment  of  a  combative  spirit.  These  games  and 
diversions  involve  chiefly  the  exercise  of  the 
body;  but  there  are  others  which  require  the 
exclusive  application  of  the  mind.  Such  were. 
in  former  times,  the  Ludi  Leibnitiani,inehiddng 
the  Ludus  Finium,  the  Game  of  Ends  (uses  and 
purposes),  and  the  Ludus  Remediorum,  the 
Game  of  Remedies  (expedients).  These  are 
briefly  described  by  Knox  in  Liberal  Education 
thus : 

••  One  asks,  what's  the  use  of  this  or  that  '.  as,  for 
instance,  what's  the  use  of  a  hat?  the  other  is  to  find 
as  many  ludicrous  uses  as  he  can  for  it.  What's  the 
of  a  hat  ?  Respondetur,  pUeus  adhiberi  potest  ad 
hauriendam  aquam,  ad  centum  excilandum.  adpor- 
tuml'is  nuces,  poma,  etc.:  and  so  of  any  thing  else. 
Ludus  Remediorum,  or  the  Game  of  Expedients,  or 
making  shift,  is  thus  played  :  Difficult  situations  and 
circumstances  are  contrived,  and  the  answerer  is  to 
devise  means  to  extricate  himself,  or  to  find  sue- 
lanea  for  wants — as,  how  will  you  write  without 
iuk?  etc." 

Sports,  however,  that  have  for  their  express 
purpose  the  combining  of  recreation  with  mental 
improvement  rarely  succeed  in  their  object ; 
since,  as  soon  as  the  novelty  wears  off,  they  are 
felt  as  a  task,  and  hence  abandoned. — See  DIs- 
Raeli,  Curiosities  of  Literature,  s.  v.  Amuse- 
ments of  the  Learned. 

DOANE  COLLEGE,  at  Crete,  Saline 
county.  Nebraska,  was  chartered  in  1872.  The 
first  freshman  class  was  formed  in  1ST.'!.  It  is  un- 
der the  control  of  the  General  Association  of 
Congregational  Churches  of  Nebraska,  and  is 
designed  for  the  education  of  both  sexes.  Its 
jHTiiianent  buildings  are  to  be  erected  on  a  high 
plateau  overlooking  the  city,  the  Big  Blue  River, 
and  a  wide  reach  of  prairie  beyond,  which  to- 
gether present  a  scene  of  beauty  seldom  sur- 
passed. The  college  is  out  of  debt  and  has  the 
following  assets:  ©18,785  in  interest  bearing 
notes:  81,578  in  non-interest  bearing  notes  and 
subscriptions  ;  200  acres  of  land  in  Polk  county; 
•inn  acres  adjoining  the  city  of  Crete,  320  of 
which  are  broken:  58  city  lots  in  Crete:  also 
the  academy  building  and  the  block  on  which  it 
stands,  valued  at  $8,000.  The  college  year  is 
divided  intii  three  terms:   the  cost  of  tuition  per 

term  is  $7  in  the  full  classical  course,  $5  in 


higher  English  and  modern  languages,  and  $3  in 
the  common  Knglish  branches.  These  charges 
are  remitted  in  favor  of  the  children  of  home 
and  foreign  missionaries.  Boom  rent  is  free. 
The  college  has  been  supported  mainly  by  con- 
tributions from  the  friends  of  education  and 
religion  in  Nebraska  and  .Massachusetts.  It  has 
made  special  efforts  to  reach  those  wdiose  igno- 
rance of  the  Knglish  language  too  often  consti- 
tutes a  battier  to  all  Christian  activity  in  their 
behalf.  There  are  (1876)  .'!  instructors  and  58 
students,  nearly  all  in  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment. The  institution  has  been  in  charge  of  D. 
B.  Perry  from  its  organization. 

DOCTOR.      See  DEGREES. 

DOEDERLEIN,  Ludwig,  a  noted  German 
philologist  and  teacher,  was  born  at  Jena,  in  1791, 
and  died  in  L863.  He  was  a  son  of  the  eminent 
German  Protestant  divine  and  critic,  Johann 
Christoph  Doderlein.  He  studied  at  several 
German  universities,  including  that  of  Berlin; 
and,  in  1815,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  phi- 
lology at  the  academy  of  Pern.  He  afterwards 
filled  the  position  of  professor  of  philology  at 
Krlangen.  His  chief  -writings  are  Lateinische 
Synonyme  "m/  Elymologieen  (6  vols.,  1826  — 
38),  with  a  supplement,  Die  lateinische  Wort- 
bildung  (1838);  Handbuch  der  lateiniscken  Ety- 
mologie  (1841);  Homerisches  Ghssarium  (1850). 
All  these  works  were  published  at  Leipsic.  He 
also  edited  several  classical  works. 

DONALDSON,  John  William,  an  eminent 
English  scholar  and  teacher,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, June  10.,  1811,  where  he  died  in  1861.  He 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  London  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  graduating  as  B.  A. 
at  the  latter,  in  1834.  For  some  time,  he  held  the 
office  of  assistant  tutor  at  Trinity  College,  during 
which  period  he  published  The  Theatre  of  the 
Greeks,  which  is  still  highly  valued  as  a  college 
class  book.  He,  subsequently,  held  the  office  of 
head-master  of  the  grammar  school  of  Bury  St. 
Kdmonds,  which  he  resigned  in  1855,  and  de- 
livered a  course  of  lectures  at  Cambridge  on 
Latin  synonyms.  In  1839,  the  first  edition  of 
the  Neir  Oratylus  was  issued,  a  work  of  pro- 
found erudition,  embodying  the  principles  of 
comparative  philology  as  established  by  the  re- 
searches of  Bopp.  the  brothers  Grimm,  and  other 
German  scholars.  This  work,  as  enlarged  and 
improved  in  the  edition  <>f  L859,  i>  still  the 
standard  English  work  upon  the  subject  of  which 
it  treats.  In  Varronianus  (1846),  he  attempted 
to  accomplish  for  Latin  philology  what  the  New 
Oratylus  had  done  for  Creek.  His  other  publica- 
tions were  editions  of  some  of  the  classics,  and 
several  theological  works— among  the  latter, 
Christian  Orthodoxy  (London,  1867). 

DRAWING  has  been  defined  as  the  expres- 
sion of  thought  by  means  of  lines,  or  as  a  visible 
presentation  upon  a  surface  of  our  conception  of 
a  form.  Hence  its  usefulness  in  every  depart- 
ment of  mechanical  science  or  effort  ;  since  each 
of  these  departments  is  based  upon  the  Concep- 
tion of  forms  and  their  realization  in  material 
products.     Drawing  is   thus   supplementary   to 


236 


DRAWING 


ordinary  language,  the  function  of  which  is  to 
recall  ideas  to  the  mind  by  their  abstract  repre- 
sentatives in  words:  but  words  ean  recall  con- 
ceptions of  form  only  to  a  very  limited  extent, 
and  scarcely  at  all  those  of  an  irregular  or  com- 
plex character.  On  the  contrary,  drawing,  by  a 
combination  of  the  simple  elements  of  lines, 
of  various  kinds  and  in  various  relations  to 
each  other,  can  transfer  from  one  mind  to  an- 
other the  most  complicated  conception,  whether 
it  be  that  of  an  actual  object,  or  the  creation  of 
the  imagination.  Thus  the  machinist  has  be- 
fore him  an  exact  representation  of  the  piece  of 
mechanism  which  he  is  to  construct ;  the  archi- 
tect delineates  the  elevations  and  plans  of  the 
edifice  which  the  builder  is  to  erect,  and  the 
industrial  draughtsman  represents  the  designs 
which  are  to  embellish  the  varied  fabrics  of  the 
loom.  In  short,  the  uses  and  applications  of  this 
beautiful  and  expressive  form  language  are  in- 
finite, stamping  it  as  one  of  the  most  indispen- 
sable accomplishments  of  civilized  man,  and,  con- 
sequently, one  of  the  most  important  elements  of 
Ins  education.  The  value  of  drawing  as  a  de- 
partment  of  general  or  popular  education,  has 
been  pretty  fully  treated  in  the  article  on  ART- 
EDUCATION,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for 
information  on  this  point.  In  the  present  article, 
it  is  designed  to  present  a  brief  outline  of  the 
relation  of  drawing  to  the  various  grades  of 
education,  with  practical  suggestions  as  to  the 

methods  of   teaching  it. 

Drawing  may  lie  divided  into  two  distinct  de- 
partments, instrumental  and  free-hand,  the  for- 
mer being  principally  employed  in  the  mechan- 
ical, engineering,  anil  architectural  branches  of 
industry;  the  latter,  by  artists,  designers,  and 
others.  The  two  divisions  are  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  as  scientific  and  artistic,  because  the 
subjects  coming  under  the  first  group,  are  based 
on  scientific  principles,  and  the  results  obtained 
are  capable  of  demonstration  by  geometry; 
whilst  tree-hand  work,  either  in  imitation  or 
original  design,  employs  the  perceptive  rather 

than  the  reasoning  faculties,  and  its  results  have 
to  be  judged  by  the  standard  of  taste,  in  all 
features  which  do  not  involve  a  question  of  fact. 
Instrumental  Drawing.  The  group  of  sub- 
jects which  come  under  this  division  may  be 
classified  as  elementary  or  applied;   the   first 

teaching  methods  of  obtaining  accuracy  of  form, 
and  its  appearance  under  given  conditions;  the 
see I.  applying  this  power  of  drawing  to  prac- 
tical purposes,  in  the  arts  of  planning,  construc- 
tion, ami  design.  The  el  mentary  subjects  are  : 
(1)   Plane   g etrical   drawing:    (2)    projection 

of  solids,  (a)  radial  or  perspective,  (6)  parallel 
in-    orthographic;    (3)    projection   of    shadows. 

(a)  radial    or    perspective,  (/')    parallel   or   ortho 

graphic  ami  i8o metric— The  applied  subjects 
are:  (1)  Architectural  drawing  and  building 
construction  :  (2)  machine  drawing,  construction, 
and   design;    civil    and    military   engineering; 

I.'!)    Surveying  and    topographical   drawing:   and 

Hi  ship  draughting,  and  marine  architecture. — 
The  elementary  subjects  teach  the  student  hoM 


to  draw  the  forms  of  lines,  planes,  or  solids,  either 
as  the  eye  sees  them  by  perspective,  or  as  they 
actually  exist,  by  orthographic  or  isometric  pro- 
jection. The  forms  usually  employed  in  teach- 
ing, are  regular  geometric  planes  and  solids,  con- 
veying, by  the  instruction  given,  the  principles  of 
representation  by  lines,  on  planes  of  delineation, 
when  the  objects  are  seen  in  space,  or  in  a  de- 
fined position  in  relation  to  the  eye.  The  study 
of  the  elements  of  instrumental  drawing  is  ne- 
cessary, therefore,  because  by  it  we  learn  how  to 
draw,  as  a  science,  which  is  obviously  required 
before  we  can  apply  it  to  purposes  involving  a 
knowledge  of  the  science.  The  elementary 
branches  may  thus  be  considered  purely  educa- 
tional, whilst  the  advanced  or  applied  divisions 
may  be  described  as  industrial. — In  the  applied 
subjects,  a  knowledge  of  plane  and  solid  geom- 
etry prepares  the  architectural  draughtsman  to 
make  working  drawings  for  the  builder,  the 
carpenter,  the  mason,  and  other  mechanics  em- 
ployed in  the  erection  and  construction  of 
buildings;  displaying,  by  geometrical  drawings 
made  to  a  regular  scale,  the  true  forms  ami  di- 
mensions of  all  parts  of  the  fabric:  enabling 
the  builder  to  calculate  exactly  the  quantity  of 

materials  required  in  its  construction,  and  each 
artisan  to  prepare  his  share  of  the  work,  so 
that  it  shall  truly  fit  its  place.  'I  he  science  of, 
projection  and  perspective  is  the  basis  of  the  lan- 
guage by  which  the  architect  expresses  his  de- 
sign for  the  whole  structure,  displaying  his  ar- 
rangement of  the  plan,  his  design  for  the  eleva- 
tion, the  true  form  of  the  building  in  its  several 
aspects,  and  the  appearance  of  the  whole  by 
means  of  a  perspective  view. —  Again,  in  mechan- 
ical engineering,  the  designer  of  a  machine  must, 
be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  projection  as  a 
science,  before  he  can  express  on  paper  his  de: 
vices  for  securing  the  speed   and  power  required 

for  his  purpose.     Working  drawings  have  then 

to  be  made  of  the  several  parts  and  details, 
to  furnish  accurate  information  to  the  model 
maker,  by  which  he  may  make  each  part  of  the 
machine  in  wood,  to  the  molder  who  has  to  east 
it  in  metal,  and  for  the  guidance  of  the  fin- 
isher and  fitter  who  complete  the  work  and  erect 
the  machine.  So.  also,  in  surveying  and  topo- 
graphical drawing,  the  actual  feature.--  of  a  coun- 

try  or  estate  are  ascertained  through  the  appli- 
cation of  plane  and  solid  geometry,  and  reduced 
from  the  natural  size  to  a  plan  which  is.  in  all 
respects,  like  the  true  plan  of  the  original. 
although  on  a  different  scale.  By  the  use  of 
such   scale   drawings,  railways   are   planned  and 

executed,  cities  and  towns  are  laid  out:  ami.  by 

civil  and  military  engineers,  who  employ  the 
Bame  means  of  delineating  their  work,  cities  are 
drained,  supplied  with  water,  or  fortified  and 
protected,  bridges  are  built  to  span  the  river,  and 
piers  made  to  encroach  upon  the  sea,  tunnels  made 
to  cut  through  hills  and  mountains,  and  embank- 
ments and  viaducts  to  till  the  inequalities  of  val- 
leys.—The  marine  engineer  or  naval  constructor 
is  equally  dependent  upon  his  knowledge  of  proi 
jection,  in  laying  out  the  lines  of  his  ship  or  boat,, 


i>KA\vr\<; 


2;37 


iii  displaying  its  capacity  for  freight  and  model- 
ing its  shape  for  speed.  All  those  features  of  his 
.1  sign  are  expressed  by  means  of  drawings,  which 
arc  the  application  of  plane  and  solid  geometry 
to  a  special  industrial  purpose.  It  will  be  evi- 
dent, therefore,  that  the  constructive  arts,  which 
bear  so  important  a  relation  to  modern  civiliza- 
tion, and  employ  so  vast  a  number  of  persons, 
arc  all  dependent  upon  drawing  for  the  initiation 
of  their  schemes.  At  the  foundation  of  success- 
ful work,  in  any  and  all  of  their  departments, 
lies  a  knowledge  of  elementary  drawing,  which, 
regarded  as  a  language,  is  of  such  a  character, 
thai  it  may  be  efficiently  taught  in  the  common 
schools  of  America,  by  the  regular  teachers  em- 
ployed to  give  instruction  in  general  subjects,  as 
soon  a<  this  practically  useful  subject  forms  a 
part  of  all  normal-school  education.  Pure  ge- 
ometry may  be  considered  the  study  of  all  these 
sciences  in  the  abstract,  and  this  is  successfully 
pursued  in  the  schools  and  colleges  ;  scientific  or 
instrumental  drawing,  under  the  headings  called 
elementary  subjects,  would  be  the  concrete  ap- 
plication of  geometry  to  the  needs  of  practical 
education,  to  be  applied  at  a  future  time  to 
actual  industry. 

/■',■  t-Hand  Drawing. — As  the  name  implies, 
this  kind  of  drawing  is  the  expression,  by  the 
unassisted  hand,  of  what  the  eye  perceives,  or 
the  mind,  or  imagination,  conceives.  Its  results, 
therefore,  are  dependent  upon  the  truthfulness  of 
observation  or  power  of  conception  possessed  by 
the  draughtsman,  and,  in  some  measure,  upon 
his  manipulative  skill  as  a  workman.  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  power  of  drawing,  or  expression,  is 
equal  to  the  perceptive  power,  and  imperfect  or 
faulty  work  proceeds  generally  from  a  lack  of 
clear  understanding  of  the  subject  rather  than 
want  of  hand  skill. — As  in  instrumental  draw- 
ing, free-hand  drawing  consists  of  two  groups  of 
subjects, — elementary  and  applied,  the  first  being 
educational,  and  the  second,  industrial  or  pro- 
fessional. In  the  elementary  division,  are  all 
those  branches  of  study  or  exercises  which 
develop  the  imitative  faculties,  embracing  all 
kinds  of  copying  from  flat  examples  or  round 
objects,  including  also  the  subjects  of  geometrical 
drawing  and  perspective,  by  which  alone  the 
truthfulness  of  expressed  form  can  be  tested. 
In  applied  drawing,  the  language  of  form  is  em- 
ployed to  embody  new  ideas,  either  as  original 
designs  for  industrial  art  and  manufactures,  or 
to  express  the  ideal  of  fine  art,  the  work  of  the 
imagination.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that 
both  scientific  and  artistic  drawing,  by  instru- 
ments or  by  the  free  hand,  have  a  common 
characteristic;  they  both  involve  a  knowledge  of, 
and  skill  in,  drawing  as  a  language,  before  the 
language  can  be  employed  for  original  purposes. 
To  continue  the  analogy,  and  regarding  drawing 
as  the  language  of  form,  its  alphabet  consists  of 
two  letters,  the  straight  line  and  the  curve. 
Simple  combinations   of   these,   by  elementary 

{)ractice,  produce,  as  it  were,  words  of  one  syll- 
able; the  grouping  of  several  objects  in  a  drawing, 
may  be  described  as  a  sentence  ;  and  an  original 


design  is  the  same  as  a  composition  or  essay  on 
a  given  theme.  The  artist  uses  the  expression 
"out  of  drawing"  in  precisely  the  same  sense  as  a 
scholar  employs  the  term  " ungrammatical,"  and 
(other  terms  being  substituted]  the  criticism  which 
has  been  made  on  a  poem  or  a  work  of  fiction, 
might  apply  exactly  to  a  historical  picture  or  an 
ideal  figure,  possessing  similar  characteristics.  A 
great  change  has  occurred  in  the  opinion  of  edu- 
cators, within  the]  iast  quarter  of  a  century  (from 
1850  to  187:"))  on  the  question  of  the  possibility 
and  advisability  of  teaching  drawing  to  all  chil- 
dren. Before  the  beginning  of  that  period,  it  was 
generally  believed  that  the  ability  to  draw  was 
a  rare  endowment  rather  than  a  power  which 
could  be  acquired  by  all  intelligent  persons;  and 
the  sort  of  picture  making,  of  a  nondescript  kind, 
which  was  then  called  drawing,  could  only  be  es- 
timated, as  it  deserved,  as  a  useless  waste  of  time, 
that  might  have  been  wisely  employed  to  better 
purpose.  Experiments,  in  several  European  coun- 
tries, upon  large  classes  of  children,  and  even 
in  whole  grades  of  schools,  demonstrated  the 
proposition  that  every  one  who  could  learn  to 
write  could  learn  to  draw.  In  the  schools  of 
the  Society  of  Friends  in  England,  drawing  had 
long  been  taught  to  every  child,  before  the  above 
conclusion  had  been  arrived  at;  and  there  was 
no  more  inequality  of  ability  displayed  by  the 
children  in  that  subject  than  in  any  other.  In 
England,  whose  display  of  industrial  art  in  185] 
was  little  less  than  a  national  humiliation,  the 
government,  seeking  after  a  remedy,  took  coun- 
sel of  the  teachers  in  the  common  schools,  and 
requested  some  of  them  to  try  the  experiment 
of  teaching  elementary  drawing,  in  their  classes, 
to  pupils  consisting  entirely  of  the  children  of 
working  men.  After  a  years  trial,  a  convention  of 
school-masters  in  London,  about  the  year  1852, 
recorded  as  their  opinion  that  all  children  who 
could  learn  at  all.  could  be  taught  to  draw,  giving 
as  the  basis  of  their  conviction  that,  during  their 
year  of  experiment,  "half  of  the  time  previously 
given  to  writing  had  been  given  to  drawing, 
with  the  result,  that  the  writing  had  been  better, 
and  the  power  of  drawing  was  a  clear  gain." 
From  this  time,  aided  by  strong  encouragement 
from  the  government,  the  subject  came  more 
and  more  into  favor  amongst  educators,  until  it  is 
now  general  in  the  schools.  Concerning  the 
possibility  of  teaching  all  persons  to  draw,  an 
art  master  of  long  experience  says,  "  There  are 
but  four  classes  of  human  beings  whom  it  is  not 
found  practicable  to  instruct  in  drawing.-  They 
are  the  blind,  the  idiotic,  the  lunatic,  and  the 
paralytic.  Of  the  rest  of  mankind  and  woman- 
kind, exactly  one  hundred  per  cent  can  be 
taught  to  draw."  (Art  Education,  Scholastic 
and  Industrial;  Boston,  1873.)  The  same  opinion 
is  held  by  those  teachers  who  have  tried  the 
experiment  in  the  public  schools  of  Boston, 
Mass.  — Where  drawing  may  have  failed  as  a 
subject  of  instruction  in  the  common  schools.it 
has  probably  been  treated  as  a  special  subject. 
taught  by  special  teachers  to  the  older  pupils 
only,  in  the  last  year  or  two  of  school  life.  AVhen 


238 


DRAWING 


regarded  as  one  of  the  elementary  subjects  of 
general  education,  and  taught  by  the  regular 
teachers,  it  has  never  failed.  To  unsure  success 
in  teaching  the  subject  in  the  public  schools,  the 
following  conditions  arc  necessary  :  (1)  Only 
those  elementary  1  tranches  should  be  taught 
which  are  educational  in  their  influence,  and  the 
knowledge  conveyed  by  them  of  general  use 
(such  as  have  been  described  as  being  at  the 
foundation  of  all  constructive  industry!.  (2)  In- 
struction in  drawing  should  begin  with  school 
life,  and  end  only  when  school,  college,  or  uni- 
versity education  is  completed.  (3)  At  the, 
basis  of  all  instruction  is  geometrical  drawing, 
which  illustrates  the  tacts  of  regular  forms  ;  and 
perspective,  which  determines  the  appearance  of 
those  facts.  (4)  Original  design,  either  element- 
ary or  applied,  should  form  a  part  of '  the  reg- 
ular exercises  required  from  pupils,  alternating 
with  other  exercises,  such  as  drawing  from 
memory,  and  dictation,  ill   order   to  give  variety 

to  the  study.   (5)  The  principles  of  drawing,  and 

of  shades  and   shadows,  should   first   be   taught 

from  regular  forms,  and  with  scientific  method 

and  accuracy,  before  the  pupils  are  allowed  to 
draw  ami  shale  irregular  forms,  with  no  guide 
but  their  own  observation.  All  practice  should 
proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from 
the  regular  to  the  irregular,  from  the  fact  to  its 
appearance.  (6)  The  best  preparation  for  truth 
and  beauty  of  design,  is  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  greatest  works  of  the  past  and  pres- 
ent, and  a  complete  mastery  of  all  the  methods 
and  vehicles  of  expression  ;  so  that,  on  the  foun- 
dation of  knowledge  and  with  unhindered  skill, 
the  draughtsman  and  artist,  educated  by  study, 
and  made  powerful  by  practice,  may  impress  on 
their  works  the  stamp  of  originality.  To  illus- 
trate these  propositions,  programmes  of  instruc- 
tion in  drawing  are  here  riven  in  outline: 

Primary  and  Grammar  Schools. 

lit  year. — The  names  of  geometric  forms  and  lines  ; 
drawing  straight  lines  and  their  combinations  into 
simple  forms;  also,  the  same  terms  from  memory. 
(All  work  on  the  slate.) 

'2d  year. — Dictation  and  memory  drawing  of  geo- 
metric patterns  ;  simple  designs  composed  of  straight 
lines  ami  simple  corves.    (81ate  work.) 

3d  year. — Practice  on  paper  of  what  has  been 
previously  learned ;  also  in  drawing,  with  readiness, 
from  memory  ami  dictation,  forms  previously  drawn 
from  copy.    Designing  new  combinations  from  copies. 

Uh  year.  Pree-hand  outline  design,  geometrical 
drawing,  model  drawing  ofboth  curved  forms  and  ob- 
jects  bounded  by  righl  lines. 

."></;  year. — Drawing  ornaments  and  objects  oi  his- 
torical character,  as  Egyptian  lotus  forms,  *  [reek  vases, 
the  same  to  be  drawn  also  from  memory:  geo- 
metrical drawing  of  a  mere  advanced  character. 

i',//,,  tih,  and  8th  years.— Free-hand  drawing  and 
design,  geometrical  'haw  ing,  model  dra^i  ins  from  the 
soli. I  object),  and  free-hand  perspective  (developing 
ideas  m  preparation  for  advanced  work),  dictation 
ami  memory  drawing;  design  with  hali-tmt  back 
ands.    Botanical   name-  ami  forms.    Dolors  and 

the  tir-t  principle-,  of  their  harmony. 

High  s>  bools. 
1st  year,  -Lin  pective  bj  the  use  of  instru- 

ments, parallel:  botanical  lessons,  with  diagrams  in 

ir,  model  drawing,  ir solids,  in  light  ami  shade. 

hali-tint,  cross-hatching  and  -tump.  Lessons  on  archi- 
tectural style-,  u  ithout  draw  in 


2d  year. — Linear  perspective,  angular ;  design  in 
harmonious  colors,  from  flowers  and  foliage  :  drawing 
from  plants  in  outline  :  object  drawing  in  one  color,  as 
fruits  etc.,  from  flat  copies  and  from  casts. 

3d  year. — Linear  perspective,  oblique  ;  painting 
from  flowers  and  fruits  ;  study  ot  the  human  figure,  in 
light  and  shade,  from  copies;  drawing  foliage  from 
plaster  casts ;  applied  design  for  manufactures,  such 
as  carpet-,  iace.  paper-hangings,  potter}-,  glass,  fresco- 
ing, metal  work,  etc. 

4///  year. — Lessons  in  painting  landscapes,  from  nat- 
ure :  drawing  the  human  figure,  from  casts;  lectures 
in  architectural  style-,  and  on  schools  of  painting: 
also,  on  the  history  and  practice  oi  industrial  art;  and 
on  design  applied  to  manufactures. 

The  principle  on  which  every  course  should 
be  arranged  is,  that  before  attempting  to  draw 
anything,  the  pupil  should  be  made  to  under- 
stand it :  that  is.  to  have  as  clear  a  conception 
of  it  as  possible.  Hence,  in  the  first  year,  the 
young  pupil  is  considerably  occupied  in  simply 
learning  the  names  of  forms,  in  order  to  imp 
them  upon  his  memory.  When  this  principle  is 
observed,  thai  the  cultivation  of  the  understand- 
ing should  precede  drawing,  the  latter  will  never 
be  difficult  or  uninteresting. 

hni  STRi  ll- Draw  ing  Classes. 

f.  Instrumental  Drawing,  embracing  the  following 
elementary  branches  :  (  1  )  plane  geometrical  drawing  ; 
(2)  projection  ;  (3]  perspective  :  and  the  following  ad- 
vanced subjects:  (1)  building,  construction,  and 
architectural  drawing;  (2)  machine  drawing. 

II.  Free-hand  Drawing,  including  the  representa- 
tion of  objects  and  ornament  from  both  the  Hut  and 
the  round,  the  study  of  light  and  shade,  color,  and 
original  design. 

In  each  of  these  departments,  some  of  the 
knowledge  and  practice  found  in  the  other,  will 
be  beneficial  to  the  student.  The  following 
course  will  be  proper  for  each  : 

First  Fear's  Course. 

1st  Part. —  (1)  Freehand  outline  drawing  from 
copies  and  blackboard,  with  exercises  in  elementary 
design;  (2)  plane  geometrical  drawing,  from  copies 
and  blackboard. 

2nd  Part. —  (1)  Model  and  object  drawing,  from 
copy  and  solid  ;  (2)  perspective  drawing  (for  free- 
ham' I  students)  ;  (.'!)  projection  (for  instrumental 
students). 

Second  Year's  Course. 

I.  Instrumental  Drawing. —  (1)  Building  construc- 
tion, including  the  following  subjects:  joints  used  in 
carpentry,  deer  and  window  training,  construction  of 
Boors,  partitions,  reel-,  and  staircases,  bond  in  brick- 
work, stone-work,  arches,  fire-proof  flooring,  designs 
of  plans,  elevation-,  working  drawings,  etc.;  f 2;  ma- 
chine drawing,  including  such  detail-,  as  bolts  and 
nut-,  plumber-blocks,  screws,  wheels,  etc. 

II.  Free-Jiand  Drawing. — (1)  The  drawing  of  orna- 
meiii  iii  outline,  from  large  copies,  ol  foliage  and  the 
human  figure;  shading  the  same  from  copies  in  pen- 
cil, crayon,  and  Indian  ink  or  sepia  :  designing  in  half- 
tint,  or  several  tints  ol  one  color,  draw  ing  from  mem- 

OH     and    dictation,    etc.:      (2)      -hading     gc trical 

solids,  shading  from  the  cast  and  natural  objects,  ap- 
plied design  for  industrial  purposes  and  special  sub- 
for  particular  branches  of  business, 
For  a  description  of  the  necessary  fittings  and 
apparatus,  see  Smith,  Art  Education,  Scholastic 
and  Industrial  (Boston,  L873).  See  also  Stet- 
son, Technical  Education  (Boston,  1876  ;  Mod- 
ern Art  Education,  translated  from  the  German 
di  Lanql  (Boston,  L875);  Buisson,  Rapportsur 
rinstruction  primaire  etc  (Paris,  L875). 


DRILL 


DUPANLOUP 


230 


DRILL,  a  term  used  in  education,  particu- 
larly in  school  instruction,  to  denote  the  strict 
routine  of  exercises  required  either  to  train  pu- 
pils to  the  ready  performance  of  mental  or  phys- 
ical processes,  or  to  impress  upon  their  memory 
those  arbitrary  associations  of  facts  or  words 
which  are  required  in  many  subjects  of  study. 
Thus,  a  certain  amount  of  drill  is  required  in 
teaching  the  arithmetical  tables,  the  paradigms 
and  rules  of  grammar,  the  spelling  of  words,  and 
those  facts  of  geography  that  pertain  to  the 
location  of  places  (memorizing maps).  Drill  re- 
quires definite  exercises  and  regular  practice  in 
them,  continued  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  in 
order  to  impart  a  kind  of  automatic  force  to  the 
recollection.  Both  mind  and  body, by  repetition, 
acquire  fixed  habitudes,  by  means  of  which 
thought  and  muscular  action  may  be  accommo- 
dated to  the  performance  of  acts  which  at  first 
might  have  seemed  impossible.  This  is  the 
foundation  principle  of  drill.  (See  Rote- 
Teaching.) 

DRUEY  COLLEGE,  at  Springfield,  Mis- 
souri, under  the  control  of  the  Congregationalism, 
was  organized  and  chartered  in  1ST.'!.  It  derives 
its  name  from  S.  F.  Drury.  of  Olivet,  Mich.,  who 
contributed  liberally  toward  its  foundation.  It 
is  under  the  patronage  of  the  American  Col- 
lege Society  of  Boston.  The  institution  com- 
prises a  collegiate  department,  with  five  cour- 
ses of  four  yeare  each  (classical,  scientific.  Greek 
scientific,  Latin  scientific,  and  ladies'  course); 
a  preparatory  department,  with  classical  and 
English  courses  of  three  years  each ;  a  normal 
department  of  two  years;  a  model  school  of  three 
years ;  and  the  Missouri  Conservatory  of  Music, 
chartered  in  1875.  Both  sexes  are  admitted  to 
all  the  departments  and  courses  on  the  same 
terms,  except  that  the  ladies'  course  (equivalent 
to  that  of  the  best  female  seminaries)  is  designed 
for  such  young  ladies  as  do  not  desire  to  pursue 
the  severer  college  courses.  The  library  contains 
2,000  volumes;  the  beginning  of  a  cabinet  of 
mineralogy  and  geology  has  been  made,  and  a 
number  of  specimens  of  natural  history  have  been 
secured.  The  college  year  is  divided  into  three 
terms.  The  regular  charge  for  tuition  per  term 
is  §1")  in  the  college  classes.  $12  in  the  prepara- 
tory classes,  $8  in  the  model  school,  and  $6  in 
the  normal  department.  These  charges  are  re- 
mitted in  favor  of  the  children  of  ministers  of 
any  denomination  wdio  are  in  active  service, 
and  some  aid  is  extended  to  other  deserving 
students.  In  1ST.") — 6,  there  were  11  instructors; 
the  students  were  distributed  as  follows  :  college 
classes,  35  ;  normal  class.  27  ;  classical  prepara- 
tory. 75  ;  English  preparatory,  74;  music,  draw- 
in-,  and  painting,  23;  model  school.  31 ;  total, 
deducting  repetitions.  220.  There  were  5  grad- 
uates at  the  commencemenl  of  L875.  The  Rev. 
Nathan  J.  Morrison,  D.  D..  has  been  the  presi- 
dent from  the  commencement  of  the  institution. 

DUBLIN  UNIVERSITY.     See  Ireland. 

DULL  SCHOLARS,  or  Dullards,  a  diss 
of  pupils  found  in  every  school  and  class,  whose 
perceptions  are  deficient  in  rapidity,  and  whose 


mental  powers  are  sluggish.  Such  pupils  need 
especially  the  spur  of  encouragement,  and  should 
never  be  Subjected  to  blame  or  derision  on  ac- 
count of  their  slowness.  Many  teachers  often 
greatly  err  in  dealing  with  this  class  of  pupils, 
applying  to  them  such  epithets  as  blockhead,  dolt, 
numbskull,  simpleton,  dunce,  etc.  They  are, 
moreover,  sometimes  neglected  by  the  teacher, 
who  naturally  prefers  to  give  attention  to  those 
bright,  precocious  pupils  who  need  but  little  in- 
struction. The  best  powers  of  the  teacher,  how- 
ever, are  displayed  in  developing  the  latent  ca- 
pacities of  these  dull  scholars  ;  and  very  often  it 
has  been  found  that  those  who  bore  the  character 

of  dullness  in  school  have  risen  to  great  eminence 
in  after  life.  The  great  English  poet  and  novelist, 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  the  illustrious  German 
chemist  Liebig  are  often  mentioned  as  examples 
of  this  fact. 

DUNCE,  a  term  applied  to  a  pupil  who  is 
dull,  or  slow  in  learning.  The  word  is  supposed 
to  be  a  corruption  of  the  name  of  Joannes 
1  >uns  Scotus,  a  very  learned  man,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  (died  in 
1308).  From  his  keen,  analytical  intellect  and 
acute  logic,  lie  was  styled  doctor  subtilis,  the 
subtle  doctor.  The  name  of  this  great  scholar. 
according  to  some,  was  applied  to  a  dullard  in 
derision,  just  as  we  often  ironically  call  a  stupid 
fellow  a  Solomon,  or  a  bully  a  IL'iior.  Trench, 
however,  thinks  it  became  a  term  of  scorn  ap- 
plied to  the  adherents  of  the  old  school-men  by 
the  disciples  of  the  new  learning,  as  the  latter 
gained  ground  during  the  middle  ages.  Hence, 
the  expression,  "You  are  a  Duns,"  was  a  reproach, 
as  implying  an  advocate  or  supporter  of  obsolete 
and  exploded  opinions.  Butler,  in  Hudibras 
thus  puns  on  the  word  : 

"  In  school-divinity  [he  was]  as  able 
As  he  that  hight  Irrefragable  ; 
A  second  Thomas,  or,  at  once 
To  name  them  all,  another  Du?)ce." 

DUPANLOUP,  Felix  Antoine  Philippe, 

bishop  of  Orleans  and  the  foremost  Catholic 
writer  of  France,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  on 
educational  subjects,  was  born  at  St.  Felix, 
Savoy,  dan.  3.,  1802.  He  was  ordained  priest 
in  1825,  attached,  for  three  years,  as  catechist  to 
the  parish  of  Assumption,  appointed  in  1837 
superior  of  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Paris,  and, 
in  184!',  bishop  of  Orleans.  His  chief  attention 
has  ever  since  been  devoted  to  the  educational 
interests  of  the  <  'atholic  <  Ihurch.  The  petit  semi- 
naireoi  (  Means  entered  into  a  lively  competition 
with  the  state  schools;  in  his  own  episcopal 
palace,  he  opened  a  new  school ,  and  he  took  an 
active  pari  in  all  the  educational  controversies  of 
the  time.     He  continued,  with  great  energy,  the 

defense  of  the  "  liberty  of  instruction,"  which  the 

Catholics  of  France  demanded  in  opposition  to 
the1  University,  and  in  which  he  had  zealously 
interested  himself  even  before  his  appointment 
as  bishop.  Me  disapproved  of  the  agitation  be- 
gun by  Gaume  (see  Gai  he)  and  others  for  ex- 
cluding the  pagan  classics  from  Christian  schools 
isee  Classics,  Christian),  and  was,  therefore 
violently  attacked   by  the    L'uivers.     The   con- 


210 


DURHAM 


DWICIIT 


troversy  was,  for  some  time,  continued  on  both 
sides  with  considerable  severity,  untd,  at  length. 
the  Pope  imposed  silence  upon  both  parties,  lie 
was  consulted  in  the  framing  of  the  law  of  .March 
15.,  1850,  concerning  the  reorganization  of  public 
instruction  ;  and,  after  the  promulgation  of  the 
law,  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Con&eil  de 
Vinstiruction  publique.  He  withdrew  from  tin's 
position  in  1852,  In  the  National  Assembly 
which  met  in  1871,  after  the  proclamation  of  the 
third  republic,  he  was  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  opposition  against  the  liberal  views  of  Jules 
Simon,  the  minister  of  public  instruction.  The 
Assembly  appointed  him  president  of  the  com- 
mittee 3eJ  scte  1  to  examine  and  report  on  the  bill 
in  favor  of  compulsory  primary  instruction,  which 
had  been  drafted  by  Simon:  and  he  not  only 
emphatically  declared  against  the  ministerial  bill, 
but  presented  a  counter-project  in  favor  of  the 
"free,  religious,  and  gratuitous  instruction  of 
the  poor."  In  1875,  he  secured,  in  the  National 
Assembly,  the  adoption  of  a  bill  in  favor  of  the 
"  freedom  of  superior  instruction."  the  chief  ob- 
ject of  which  was  the  establishment  of  free  Cath- 
olic universities,  in  the  subsequent  organization 
of  which  he  was  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the 
bishops.  [See  France.)  Having  been  elected,  in 
1854,  a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  he  re- 
peatedly prevented  by  his  influence  the  election 
of  several  decided  opponents  of  <  latholic  doctrines. 
When,  in  1871,  Little  was  admitted  to  the 
Academy  in  spite  of  his  opposition,  he  resigned, 
on  the  ground  that  he  was  unwilling  to  belong 
to  a  society  which  admitted  atheists;  but  Guizot 
and  other  friends  prevailed  upon  him  to  with- 
draw his  resignation.  The  most  important  edu- 
cational work  of  I  hipanloup  has  been  published 
under  the  title  De  I'Education  (3  vols.,  L855 — 7). 
It  treats  of  education  in  general,  of  authority 
and  respect  in  education,  and  of  superior  in- 
struction. 

DURHAM,  University  of.    See  England. 

DURSCH,  Martin  Georg,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic writer  on  education,  was  born  at  Deggingen 
in  the  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg,  Nov.  11., 
I  sot);  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  the 
university  of  Tubingen,  and  oriental  languages 
at  Paris,  became  on  his  return  prof essor  at  the 
gymnasium  of  ESbingen,  and.  in  ls50,  pastor  and 
dean  at  Rottweil.  I  lis  work  on  pedagogics  or 
Christian  education  [Pddagogik  oder  Wissen- 
schqft  tl'-r  dirixUiflii-n  Kriii'lnniij,  1851)  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  best  on  this  subject  from 
the  Catholic   point  of   view,      lie   advocate's  the 

co  operation  of  church  ami  slate  iii  the  manage- 
ment of  the  public  school,  and  asserts  that,  with- 
out this  co-operation,  the  aim  of  the  public 
school  to  improve  and  purify  human  society  can 
never  be  attained. 

DURUY,  Victor,  a  French  historian,  au- 
thor, and  educationist,  born  in  L811.  lie  was 
professor  of  history  at  Reims,  and  afterwards 
at  Paris,  in  the  Lyc4e  NapolAon,  In  is;.;:,  he 
i  ived  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  letters.  He 
successively  served  as  inspector  of  the  Academy 
of  Paris,  inspector  general  of  secondary  instruc- 


tion, and  minister  of  public  instruction  (1863). 
In  the  latter  position,  which  he  filled  till  1869, 
lie  attempted  many  innovations  which  were 
much  opposed  ;  he  effected,  however,  some  im- 
portant reforms.  His  chief  historical  publica- 
tions are  Histoire  des  Grecs,  2  vols..  Histoiredes 
Remains,  4  vols..  Introduction  generate  a  Fhis~ 
toire  de  France,  1  vol.,  Cours  cthistoire,  7  vols., 
and  Histoire  de  France,  3  vols.  These  works 
have  been  very  popular,  and  have  attained  an 
extensive  circulation.  M.  Duruy  has  also  pub- 
lished valuable  reports  on  the  progress  of  litera- 
ture and  science  as  shown  in  ths  Exposition  Vni- 
verselle  of  1867. 

DWIGHT,  Francis,  noted  for  his  efforts  in 
behalf  of  popular  education  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  and  as  the  founder  and  editor  of  the 
District  School  Journal  oi  that  state,  was  born 
in  Springfield,  Mass..  March  14..  18(18,  and  died 
in  Albany,  N.Y..  Hec.  15..  Is -|5.  For  several 
years  he  acted  as  county  superintendent  of 
schools  for  the  city  and  county  of  Albany,  and 
was  successively  member  of  the  school  board  of 
Albany,  and  of  the  executive  committee  for  the 
care  and  government  of  the  normal  school  in 
that  city — the  first  in  the  state.  The  District 
School  Journal  was  commenced  in  1840,  and 
edited  by  him  till  his  death.  This  journal  was 
aided  by  the  patronage  of  the  state,  and  was 
supplied,  at  the  expense  of  the  common-school 
fund,  to  every  school  district.  Its  tone  and  in- 
fluence were  highly  commended  by  the  distin- 
guished educators  of  the  time.  It  survived  him, 
however,  only  a  few  years. —  See  Barnard, 
American  Teachers  and  Educators. 

DWIGHT,  Timothy,  a  celebrated  Ameri- 
can theologian  and  scholar,  was  born  in  North- 
ampton, Mass..  May  14.,  1752.  and  died  in  New 
Haven.  Ct.,  Jan.  11..  1817.  His  mother  was 
the  daughter  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  After  grad- 
uating  at  Yale  College,  in  1769,  he  taught  a 
grammar  school  in  New  Haven  for  two  years, 
and.  during  the  next  six  years,  was  a  tutor  in 
Yale  College.  During  a  part  of  the  Revolution- 
ary war,  he  served  as  chaplain  in  the  army,  dis- 
tinguishing himself  by  the  patriotic  fervor  of  his 
addresses,  and  by  the  stirring  songs  which  he 
composed.  He,  subsequently,  performed  the  du- 
ties of  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  and 
principal  of  an  academy,  in  Greenfield,  Ct.  In 
1795,  he  succeeded  I  >r.  Stiles  in  the  presidency 
of  Yale  College,  which  position  he  held  till  his 
death.  He  was  a  teacher  of  great  ability,  an 
impressive  pulpit  orator, and  an  excellent  divine. 
His  presence  was  commanding,  and  his  manners 
affable  and  genial.  J  lis  writings  were  numerous, 
bul  confined  to  the  departments  of  theology  and 

genera]  literature.  One  who  had  been  connected 
with  him  as  a  student  in  Yale  <  !ollege,thus  Wears 
testimony  to  his  character  as  a  teacher:  "  Alter 
the  lapse  of  forty  years,  and  after  much  oppor- 
tunity of  associating  with  many  eminent  instruc- 
tor,. President  Dwight  is  ever  present  to  my 
mind  as  the  Qreat  nodel  Teacher."-  See  1>km- 
bon  Olmsted,  Timothy  Dwight,  as  >i  TeacJier,  in 
I'.  vi;\  vun's  Ameriont  Ihiv/wrs  ami   Educators. 


EAR 


241 


EAR,  Cultivation  of  the.  "Recent  physi- 
ological  researches  appeal  to  leave  but  little  rea- 
son to  doubt  that,  at  birth  and  for  months  after- 
ward, the  organs  of  the  special  senses  exist  in 
only  a  rudimentary  form,  and  that  they  owe 
their  gradual  development  entirely  to  the  ex- 
ternal influences  exerted  upon  them  by  nature 
and  society,  ll  is,  therefore,  not  only  probable. 
hut  experimentally  demonstrable,  that  the  edu- 
cation of  the  senses  is  more  or  less  efficient  ac- 
cording to  the  time  at  which  it  begins  after  birth. 
In  the  light  of  modern  experience,  it  is  con- 
sider 1  by  some  extremely  doubtful  whether  there 
is  really  any  case  of  actual  congenital  blindness 
or  deafness.  The  tendency  to  these  defects, 
doubtless,  often  exists  as  an  hereditary  imper- 
fection, but  is  scarcely  ever  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  be  incurable,  if  discovered  and  treated  properly 
soon  after  birth.  Hence,  except  when  an  organic 
malformation  exists,  it  follows  that  a  systematic 
anil  judicious  training  of  the  senses,  from  the 
earliest   infancy,  may  remedy  most,  if  not  all, 

is  of  such  defects  as  colorblindness,  weakness 
of  sight  and  hearing,  etc.  .Such  indeed  is  the 
conclusion  derived  from  the  experience  gained 
in  infant  asylums,  kindergartens,  and  intelligent 
families.  This  is  an  important  fact,  since  it 
serves  to  correct  the  notion,  so  generally  enter- 
tained, that  good  speakers  and  singers  must  be 
born  .such,  and  that  there  are  but  few  persons 
thus  naturally  endowed.  There  is,  without  doubt, 
considerable  diversity  in  the  sensuous  endow- 
ments of  different  individuals  ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  it  is.  impossible  to  fix  a  limit  to  the  im- 
provement of  which  every  organ  of  sense  is  sus- 
ceptible by  continuous  and  proper  education,  and 
particularly  by  a  cultivation  carried  on  through 

eral  successive  generations.  As  regards  the 
ear.  this  may  be  considered  as  historically  es- 
tablished ;  since,  but  three  centuries  ago,  there 
were  but  an  exceptional  few  persons  who  showed 
an  ability  to  appreciate,  and  a  still  smaller  num- 
ber who  were  able  to  reproduce,  musical  melody 
ami  harmony.  Of  all  the  ancient  nations,  the 
I  ■neks  alone  seem  to  have  been  able  to  enjoy  the 
diatonic  scale  (but  not  the  chromatic),  and  to 
give  it  expression  in  their  music,  other  nations 
never  having  any  other  than  the  scale  of  five 
notes  (barbaric  scale).  The  progress  of  musical 
art  among  modern  civilized  nations  and  partic- ' 
ularly  the  diffusion  of  musical  taste  among  the  ' 
people  are  striking  illustrations  of  ear  culture,; 
since  this  progress  could  not  be  effected  without 
an  organic  as  well  as  an  esthetic  improvement. 

The  sense  of  hearing  is  the  earliest  to  be  devel- 
oped in  infancy,  and,  at  the  approach  of  death. 
seems  to  be  the  last  to  be  extinguished  ;  it  is  also 
the  last  to  be  overcome  by  sleep,  and  the  first  to  : 
be  aroused  on  awakening.  In  reaching  objects 
at  a  distance,  its  power  is  next  to  that  of  sight. 
In  the  earliest  stages  of  intellectual  development, 
the  sense  of  hearing  performs  a  most  important 
16 


office,  since  language,  the  most  efficient  means  of 
all  education,  depends  upon  its  exercise.     Moral 
education,  no  doubt,  also  begins  with  the  genial 
accents  of  the  maternal  voice,  both  in  speech  and 
song,  as  heard  by  the  infant ;  so  that  even  the 
lullabies  which  soothe  it  to  slumber  constitute 
an  agency  in  its  development.     While,  therefore, 
loud  and  explosive  noises  may  injure  the  physical 
organization  of  the  ear  of  the  child,  harsh  and  . 
angry  tones   may  affect    injuriously  the  develop- 
ment of  its  affect  ions  and  sentiments.  All  disagree- 
able sensuous  impressions  are  deeper  and  more 
durable  than  those  of  an  opposite  character;  and, 
hence,  when  often  repeated,  they  tend  to  destroy 
the  capacity  of  the  ear  for  the  appreciation  of 
beautiful  sounds.     Otherwise,  variety  of  sound 
is  not  detrimental  to  the  infant's  ear,  but  on  the 
contrary,  beneficial,  especially  when  the  source  of 
each  sound  is,  at  the  same  time,  presented  to  the 
sight,  or  touch,  or  both  these  senses.     From  the 
time  the  infant  begins  to  understand  simple  lan- 
guage,— usually  after  the  fourth   month,  espe- 
cially if  the  words  are  accompanied  with  mimicry 
or  gesticulation,  care  should  be  taken  to  articulate 
distinctly.     In  families  in  which  there  is  a  negli- 
gence in  tins  respect,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
children  either  never,  or  with  very  great  difficul- 
ty, acquire  a  distinct  articulation.     It  is  a  great 
error,  quite  common  in  some  families  and  com- 
munities, to  repress  the  natural  vociferations  of 
children,  and  to  insist  on  the  constant  use  of  low 
tones  in  speech.     Nature  dictates  a  great  deal  of 
crying,  shouting,  etc.,  in  order  that  the  lungs 
and  vocal  organs  may  be  fully  developed ;  but, 
of  course,  all  excess  should  be  restrained,  since 
the  habit  of  yelling  and  shouting  in  the  open  air 
will  not  only  injure  the  delicate  organs  of  the 
voice,  but  will  have  a  bad  effect  upon  the  moral 
development  of  the  child,  besides  incapacitating 
him  for  the  perception  and  appreciation  of  those 
delicate  distinctions  of  sound  upon  which  musical 
harmony  and  melody  depend.     To  what  an  ex- 
tent this  nice  perception  and  discrimination  of 
sound  may  be  cultivated,  appears  from  the  fact 
that,  in  good  kindergartens,  a  child  will  learn  to 
distinguish  blindfolded  the  voice  of  any  one  of  a 
hundred  comrades,  to  tell  by  what  means  any 
one  of  a  hundred  different  noises  is  produced, 
and  to  estimate  with  tolerable  accuracy  the  dis- 
tance of   the  source  of  any  well-known   sound. 
Very  young  children  may  also,  by  suitable  exer- 
cises, readily  acquire  the  ability  to  distinguish 
the  intervals  of  musical  notes,  and  their  position  . 
in  the  scale.     By  similar  kindergarten  exercises, 
even  cases  of  constitutional  difficulty  in  hearing 
may  be  considerably  alleviated.      Thus  such  a 
child  may  be  shown  how,  by  closing  the  mouth 
and   nostrils,  the  air  may  be  forced   into  the 
Eustachian  tubes,  until  the  well-known  explosive 
sound  of  each  tympanum  follows.     After  every 
such  exertion,  the  hearing  will  be  found  to  be- 
come somewhat  better,  until,  by  frequent  repeti- 


242 


EARLHAM  COLLEGE 


ECUADOR 


tion,  its  improvement  will  be  quite  decided  ;  be- 
cause the  fine  blood-vessels  of  the  organ,  in  which 
the  circulation  had  become  stagnant,  are  ren- 
dered active  ;  provided,  of  course,  there  is  no  mal- 
formation or  incurable  physical  defect  in  the 
organ  itself.   (See  Senses,  Education  of.) 

EARLHAM  COLLEGE,  at  Richmond, 
bad.,  is  controlled  by  aboard  of  managers  ap- 
pointed by  the  Indiana  Yearly  Meeting  of  Friends 
(orthodox).  It  was  chartered  in  1857  ;  but  a 
hoarding-school  for  instruction  in  the  higher 
branches  had  been  in  operation  in  the  same 
building  for  several  years  previous.  The  college 
is  supported  by  t  he  income  from  an  endowment 
of  $55,000,  by  tuition,  and  by  the  proceeds  of  a 
farm.  There  is  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course, 
each  of  four  years.  The  preparatory  school  lias  a 
course  of  two  years.  Students  may  pursue  selected 
Studies  at  the  discretion  of  the  faculty,  but  no 
degree  is  given  except  on  the  completion  of  one 
or  the  other  of  the  regular  courses.  The  degrees 
are.  A.  I!,  for  the  classical  and  B.  S.  for  the 
scientific  course.  Graduates  may  receive  the 
second  degree  A.  M.  or  M.  S.  according  to  the 
previous  course)  either  on  continuing  one  year 
at  the  college  in  the  satisfactory  prosecution  of 
post-graduate  studies,  or,  in  regular  course,  at 
the  cud  of  three  years  on  passing  a  successful 
examination  in  some  selected  studies,  or  on  the 
presentation  of  a  satisfactory  thesis.  The  college 
has  libraries  containing  over  4,000  volumes  ;  an 
observatory  supplied  with  an  equatorial  telescope. 
a  transit  instrument, and  an  astronomical  clock  ; 
and  a  museum  of  zoology,  a  aparative  anatomy, 
geology,  archaeology,  etc.  There  are  from  ten  to 
twelve  instructors,  including  six  professors  and  a 
principal  of  the  preparatory  department.  The 
number  of  students  at  present  (1876)  ranges  from 
220  to  230  per  year,  about  one-third  of  whom  are 
college  students.  The  number  of  graduates,  in 
1^75,  was  "'.».  The  first  president,  Prof.  Barnabas 
C.  Hobbes,  was  appointed  in  L865;  he  held  the 
office  two  years  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Joseph  Moore,  A.  M. 

EAST  TENNESSEE  UNIVERSITY 
and  State  Industrial  College,  at  Knoxyille. 
Tenn.,  non-sectarian,  was  chartered  in  L807.  It 
received  a  granl  of  land  from  the  United  States 

through  the  State  legislature,  from  which  about 
•SI'*, 1)011  was  derived;  and  a  Further  endowment 
was  obtained  from  the  property  of  P.lount  Col- 
lege, which  was  merged  in  it  on  condition  of  its 

iblishmenl  a1  Cnoxville.  It  was  .suspended 
during  the  civil  war.  and  the  college  property 
was  occupied  by  the  United  States  army,  and 

itly  damaged.  Exercises  were  resumed,  in 
1866,  in  the  Asylum  for  the  I  leaf  and  Dumb  in 
l~  19,  the  institution  received  the  Congressional 
land  granl  to  the  state  for  the  establishment  of 
an  agricultural  and  mechanical  college,  and  the 
State  Industrial  College  was  organized.  New 
college  buildings  have  been  erected,  which  stand 
on  an  eminence  near  the  city.  The  college  farm 
of  260  acres  is  about  a  mile  from  the  buildings. 
The  libraries  contain  about  1,000  volumes.  The 
cabinets  of  geology,  mineralogy,  and  zoSlogy  have 


been  recently  commenced,  and  are  constantly 
receiving  accessions.  A  chemical  laboratory  has 
been  established.  The  value  of  the  grounds,  build- 
ings, and  apparatus  is  8150,000;  the  amount 
of  productive  funds,  $396,000.  It  has  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  department.  The  col- 
legiate studies  extend  over  a  period  of  four  aca- 
demic years,  of  ten  months  each,  and  comprise 
three  distinct  courses,  as  follows:  (1)  The  agri- 
cultural course,  in  which  prominence  is  given  to 
the  sciences  pertaining  to  agriculture;  (2)  The 
mechanical  course,  in  which  the  principal  stud- 
ies are  those  which  relate  to  the  mechanic  arts  ; 
(3)  The  classical  course,  in  which  the  Latin  and 
<  deck  languages  are  taught.  Students  completing, 
with  credit,  the  classical  course,  receive  the  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of  Arts:  those  completing  the 
agricultural  or  mechanical  course,  that  of  Bach- 
elor of  Science  The  students  are  organized  into 
a  battalion  ;  and  military  drill  and  inspections, 
under  the  direction  of  the  professor  of  military 
tactics,  take  place  daily.  The  whole  college  is 
under  military  discipline.  All  able-bodied  stu- 
dents must  perform  a  small  amount  of  labor; 
but  this  is  principally  required  of  the  freshman 
and  sophomore  classes.  Those  who  wish  addi- 
tional labor, are,  to  a  limited  extent,  furnished 
with  work,  for  which  they  are  remunerated. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  S.'iC  a  year  in  the  college, 
and  $30  in  the  preparatory  department.     Free 

tuition  is  given  to  students  nominated  by  mem- 
bers of  the  state  legislature,  each  senator  haying 
the  right  to  nominate  two,  and  each  represen- 
tative three.  Free  tuition  is  also  given  to  young 
men  who  intend  to  prepare  for  the  ministry, 
and  who  bring  a  certificate  to  that  effect  from 
some  church  organization.  In  1874 — 5,  there 
18  instructors,  and  L01  collegiate  and  214 
preparatory  students.  The  Rev.  Thomas  William 
flumes,  S.T.  D.,is  I L876)  the  president. 

EAST  TENNESSEE  WESLEYAN 
UNIVERSITY,  at  Athens.  Tenn..  under  the 
control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
was  chartered,  in  the  winter  of  1866 — 7,  as  the 
East  Tennessee  Wesleyan  College.  The  name 
was  changed  at  the  next  session  of  the  legisla- 
ture. It  was  opened  in  September,  1867.  The 
main  college  budding  is  a  substantial  brick  struc- 
ture. 70  by  50  feet,  and  three  stories  high.  The 
libraries  contain  about  1,500  volumes.  There 
is  an  academic,  a  preparatory,  and  a  collegiate 

department,  the  las!  ha\  ing  a  classical  and  a  scien- 
tific course.  There  are  two  terms  iii  the  year,  and 
the  cost  of  tuition  varies  from  S<i  to  822  per  term, 

according  to  the  department.  Deductions 
made  in  favor  of  ministers  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  In  1874  5,  there  were  7  in- 
structors, L6  collegiate  students,  35  preparatory, 
.'{0  academic  and  12  music  scholars,  making  a 
total,  deducting  repetitions,  of  86;  the  numbef 
of  alumni,  up  to  that  time,  was  27.  The  Rev* 
John  F.  Spence,  A.  M..  is  i  L876)  the  president. 

ECONOMY,  School.   See  School  Economy. 

ECUADOR,  a  republic  of  Smith  America, 
having  an  area  of  248,400  sq.  m.,  and  a  popula- 
tion estimated,  in  L875,at  1,850,000.     Of  thi 


ECUADOR 


EDUCATION 


243 


55  per  cent  were  whites  ;  42  per  cent  Indians  ;  the 
remainder,  negroes  and  half-breeds.  The  inhabit- 
ants sp.-ak  the  Spanish  language  and  belong  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  form  of  worship 

of  which  is  the  only  one  tolerated  in  public. 
After  the  conquest  of  the  empire  of  the  Incas,  the 
kingdom  of  Quito  wasmade  a  presidency  of  the 
viceroyalty  of  Peru.  It  remained  under  Spanish 
rule  up  to  L822,  when  it  became  a  part  of  the  re- 
public of  Colombia;  and.  in  L831,  became  an  in- 
dependent republic  under  the  name  of  Ecuador. 
Since  then,  it  has  been  the  scene  of  numerous 
revolutions  and  wars  with  the  neighboring  re- 
publics. 'I'hc  schools  of  all  grades  have  been  and 
still  are  under  the  control  of  the  church,  which,  in 
this  republic,  has   generally  wielded    a  greater 

1  lower  than  in  any  other  part  of  South  America. 
t  was  especially  the  aim  of  the  conservative  pies 
ident  Moreno  (died  L875)  tb  place  the  entire  de- 
partment of  instruction  under  the  immediate  di- 
rection of  the  church.  In  1  86  I.  it  was  resolved  to 
erect  a  number  of  new  schi  m  >1s,  1  o  be  conducted  1  >y 
the  Brothers  of  Christian  Doctrine.  The  district 
councilors  were  empowered  to  raise  in  advance 
a  part  of  the  taxes  for  the  support  of  these 
schools.  At  the  .same  time,  an  agreement  was 
entered  into  between  the  government  and  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  according  to  which  the  latter 
assumed  the  direction  of  a  number  of  colegios. 
J  low  little  education  is  valued,  may  be  seen 
from  the  fact  that  the  expenditure  for  public  edu- 
cation, according  to  the  annual  budget,  amounts 
to  only  about  20,000  pesos  (1  peso=$0.96.5). 

Primary  Instruction. —  The  schools  are  at- 
tended  almost  exclusively  by  the  whites,  the  half- 
breeds,  and  the  mulattoes;  while  the  Indians,  who 
compose  the  laboring  classes  in  the  cities,  do  not 
enjoy  the  advantage  of  any  education  at  all.  The 
number  of  public  schools,  in  1873,  was  244,  of 
private  schools,  176;  and  the  number  of  schools 
supported  by  corporations  was  11,  making  the 
total  number  of  primary  schools  431.  The  num- 
ber of  pupils  in  the  public  schools  was  17,661,  the 
number  in  private  schools  3,966,  and  in  schools 
supported  by  corporations  887,  making  the  total 
number  of  pupils  22.464.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  public  schools  comprises  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  religion. 

Secondary,  Superior,  and  Special  Instruction. 
— There  were,  in  1873,  six  colleges  (colegios  na- 
cionales)  with  59  professors  and  757  students, 
and  one  female  college  with  4  professors  and  1  53 
students.  The  University  of  Quito  comprises 
four  colegios,  the  Colegio  de  San  Gregorio, 
founded  in  1586  by  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and 
invested  with  the  privileges  of  Salamanca  in 
1621 ;  the  Colegio  de  Santo  Tomas  de  Aquino, 
belonging  to  the  Dominicans;  the  Colegio  Mayor 
with  which  a  seminary  is  connected, and  the  Co- 
legio de  San  /•'  run  ml.,.  The  revenue  of  the  uni- 
versity amounts  to  from  4,000  to5,000  pesos, and 
tli''  salaries  of  the  professors  to  3,950  pesos.  In 
the  colegios,  the  course  of  study  embraces  Latin, 
and  sometimes  <  Ireek,  in  addition  to  the  branches 
taught  in  the  primary  schools.  The  university 
course  comprises  the  Spanish  language  and  liter- 


ature. T*atin,  Creek,  law.  medicine,  etc.  Special 
Instruction  is  imparted  in  the  following  schools  : 
schools  of  art  and  industry  with  22  ] >r< lessors  ;  a 
polytechnic  school,  with  L3  professors  and  59 
students;  a  military  academy,  with  5  professors 
and  2,'{  cadets;  seven  seminaries  supported  by 
the  clergy,  with  17  professors  und  227  students; 
an  academy  of  tine  arts,  with  2  professors  and  22 
students,  and  a  conservatory  of  music,  with  8 
professors  and  39  students.  In  1872.  a  pro- 
spectus was  issued  ior  a  school  of  obstetrics,  and 
also  for  one  of  sculpture,  to  be  opened  in  Quito, 
under  the  direction  of  European  professors.  An 
academy  of  arts  and  sciences  was  also  to  be 
opened  in  Quito,  and  the  advantages  of  the 
Guayaquil  Normal  School  were  to  be  extended 
to  Indian  children. — See  Schmid,  Encyclqpadie, 
vol.  ix.,  art,  Sudamerika;  Wapp^us,  Handbuch 
der  Geographie  mnl  Statistik,  vol.  i;  Report  of 
U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  tor  L873. 

EDGEWOETH,  *  Maria,  a  gifted  English 
authoress,  noted  for  her  educational  writings,  was 
born  at  Hare  Hatch,  near  Reading.  England,  in 
ITiiT.  ami  died  at  Edgeworthstown,  Ireland,  in 
1849.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Richard  Lovell 
Edgeworth,  who  was  quite  celebrated  both  as  an 
inventor  and  an  author,  and,  to  some  extent, 
also  as  an  educationist.  He  was  the  author, 
jointly  with  his  daughter,  of  Practical  Educa- 
tion (1798),  and  published  Essays  on  Profes- 
sional Education  (1809),  and  a  continuation  of 
Early  Lessons  (1815),  published  originally  by 
his  daughter  in  1810.  In  1822,  Maria  Edgeworth 
published  Rosamond,  a  sequel  to  Early  Lessons, 
which  was  followed  by  Harry  and  Lucy,  the 
Parents'  Assistant  (a  series  of  juvenile  tales), 
and  Frank  ;  subsequently  also  Orlandino,  which 
appeared  in  Chambers's  Library  for  Young 
People.  It  was,  however,  as  a  writer  of  fiction 
that  .Miss  Edgeworth  gained  her  greatest  fame. 
Her  novels  acquired  a  high  degree  of  popularity, 
which,  to  a  considerable  extent,  they  still  retain  ; 
and  they  were  widely  circulated  both  in  England 
and  in  the  United  States.  They  were  greatly 
admired  by  her  illustrious  contemporaries  Scott, 
Macaulay,  and  Jeffrey.  The  latter  said.  "  It  is 
impossible  to  read  ten  pages  in  any  of  her  writ- 
ings, without  feeling,  that  not  only  as  a  whole, 
but  that,  in  every  part,  they  were  intended  to  do 
good."'  "  She  is  the  author,"  said  Edward  Everett, 
"  of  works  never  to  be  forgotten  ;  of  works  which 
can  never  lose  their  standard  value  as  English 
Classics."  In  1820,  she  completed  a  Memoir  of 
her  father  (commenced  by  him),  who  died  in 
L817.  There  are  several  editions  of  her  works, 
which  still  continue  to  be  reprinted. 

EDINBURGH,  University  of.  See  Scot- 
land. 

EDUCATION  (Lat.  educatio),  a  general  and 
comprehensive  term,  including  in  its  signification 
every  thing  that  pertains  to  the  bringing  up  of 
children,  and  the  operation  of  influences  and 
agencies  designed  to  stimulate  and  direct  the  de- 
velopment of  the  faculties  of  youth  by  training 
and  instruction,  and  thus  to  control  the  forma- 
tion of  their  character.     Hence,  education  has 


244 


EDUCATION 


been  divided  into  several  departments,  according 
to  the  class  of  faculties  to  the  development  and 
improvement  of  which  it  is  directed,  including 
(1)  Physical  Education  (q.  v.).  or  the  education 
of  the  bodily  powers;  (2)  Intellectual  Education 
(q.  v.),  that  of  the  mind  or  intellect ;  (3)  Moral 
Education  (q.  v.), — of  the  propensities,  senti- 
ments, will,  and  conscience;  (4)  Esthetic  Educa- 
tion,— of  the  taste,  musical,  artistic,  or  literary, 
that  is,  comprehending  the  sphere  of  the  imagi- 
nation (see  Esthetic  <  /Ulture);  and  (5)  Religious 
or  Spiritual  Education,  —  of  the  religious 
sentiments,  the  spiritual  instincts;  that  is,  those 
which  concern  only  the  soul  as  a  spiritual  and 
immortal  essence,  and  its  relations  to  the  Creator, 
the  Infinite  Spirit.  (See  Religious  Education.) 
Education  is  also  distinguished  into  home  or 
domestic  r<ln<-,iti<>n  (q.  v.),  and  public  or  commonr 

School  education    (see    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS),  OT,  COn- 

sidere  1  as  a  means  for  the  general  enlightenment 
of  the  people,  popular  education;  also  into  pri- 
vate education,  that  is,  supported  by  private 
funds,  and  national  education, — provided  for  by 
t lie  state.    (See  National  Education.) 

School  education,  generally  called  instruction, 
on  account  of  the  more  limited  character  of  its 
scope  and  the  sphere  of  its  operations,  is  distin- 
guished, according  to  its  grade,  into  (1)  primary 
instruction,  that  is.  the  instruction  given  in  ele- 
mentary schools  (such  as  the  common  schools, — 
the  primary  schools  of  cities  representing  only  a 
lower  subdivision  of  primary  instruction);  (2)  sec- 
ondary instruction,  —  as  given  in  academics. 
high  schools  (middle  schools]  ;  (3)  superior  in- 
struction,— as  given  in  colleges  and  universities  ; 
,  I)  special  instruction, — as  of  the  blind, the  deaf 
and  dumb,  and  the  imbecile;  (5)  'professional 
a//'/  technical  instruction,— -as  in  art  schools,  law 
schools,  medical  schools,  military,  naval  or  nau- 
fcical  schools,  theological  seminaries,  schools  of 
architecture,  etc.,  for  information  in  regard  to 
which  see  the  respective  titles. 

Education  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
instruction,  the  latter  being  only  a  subordinate 
part  of  the  great  scheme  of  controlling  and 
guiding  the  development  of  a  human  being.   To 

this  department  of  education  the  term  didactics 
(from  the*  iivek  word  SiS&aKStv,  to  teach)  is  often 
applied.  (Sec  Didactics  and  Instruction.)  In- 
struction is  addressed  to  the  intellect  or  under- 
standing: while  education  comprehends  the  whole 
nature  of  man  and  the  various  agencies  by  means 

of  which,  in  its  formative  state,  i1  may  be  affected, 
[ts  primary  object  is  to  form  the  character  either 
bj  stimulating  its  development   in  the  normal 

direction,    or    correcting    tendencies    to    m  n-bid 

growth.  In  respect  to  the  scientific  principle,  by 
which  its  practical  operations  should  be  guided, 
education  is  a  science ;  in  relation  to  fch<  proper 
mode  of  performing  those  operations  so  as  to  ren- 
der them  as  eff  sctive  as  possible,  it  is  an  art.  The 
science  of  education  is  a  very  complex  one.  inas- 
much a  i  its  principles  must  be  drawn  from  many 
different  departments  of  Bcience;  superadded  to 
m  hich,as  its  own  peculiar  spin  re  of  mvestigat 
there  is  the  great  body  of  truths  which  concern 


the  growth  and  development  of  mind  and  body, 
and  which  especially  constitute  the  theory  of 
education,  or  pedagogics,  as  sometimes  called. 
This  article  will  embrace  oidy  the  general  con- 
sideration of  (I)  the  history  of  education,  and 
(II)  the  theory  of  education,  with  a  reference  to 
sub-titles  for  fuller  information  in  regard  to  sub- 
ordinate topics. 

I.  History  of  Education. — The  history  of  edu- 
cation is  the  history  of  the  institutions,  prin- 
ciples, and  methods  by  means  of  which  children 
and  youth  of  both  sexes  have  been  educated, 
from  the  earliest  period  of  historic  times  to  the 
present  day.  It  embraces  within  its  scope  an 
account  of  the  peculiar  character  which  edu- 
cation has  assumed  among  the  several  nations  of 
the  globe,  of  the  rise  and  development  of  the 
different  methods  of  instruction,  of  the  systems 
and  labors  of  prominent  educators,  of  the  divi- 
sions and  classes  of  schools,  and  of  the  rival  and 
frequently  conflicting  claims  of  the  family,  the 
church,  and  the  state  to  a  share  in  the  regulation 
of  public  instruction.  Each  of  these  subjects  is 
treated  of  in  this  work  under  special  titles; 
and  the  object  of  this  general  article  can.  there- 
fore, only  be  to  present  a  brief  general  view,  in 
outline,  of  the  subject, SO  as  to  show  more  clearly 
the  relation  of  its  several  departments  and  topics. 

The  earliest  schools  which  have  any  claim  to  a 
place  in  a  history  of  education  are  met  with  in 
!  gypt,  China,  India,  and  Persia.  In  all  these 
countries, it  was  the  aim  of  the  instructor  to  train 
the  young  so  that  they  might  become  homogeneous 
members  of  the  community  to  which  they  be- 
Longed,  the  institutions  of  whii  li  were  to  be  pre- 
served and  continued  by  them  unchanged.  The 
claims  of  individuality  were,  at  that  early  period, 
unknown:  and  the  principle  of  blind  and  slavish 
submission  to  the  constituted  authorities  was  the 
basis  of  all  education.  There  are.  however,  some 
marked  points  of  difference.  In  China,  the  dis- 
tinctive features  of  education  characterize  it  as 
family  education,  in  India  as  caste  education,  in 
Persia  as  state  education,  and  in  Egypt  as  priest- 
ly education.  In  China,  every  child  is  reared  in 
absolute  obedience  to  the  head  of  the  family, 
and  every  family  submits  as  a  child  to  the  com- 
mon father  of  all.  the  Emperor.  The  excessive 
veneration  of  ancestry  makes  the  character  of 
the  people  essentially  stationary,  and  education 
assumes  pre-eminently  the  character  of  mechanical 
training.  In  India,  every  child  belongs  by  his 
birth  to  one  particular  caste:  and  the  foremost 
aim  of  the  instruction  given  is  to  teach  him  the 
rights  and  duties  of  the  caste.  The  leading  prin- 
ciple of  Indian  education  is  habit.  In  Persia, 
every  kind  of  power  and  authority  centers  in 
king  :  the  children  belong  more  to  the  state  than 
to  their  parent8,  and  the  germs  of  a  strictly  na- 
tional education  may.  therefore,  be  found  in  the 
institutions  of  that  country.  In  Egypt,  the 
priest   is  the  chief  represent  tive  of  education 

and  the  only  teacher.    (See  ClUl  l,  1  '.<  YVT,  INDIA, 
and   PeRSI  \.) 

The    classic    nations  of    the  ancient    world, 
Greece  and  Rome,  began  a  new  period  in  the 


F.nnwTiox 


245 


history  of  education.  While  the  oriental  child 
was  taught  to  become  a  docile  member  of  the 
family,  the  caste,  the  state,  or  the  religion,  Greece 
ami  Rome  conceived  the  ideaof  individual  educa- 
tion :  man  was  n<>t  merely  expected  to  fi<  himself 
for  the  place  which  the  family,  the  caste,  the  state, 
or  religion  assigned  to  liiin.  but  lie  was  to  choose 
bis  own  vocation,  and  by  aspiring  to  the  highest 
place  of  honor  in  political  life,  in  art,  or  in  sci- 
ence,  to  advance  beyond  his  ancestors.  Mechan- 
ical training  failed  to  satisfy  those  who  interested 
themselves  in  the  cause  of  education  ;  the  first 
theories  of  education  were  developed,  and  the 
harmonious  development  of  the  body  and  the 
mind  was  held  up  to  the  young  as  the  worthiest 
aim  of  their  youthful  ambition.  Lycurgus  and 
.Solon  as  lawgivers,  Pythagoras  and  Socrates  as 
practical  educators,  and  Plato  and  Aristotle  as 
writers  on  education,  propounded  and  brought  in- 
to circulation  a  number  of  new  ideas,  with  which 
not  only  did  the  older  nations  of  the  ancient 
world  have  nothing  to  compare,  but  which  have 
remained  among  the  most  potent  agencies  in  the 
progressive  education  of  mankind.  A  beauti- 
ful individuality  was,  to  the  Greek,  the  aim  of 
life,  and  the  ideal  of  education  was  expressed  by 
the  word  KctXoKaya&ia,  the  beautiful  and  the 
good.  The  Spartan  system  of  education  con- 
stituted, to  a  considerable  degree,  an  exception  to 
this  general  characteristic  of  Greek  education. 
The  Romans  attention,  from  his  early  childhood, 
was  directed  to  the  affairs  of  a  commonwealth 
which  was  constantly  engaged  in  war,  and  those 
who  reared  him  naturally  designed  to  make  him 
a  practical  man.  The  development  of  a  practical 
individuality  became  the  aim  of  Roman  educa- 
tion. Less  time  was  found  for',  and  less  interest 
felt  in,  the  study  of  science  and  art ;  but  there 
was  a  notable  progress  in  the  appreciation  of 
home  education,  involving  a  higher  regard  for 
marriage  and  for  a  more  dignified  and  freer  po- 
sition of  woman  in  society.  In  every  family, 
the  mother  was  to  begin  and  the  father  to  con- 
tinue the  work  of  education,  which  came  to  be 
looked  upon  as  a  part  of  parental  duty.  Both 
parents  co-operated  in  nursing,  in  the  minds  of 
their  children,  the  feeling  of  patriotism;  and  a 
part  of  the  education  which  the  young  Roman 
received  under  the  parental  roof  was  the  desire 
to  Income  a  useful,  honest,  and  illustrious  citizen 
of  the  commonwealth.  Qnder  these  influences, 
the  will  was  more  developed  than  either  the 
emotional  nature  or  the  intellect.  The  only  sci- 
ences which  interested  the  Roj nans  were  almost 
exclusively  those  of  a  strongly  utilitarian  charac- 
ter,— rhetoric,  Roman  history,  and  military  sci- 
ence; since  every  noble  and  talented  youth 
aspired  to  become  a  leading  politician  or  a  great 
general.  The  characteristic  virtue  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  before  the  decline  of  the  Republic,  was 
stern  and  inflexible  integrity  in  political  life  ; 
but  all  their  intellectual  and  moral  aspirations 
were  circumscribed  by  the  narrow  horizon  of 
their  own  nationality,  and  a  due  regard  for  those 
outside  of  it  appears  to  have  been  unknown  to 
them.     When  an  acquaintance  with  the  institu- 


tions of  conquered  Greece  revealed  to  the  Ro- 
mans a  progress  in  art,  science,  and  literature, 
which  they  as  yet   had  not  even  conceived,  and 

thus  awakened  a  thirst  for  higher  literary  culture, 
the  political  and  social  system  of  the  republic 
had  already  entered  upon  the  period  of  its  de- 
cline. Higher  instruction,  often  imparted  by 
despised  slaves,  was  an  inadequate  compensation 
for  the  decline  of  home  education  :  and  scientific 
and  literary  culture  proved  utterly  unable  to  ar- 
rest the  flood  of  corruption  which  finally  over- 
whelmed the  free  institutions  of  Rome.  The 
lines  of  Horace,  so  often  quoted,  have  thus  an 
impressive  significance  : 

Graecia  capta  ferum  victorem  cepit,  et  artes 
Intnlit  agresti  I.atio. 

Under  the  empire,  the  old  landmarks  of  na- 
tional education  were  entirely  swept  away. 
( J  reek  tutors,  and  Greek  high  schools,  at  Athens 
and  Constantinople,  were  expected  to  supply  the 
highest  instruction ;  but  the  enervated  Roman 
was  no  longer  able  to  grasp  the  ideal  of  a  uni- 
versal higher  education,  and  the  Roman  Empire 
of  the  West  was  destroyed  by  the  barbarians 
without  having  developed  any  systems  or  forms 
of  education.  As  Roman  education,  from  the 
foundation  of  the  city  to  the  downfall  of  the 
empire,  was  of  a  predominantly  utilitarian  char- 
acter, Rome  never  produced  any  writers  on  edu- 
cation like  Aristotle  and  Plato;  yet  the  works 
of  Cicero,  and  especially  of  Seneca  and  Quin- 
tilian,  contain  many  suggestions  of  great  prac- 
tical value. 

A  peculiar  position  is  occupied  by  the 
Hebrews,  the  only  theocratic  people  of  antiquity. 
Their  children  were  to  be  educated,  not  for  the 
family  or  caste,  not  for  the  state  or  for  personal 
distinction  in  art  and  literature,  but  to  be  the 
obedient  servants  of  the  God  of  Israel.  As  Je- 
hovah was  represented  to  the  people  as  their 
sovereign,  so  he  was  their  only  teacher.  Educa- 
tion was  a  corollary  of  religion.  The  head  of  a 
family  was  both  its  teacher  and  priest,  and  gave 
to  the  children  a  religious  instruction  ;  reading 
and  writing  were  learned  only  by  the  children  of 
the  wealthy.  The  first  organized  schools  were 
the  schools  of  the  prophets  for  training  expound- 
ers of  the  law  of  Jehovah  ;  after  the  exile,  the 
rabbis  organized  a  number  of  schools,  to  which 
children  from  their  5th  year  could  be  sent.  The 
instruction  was  for  a  long  time  entirely  oral, 
and  at  first  also  limited  to  the  tenets  of  the  Jew- 
ish religion  ;  but  gradually  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion was  enlarged,  and.  during  the  middle  ages, 
many  Jewish  schools  obtained  a  high  reputation 
for  the  number  of  scholars  whom  they  educated. 

The  advent  of  Christianity  was  a  great  turn- 
ing-point in  the  history  of  education,  no  less 
than  in  the  general  history  of  mankind.  For  a 
considerable  length  of  time  this  was  far  from 
being  recognized.  To  the  educated  and  wealthy 
Romans,  especially  to  those  holding  a  high  rank 
in  scholarship  and  literature,  the  ( 'hristians  ap- 
peared as  a  humble,  insignificant,  and  despised 
sect.  The  energies  of  the  Christians  themselves 
were  so  greatly  absorbed  in  the  effort  to  live  up 


246 


EDUCATION" 


to  the  requirements  of  their  religion,  anrl  to 
develop  the  constitution  of  their  church,  that 
but  little  attention  seems  to  have  been  devoted 
to  the  cause  of  education.  They  had  no  literary 
institutions  of  their  own,  and,  consequently,  their 
children  were  often  sent  to  pagan  schools  for  sec- 
ular instruction.  The  tirst  Christian  schools 
were  founded  to  instruct  the  catechumens  in  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  to  enable  them  to 
vindicate  their  religion  from  the  attacks  of 
pagan  philosophers.  The  most  famous  of  these 
schools,  thai  of  Alexandria  (see  Alexandrian 
School),  gradually  developed  into  the  first  school 
of  Christian  theology.  Its  great  teachers,  espe- 
cially ( 'lenient  and  Origcn.  not  only  freed  Chris- 
tianity from  the  charge,  until  then  very  common, 
of  being  the  faith  of  the    ignorant  and  illiterate. 

but,  by  conceiving  the  idea  of  demonstrating  the 
agreement  of  Christian  doctrines  with  Platonic 
philosophy,  attempted  to  revive  the  educational 
ideas  of  the  Greeks,  the  mosl  advanced  in  ante- 

<  Ihristian  times,  and  to  resume  the  work  of  e  lu- 

cational  development  where  the  great  masters  of 
aneient  Greece  ha  I  left  off.  This  attempt,  how- 
ever, failed  in  consequence  of  the  passionate  op- 
position made  to  it  by  another  school  of  Chris- 
tian theologians,  who  saw  in  the  world  outside  of 
the  Christian  revelation  nothing  but  darkness 
and  sin,  and  did  not  believe  that  any  good  could 
be  derived  from  the  study  of  pagan  literature. 
Tertullian  rejected  any  connection  between 
Christianity  and  philosophy  with  the  harsh  re- 
mark, "What  have  Athens  and  Jerusalem,  the 
Academy  ami  the  Church,  in  common  ?"  Sim- 
ilar  views  were  expressed   by  Ireiueits,  ( 'yprian, 

and  Arnobius,  while  other  writers,  especially  at 
Rome,  endeavored  to  compromise  between  the 
Alexandrians  and  their  opponents.  When,  three 

hundred  years  after  its  rise,  Christianity  sup- 
planted paganism  as  the  official  religion  of  Rome, 
the  detestation  of  pagan  learning  was  sufficiently 
predominant  in  the  <  Jhristian  ( !hurch  to  cause  the 
decline,  and,  subsequently,  in  the  fifth  century,  the 
extinction,  of  the  Alexandrian  school.  With  it 
the  study  of  the  literature  of  ancient  Creece 
ceased,  and  the  treasures  which  are  contained  in 
the  educational  works  of  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
were  for  a  long  time  hidden.  The  only  schools 
to  be  met  with  at  that  time  in  the  Christian 
world,  were  several  schools  of  theology,  like  th  ee 
of  Antioch,  Edessa,  and  Nisibis;  and  even  these 

declined.  . simultaneously  with  or  soon  after  tin1 
closing  of   the  school   01    Alexandria.      The  mass 

of  the  Christian  people  derived  its  entire  edu- 
cation from  the  family  and  the  church.  I'pon 
this   field,   however.    Christianity   had    produced 

wonderful  results  of  regeneration.    While  pagan 

society  was  irresistibly  collapsing,  from  vice  and 

corruption,  the  Christian  congregations  excited 
the  admiration  of  the  world  by  the  strength  of 
their  faith  and  the  depth  of  their  religious  feel- 
ing.     The  organization    of    Christian    schools 

Other  than  those  of  a  theological  character  is 
chiefly  due  to  the  monastic  orders.  Both  in  the 
east    and    in    the    we-l    provision    was   made   for 

instructing  doI  only  the  candidates  for  monastic 


life,  but  also  children  who  were  sent  there  by 
their  parents.  In  the  East,  the  attention  of  the 
monks  was,  however,  so  completely  absorbed 
in  subtle  metaphysical  questions  and  controver- 
sies, that  little  was  accomplished  deserving  a 
mention  in  the  history  of  education.  In  the 
west,  Benedict  and  his  followers  gave  to  monas- 
tic education  a  more  practical  basis,  and  com- 
bined agricultural  and  mechanical  occupations 
with  the  study  of  theology.  The  importance  of 
these  convent  schools  (<pv.  greatly  increased  when 
the  barbaric  tribes  overpowered  western  Europe, 
and  rudely  destroyed  the  last  remnants  of  Ro- 
man civilization.  The  convents  then  became  al- 
most the  only  refuge   of  learning,  and  were  thus 

enabled  to  extend  their  educational  labors.  Their 
success  and  the  growing  demand  for  instruction 
called    into    life    the     cathedral     and    collegiate 
schools  (q.  v.),  which,  in    the    main,  pursued  the 
same  course  of  instruction.      By  far  the  most 
celebrated  among  all   the    convents   of    Europe 
were  those  of   Ireland  and  England,  which  not 
only  sent   the   greatest   number  of    missionaries 
for  the   conversion   of   the   pagan   portions  of 
Europe,  but  also  educated  the  best  leachers.  The 
most  vigorous  impulses  given  to  the  progress  of 
education   in  that   period  did   not.  however,  pro- 
ceed  from  any  monk   or  convent,  but  from  the 
great   monarch*  in   the  ninth    century.    Charle- 
magne   d|.  V.)   and    Alfred   (ij.  v.).  who   by  wise 
laws,  greatly  increased  the  number  of  schools 
and  improved  the   course  of  studies,  which  were 
divided    into    the    trivium    and    quadrivium. 
Charlemagne  was  the  first  who  conceived    the 
idea   of    organizing  instruction   for  the   whole 
people  :  but  his  efforts  in  this  direction  were  not 
successful,  as.  after  his  death,  only  few  men  could 
be  found  who   were   both  willing   and   able  to 
carry  on  the  work  of  the  great   emperor.     The 
people  of  the  towns  and  rural  districts  did  not 
appreciate  the  value  of  education,  and  a  large 
portion  of  the  clergy  looked  with  disfavor  at  the 
attempt  to  cultivate  in  schools  the  language  of 
the  people  at  the  expense   of  the  Latin,  the   uni- 
versal language  of  the  church.     Of  the  emperors 
and  kings  of  the  middle  ages,  not  one  resumed 
the   educational    ideas  of    Charlemagne;    their 
energies  being  chiefly  used,  and  to  a  large  extent 
wasted,  in   their  conflicts  with   the  church  and 
with    the  nobility.     Since   the  authority  of  the 
church  as  the  infallible  teacher  of  religious  truth 
was  recognized  in  all  Christian  countries,  it  was 
to  be  expected  that  science  and  education  would 
be,  to  a  large  extent,  influenced  and   controlled 
by  the  church.      Theology,  actuated  by  the  su- 
preme desire  to  defend  the  rule  of  the  church, 
developed  into  scholasticism  (q.  v.),  which  reached 
its  greatest   prosperity  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries.     The  methods  of   instruction 
pursued   in  the   ecclesiastical    schools    were    me- 
chanical, the  pupils  endeavoring  to  reproduce,™ 
literal    recitations,  the  explanations  and  lectures 
of  their  teachers.    School  discipline  was  not  only 

severe,  bul  often  cruel,  and  corporal  punish- 
ment was  generally  approved. and  frequently  ap- 
plied.  The  tirst  departures  from  the  educational 


EDUCATION 


24T 


methods  of  the  church  schools  are  met  with  in 
the  education  of  young  nobles,  and  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  town  schools.     In  neither  case  was 
there  any  formal  denial  of  the  authority  of  the 
church,  but  very   great   attention   was  given  to 
certain  features  01   education  which  not  only 
found  no  place  in  the  church  schools,  but  were 
frequently  censured    by   the    representatives    of 
those  schools  as  dangerous  innovations.     Thus, 
the  attention  given  to  gymnastic  exercises  in  (he 
education  of  young  nobles,  and  the  worshipful 
attention  shown   to  noble  women,  gave  to  the 
aristocracy  of  the  middle  ages  a  training  quite 
different    from  what   it  would  have  received  in 
the  church  schools.     The  establishment  of  town 
or  burgher  schools,  which  assumed  large  dimen- 
sions after  the  twelfth  century,  made  the  acquisi- 
tion of  such  knowledge  as  was  most  nee;  led  1  >y  the 
business  man  and  mechanic,  especially  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic,  the  leading  object  of 
instruction.  They  were  sometimes  called  writing- 
schools,  as  they  aimed  at  lifting  their  pupils  for 
writing  letters  and  business  compositions.  These 
Bchools    not    only    served    to    develop    the    idea 
of  secular  instruction    in  the   place  of   merely 
ecelesiastieal   education,  but,  when  town  mag- 
istrates were  the   patrons  of  the  schools,  led  to 
the  appointment  of  lay  tea. -hers,  and,  gradually, 
caused  teaching  to  be  regarded  as  a  special  pro- 
fession.   The   beginning  of  this  profession  was 
sufficiently  humble.      Even  at  the  close  of  the 
middle  ages,  special  school-houses  could  be  found 
in  ouly  a  few  towns.     Instruction  was  generally 
given  in  some  building  used  for  ecclesiastical  or 
municipal  purposes,  or  in  hired  rooms.     When 
magistrates  had  the  control  of  a  school,  they  en- 
gaged a  school-master,  generally  for  the  term  of 
one  year.     The  school-master  chose  his  own  as- 
sistants, and.  if  his  contract  was  not  renewed, 
master  and  assistant  traveled  from  town  to  town, 
until  they  found  a  new  engagement.   They  were 
sometimes  accompanied  by  crowds  of  boys  and 
youths  (see  Bacchants),  whose    vagrant  habits 
were,  however,  by  no  means  calculated  to  in- 
crease the  reputation  of  school  education. — The 
greatest  among  the  educational  achievements  of 
the  Christian    world,  during   the   middle   ages, 
was  the  establishment    of    the   universities,  in 
which  every  department  of   science  was  to  be 
developed  to  its  highest   perfection.     The  plan 
of  these  institutions,  which  were  to  be  the  centers 
of   the  literary  labors  of  the   entire   Christian 
world,   and    in    which,    therefore,    the    progress 
made  in  any  one  science   was  to  benefit  all,  was 
in  itself  an  immense  progress.    The  development 
of  the  universities  was  greatly  promoted  by  the 
revival  of  classical  studies  (q.  v.),  which  began 
in  Italy  in  the   1  1th  century,  and  by  the  discov- 
ery of  the  art  of  printing  in  the  15th  century, 
which  greatly  facilitated  a  general  diffusion  of 
even-  kind  of  knowledge.    The  foremost  rep- 
resentatives of  this  new  period  of    intellectual 
activity  were  Erasmus,  Reuchlin,  and  Melanch- 

thon.  A  striking  feature  in  the  educational 
history  of  Christian  Europe,  from  the  rise  of 
I  hristianity  to  the  end  of  the  middle  ages,  is  the 


controlling  influence  of  a  universal  church,  with 
one  visible  head,  the  Pope,  and  one  literary  lan- 
guage, the  Latin.  In  ancient  Egypt,  China,  India, 
Persia,  (Greece,  Rome,  and  among  the  Jews, 
the  aim  of  education  had  always  a  strictly 
national  bearing,  and  the  same  word  was  gener- 
ally used  to  denote  the  ideas  of  foreign  and 
hostile.  ( 'hristianity,  winch  became  the  religion 
of  the  Roman  state;  at  a  time  when  the  great 
empire  had  begun  to  shake  to  its  very  founda- 
tion, soon  witnessed  its  destruction  and  the  rise- 
of  a  number  of  independent  states,  and  regarded 
it  as  a  divine  mission  to  unite  these  conflicting 
nations  in  a  common  submission  to  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  one  true  religion.  Thus  not 
only  was  secular  education  made  subordinate  to 
moral  and  religious  education,  but  the  submission 
of  so  many  nations  to  one  spiritual  authority 
tended  to  develop  ideas  of  universal  rather  than 
national  education.  The  Eastern  Empire  had 
no  part  in  the  educational  progress  of  western 
Europe,  and  was  in  a  completely  petrified  and 
exhausted  condition  when  it  was  destroyed,  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  by  the  Mohammedan 
Turks.  Mohammedanism,  at  that  time,  had  been 
in  existence  for  about  800  years.  It  had  become 
the  predominant  religion  in  a  large  portion  of 
Asia  and  Africa,  and,  for  several  centuries,  had 
ruled  in  Spain.  Its  influence  upon  the  progress 
of  education,  at  one  time,  appeared  to  be  even 
more  favorable  than  that  of  Christianity ;  and 
the  Mohammedan  high  schools  of  Spain  not  only 
attracted  a  large  number  of  students  from  Chris- 
tian countries,  but  in  many  sciences,  as  mathe- 
matics, philosophy,  and  natural  history,  became 
the  teachers  of  all  Europe.  In  the  twelfth  cent- 
ury, these  schools  began  to  decline;  and,  from 
that  time  to  the  present,  education  in  the  entire 
Mohammedan  world  has  been  in  a  most  depressed 
condition. 

At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  series  of  remarkable 
events  indicated  the  entrance  of  mankind  into  a 
new  period  of  its  history.     One  of  special  im- 
portance in   regard  to  the  progress  of  education 
was  the  overthrow  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  a 
large  portion  of  Europe.     As  Luther,  Zwingli, 
<  'alvin.  and  other  leaders  of  the  religious  move- 
ment appealed  from  the  judgment  of  the  Church 
which  condemned  them,  to  the  Bible, it  was  their 
natural  desire  that  every  Christian  family  should 
he  sufficiently  instructed  to  be  able  to  read  the 
Bible.    The  governments  of  several   Protestant 
States    issued    laws   which    were  intended,  after 
the  example  of  Charlemagne,  to  bring  the  entire 
population  under  educational  influences.    In  this 
way,   education   became   more    widely   diffused 
than  it  had  ever  been  in  the  middle  ages  ;  and  it 
remained,   henceforth,   to  a  higher  degree  than 
before,  the  subject  of   serious   study  for   many 
Legislators;  but  there  was  no  substantial  change 
in  the  methods  of  instruction,  and  the  subservi- 
ency of  secular  to  theological  education  remained 
as  complete  as  before.    The  desire  to  preserve 
the    Catholic  Church   from    further  defection, 
and  to  recover  the  ground  already  lost,  led  to 


248 


EDUCATION 


the  establishment  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits, 
who  tried,  for  this  purpose,  to  obtain  a  control 
of  the  education  of  the  higher  classes.      The 

schools  of  the  .Jesuits  (q.  v.)  attained  a  great 
celebrity,  a  large  attendance,  and  the  admiration 
of  many  of  the  must  eminent  Protestants.  In 
consequence  of  the  close  connection  between 
schools  of  every  description  and  the  church,  all 
the  great  religious  movements  were  reflected  in 
education.  Thus,  when  the  German  Pietists 
charged  the  Protestant  Church  of  their  time 
•  with  laying  too  great  stress  on  a  rigid  orthodoxy, 
and  with  undervaluing  the  emotional  element  of 
religion,  the  schools  influenced  by  them  were  so 
shaped  as  to  aim  more  at  the  education  of 
practical  than  orthodox  Christians.  Germany 
is  indebted  to  these  Pietists  for  one  of  its  greatest 
philanthropists  and  most  practical  educators,  A. 
IT.  Krancke  (q.  v.).  whose  fame  in  the  history  of 
education  rests  more  on  the  excellent  institutions 
which  were  founded  by  him,  than  on  any  new- 
theory  or  literary  work  on  education. 

A  radical  reform   in   education    had.    in    the 
meantime,    been  introduced  by  Comenius   (q.  v.), 

a  bishop  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  and  one  of 
the  greatest  educators  of  all  time.  Influenced 
by  the  inductive  method  of  Bacon  dp  v.),  and 
the  works  of  Ratich  (q.  v.)  on  the  necessity  and 
importance  of  an  independent  art  of  teaching, 
Comenius  conceived  the  idea  of  a  harmonious 
development  of  all  the  faculties  of  man.  and 
proposed  a  grand  system  of  popular  education 
which  is  still  a  linircl  by  all  educators  as  a  work 
of  lasting  value.  The  views  of  Comenius  on 
vernacular  schools,  on  the  return  from  dead 
books  to  the  live  book  of  nature,  on  intuitional 
teaching  and  the  value  of  analytico  -  synthetic 
methods  met  with  general  approbation  and  led 
to  immediate  reforms.  The  movemenl  begun 
by  Comenius  was  greatly  strengthened  by  the 
writings  of  John  Locke  (q.  v.).  who  applied 
Bacon's  inductive  method  to  the  study  of  the 
human  mind  and  became  the  founder  of  empir- 
ical psychology.  Locke  specially  exceeded  former 
writers  in  recognizing  the  importance  of  physical 
education:  his  ideas  in  regard  to  this  subject 
have    exercised  a  marked    influence    on    modern 

school  legislation.  The  new  principles  thusdevel 

oped  were  welcomed  by  the  powerful  opposition 
which,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  arose  in  the 
literary    world    against     the     influence    of     both 

orthodox  Protestantism  and  the  <  'atholic  <  Ihurch 

upon  society,  and  which  had  its  chief  represent- 
atives in    the   French   Free-Thinkers,  the  English 

Deists,  and  the  German  Rationalists.    It  became 

the    general    tendency   of    the    age    to  look   upon 

education  as  one  of  the  most  important  depart- 
ments of  state  administration,  and.  in  most  of 
the  states,  ministries  of  education,  school  boards, 
and    school    commissions    were    appointed.       In 

Germany  .and  a  number  of  other  countries,  coin 

pulsory   education    was    introduced.      The  chief 

difference  among  the  leading  educators  concerned 
die  question  whether  instruction  should  chiefly 
aim  at  imparting  positive  and  useful  knowledge. 
or  at  exercisinc  and  traininc  the  mental  faculties. 


The  advocates  of  the  latter  principle,  who  were 
called  the  Humanists,  attributed  very  great 
educational  importance  to  the  study  of  the  clas- 
sical languages;  while  those  of  the  former,  called 
Realists,  from  their  utilitarian  point  of  view, 
thought  more  of  natural  sciences,  modern  lan- 
guage s.  gi  ■<  igraphy,  and  history.  Among  the  writ- 
ers on  education  in  the  eighteenth  century,  none 
became  so  famous  as  Rousseau,  an  enthusiastic 
idealist  who  looked  upon  the  entire  civilization 
of  his  age  as  an  aberration  from  nature,  and  pro- 
posed to  erect  upon  its  ruins  an  entirely  new 
society.  The  means  by  which  he  desired  to  effect 
this  change  was  a  radical  reform  in  the  system  of 
public  education.  Neither  he  nor  any  of  his  ad- 
mirers was  able  to  cany  his  radical  theories  into 
practice;  but  many  of  his  ideas,  especially  on 
physical  education  and  the  cultivation  of  the  in- 
tellect, are  now  accepted  as  correct  by  all  edu- 
cators. He  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  an- 
thropological principle  in  education  which  insists 
that  the  educational  functions  of  a  teacher  should 
begin  with  his  study  of  the  individual  nature  of 
his  pupils.  Basedow  (q.  v.)  and  other  Philan- 
thropists   (see  Philanthropic),    attempted  to 

establish  model  boa rding- schools  on  the  basis 
of  the  ideas  of  Comenius,  Locke,  and  Rousseau. 
The  great  hopes  which  they  raised  were  never 
realized  ;  but  many  of  their  pupils  have  risen 
to  considerable  eminence. 

The  most  famous  and  influential  of  modern 
educators  was  I'estaloz/.i.  The  eminent  position 
which  he  occupies  in  the  history  of  education  is 
not  BO  much  due  to  a  perfect  method  of  instruc- 
tion.to  a  superior  talent  of  organization  and  man- 
agement, or  to  the  foundation  of  great  educational 
institutions,  for  in  all  these  respects  Pestalozzj 
has  been  excelled  by  other  educators;  hut  he 
has  secured  the  admiration  of  all  time  by  his 
fervid  enthusiasm  in  the  cause  of  education,  lie 
gave  a  greater  impulse  to  the  improvement  of 
popular  education  than  any  of  his  predecessors; 
and  it  was  his  special  merit  to  have  called  at- 
tention to  the  ethical  and  psychological  founda- 
tion of  education.      The    followers  of   I'estalozzi 

called  into  existence  a  number  of  practical  re- 
forms, the  most  important  of  which  is  the  kiu- 
dergarten  (q.  v.),  founded  by  Froebel  (q.  v.),  a 

System  for  the  education  of  young  children  be- 
fore their  admission  to  the  primary  school. 

Many  of  the  en i incut  philosophers  of  the  eight- 
eenth and  nineteenth  centuries  have  discussed 
the  great  problems  of  pedagogy  ;  and  conflicting 
as  their  views  may  be  on  many  important  ques- 
tions, the  principle  thai   education  should  he  a 

natural  and  harmonious  development  of  inde- 
pendent individualities  is  generally  recognized. 
Of  special  interest    lor  educators  are  the  systems 

of  Herbart,  Beneke,  and  Herbert  Spencer. 
I  lerbart  (q.  v.)  rejected  the  traditional  "\  iew  of  a 
number  of  different  powers  constituting  the 
human  soul,  which  on  the  contrary  is  regarded 
by  him  as  a  simple  entity  and  as  not  .subject  to 

any  change  in  its  quality.  Beneke  (q.  v.)  pro- 
posed  a    system    of    education    wholly   based    on 

psychology,  to  which  he  attributed  the  character 


KIH'CATION 


249 


of  a  wholly  empirical  science.  1  [erbert  Spencer 
(q.  v.)  claimed  for  the  developmenl  of  the  soul 
an  organic  growth  subject  to  the  ordinary  laws  of 
organic  development,  and  made  psychology  strict- 
ly a  natural  science. 

The  development  of  educational  ideas,  as  it 
has  here  been  briefly  traced,  undoubtedly  shows, 
that  in  every  department  of  the  subject  a  won- 
derful progress  has  been  made  in  the  course  of 
the  last  three  centuries.  This  progress  is  uni- 
versally recognized,  and  there  is  not  at  present  a 
civilized  state  which  does  not  reflect  it  in  its 
school  legislation.  (Seethe  articles  on  the  several 
countries  and  states.)  Official  statistics  prove 
that  school  attendance  is  becoming  more  and 
more  general,  that  illiteracy  is  on  the  wane,  and 
in  some  countries  scarcely  known,  and  that  the 
diffusion  of  education  tends  to  the  diminution 
of  crime.  Still,  on  many  great  questions,  there 
continues  to  exist  a  marked  difference  of  opinion. 
Has  the  state  government  a  right  only  to  recom- 
mend and  promote,  or  may  it  compel  the  educa- 
tion of  children?  (See  Compulsory  Education.) 
Should  instruction  in  the  state  schools  be  gratui- 
tous ?  i  See  Public  Schools.)  Are  the  two  sexes 
to  be  educated  in  separate  or  in  mixed  schools? 
(See  Co-education  of  the  Sexes.)  Is  religious 
instruction  to  be  given  in  or  out  of  the  state 
schools?  (See  Denominational  Schools.)  All 
these  questions  are  fully  treated  of,  in  this  work, 
in  special  articles. 

The  outlines  of  a  history  of  education  are  con- 
tained in  the  works  on  education  in  general  by 
Bchwarz,  Nierneyer,  Grafe,  and  Rosenkranz. 
See  literature  at  the  end  of  this  article.)  Special 
works  on  the  history  of  education  have  been 
written  by  Wohlfarth  (Geschichte  des  gesamm- 
ten  Erziehungs-  >m<l  Unteri'ichlswesens,  2  vols., 
1853  A-  is.")."));  Korner  [Geschichte  der  Padago- 
gik,  1857;  Karl  Schmidt  (Geschichte  der P&aa- 
gogik,  3d  edit.,  by  Lange,  4  vols.,  1872 — 1876); 
Pittes  (Geschichte  der  Erziehung  void  des  Un- 
terrichts,  4th  ed.,  1875);  Fritz  (Esquisse  dun 
systeme  comph't  d1  instruction  et  d' education  tt 
de  leur  histoire,  3  vols.,  Strasburg.  1841 — 1847); 
II.  J.  Schmidt  (History  of  Education,  New 
York,  1842)  ;  Hailman  (History  of  Pedagogy, 
Cincinnati,  1874).  A  history  of  education  from 
the  revival  of  classical  studies  to  the  present 
time  has  been  written  by  Karl  Raunier  (4  vols., 
1844 — 1852).  Of  this  there  is  an  English  trans- 
lation in  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation ;  the  larger  portion  of  the  translation  of 
the  first  two  volumes  has  also  been  published 
separately  under  the  title.  Memoirs  of  Eminent 
I  ><■/,,  rs  and  Educators  in  Germany  ;  and  the 
translation  of  the  fourth  volume,  under  the  title, 
The  German  Univei'sities.  A  history  of  edu- 
cation before  <  hrist  is  given  in  Cramer,  Ge- 
schichte der  Erziehung  und  des  Vhterrichts 
(2  vols..  1832  and  183*1. 

II.  Theory  of  Education.  —  The  word  educa- 
tion is  derived  from  the  T,atin  verb  educo  which 
is  properly  used  to  designate  the  sustenance  and 
care  bestowed  by  a  nurse  on  a  child  :  and  it  is.no 
doubt,   connected  etymologically  with  the  Latin 


verb  educo,  to  lead  out;  but    it   never  has  this 
literal    sense,  and    it   is  extremely    unlikely  that 

the  Etomans  connected  the  idea  of  drawing  out 
with  that  of  educatio.  In  order  to  get  at  a  true 
idea  of  education,  we  must  look  at  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case.  We  proceed  by  way  of 
analogy.  We  know  in  regard  to  the  seed  of  a 
plant  that  it  contains  a  peculiar  and  special 
power  within  it.  Place  it  in  the  proper  soil, 
with  the  proper  temperature,  and  it  will  burst 
forth  into  active  life.  It  will  gather  from  earth 
and  air  the  means  of  support  and  increase.  It 
will  fashion  the  elements  which  it  lays  hold  of 
into  a  definite  shape,  and  it  will  pass  through 
various  stages  of  progress  until  it  withers  away, 
leaving,  however,  behind  it  the  means  of  con- 
tinuing the  species.  Within  certain  limits,  the 
plant  has  a  definite  form  of  its  own,  and  its 
mode  of  life  is  also  uniform  ;  and,  within  these 
limits,  there  lies  a  perfect  form  and  a  perfect  life 
for  the  plant,  It  may  not  be  easy  to  say  what  is 
that  perfect  form  and  perfect  life,  but  it  is  plain 
to  every  observer,  that  it,  as  it  were,  strives  after 
an  ideal  form  and  an  ideal  progress,  to  which  it 
approximates  more  or  less  closely.  Man  is  like 
the  plant,  The  living  power  within  him  strives 
to  attain  a  particular  form,  and  to  go  through  a 
particular  progress,  and  it  continually  strives  to 
attain  an  ideal  of  these,  within  certain  limits. 
The  difference  between  the  plant  and  the  man 
is,  that  the  limits  of  his  condition  and  progress 
are  much  wider,  and  that  he  can  consciously 
form  an  ideal  for  himself,  and  strive  after  it. 
Now  education,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  the  delib- 
erate effort  on  the  part  of  one  conscious  being 
to  clear  the  way  so  as  to  enable  another  to  attain 
this  perfect  condition  of  life  and  this  normal  prog- 
ress. It  is  assumed  that  the  man  naturally  strives 
after  perfection.  It  is  assumed  that  he  must 
move  in  some  direction,  whether  forward,  or  zig- 
zag, or  backward  ;  and  the  educator  endeavors  to 
keep  the  movement  in  the  right  direction. 

The  word  education  is  used  in  a  variety  of 
senses,  connected  but  not  always  compatible  with 
the  true  idea.  Thus  man  is  viewed  as  being,  in 
his  earliest  stage,  a  kind  of  compressed  mass  of 
faculties,  and  education  is  the  drawing  out  of 
these  faculties.  Again,  every  thing  that  acts  on 
man's  nature  is  sometimes  said  to  be  educative, 
whether  the  result  is  beneficial  or  not.  Other 
instances  could  be  adduced  of  the  use  of  the 
word  in  the  vaguest  manner  :  but  by  stating  tin- 
true  idea  we  oppose  ourselves  to  the  vague  uses 
of  the  word.  It  is  enough,  therefore,  to  state 
first  that  man  must  be  viewed,  not  as  passive  but 
as  active,  not  as  being  drawn  out, but  as  striving 
to  act,  and  that  no  act  is  truly  educative  which 
does  not  help  him  to  strive  after  actions  that  are 
becoming  to  his  nature,  or,  to  express  it  object- 
ively, to  strive  after  what  is  good,  beautiful,  or 
true. 

But,  in  thus  stating  the  work  of  education  in 
a  general  proposition,  we  have  done  very  little 
towards  explaining  its  true  nature.  Education 
sets  before  it  an  ideal.  How  are  we  to  form 
anything  like  an  adequate   conception   of   this 


250 


EDUCATION 


ideal  ?  Only  by  a  minute  and  careful  study  of 
human  nature  ;  and.  therefore,  every  educator 
must  necessarily  devote  a  great  deal  of  his  atten- 
tion to  the  phenomena  of  body  and  mind,  and 
to  man,  the  combination  of  both.  The  ideal  is 
a  unity,  but  it  is  a  composite  unity,  made  up  of 
the  perfect  accomplishment  of  endless  detailed 
actions,  and  we  must,  therefore,  examine  all  the 
<  let  ails  before  we  can  attain  to  a  clear  notion  of 
the  whole. 

The  subject  may  be  viewed  in  another  light. 
Every  portion  of  man  is  made  or  preformed  for 
a  special  function  or  functions.  Thus  the  eyes 
are  made  for  seeing,  the  hands  for  grasping,  the 
skin  for  touch.  For  what  is  the  whole  body 
made?  For  what  is  man.  body  and  soul,  made? 
It  is  the  work  of  the  educator  to  help  him  whom 
he  educates  to  discharge  the  functions  for  which. 
as  man,  he  has  been  made  or  preformed.  Ac- 
lingly,  most  of  the  definitions  of  education 
which    have   been  given,  have  been  based  on  the 

answer  to  the  question,  what  is  the  chief  end  — 
the  summum  bonum  —  the  destiny  of  man? 
This  was  a  question  which  occupied  the  atten- 
tion of  the  ancients  much,  and  <  'lemens  Alexan- 
drinus  has  gathered  together  a  large  number  of 
the  answers  which  ancienl  philosophers  gave  to 
the  inquiry.  These;  are  interesting  to  the  edu- 
cator, because  they  suggest  different  points  of 
view  from  which  to  look  at  the  problem.  In 
more  modem  times,  the  form  which  the  answer 
has  most  frequently  taken  is  the  statement  thai 
it  is  the  work  of  e  Lucation  to  produce,  as  far  .-is 
it  can.  an  equable  and  harmonious  developm 
of  all  the  powers  of  man.  Ilerbart  and  his 
school  object  to  this  way  of  expressing  the  aim 
of  education.  The  term  powers  is  apt  to  mis- 
lead. There  are  no  separate  and  special  faculties 
in  man's  mind.  All  the  best  psychologists  admit 
that  these  faculties  are  fictions  ;  and,  therefore, 
the  aim  of  education  must  be  defined  apart  from 
these.  I  let  hait  himself  defined  the  aim  of  edu- 
cation to  be  morality;  but  he  used  the  word  in  a 
truly  philosophical  sense,  in  which  it  is  not  un- 
derstood by  the  masses,  and.  therefore,  he  pre- 
ferred to  state  the  object  of  education  to  be,  to 
produce  a  well-balanced  many-sidedness  of  in- 
terest. The  emphasis  laid  on  interest  has  been 
productive  of  much  rich  fruit  in  educational  in- 
vestigation  and    experience;     but,    practically, 

Eerbart's  definiti somes  to  the  same  as  the 

other.  Man  is  viewed  as  destined  to  a  series  of 
activities  closely  connected  the  one  with  the 
other.    These  activities  may  be  in  harmony  with 

his  nature,  or  his  ideal  nature,  as  we  may  call  it, 
OT  they  may  be  more  or  less  alienations   from  it. 

The  business  of  the  educator  is  to  prevent  the 

alienations,  and  to  help  those  activities  which 
are  in  harmony.  Tims,-  activities  which  are  in 
harmony  find    their   sphere  in  nature,  in  man.  in 

God.     It   is  important  thai  all  these  activities 

come  into  play.      Man  does   not    pursue  his  ideal 

course,  if  they  do  not  come  into  play.  Be  must 
be  fully  developed.  Bui  if  his  activity  comes 
into  plaj  on  these  subjects  according  to  the  right 
method,  his  interest   in  them  is  awakened  and 


becomes  stronger  and  stronger ;  for  all  pleasure 
is  the  accompaniment  of  the  vigorous  discharge 
of  some  function,  and  all  pain  is  the  accompani- 
ment of  the  weak  discharge  or  hindrance  of 
some  function.  If  the  organ  which  discharges 
the  function  is  exercised  too  powerfully,  as  may 
be  the  case  with  our  bodily  powers  and  lower 
mental  energies,  there  is  first  intense  pleasure; 
but  the  over-tension  impairs  the  healthiness  of 
the  organ  temporarily,  or  it  may  be  permanent- 
ly, and  then  the  impaired  activity  is  followed  by 
pain.  And  the  pleasure  that  may  arise,  may 
arise  from  the  exercise1  of  what  we  call  lower 
functions,  when  higher  are  neglected.  Thus  the 
lazy  man  desires  true  pleasure,  as  far  as  it  goes, 
from  the  vigorous  exercise  of  his  vital  or  vege- 
tative powers.  J'ut  whatever  pleasure  does  exist, 
exists  from  the  efficient  discharge  of  function, 
or  in  other  words  from  healthy  activities  of  body 
or  of  mind.  This  pleasure  may  not  be  con- 
sciously before  the  mind,  as  in  the  highest  intel- 
lectual  operations  when  the  student  does  not 
feel  how  intense  has  been  his  enjoyment,  until 
the  enjoyment  is  over..  This  accompaniment  of 
all  our  healthy  actions  is  cumulative.  It  grows  in 
degree,  in  proportion  as  the  actions  are  repeated 
in  a  healthy  or  proper  manner.  And. hence. our 
interest  increases  with  the  healthy  repetition  of 

the  activities  on  the  objects.  Berbart's  defini- 
tion becomes,  therefore,  nearly  synonymous  with 
the  other,  but  directs  the  attention  to  the  ex- 
ternal sidi'  of  man's  activity,  to  the  objects  on 
which  the  mind  works.  Both  sides  must  be 
carefully  considered  by  the  educator:  for,  in  the 
activity  of  man.  they  are  invariably  conjoined. 
The  distinction  between  formal  and  material  in 
education  has  to  be  made  with  great  caution; 
and  it  has  always  to  be  remembered  that  form  is 
impossible  without  matter,  and  matter  impos- 
sible without  form,  that  while  there  can  be  no 
righl  activity, if  the  mind  does  not  act  in  a  right 
manner,  it  is  equally  true  thai  there  can  be  no 
right  activity,  if  that  on  which  the  action  takes 
place  is  not  a  right  object  for  the  mind  to  act  upon. 

After  having  thus  generally  discussed  the  aim 
of  education,  we  should  now  enter  minutely  into 

particulars,  for  the  general  is  of  slight  use  with- 
out the  particular;  but  this  would  be  to  write  a 
treatise  on  the  laws  (  t  the  activity  of  the  human 
mind,  and  the  modes  to  be  adopted  by  men  to 

direct  these  activities  aright  in  the  young.  W  e 
must,  therefore,  confine  Ourselves  to  hints  which 
may  suggest  to  the  reader  the  subjects  which  de- 
serve his  careful  and  minute  examination. 

A  chilil  gazes  at  an  apple  on  a  tree.  AYhat 
are  the  operations  of  the  child's  mind'.'  First, 
we  have  the  exercise  of  the  bodily  organ.  Then 
the  apple  produces  an  impression  on  the  child's 
mind.    This  impression  we  call  a  sensation.  The 

child  feels  something.  Some  change  has  taken 
place  within  him.  Cut.it'  this  is  not  thi'  first 
impression  which  the  apple  has  made  on  the 
child,  we  can  observe  that  the  sensation  has  at 
tained  in  its  complexity  to  three  phases:  first. 
the  child  has  the  feeling  of  pleasure  in  seeing  the 

apple;   second, he  sees  that  there  is  an  object 


EDUCATION 


251 


before  him  which  he  rails  an  apple;  and.  third,  if, 
on  a  previous  occasion,  he  has  tasted  apples  and 
enjoyed  them,  the  recollection  ol  that  enjoyment 
comes  hack,  a  desire  arises  within  him,  and  he  is 
under  an  impulse  to  make  an  exertion  to  obtain 
the  apple.  In  this  one  instance,  we  have  the 
various  phases  of  man's  activities,  lie  is.  first 
of  all.  a  physical  being;  then  he  is  capable  of 
feeling, — has  an  emotional  nature:  then  he  is 
capable  of  perceiving, — has  an  intellectual  nat- 
ure :  and.  finally,  he  is  capable  of  desiring,  of 
striving  after,  and.  tht%  has  a  practical  and 
moral  nature.  Though  we  speak  of  him  thus 
as  if  he  had  four  natures,  he  really  possesses  but 
one.  All  the  distinctions,  except  perhaps  the 
first,  are  distinctions  made  by  the  mind,  but  the 
facts  do  not  exist  separately.  The  emotional, 
intellectual,  and  volitional  are  blended  with  each 
other  in  the  actual  human  mind.  The  mind 
cannot  exist  without  them.  There  can  be  no 
absolute  separation  of  them  :  since  they  stand  in 
the  closest  relation  to  each  other.  Vet  it  is  es- 
sential to  .separate  these  elements  in  our  discus- 
sion of  them  :  for  they  'may  blend  with  each 
other  in  different  degrees.  The  one  phase  may 
predominate  to  the  injury  of  the  others.  A  man 
may  have  a  clear  head,  but  a  hard  heart  and  a 
Stubborn  will.  Another  may  be  too  emotional, 
ready  to  melt  before  the  slightest  distress,  and 
yet  possessing  almost  no  capability  or  inclination 
to  relieve  the  distress.  The  true  aim  of  man  is 
to  bring  out  all  the  elements  in  harmonious  pro- 
portion, and  the  work  of  the  educator  is  to  help 
each  child  to  accomplish  this  difficult  task  for 
himself. 

First,  then,  there  is  physical  education.  The 
aim  and  end  of  physical  education  is  to  produce 
health,  not  strength  in  particular  organs,  but  a 
general  healthiness  of  all  the  organs.  This  aim 
is  accomplished  by  a  careful  examination  into 
the  nature  of  the  human  body,  an  exposition  of 
the  laws  of  health  which  arise  from  this  study, 
and  the  exhibition  of  the  reasons  which  ought  to 
lead  us  to  give  all  due  care  to  the  body.  This 
subject  is  treated  under  the  head  of  physical 
education.  Secondly,  there  is  intellectual  <'<hn-<i- 
iion.  This  education  is  based  on  a  careful  inves- 
tigation into  the  laws  which  regulate  the  gradual 
progress  of  the  mind  from  its  earliest  weak  state 
of  mere  sensation  til!  it  reach  the  power  of  deal- 
ing with  the  most  abstract  ideas.  (See  Senses, 
Education  of.  and  Instruction.)  Thirdly,  we 
have  the  education  of  the  emotional  nature. 
And  here  we  enter  upon  a  inoi'e  difficult  sphere 
—one  in  which  the  educator  has  often  to  grope 
in  darkness  :  for  the  emotions  are  not  directly 
Under  his  control,  and  the  movements  of  the 
mind  in  regard  to  them  are  hid  in  such  secrecy, 
that  sometimes  an  influence  which  seems  to  us 
likely  to  produce  one  emotion,  actually  produces 
the  opposite;  as,  for  instance,  efforts  to  beget 
love  may  have  for  their  result  the  production  of 
dislike.  We  shall  here  take  a  short  -lance  at  this 
important  subject. 

The  first  point  to  which   the  attention  of  the 
educator  may  be  directed  is  a  general   result  at 


which  he  may  aim.    The  broadest  division  which 
can  be  made  of  the  feelings  is  into  those  of  pleas- 
ure and  those  of  pain.      The  mind  assumes  a 
particular  attitude  in  consequence  of  its  experi- 
ences of  these.      We  shall   take  a  case.      A  child 
performs  a  mental  act,      He  does  it  successfully. 
I  le  feels  pleasure.     He  performs  another  success- 
fully. The  recollection  of  the  past  pleasure  unites 
with    the    present    feeling,   and     the    feeling   is 
Stronger.     Others  thus  blend  until  the  child  has 
a  permanent  state  of  feeling;  or.  as  we  may  call 
it.  a  mood.    He  looks  forward  with  hope  ;  he  ex- 
pects to  be  successful  ;  but  he  may  fail.     A  fail- 
ure takes  place ;  he  feels  pain.     The  feeling  of 
pain  now  acts  antagonistically  to  his  feeling  of 
pleasure  ;   and,  if  these  painful    feelings  recur, 
the  one  set  strive  for  the  mastery  over  the  other; 
and  the  result  will  be,  that   the   mind  will   ulti- 
mately lie  in  a  bright  and  cheerful  mood,  or  in 
a    dark    and   gloomy   one;    it   will   either    be 
full  of   hope  or  lie  given   to  despair;  or,  at  the 
least,  have  a  tendency  to  go  in  the  one  direc- 
tion or  the  other.     There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  is  the  business  of  the  educator  to  produce  the 
bright,  cheerful,  hopeful  mood.     This  is  the  nat- 
ural mood,  if  we  use  the  word  natural  as  ex- 
pressive of  the  ideal  after  which  nature  strives. 
This  mood  is  the  result  of  the  successful  discharge 
of  all  the  functions  :  and  it  is  of  immense  conse- 
quence for  the  child  to  have  this  mood.     The 
mind  communicates  its  tone  to  every  thing  around 
it ;  and  so  the  cheerful  mind  sees  good  in  every 
thing,  catches  the  bright  side,  and  strengthens 
all  the  powers;  for  the  cheerful  mind  becomes 
the  strong  mind.     Obstacles,  pain,  failure  are 
sure  to  come ;  but  the  cheerful  mind  casts  them 
all  aside,  rises  superior  to  them,  and,  after  tem- 
porary depression,  sees  again  with  the  same  clear- 
ness, and  hopes  with  the  same  steadfastness.  The 
methods  by  which  the  educator  can  help  to  pro- 
duce this  state  of  mind  in  his  charge  are  various, 
and  must  all  be  used.     First  of  all,  he  must 
himself  be  of  this  cheerful  and  hopeful  mind. 
There  is  no  direct  teaching  on  excitation  of  the 
emotions;  but  they  are  often  produced,  in  the 
proper  circumstances,  by  what  we  may  call  in- 
fection.    Love  begets  love  ;  we  catch  admiration 
from  those  who  have  felt   the   admiration  liefore 
us:    and,  no    doubt,    the    sweet,   gentle,    loving 
smiles  of  a   mother  who  is  uniformly  kind  to 
her  chilil,  have  a  powerful  influence  on  his  whole 
destiny,  a  more  powerful  influence  than  they  are 
generally  believed  to  exert.   Secondly,  health  is  a 
mighty  agent  in  the  earliest  stages  of  life,  before 
it  can  be  expected  that  the  mind  should  triumph 
over   bodily  evils  ;    and.  therefore,   special   care 
should  be  taken  to  render  the  infant  healthy. 
And,   thirdly,   after   a   certain   stage   has  been 
reached,   some    truths   reached  by  the    intellect 
can  come  powerfully  to  the  aid  of  the  emotional 
nature:   such,  for   instance,  as  a  belief   that   the 
arrangements  of  this  world  are  in  favor  of  man. 
that    the  amount   of  happiness  in   the  world  is 
much  greater  than  we  may  suppose,  that  God  is 
working  all  things  to  wise  and   noble  ends,  and 
that  man's  destiny  i>  for  virtue  and  love.    When 


252 


EDUCATION" 


we  pass  from  this  general  consideration  to  the  par- 
ticular feelings,  we  find  ourselves  in  a  labyrinth. 

A  feeling  is  a  phase  of  mind  which  arises  from 
the  consciousness  of  having  passed  from  one 
state  into  another;  and,  accordingly,  no  mental 
act  can  take  place  without  a  feeling.  Hence  we 
have  feelings  connected  with  the  body,  feelings 
connected  with  the  intellectual  operations,  and 
feelings  connected  with  the  practical  ami  moral 
nature.  Or  we  might  speak  of  the  feelings  ac- 
cording to  the  objects  which  give  rise  to  them; 
as  those  that  arise  in  connection  with  nature, 
with  one's  own  self,  with  man,  with  God.  We 
select  out  of  these,  two  classes  of  feelings  that 
especially  deserve  the  attention  of  the  educator. 
The  first  class  deserve  attention  principally  be- 
cause they  are  in  danger  of  being  neglected,  ow- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  present  age.  The  edu- 
cator should  awaken  and  keep  alive  the  feelings 
of  admiration  and  mystery.  A  child  naturally 
wonders  and  admires,  and  these  feelings  must 
not  be  allowed  to  die  out.  .Moreover,  the  sense  of 
mystery,  closely  connected  with  these,  will  be  a 
source  of  gnat  blessing  to  him.  The  practical 
man  is  apt  to  look  on  all  things  as  definite  and 
fully  known:  but  the  fad  is,  that  nothing  is 
completely  known.  We  know  neither  the  be- 
ginning nor  the  end  of  any  thing.  The  Smallest 
object  and  the  largest  are  equally  invisible  to  us. 
Our  knowledge  is  limited  by  a  boundary  that  lies 
far  within  the  infinitesimally  greal  and  the  infin- 
itesinially  small;  and  so  all  knowledge  attained 
points  to  an  infinite  region  the  depths  of  which 
we  have  not  sounded.  A  consciousness  of  this 
is  closely  connected  with  a  humble  spirit,  and 
true  humility  generally  allies  itself  with  love. 
The  second  class  of  feelings  is  that  which  relates 
to  the  beautiful.  The  sense  of  the  beautiful  is 
the  power  to  feel  the  loveliness  of  symmetry,  of 
proportion,  of  harmony.  This  power  is  to  be 
acquired  only  by  the  exercise  of  it.  The  sym- 
uii  try  and  loveliness  exist  in  nature.  They  are 
Calculated  to  produce  an  effect  on  the  soul  of 
man,  but  the  soul  of  man  must  be  brought 
into  contact  with  them,  before  it  can  feel  them. 
Therefore,  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  th  • 
feeling  for  the  beautiful,  the  one  essential  condi- 
tion is.  that  beautiful  objects  be  placed  before 
the  person  in  whom   the  sense  is  to  he  awakene  I 

and  strengthened,  and  that  they  be  placed  fre- 
quently ami  at  proper  intervals:  because  the  sense 
of  the  beautiful  Lb  awakened  only  by  slow  degrees, 
and  it  expands,  passing  from  the  external  and 
simple  to  the  harmonies  which  prevail  amidst 
the  grandest  spheres  of  thought  and  intelligent 
^y existences.     But  it  can  be  broughl  before  the 

pupil  in  every  form  at  an  early  stage,  in  beauti- 
ful   pictures,    in    beautiful    rooms,    in    beautiful 

landscapes,  in  order,  in  gentleness  of  tone,  in 
noble  action,  and  in  many  other  ways,  so  as  to 
induce  within  himself  a  love  of  all  that  is  orderly, 
harmonious,  and  peaceful. 

Two  cautions  may  be  specially  urged  in  con- 
nect i<>u  with  the  cultivation  of  the  feelings.  The 
first  is.  that  it  is  possible  to  render  a  human  be- 
ing too  sensitive,  to  give  feeling  too  greal  a  pre- 


ponderance in  the  individuality  of  the  person 
educated.  Such  a  person  becomes  .sentimental. 
IS  easily  moved  to  joy  or  tears,  is  sympathetic  in 
the  highest  degree,  but  the  sympathy  does  not 
lead  to  action.  The  educator  has  to  take  care 
that  every  train  of  feeling  be  strengthened  and 
guided  aright  by  clear  and  well-reasoned  convic- 
tions, and  be  followed  by  appropriate  action. 
The  second  danger  is,  that  the  feeling  of  self 
may  Income  so  strong  as  to  harden  every  other. 
Naturally  every  one  bestows  a  great  deal  of  at- 
tention on  himself,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to 
feel  only  when  the  circumstances  relate  to  one's 
self.  Here,  again,  what  has  to  be  done  is,  to 
prevent  the  mind's  being  occupied  too  much 
with  self,  and  to  interest  it  in  the  thoughts  and 
circumstances  of  others.  Both  these  cautions 
point  to  the  next  division  of  the  sphere  of  edu- 
cation —  that  of  the  will  or  of  the  practical 
powers.  The  exercise  of  these  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  intellect  and  the  feelings,  and 
indeed  ordinarily  results  from  them.  Man  is 
naturally  a  striving  or  desiring  being.  lie  is 
a  force,  and  by  a  force  we  mean  something 
that  strives  to  exert  itself.  Accordingly  man's 
first  act  is  an  effort.  And  the  powers  which  he 
;;t  anytime  possesses  strive  for  spheres  of  action. 
But  these  spin  res  are  in  the  main  d  t.rinined 
by  the  results  of  the  action  of  his  intellect  and 
the  motive  power  of  the  feelings.     A  child  docs 

something  which  gives  him  pleasure.  He  has 
finished  the  action.     He  turns  to  something  else. 

What  remains  of  the  piv\  ious  action '.'     A  re<  ol- 

leetion  of  something  pleasant:  but  the  recollec- 
tion of  something  that  is  pleasant  excites  the 
desire  to  enjoy  it  again.  Thus  arise  desires  in 
the  mind:  and    as  these  desires  arise  again  and 

again  in  connection  with  objects  belonging  to 
separate  classes,  groups  of  desires  or  inclina- 
tions arise,  and  we  call  these -roups  by  general 
nanus,  such  as  the  love  of  money,  the  love  oi 
honor,  the  love  of  fame.  These  desires  grow- 
in  intensity  according  to  the  amount  of  time 
during  which  they  are  allowed  to  continue  in  the 
mind,  ami  the  amount  of  spaCQ  they  are  allowed 
to  occupy  in  it.  Add  to  this  fact  that  we  natu- 
rally put  a  value  on  the  things  which  we  desire. 
and'  regard  some  as  higher  than  others,  and  we 
enter  the  region  of  morals.  Two  or  three  func- 
tions of   mind    lie    before  us   which   we  are  able 

to  discharge  at  the  time.  We  weigh  these  func- 
tions in  tiie  balance.  We  pronounce  one  of  a 
higher  nature  than  the  others.  This  is  the  one 
which  we  feel  bound  to  perform.  Thus  the  func- 
tion of  the  eye  is  a  nobler  one  than  that  of  the 
the  nose  or  the  taste:  and,  hence,  the  educator 
who  trains  the  child  to  see  is  performing  a  nobler 
function  than  he  who  indulges  a  child's  taste  for 
sweets.  All  functions  may  b.  necessary,  hut 
each  must  have  its  own  place  in  a  well-arranged 

and  systematic  order  of  gradation. 

The    first   essential,  then,  to  ;t  good   practical 
training  is  to  impress  on  the  pupil  the  true  value 

of  all  actions  and  tilings.  lie  is  enabled  to  at- 
tain to  this  only  by  having  a  (dear  intellect  and 
a  right  state  of  feeling,  and.  therefore,  it  cannot 


EDUCATION 


253 


be  too  strongly  urged,  that  a  thorough  intellectual 
education  is  an  important  element  in  the  at- 
tainment of  a  sound  moral  character.  But,  be- 
sides this,  we  learn  to  act  by  acting.  There  is  a 
natural  instinct  to  act.  and  this  instinct  must 
not  be  resisted  or  blunted.  It  is  by  one  action 
that  we  rise  to  the  power  of  doing  a  greater. 
I  [ere  the  same  kind  of  fiction  as  that  which  we 
have  noticed  in  the  case  of  the  mental  faculties 
is  apt  to  mislead.  Man  is  often  spoken  of  as 
possessing  a  will ;  but  man  has  not  one  will,  but 
many  wills.  The  word  will  is  used  to  denote 
the  complicated  power  which  man  possesses, 
through  his  original  faculties  and  the  exercise 
of  them,  to  will  for  the  future.  But,  if  this 
be  the  case,  the  strength  of  the  power  to  will 
in  any  particular  case  depends  upon  the  pre- 
vious exercise  which  the  mind  has  had  in  will- 
in-  similar  actions;  and  so  a  man  may  have  a 
rng  will  in  one  direction,  and  a  weak  will  in 
another.  Hence,  the  educator  must  take  care  to 
bring  into  activity  the  willing  power  of  his  pupil 
in  as  many  directions  as  he  can,  without  impair- 
ing his  strength  of  will  in  the  most  important  di- 
rect ions.  Moreover,  in  action,  we  are  influenced 
Btrongly  by  the  action  of  others,  just  as  in  feel- 
ing  by  the  feeling  of  others.  The  teacher  who 
wishes  to  lead  his  pupils  to  action,  must  himself 
act  first.  The  influence  of  example  is  all-power- 
ful in  this  matter.  And,  finally,  as  willing  de- 
pends first  upon  fixing  an  appropriate  aim,  and, 
secondly,  on  selecting  the  right  means,  the  pupil 
must  be  trained,  in  all  cases,  to  use  the  right 
means.  The  clear  insight  into  the  true  value  of 
actions,  that  is,  into  the  aims  which  should  guide 
us,  may  be  of  comparatively  little  use,  if  we 
have  not  the  good  sense  to  employ  the  suitable 
means  for  our  purposes.  These  are  the  general 
rules  which  regulate  practical  education.  It 
woidd  be  impossible  in  an  article  like  this  to  go 
into  the  particular  phenomena  which  must  be 
investigated  before  the  educator  can  have  a 
proper  grasp  of  the  subject.  Just  as  in  the  case 
of  the  feelings,  desires  and  inclinations  arise  in 
connection  with  all  the  activities  of  man, — with 
the  physical,  the  intellectual,  the  emotional,  and 
the  practical  forms  of  man's  energy ;  and  they 
embrace  the  same  extent  of  objects.  They  con- 
nect themselves  with  nature,  with  one's  own  self, 
with  other  men,  with  God.  But,  they  have  wider 
ramifications,  and  a  more  potent  influence  than 
the  feelings,  and  open  up,  therefore,  a  wider  field 
for  investigation  ;  and,  in  this  subject,  the  aber- 
rations demand  the  closest  attention.  The  edu- 
cator has  continually  to  guard  against  the  forma- 
tion and  the  strengthening  of  inclinations  which 
are  dangerous  to  the  well-being  of  the  individual 
and  the  race. 

Lastly,  there  is  religious  education,  embracing 
within  it  intellectual,  emotional,  and  moral  as- 
pects. Religion  may  be  said  to  arise  in  a  feel- 
ing. We  feel  our  weakness  and  littleness.  We  feel 
that  we  are  limited  in  power,  in  knowledge,  in 
vital  energy.  We  feel  surrounded,  on  every  hand, 
by  powers  that  are  stronger  than  we  are,  and 
hemmed  in  by  irresistible  forces.     If  this,  how- 


ever, were  the  only  feeling,  despair  would  lay  hold 
of  us.  But,  we  come  to  feel  that  the  irresistible 
forces  are  not  antagonistic  to  us,  that  we  can 
come  into  harmonious  relations  with  the  super- 
natural, that,  to  use  the  Christian  mode  of 
thought,  we  can  trust  in  a  God  of  justice  and 
love.  It  is  when  we  gain  this  feeling  of  trust  that 
we  attain  to  a  religion.  But,  a  religion  advances 
beyond  the  mere  feeling;  it  sets  down  God  or 
gods,  as  possessing  a  certain  character,  and, 
therefore,  enjoining  a  certain  kind  of  worship. 
Especially  does  the  Christian  religion  present 
definite  conceptions  as  to  the  character  of  God, 
and  enjoin,  as  the  first  condition  of  worship 
and  as  the  great  law  of  life,  love  to  God  and 
love  to  man  practically  exhibited.  The  Christian 
religion  thus  brings  into  play  the  feelings  as  the 
foundation  of  religion,  the  intellectual  powers  in 
apprehending  its  great  truths,  and  the  inclina- 
tions and  practical  powers  in  carrying  them  out. 
'Idie  discussion  of  this  subject  belongs  to  the 
article  on  religious  education. 

The  subject  of  education  is  discussed  in  a 
great  variety  of  treatises.  The  most  satisfactory 
discussion,  in  our  opinion,  is  contained  in  the 
works  of  Herbart  and  Beneke.  Herbart 's  edu- 
cational writings  have  been  collected  and  pub- 
lished recently  in  two  volumes  (Leipsic,  1873 
—  1875)  under  the  editorship  of  Otto  Will- 
mann.  Beneke's  great  work  on  the  subject  is 
Erziehungs-  und  Unierrichtslehre  (2  vols.,  third 
edition,  Berlin,  1864).  The  first  volume  is  de- 
voted to  Education,  the  second  to  Instruction. 
Of  the  followers  of  Herbart,  Ziller's  wprks  de- 
serve special  mention;  and  of  those  of  Beneke, 
the  works  of  Dittos  and  Dressier.  The  educator 
will  also  derive  much  good  from  the  study  of  the 
best  works  on  psychology.  Both  Herbart  and 
Beneke  have  written  handbooks  of  psychology; 
and,  in  English,  special  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  writings  of  Sir  William  Hamilton,  Dr.  Morell, 
Prof.  Bain,  and  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  the  last 
of  whom  has  a  work  specially  devoted  to  edu- 
cation [Education :  Intellectual,  Moral,  and 
Physical).  See  also  Niemkyer,  Grundsdlzeder 
Erziehung  und  des  Unlerrichis  (9th  ed.,  1845); 
Schwarz,  Erziehungslehre  (3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1829), 
and  Lehrbuch  der  allgemeinen  Pddagogik 
(2  vols.,  4th  ed.,  by  Curtmann,  1843)  ;  Gr^efe, 
Allgemeine  Pddagogik  (2  vols.,  1845);  Palmer, 
Evangelische  Pddagogik  (3d  ed.,  1864);  Bosen- 
kranz,  Die  Pddagogik  als  System  (1848;  En- 
glish translation  by  Anna  C.  Brackett,  St.  Louis, 
1873);  Dittes,  Schule  der  Pddagogik  (1876J. 

The  most  comprehensive  cyclopaedia  of  edu- 
cation is  the  Encyclopddie  des  gesammten  Er- 
ziehungs- mill  Unterrichtswesens,  by  Schmid, 
(11  vols.,  1857 — 77).  A  second  edition,  revised 
and  enlarged,  of  the  first  volume  was  issued 
in  1876.  A  compendium  of  this  work  in  2  vols., 
under  the  title  Padagogisches  Hdndbuch,  was 
begun  by  the  same  editor  in  187").  The  h'eal- 
Encyclopddie  des  Erziehungs-  mnl  Unterrichts- 
wesens,  by  Rolfus  and  Pei'ster  (4  vols.,  2d  ed.. 
1871 — 5),  has  been  prepared  from  the  Catholic 
point  of  view. 


254 


EDUCATION 


EGYPT 


EDUCATION,  Female.    See  Female  Edu- 
cation. 

EDUCATION  AND  CRIME.    See  Crime 
am>  Education. 

EGYPT,  a  dependency  of  the  Turkish  em- 
pire,  in  N".  B.  Africa:  having,  with  its  recent  con- 
quests, an  area  of  >ii!i..'!.'i-J  sq.  in.,  and  a  popula- 
tion, in  1875,  of  16,922,000.  The  area  of  Egypt 
proper  is  212,60*7  sq.  m.;  and  its  population. 
5,252.000.  The  principal  races  of  people 
represented  in  Egypt,  are  Arabs  or  Bedouins, 
Turks,  Armenians,  Berbers  or  Nubians,  .lews, 
tlic  Copts,  who  are  the  recognized  descendants 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Europeans  of  different 
nationalities,  and,  in  the  newly  conquered  prov- 
inces, negroes.  The  religion  of  the  large  ma- 
jority  of  the  inhabitants  is  Mohammedanism. 
There  are,  besides.  350,000  Copts  or  native 
( 'hristians. and  250,000 others  who  profess  <  'hris- 
tianity.  Egypt  was.  in  ancient  times, the  seat  of 
a  wonderful  civilization,  its  history  reaching 
farther  back  than  thai  oi  any  other  nation. 
After  having  been  ruled  by  a  number  of  native 
dynasties,  and  having  been  part  of  the  Persian 
ami  Macedonian  empires,  it  became,  in  30  B.C., 
a  Etonian  province,  and  afterwards  formed  part 
of  the  Eastern  Empire.  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced during  the  first  century;  and  Egypt,  par- 
ticularly Alexandria,  became  a  noted  seat  of 
theological  Learning  and  institutions.  In  683,  if 
was  conquered  by  the  caliph  Omar,  who  intro- 
duced Mohammedanism.  In  L517,  it  came  under 
the  rule  of  the  Turks,  under  whom  it  has.  actually 
or  nominally,  remained  ever  since.  In  1806,  Me- 
heinet   Ali  was  appointed    pasha  and  governor  of 

Egypt.     He  made  hims  'If  virtually  the  absolute 

ruler  of  the  country,  and  was  prevented  only  by 

the  European  powers  from  proclaiming  his  entire 
independence  of  the  Turkish  sway.  Under  his 
successors,  who  continued  .  i  pi iote  the  wel- 
fare of  the  country,  and  to  effect  reforms  in  the 
administration,  the  country  prospered  greatly. 
At  the  present  time,  its  dependence  upon  Tur- 
key is  merely  nominal,  and  the  complete  sever- 
ance of  the  tie  appears  to  lie  only  a  question  of 
time.  Immense  tracts  of  land  in  the  south  and 
BOUth-West  have,  of  late,  been  annexed:  BO  that 
if  it  were  an  independent  empire,  ii  would  now 
|  L876)  rank  as  the  seventh  nation  of  the  world 
in  regard  to  area. 

Educational  History. —  This  will  be  treated 

under  two  heads  :  (I)  Ancient  Egypt,  (II)  Mod- 
ern Egypt. 

I.  Ancient  Egypt.  In  respect  to  education. 
Egypl  Ill-tore  the  Christian  era  occupied  a  pecu- 
liar position.  With  China.  India,  and  Persia 
the  articles  on  these  countries),  it  was  one  oi 
the  chief  representatives  of  orientalism.  While, 
in  common  with  the  other  oriental  nations,  it 
aimed  at  a  national  not  an  individual  education, 
it  is  to  be  considered  as  presenting  a  connecting 
link,  in  this  respect, between  the  extreme  eastern 

institutions     and     the     educational     systems     of 

Greece  and  Rome.  To  a  greater  extenl  than  in 
any  other  oriental  country,  national  education 
w.i   under  the  controlling  influence  of  the  pi  i 


hood.  The  priests  and  the  warriors  were  privi- 
leged classes;  but.  in  their  education,  the  priests 
enjoyed  several  prerogatives  over  the  warriors. 
There  were  schools  for  priests  and  warriors  at 
Thebes.  Memphis,  and  Ileliopolis.  In  these 
schools,  there  were  two  systems  of  instruction, — 
an  exoteric  course,  for  those  who  were  not  pre- 
pared for  higher  instruction,  and  an  esoteric 
course,  to  which  only  those  youths  were  admitted 
who  belonged  to  the  priestly  caste.  The  instruc- 
tors in  both  classes  of  schools  were  priests.  The 
subjects  of  instruction  were  language,  mathemat- 
ics, geometry,  astronomy,  natural  history,  music, 
and  religion.  The  princes  were  educated  by  the 
best  instructors. and  only  with  the  sons  of  priests, 
who  were  twenty  years  of  age, and  noted  for 
their  good  manners,  so  that  the  royal  students 
might  not  come  in  contact  with  any  thing  im- 
pure. The  education  of  other  castes  was  of  a 
very  low  order,  as  was  that  of  females;  but  com- 
mon institutions  of  learning  were  not  entirely 
wanting.  Plato  tells  us  that  the  children  of  the 
Egyptians  learned  to  read,  while  Diodorus  Sicu- 

lus  says  that  they  learned  a  little  of  reading  and 

writing,  but  adds  that  all  did  not  enjoy  these  ad- 
vantages, but  chiefly  those  preparing  for  a  pro- 
fession. The  Common  people,  be  says,  received 
some  kind  of  an  education  from  their  parents. 
In  writing,  the  bark  of  the  papyrus  and  black 
or  red  ink  were  used.  In  writing  as  well  as  in 
reading,  there  seems  to  have  been  a  separation 

into  castes,  since  of  the  three  modes  of  writing, 
the  demotic,  hieratic,  and  hieroglyphic,  the 
latter  belonged  to  the  priests  only.  Arithmetic 
and  mathematics  were  studied  throughout  the 
country  with  great  attention,  and  the  methods 
employed  in  teaching  these  studies  were  ex- 
cellent. According  to  Diodorus,  gymnastics  and 
i.  sic  were  not  comprised  in  the  general  plan  of 
education,  because  it  was  believed  that  the  for- 
mer was  dangerous  to  the  youths,  and  that  the 
latter  was  not  only  useless  but  hurtful.  In 
Chemmis,  however,  considerable  attention  was 
given  to  gymnastics,  as  well  as  to  music,  the  lat- 
ter being  devoted  to  religious  purposes.  The 
Egyptians, even  in  the  most  remote  ages.seein  to 
ha\e  had  a  great  regard  for  the  influence  of  edu- 
cation :  for.  according  to  Diodorus,  the  father  of 
Scsostris  had  all  the  boys  assembled  who  were 
born  on  the  same  day  as  his  son,  and  arranged 
that  all  should  receive  the  same  education,  in  the 

belief  that  those  who  Were  educated  together, 
would  prove  the  best  friends  and  comrades  in 
war.  The  physical  training  of  children  was 
very  severe  ;  they  were  obliged  to  go  barefooted 

and  almost  entirely  naked,  and  were  brought  up 
with  such  economy,  that  the  entire  education  of 
the  child  cost  oily  a  small  pittance.  The  educa- 
tional   system   of    Egypl  was   entirely  remodeled 

when  Psammetichus  (670  to  616  B.  C.)  under- 
took a  thorough  reform  by  introducing  Greek 
and  Phoenician  elements  into  the  institution-  oi 
the  country,  and  for  that  purpose  formed  alli- 
ances with  the  Athenians  and  other  Greeks,  ami 
afforded  aid  and  encouragement  to  all  foreigners 
who  came   into   the  country.      He  entrusted  the 


EGYPT 


2.V> 


education  of  Egyptian  children  to  Carians  and 
Ionians,  by  whom  they  were  also  instructed  in 
the  Greek  language  and  fitted  for  the  office  of 
interpreters,  otherwise,  foreign  languages  were 
not  taught  in  Egypt ;  but  the  princes  who  ruled 
over  different  tribes  seem  to  have  understood 
their  respective  languages.  Thus  Cleopatra  is 
said  to  have  spoken  Hebrew.  Arabic,  Ethiopic, 
Byriac,etc.  Alexandria  became,  in  course  of  time. 
the  principal  emporium  of  the  ancient  world, 
and  subsequently  also  the  center  of  learning  and 
education,  ruder  the  Ptolemies,  a  strong  im- 
pulse was  if i ven  to  the  arts  and  sciences,  espe- 
cially to  those  which  had  a  practical  application; 
as  mathematics,  astronomy,  medicine,  grammar, 
and  history.  Indeed,  there  is  scarcely  another 
period  in  the  world's  history  in  which  science 
was  held  in  greater  honor  than  by  the  Ptolemies 
in  Alexandria.  The  museum,  a  royal  palace, 
formed  the  residence  and  seat  of  instruction  for 
the  learned  men  of  Greece,  who  had  emigrated 
to  Egypt.  This  institution  was  founded  in  '-l'2'2 
B.  C,  and  was  at  the  highest  point  of  its  celeb- 
rity from  232  to  30  B.  0.  After  Egypt  be- 
came a  Roman  province  (30  B.  C),  this  school 
gradually  declined.  About  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond century.  Alexandria  became  the  birthplace 
of  a  new  philosophical  school,  —  that  of  neopkt- 
tonism,  which  cave  a  considerable  impulse  to 
philosophical  and  theological  studies,  without, 
however,  exerting  a  direct  influence  upon  the 
development  of  education.  (See  Alexandrian 
School.)  With  the  introduction  of  Christian- 
ity as  the  state  religion,  the  last  remnants  of  the 
old  civilization  were  destroyed.  (See  Schmidt, 
Geschichte  der  Pddagogik,  vol.  i.) 

II.  Modern  Egypt. — Since  the  establishment 
of  Mohammedanism  in  Egypt,  its  educational 
history  has  been  substantially  the  same  as  that 
of  other  Mohammedan  countries.  (See  Arabian 
Schools.)  Instruction  of  every  grade  was  based 
on  the  Koran,  and  school  and  church  have  never 
been  more  intimately  connected  in  any  country. 
The  strict  Mohammedan  has  always  believed, 
with  the  Prophet,  that  "every  thing  worth  know- 
ing is  contained  in  the  Koran,"  and  that  "  much 
investigation  is  heresy."  The  schools  were  ex- 
clusively intended  for  boys,  and  most  of  them 
were  connected  with  the  mosques ;  in  smaller 
places,  private  schools  were  frequently  founded 
by  fakihs,  or  jurists  of  the  lowest  rank.  These 
schools  were  generally  of  the  most  rudimentary 
character,  the  only  school  book  used  being  the 
Koran.  Most  of  the  high  schools  [medrissas), 
which  were  founded  in  the  hrst  years  of  the 
caliphate,  and  at  which  Mohammedan  theology 
and  law.  philology,  philosophy,  logic,  mathemat- 
ics, medicine  and  alchemy,  astronomy,  history. 
geography,  and  rhetoric  were  taught,  have  disap- 
peared in  the  course  of  time.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  Mehemet  Ali  attempted 
to  reform  the  schools  of  the  country,  chiefly  with 
the  desire  to  have  a  better  class  of  public  officers. 
He  founded  about  "><•  primary  schools,  which 
were  scattered  over  the  country,  and  contained 
about  5,000   pupils.      Secondary   schools   were 


founded  at  Cairo  and  Alexandria,  and  had.  at 
one  time,  about  '2.000  pupils,  who  were  both  in- 
structed and  supported  at  the  expense  of  the 
government.  I  le  also  founded  a  number  of  spe- 
cial schools,  in  which  it  was  designed  that  Egyp- 
tian youth  should  be  educated  after  European 
methods,  and  partly  by  European  teachers.    Of 

this  class  of  schools  were    the    medical   school  at 

Abu-Zabel,  the  cadet  school  at  *  rizeh,the  marine 

school  at  Alexandria,  the  school  of  engineers  at 
Khanke,  the  medical  college  of  Kasrel-Ain.  the 
artillery  school  of  Turrah.  the  veterinary  school, 
now  at  Kubbeh,  and  the  musical  school  in  the 
citadel  of  Cairo.  A  college  for  young  Egyptians 
was  also  founded  at  Paris,  but  only  a  few  of  the 
young  men  who  were  educated  there  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  government,  subsequently  devoted 
themselves  to  the  cause  of  education.  The  most 
distinguished  among  them  is  Sheikh  Refah,  who 
was  sent  to  Paris  in  1826,  and,  after  his  return, 
endeavored  for  many  years,  both  as  a  writer  and 
as  an  educator,  to  make  his  countrymen  ac- 
quainted with  the  intellectual  and  educational 
condition  of  Europe.  Most  of  the  schools  which 
had  been  founded  by  Mehemet  Ali,  were  abol- 
ished by  his  successors,  Abbas  Pasha  (1849 — 
1854),  and  Said  Pasha  (1854—1863).  Under 
the  government  of  Ismail  Pasha,  the  present 
Khedive  (1876),  very  praiseworthy  efforts  have 
been  made  to  effect  a  radical  reform  in  educa- 
tion, by  the  establishment  of  government  schools. 
A  council  of  instruction  has  been  established  at 
( 'airo,  which  has  the  control  of  all  the  schools  of 
the  country.  The  course  of  instruction  adopted 
for  the  new  schools  is  a  kind  of  compromise  be- 
tween traditional  Mohammedanism  and  modern 
civilization  as  developed  in  the  Christian  world. 
It  has  awakened  among  the  friends  of  educa- 
tional progress  great  hopes  for  the  future  ;  but, 
as  yet,  every  thing  depends  on  the  favorable  dis- 
position of  the  actual  ruler.  Only  the  establish- 
ment of  a  connection  between  the  communes 
and  these  schools  would  be  able  to  place  the  lat- 
ter on  a  firm  basis.  The  new  government 
schools  embrace  primary,  secondary,  and  special 
instruction.  They  were  first  erected  in  1868, 
since  which  time  they  have  made  rapid  progress 
in  the  large  cities.  The  number  of  pupils,  in 
1870,  was  about  4,000;  in  1873,8,000.  They 
received  not  only  gratuitous  instruction,  but 
support,  inclusive  of  clothing.  Primary  in- 
struction embraces  the  reading  and  writing  of 
Arabic,  arithmetic,  drawing,  and  French  or 
some  other  foreign  language.  From  the  primary 
classes  the  pupils  pass  into  the  secondary  schools, 
which  are  composed  of  a  preparatory  school, em- 
bracing, in  a  three  years'  course,  the  study  of 
Arabic,  Turkish.  English,  French.  German, 
mathematics,  drawing,  history,  and  geography; 
and  the  special  schools,  into  which  the  pupils 
enter  after  finishing  the  above  course.  These 
special  schools  are  the  following  :  ill  The  Poly- 
technic School,  the  pupils  of  which,  after  finish- 
ing a  course  of  tour  years,  may  choose,  as  in 
France,  between  a  civil  and  a  military  career;  in 
the   former  case,  they  attend   for  two  years  the 


256 


EGYPT 


School  of  Administration,  and  then  enter  the 
Bervice  of  the  state  ;  in  the  latter  case,  they  en- 
ter the  military  academy  of  the  Abassieh,  at 
Cairo.  (The  former  of  these  institutions,  in 
L871,  had  75  pupils ;  the  latter,  750.  In  1871, 
the  polytechnic  school  had  80  pupils.)  (2)  The 
Law  School,  embracing  a  course  of  four  years,  in 
which,  besides  the  Mohammedan  law,  the  Roman 
law  and  that  of  the  Christian  nations  in  general 
are  taught;  (3)  The  Philological  and  Arithmet- 
ical School,  giving  instruction  in  philology, 
mathematics,  rhetoric,  prosody,  and  drawing: 
( 1 1  The  School  of  Arts  and  Industry,  in  Balak, 
established  by  Mchetnet  Ali,  and  greatly  im- 
proved under  Ismail  Pacha  (it  has  a  course  of 
three  years,  and  had,  in  1871,  about  LOO  pupils); 

(5)  The  Medical  School,  with  75  pupils,  in  L871, 
to  which  is  attached  a  school  of  midwifery  (the 
only  one  in  the  East),  with  65  pupils.  (The 
Khedive,  in  1871,  offered  the  people  of  Syria  to 
receive  twenty-five  students  from  that  province 
into  the  Medical  School,  irrespective  of  race  or 
religion.  A  large  number  of  candidates  pre- 
sented themselves,  but  there  was  not  one  Mo- 
hammedan among  them,  all   being  Christians.! 

(6)  The  Naval  School, in  Alexandria,  with  85 
pupils,  in  L871.  In  L871,  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment called  to  Cairo  prof essor  1 1 enry  Brugsch, 
of  the  university  of  <  idttingen,  to  establish  there 
an  academy  for  archaeology,  and,  in  particular, 
for  Egyptological  studies.  The  Khedive  is  also 
endeavoring  to  eradicate  the  prejudice  existing 
against  female  education;  and,  for  that  purpose, 
has  founded  a  girls"  school  at  Cairo,  in  which, 
besides  receiving  an  elementary  education,  Ihe 
pupils  are  instructed  in  sewing,  washing,  and 
dress-making.  In  L875,  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment resolved  to  establish  a  teacher's  seminary 
alter  the  German  model,  and  applied  to  the 
Prussian  ministry  of  education  for  two  teachers 
to  take  charge  of  the  institution.  The  voluntary 
schools,  in  opposition  to  the  government  schools, 
arc  annexed    to   the   mosques,  and   intended  for 

elementarj  instruction.  If  the  statistical  reports 
can  be  relied  upon,  these  contained,  in  L870, 
60,000  pupils.and.in  L873,  82,000  pupils, among 
whom  were  many  adults.  These  figures  would 
indicate  a  rapid  progress  since  the  time  of  Me- 
hemci  Ali.  when  only  one  in  a  thousand  of  the 
entire  population  received  instruction.  From  an 
official  report  on  the  voluntary  school  at  Alex- 
andria, which  was  opened  April  1.,  L868,  under 
the  protectorate  of  the  heir  apparent,  Mehemet 

Tefvik   Pasha,  il  appears  that  this  school,  on  the 

opening  of  the  adult  classes  in  April,  numbered 
30  pupils;  in  dune,  Tii;  in  July,  150 ;  in  No- 
vember, 240;  of  the  latter  of  whom  59  were 
Egyptians,  52  Italians,  21  Frenchmen,  20  Greeks, 
24  Englishmen,32  Syrians,  etc.  The  elementary 
schools  for  children  were  opened  in  April  L868 ; 
and,    iii    November,    the    number    of    pupils 

amounted  to  269.     The    languages   in  which  the 

instruction  is  Imparted,  are  Arabic,  French,  and 

Italian.      Most  of  these  schools  are  supported  l>\ 

the  mosques, some  bj  the  divan  of  wakufs  (re- 
ligious donations);  some  have  property  oi  their 


( >wn ;  some  receive  aid  from  the  ministry  of 
finance,  and  some  defray  their  expenses  by  means 
of  subscriptions  and  by  school  money. 

The  university  of  Cairo,  called  EUAshar  (the 
blossom)  after  the  name  of  the  mosque  with 
which  it  is  connected,  was  once  a  really  flourish- 
ing center  of  Arabic  science  and  scholarship. 
At  present,  like  the  other  famous  mosque  high 
schools  of  the  East,  at  Damascus,  Mecca,  and 
Bagdad, it  teaches  little  more  than  Mohammedan 
religion  and  law,  grammar,  arithmetic,  logic,  and 
rhetoric  ;  but  it  still  preserves  its  former  repu- 
tation throughout  the  East,  and  is  visited  by 
students  from  Turkey  and  Asia  Minor,  from  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Africa,  from  Arabia,  and  even 
from  India  and  the  Sunda  Islands.  The  number 
of  students,  in  1871,  was  reported  as  ;u'>i»s.  In 
the  preparatory  classes,  about  2,000  pupils  are 
clothed  and  supported  at  the  expense  of  the  wa~ 
kufs  ;  instruction  is  given  by  260  teachers  or 
kattabs,  of  whom  l(i<»  are  likewise  supported 
from  the  revenue  of  the  wakufs.  The  students 
in  the  higher  classes  are  taught  by  about  40  pro- 
fessors, most  of  whom,  beside-,  hold  some  other 
ecclesiastical  or  legal  office.  The  lectures  are 
given  gratuitously.  At  the  time  of  its  greatest 
prosperity,  the  university  sometimes  numbered 
more   than  20,000  pupils.     The  first    school  for 

the  blind  was  founded  a  few  yen-.-  ago  by  Moham- 
med Effendi  Onsy,  and  is  conducted  by  him  at 

his  own  expense.  It  is  doing  a  gnat  amount  of 
good,  as  a  large  number  of  persons  lose  the  use 
of  their  eyes  by  the  so-called  Egyptian  disi 
(a  kind  of  ophthalmia).  The  annual  examinations 
held  in  arithmetic,  reading,  and  different  kinds 
of  handiwork,  exhibit  considerable  proficiency  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils. 

Missionary  and  Foreign  Schools. — The  num- 
ber of  foreign  residents,  in  1872,  was  79,696,  of 
whom  -I7..'il('»  were  inhabitants  of  Alexandria, 
and  19,120  of  Cairo.  As  they  are  the  wealthiest 
and  best-educated  class  of  the  population,  a 
number  of  schools  have  been  established  for  the 
education  of  their  children.  The  French  School 
Brothers  and  Lazarists  have  day  and  boarding 
schools;  and  female  schools  are  conducted  by 
French  Sisters  of  Mercy  and  other  religious 
orders.  With  one  of  these  institutions  at  Alex- 
andria, v  Inch  has  from  400  to  500  pupils,  an 
orphan  house  and  a  foundling  institution  are 
connected.       Instruction   in  these  schools  is  given 

in  the  French  language.    The  Greek  lyceum  in 

Alexandria  in  187."..  had  70  pupil-:  and  the 
Cottegio  Italiano,  L20  pupils.  There  are  also 
several  Greek,  Italian,  and  Herman  elementary 
schools.  Presbyterian  missionaries  from  the 
United  States  have  established  a  number  of 
mission  schools.  a8  well  as  an  academy  and  a 
theological  seminary,  both  at  Sioot,  the  leading 
town  in  Upper  Egypt,  See  Stephan,  Das  heu- 
tige  Aegypten  (Leips.,  l^T'Ji;  Adams,  The  Land 
qf  the  '.V//c  (London.  1  st  1  (;  Reqny,  Statistioua 
de  VEgypte  (fifth  annual  publication.  Cairo. 
L875) ;  I.mtiki:.  Aegypten1  s  Neue  Zeii  (2  vols.. 
Leips..  L873) ;  Dorr,  L' 'Instruction  Ptibliqw  • 
Egypte  (Paris,  1873). 


ELABORATLVE  FACULTY 


EMERSON 


257 


ELABORATIVE  FACULTY,  a  term 
often  used,  at  the  present  time,  to  indicate  that 
function  of  the  mind  by  which  it  employs  the 
materials  supplied  by  sensation,  perception,  con- 
ception, and  consciousness  (or  the  inner  sense), 
and  builds  them  up  into  systems  or  chains  of 
thought  and  reasoning.  The  different  processes 
that,  according  to  this  nomenclature,  are  elabo- 
rative.  are  eotnparisi  >n,  abstraction,  generalization, 
lodgment,  and  reasoning.  To  these  particular 
processes  the  term  thought  is  now  often  restricted, 
instead  of  being  applied,  as  formerly,  indifferently 
to  every  intellectual  operation.  Dr  Hopkins, 
in  An  Outline  Study  of  Man  (N.  Y.,  1876),  thus 
describes  this  faculty  and  its  functions:  '-The 
processes  of  the  elaborative  faculty  hold  the 
same  relation  to  the  materials  brought  into  the 
mind  that  the  processes  of  building  and  repair- 
ing hold  to  the  materials  which  are  brought 
into  the  body.  The  building  and  repairing 
systems  take  hold  of  that  which  is  brought  into 
the  syst  >m  an  1  elaborate  it;  they  transform  it, 
and  make  of  it  another  thing.  The  elaborative 
system  does  the  same  thing  in  the  mind.  It  takes 
the  material  given  by  the  presentative  faculty 
[sensation,  perception,  etc.],  and  performs  the 
operations  of  comparison,  abstraction,  etc."  Dr. 
Porter,  in  The  Human  Intellect  (N.  Y.,  18(59), 
thus  defines  the  office  of  the  elaborative  faculty: 
"The  thinking  power  has  been  treated  as  two- 
fold, and  been  subdivided  into  two  :  the  elabora- 
tive faculty,  as  performing  the  processes,  and  the 
regulative,  as  furnishing  the  rules,  or  more  prop- 
erly as  prescribing  the  sphere  and  possibility  of 
thought.  These  are  named  also  the  dianoetic 
and  the  noetic  faculty.  By  some  writers  they 
are  distinguished  as  the  understanding  and  rea- 
«on,  in  a  usage  suggested  by  Kant,  but  deviating 
materially  from  his  own.  Milton  and  others 
call  them  the  discursive  and  instinctive  reason." 
(See  Intellectual  Education.) 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS,  etymolog- 
ically,  schools  in  which  the  elements  of  instruc- 
tion are  taught.  The  name  is  used  in  Germany 
[Element/ irsckiden)  sometimes  as  synonymous 
with  public  schools  in  general,  but  more  fre- 
quently and  correctly  to  designate  the  lower  or 
primary  departments  of  the  public  schools.  Some 
writers  think  that  the  name  elementary  instruc- 
tion should  be  only  applied  to  the  lowest  class  of 
a  school.  \\\  Sweden,  a  peculiar  meaning  is  given 
to  the  word,  as  it  denotes  institutions  of  a  higher 
grade  in  opposition  to  the  people's  or  lower 
schools.  In  England,  according  to  the  "  New 
Code  of  Regulations*',  1876  (Art.  4),  an  element- 
ary school  is  a  school,  or  a  department  of  a 
school,  in  which  elementary  instruction  is  the 
principal  part  of  the  instruction  given,  and  does 
not  include  any  school  or  department  in  which 
the  ordinary  payment  for  tuition,  from  each 
pupil,  exceeds  nine  pence  a  week.  (See  Pri- 
mary Education.) 

ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE.  See  Sci- 
ence, Teaching  of. 

ELLIS,  WILLIAM,  an  eminent  English 
writer  and  educationist,  born  in  the  vicinity  of 
17 


London,  in  1800.  His  labors  have  been  specially 
given  to  the  advancement  of  social  science, 
which,  through  his  efforts,  was  introduced  as  a 
luanch  of  elementary  instruction  in  the  London 
schools.  His  chief  writings  are  Outlines  of  So- 
viitl  Economy,  Progressive  Lessons  in  Social 
Science,  Phenomena  of  Industrial  Life,  and 
Education  as  a  Means  of  Preventing  Destitu- 
tion (London,  1851). —  See  Knight's  English 
Cyclo/xrdia. 

ELOCUTION,  the  utterance  or  expression 
of  thought  in  reading  and  speaking,  is  an  im- 
portant part  of  a  scholastic  education,  because  of 
the  constant  need  of  such  vocal  utterance  in  the 
ordinary  circumstances  of  both  private  and 
public  life.  The  departments  into  which  this 
subject  naturally  divides  itself  are  the  following: 
(1)  Articulation,  or  the  proper  and  distinct 
enunciation  of  the  elementary  sounds  as  usually 
combined  in  words;  (2)  Pronunciation,  as  de- 
pendent upon  a  knowledge  of  the  various  sounds 
represented  by  letters  and  their  diverse  combi- 
nations in  words,  and  upon  accentuation ;  (3) 
Emphasis,  or  the  placing  of  a  stress  of  the  voice 
upon  a  particidar  word  or  words  of  a  sentence, 
so  as  to  bring  out  the  meaning  fully,  and  to  give 
life  and  spirit  to  the  delivery  ;  (4)  Yoice  inflec- 
tions,— upward,  downward,  or  waved,  also  as  a 
means  of  giving  a  particular  significance  to 
words  or  sentences.,  and  as  auxiliary  to  emphasis ; 
(5)  Tones,  or  those  variations  of  the  voice  in 
pitch,  force,  and  quality,  by  which  it  is  mod- 
ulated to  the  expression  of  particular  sentiments 
and  emotions.  (See  Reading,  and  Voice,  Cult- 
ure of.) 

ELPHINSTON,  James,  a  noted  Scottish 
teacher  and  grammarian,  was  born  in  Edinburgh 
in  1721,  and  died  at  Hammersmith,  near  London, 
in  1809.  For  many  years,  he  was  the  principal 
of  a  school  at  Kensington,  near  London,  and 
was  an  intimate  associate  of  Dr.  Johnson,  by 
whom  he  was  greatly  esteemed.  During  his  res- 
idence in  Edinburgh,  he  superintended  an  edi- 
tion of  the  Rambler.  His  efforts  to  reform  the 
orthography  of  the  English  language,  by  the  in- 
troduction of  phonetic  spelling,  made  him  noted, 
but  brought  upon  him  considerable  ridicule. 
This  system  he  carried  out  in  a  translation  of 
Martial  (1782),  which  Dr.  Beattie  called  "a 
whole  quarto  of  nonsense  and  gibberish  ;"  and  a 
further  explanation  of  the  system  was  given  in 
Propriety  Ascertained  in  her  Picture  (1786), 
which  was  followed  by  English  Orthography 
Epitomized  (1788),  and  Fifty  Years'  Corre- 
spondence, Inglish,  French,  and  Lattin,  in 
Proze  and  Verse,  between  Geniusses  ov  booth 
Sexes  <  n> ' I  James  Elphinston  (1794).  He  also 
published  Education;  a  Poem  (1763),  and  En- 
glish Grammar  reduced  to  Analogy  (1765). — 
See  Chambers,  Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen;  Boswell,  lAfe  of  Johnson. 

EMERSON,  George  Barrell,  a  distin- 
guished American  educator,  born  Sept.  12., 
1797,  in  what  is  now  Kenncbunk,  York  Co.,  Me., 
then  a  part  of  the  town  of  Wells.  In  1817,  he 
graduated  at  Harvard  College ;  but  while  pass- 


258 


EMINENCE   COLLEGE 


EMORY  COLLEGE 


ing  through  his  college  course,  he  employed  some 
of  his  winter  vacations  in  teaching  district 
schools,  in  which  he  gained  a  great  deal  of  prac- 
tical experience.  After  his  graduation,  he  took 
charge  of  an  academy  in  Lancaster,  Mass.;  and, 
from  1819  to  ls'21,  he  was  tutor  in  mathematics 
and  natural  philosophy  in  Harvard  College.  In 
this  position  he  had  unusual  advantages  for  cult- 
ure, since  he  was  associated  with  some  of  the 
most  eminent  scientific  and  literary  men  of  that 
time,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Dr.  Kirk- 
land,  Prof.  Farrar,  and  Edward  Everett,  then 
Eliot  professor  of  Greek.  In  1821,  he  was  se- 
lected to  take  charge  of  the  English  High  School 
for  boys,  then  called  the  English  Classical  School, 
which  was  established  that  year  by  the  town  of 
Boston,  lor  the  purpose  of  affording  the  means 
of  a  higher  education  to  those  who  did  not  intend 
to  pursue  a  college  coins'.  This  was  the  first 
Rngliah  high  school  established  in  the  United 
States.  Two  years  afterward.  Mr.  Emerson 
opened  in  Boston  a  private  school  tor  girls  ;  an  I 
of  this  he  continued  to  take  charge  till  L855, 
when  In-  retired  from  the  profession  of  teaching. 
This  school  was  eminently  successful ;  and  Mr. 
Emerson  showed,  in  the  system  of  instruction 
which  he  pursued,  the  highest  qualities  of  an 
earnest,  conscientious,  and  skillful  teacher.  In 
1830, he  took  an  active  part  in  the  establishment 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  before 
which  he  delivered, in  L831,a  lecture  on  Female 
Education  :  and,  in  Is  12,  one  on  Moral  Educa- 
tion. In  184;?,  he  wrote  The  ScJioolmaster,  be- 
ing part  second  of  The  School  "ml  Schoolmaster, 
the  first  part  being  written  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Put- 
ter, afterwards  bishop  of  Pennsylvania.  This 
work  was  composed  <>n  the  invitation  of  the 
benevolent  dames  W'adsworth.  of  I  ieneseo,  N.  Y., 

who  paid  the  expense  of  printing  and  distribut- 
ing gratuitously  L5.000  copies  of  the  work. 
Through  means  afforded    by   Mr.   Brimmer,  of 

Boston,  a  Copy  of  this  hook  was  placed  in  each 
of    the  district    schools  of    Massachusetts.     The 

object  of  the  work  was  to  afford  information  of 
a  practical  character  in  regard  to  the  various  de- 
partments of  elementary  education,  more  partic- 
ularly in  respect  to  the  organization,  discipline, 
instruct  ion,  ami  management  of  common  schools. 
The  style  in  which  it  is  written,  its  tone  of  sen- 
timent,  and    the   wisdom   of  its  suggestions  are 

worthy  of  its  distinguished  authors.  Mr.  Emer- 
son served  ha' two  years  in  the  School  Commit- 
tee of  Boston,  and,  from  1848  to  L855,  in  the 
Massachusetts  Hoard  of  Education.  lie  was 
also  a  prominent  member  of  the  Boston  Society 
<>f  Natural  History,  and  was  appointed  by  Gov. 
Everett  chairman  of  the  commission  to  whom 
was  intrusted  the  making  of  a  zoological  and 

botanical    survey  of   the   state   of    Massachusetts. 

I  le  has  published  also  a  "Report  <>n  th  Trees  "ml 
Shrubs  growing  naturally  in  //>>■  Forests  of 
Massachusetts  (Boston,  L 846),  and  a  Manual  of 
See  B  irnakd,  Educational 
Biography  i  \.  Y..  I  861  . 

EMINENCE  COLLEGE,  at  Eminence,  Ky., 
a  lion  sectarian  institution,  was  founded  in  L857 


for  the  education  of  both  sexes.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees.  The  buildings  stand  upon  an 
elevated  site,  and  the  grounds  are  tastefully  laid 
out  and  ornamented  with  evergreens  and  forest 
trees.  The  libraries  contain  about  1.800  vol- 
umes. The  institution  has  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus  and  the  beginning  of  a  min- 
eralogical  and  geological  cabinet.  There  is  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  course,  the  latter  com- 
prising six  departments:  namely,  ancient  lan- 
guages, mathematics,  physics  and  chemistry, 
mental  philosophy,  Biblical  literature,  and  mod- 
ern languages.  When  a  student  has  under-one 
]  a  satisfactory  examination  in  any  particular  de- 
partment, he  or  she  is  entitled  to  a  certificate  of 
graduation  in  that  department  ;  and  the  poss 
sion  of  certificates  from  the  various  departments 
of  the  curriculum  entitles  the  holder  to  the  de- 
gree of  A.  B.  The  degree  of  B.  S.  is  conferred 
on  those  students  who  complete  the  scientific 
part  of  the  course,  and  have  a  certificate  to  that 
effect.  There  is  also  a  special  course  for  females 
similar  to  that  of  female  seminaries,  upon  the 
completion  of  which  a  diploma  is  granted.  The 
regular  charge  for  tuition  is $25 in  the  collegiate, 
and  $20  in  the  preparatory  course  of  twenty 
weeks.  The  daughters  of  all  regular  preach 
and  of  widows  of  limited  means,  are  received  at 
a  discount  of  thirty  per  cent.  Voting  men  pre- 
paring for  the  ministry  ;ue  admitted  free  of  tui- 
tion. In  1874 — 5,  there  were  7  instructors.  \'1>\ 
matriculates  (58  males  and  68  females),  and  125 
alumni.  The  whole  number  of  pupils,  in  1875 
— 6,  was  190.  S.  G.  Mullins  was  the  president 
from  September.  1857,  to  June.  1858,  since 
which  time  \Y.  S.  ( riltner  has  been  the  president. 
EMORY  COLLEGE,  at  Oxford,  Newton 
county.  Ga.  under  the  control  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  founded  in  1837. 
It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  an  endow- 
ment of  $20,000.  The  value  of  its  grounds, 
buildings,  and  apparatus  is  $70,000.  The  in- 
stitution has  an  academic  and  a  collegiate  de- 
partment, the  latter  comprising  a  classical  course 
of  four  years  and  a  scientific  course  of  three 
years.  The  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Science  ami 
of  English  Literature,  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  and 
Master  of  Arts,  are  the  regular  degrees  con- 
ferred by  this  institution.  The  cost  of  tuition 
in  die  college  is  $25  for  the  fall  term  and 
$35  fur  the  spring  term  :  in  the  academic  de- 
partment, it  varies  per  term  from  §15  in  the 
primary  classes  to  $31  in  the  academic  class 
There  is  a  fund  of  five  thousand  dollars,  the 
interest  of  which  is  used  in  paying  the  tuition, 
and,  in  some  Cases,  the  hoard  of  young  men  of 
limited  resources,  who  are  preparing  \><i-  the 
Christian  ministry  in  the  Methodist  Rpiscopal 
Church.  South.  The  libraries  contain  about 
7  000  volumes  ;  the  mineral  cabinet  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  South.  In  L873  I.  there  were 
student-,  of  whom  100  were  of  the  collegiate 
grade,  including  II  in  the  scientific  course  ;  and 
55  were  in  the  academic  department  ;  the  number 
of  alumni  was  544.  In  L875  6,  there  were  6 
instructors  and  L55  students.     The  presidents  oi 


EMORY  AND  HENRY  COLLEGE 


EMPIRICAL  METHODS 


209 


the  college  have  been  as  follows :  Rev.  Ignatius 

A.  Few,   D.  1).,  LL.D.,  1837  to  1839 ;  Rev.  A. 

B.  Longstreet,  LL.  D.,  1839  to  1848;  Rev. 
Geo.  F.  Pierce.  I).  !>.,  LI,  I).,  isis  to  1854; 
Rev.  A.  Means.  I).  D.,  LL.D.,  1854  to  L855; 
Rev.  J.  R.  Thomas,  D.D.,  18j">  to  1867;  Rev. 
Luther  M.  Smith.  D.  D.,  L867  to  1871;  and 
Rev.  0.  L.  Smith,  D.D.,  the  present  incumbent 
(1876),  appointed  in  1871. 

EMORY  AND  HENRY  COLLEGE, 
at  Emory.  Washington  Co.,  Va.,  founded  in 
1838,  is  antler  the  control  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South.  It  has  no  endow- 
ment, and  is  supported  by  tuition  fees,  which,  in 
the  collegiate  course,  are  $30  per  term  of  20 
weeks.  The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  an  I 
apparatus  is  $125,000.  The  college  library  con- 
tains 4,580  volumes,  and  those  of  the  two  litera- 
ry societies  9.000.  The  college  has  collections  of 
minerals  and  fossils,  philosophical  and  chemical 
apparatus,  etc.  It  comprises  preparatory  courses, 
the  ordinary  collegiate  course,  and  a  scientific  an  I 
a  business  course.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  (i  in- 
structors, 163  students  (80  collegiate,  an  1  83 
scientific  and  preparatory),  and  332  alumni. 
The  presidents  have  been  the  Rev.  Charles 
Collins,  !>.  1).,  1838—52.  and  the  Rev.  Ephraim 
E.  Wiley,  D.  D.,  appointed  in  1852  and  still 
(187(5)  in  office. 

EMOTIONS  are  those  conditions  of  the 
mind  in  which  the  sensibility  is  excited,  so  as  to 
'  act  upon  the  will,  and  with  the  tendency  to  out- 
ward manifestation  in  bodily  acts.  The  differ- 
ence between  emotions  and  passions  is  rather 
quantitative  than  qualitative  ;  the  former,  while 
characterized  by  an  intensity  of  feeling,  still  leave 
a  considerable  scope  for  the  exercise  of  reason 
and  judgment ;  the  latter,  for  the  time  beinu;, 
disturb  the  equilibrium  of  self-consciousness,  and 
produce  a  condition  in  which  the  mind  is  over- 
mastered and  controlled  by  the  particular  feel- 
ing, and  is  borne  along  by  its  force,  helpless  and 
suffering  (hence  the  name  passion,  meaning  suf- 
fering). Of  this,  we  have  illustrations  in  the 
effects  of  extreme  anger,  love,  hatred,  and  re- 
venge. Emotions  are  also  to  be  distinguished 
from  sentiments,  the  latter  being  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent based  on  mental  discriminations,  and  more 
steady  and  durable  in  their  nature.  Thus,  he 
who  has  cultivated  the  sentiment  of  patriotism, 
cannot  but  feel  an  emotion  of  joy  at  a  victory 
gained  by  his  country  over  her  enemies.  Emotions 
are  likewise  to  be  distinguished  from  feelings,  or 
the  immediate  sensations  of  the  physical  organ- 
Ism,  giving  rise  to  mental  perceptions,  or  to 
bodily  pleasure  or  pain.  The  nature  of  children 
is  more  emotional  than  that  of  grown  persons, 
msethe  restraining  principle  of  the  mind  is  less 

active,  and  the  sensibility  more  fresh  and  ■ 

acute.  Tin's  is  particularly  true  of  certain  kinds 
of  temperament  and  mental  constitution.  The 
office  of  education  is  to  recognize  every  principle 
of  the  human  being,  and  to  employ  it  or  appeal 
to  it  in  the  educative  processes.  An  emotional 
nature  should  be  cherished  ;  inasmuch  as  one 
who  is  deficient  in  this  respect  is  apt  to  be  cold, 


selfish,  and  unsocial.  The  emotions  are  not  only 
compatible  with,  but  necessary  to,  the  best  ele- 
ments of  man's  moral  nature  ;'  and  the  educator 
should  strive  to  connect  them  with  moral  mo- 
tives. Habit  has  much  to  do  in  laying  the  foun- 
dation of  a  rich  emotional  nature  in  the  mind 
of  a  child  ;  but  example,  and  the  natural  sym- 
pathy with  the  mind  of  an  educator  thus  cul- 
tivated and  enriched,  has  very  much  more.  To 
cultivate  the  emotions  there  must  lie  means  for 
their  exercise.     'I  he  attempt  to  awaken  emotion 

in  the  minds  of  children  by  mere  sentimentality 
is  futile  and  ridiculous.  Stirring  stones  of  hero- 
ism, endurance,  patriotism, generosity, self  denial, 
filial  affection,  etc.  will  awaken  corresponding 
emotions;  and  when  properly  applied  constitute 
a  means  of  emotional  culture  ;  but  youth  should, 
as  far  as  possible.be  permitted  to  yield  to  the 
natural  emotions  to  which  the  ordinary  circum- 
stances of  their  lives  give  rise;  they  should 
witness  emotion  in  others,  under  restraint,  but 
still  expressed  ;  and  by  imitation,  as  well  as  in- 
stinctive impulse.be  habituated  to  ardor  in  their 
feelings  toward  all  that  is  beautiful,  true,  and 
good  in  natural  objects,  historical  incidents,  or 
the  conduct  of  those  with  whom  they  meet  in 
their  daily  lives. 

EMPIRICAL  METHODS,  those  methods 
of  instruction  or  education  which  are  based  not 
on  theoretical  principles,  but  on  the  effects  of 
practical  operations  as  learned  by  experience. 
Hence  the  term  (from  Gr.  i/iTreipia,  experience). 
When  the  application  of  scientific  methods,  or 
those  derived  from  general  principles,  is  possible, 
the  use  of  empirical  methods  becomes  a  cause  of 
reproach,  and  is  to  be  condemned.  The  science 
of  education  is,  however,  too  unsettled  and  in- 
complete to  justify  such  condemnation,  except  to 
a  limited  extent.  Methods  that  have  stood  the 
test  of  actual  experiment,  and  have  proved 
effective,  are  not  to  be  discarded  merely  because 
the  principle  underlying  them  is  not  understood, 
or  because  they  seem  to  contradict  some  favorite 
theory.  Such  experimental  processes  are  the 
source  of  much  valuable  experience,  and  the 
facts  thus  obtained  should  be  generalized  so  as 
to  supply  additional  scientific  principles,  or  cor- 
rect those  already  deduced.  In  this  way,  the 
practical  experience  of  educators  may  be  em- 
ployed to  improve  and  extend  the  science  of  edu- 
cation. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  undoubtedly 
true  that  teachers  are  too  apt  to  follow 
empirical  methods  blindly,  without  concernin$tffc 
themselves  with  principles.  The  complaint  \7j^ 
often  and  justly  made  that  education  is  not  sci- 
entific; and.  that,  consequently  old  methods  and 

processes  are  often  employed,  when  the  circum- 
stances render  them  entirely  inapplicable.    This 

would  naturally  be  the  result  of  adhering  to  em- 
pirical methods,  since  principles  alone  can  guide 

to  a  just  discrimination  as  to  practical  processes. 

The  'rule  of  thumb"  may  answer  when  the  oper 
ator  is  confined  to  a  very  narrow  sphere  of  his 
art.  ami  i-  never  obliged  to  depart  from  it;  but 
is  entirely  inadequate  to  grapple  with  t  he  difficul- 
ties presented  in  a  varied  and  enlarged  sphere  of 


260 


EMULATION 


practical  effort,  whatever  the  art  or  profession 
maybe.  This  is  particularly  true  of  education, 
since  the  elements  with  which  it  lias  to  deal  are 
as  innumerable  in  their  combinations  as  the 
phases  of  human  character.  In  proportion  as 
education  emerges  from  this  condition  of  em- 
piricism, and  assumes  a  settled  scientific  status, 
its  practical  operations  will  rise  to  the  dignity  of 
a  profession,  and  those  engaged  in  it  will  receive 
the  consideration  which  appertains  to  the  pro- 
fessional character. 

EMULATION  (Lat.  cemuiatio,  from  a&nulus, 
a  rival),  the  desire  to  excel,  is  a  principle  of 
action  which  has  had  a  very  general  application 
in  practical  education,  being  one  of  the  most 
common  incentives  brought  to  bear  upon  chil- 
dren and  youth  to  induce  exertion  in  study.  The 
various  systems  of  merit  marks,  prizes,  etc.,  are 
based  upon  this  principle,  inasmuch  as  they  def- 
initely recognize  and  reward  superiority  or  ex- 
cellence. 

Scarcely  any  subject  has  been  more  thoroughly 
discussed  than  the  propriety  of  resorting  to  emu- 
lation as  a  school  incentive.  On  the  one  hand, 
it  has  been  held  that  the  human  mind,  partic- 
ularly in  its  immature  state,  needs  the  stimulus 
of  secondary    motives  to  awaken   its  dormant 

energies,  especially  for  the  ac< iplishment  of 

tasks  in  which  it  takes  only  an  imperfect  inter- 
Naturally,  children  are  but  little  prone  to 
v,  their  loudness  being  rather  For  act 
spurts  and  amusements  ;  and,  hence,  the  awaken- 
ing of  an  interest  in  the  Studies  themselves, 
while  an  important  object  of  the  teacher's  efforts, 
cannot  be  depended  upon  to  incite  the  pupil  to 
continuous  industry.  While  there  are  BOme 
minds  and  temperaments  that  feel  an  almost  in- 
nate desire  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge, and 
hence  a  love  of  study,  on  the  other  haul,  the 
great  majority  of  children  have  no  such  de 
until  it  is  engendered  by  the  force  of  secondary 
motives,  that  is,  by  holding  out  inducements  to 
Study  based  upon  the  attainment  of  dungs  in 
which  they  do  take  an  interest.  All  children 
are,  moiv  or  less  prone  to  emulation  ;  they  love 
to  excel  others,  particularly  in  things  that  bring 
commendation  and  honor,  in  this  respect  re- 
sembling those  of  maturer  years;  for  this  prin- 
ciple of  action  has  been  recognized  as  leading  to 
eminence  in  every  department  of  human  effort 
Thus  ( 'icero  llonos  alit   artes  omnesquo 

incenduntur  ad  studia  gloria,  jacentque  ea  sem- 
per quae  apud  quosque  improbantur."  Hence, 
in  schools  and  colleges,  emulation  is  an  impor- 
tant and  valuable  incentive  which  the  educator 
by  no  means,  cast  aside.  Of  course,  il  is 
not  to  be  allowed  to  degenerate  into  personal 
strife,  animosity,  or  jealousy ;  nor  is  it  tobein- 
dulg  I  in  such  a  manner  as  to  obliterate  the  pu- 
pil's ■    ii  interest  in  the  study  pursued.     It  is 

always  to  be  impressed    upon  the  student's  mind 

thai  he  is  working  in  b  good  cause,  and  thai  he 
should  Btrive  to  attain  to  the  highest   po 
i\r^      i  ■   exc  silence  in  ii .    higher,  it'   he  can, 
than  that  which  he  Bees  has  been  attained  by  any 

of  bJS  fellow  Students.   Thus  what  oih   ra  a -ii 


becomes  the  measure  of  what  can  be  done  by 
him  if  he  exerts  himself  to  the  utmost,  and  also 
the  standard  beyond  which  he  is  to  go  in  order 
to  obtain  the  prize  of  excellence.  Whewell,  in 
English  University  Education,  remarks,  "A 
combination  of  direct  and  indirect  instruction 
appears  to  be  desirable.  The  love  of  knowledge, 
and  the  love  of  distinction  with  the  fear  of  dis- 
grace, are  the  two  main  springs  of  all  education, 
and  it  does  not  appear  wise  or  safe  to  try  to  dis- 
pense with  either  of  them."  Contention,  per- 
sonal rivalry,  and  envy  need  not,  it  is  said.be 
the  offspring  of  a  noble  emulation  :  and  no  other 
emulation  than  this  should  be  encouraged  or 
permitted  by  the  educator. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  appeal  to  emulation  as 
a  school  incentive,  has  been  either  wholly  or 
partly  condemned  by  a  numerous  class  of  educa- 
tors of  the  highest  distinction.  Dr.  Dwighl  said, 
"Emulation  1  condemn.  I  think  it  is  a  wicked 
passion,  and  the  cause  of  great  evil.  I  wish  to 
see  all  actuated  by  this  desire — to  do  the  best 
they  can  for  the  glory  of  their  Creator."  But 
he  also  said,  "  On  this  subject  I  have  often  re- 
flected. I  have  attended  to  all  the  arguments; 
and,  for  aught  1  know,  impartially.  I  would 
carefully  avoid  emulation  :  1  would  gel  along 
without  it  as  far  as  possible,  and  as  long  as  1 
could  :  but  how  we  can  prevent  its  existence  en- 
tirely I  do  not  know.''  .Miss  C.  E.  Beecher  said, 
"  Emulation  always  affects  those  the  most,  who 
I  tast  need  excitement,  and  leaves  unaffected  those 
who  most  require  it.  Another  evil  is.  that  it 
renders  those  who  come  under  the  influence  of 
this  principle,  less  susceptible  of  better  influence." 
Annals  of  Education,  vol.  in.,  p.  28.)  This 
writer  defines  emulation  as  the  "  method  of  ex- 
citing others  to  exertion  by  rewards  and  punish- 
ments based  on  comparative  excellence."  or 
"giving  rewards  to  those  who  are  decided  to  be 
better  than  their  companions,  in  any  of  tl 
particulars  for  which  rewards  arc  offered. " 
S.  \[.  Hall,  in  Annals  of  Education,  vol.  n.. 
thus  sums  up  the  results  of  his  experience  in 
employing  emulation  as  a  school  incentive  : 
■i  I  |  A  small  part  of  the  scholars  applied  them- 
selves to  their  lessons   with  great    correctm 

They  aimed  to  get  the  lessons  for  recitations, 
but  thought  little  of  learning  them  for  the  pur- 
pose of  applying  knowledge  to  the  practical  pur- 

s  of  life  :  (.'!)  Efforts  were  relaxed  whenever 
the  prospect  of  '  beating '  became  faint ;  (4)  Those 
near  the  head  were  usually  jealous  of  each  other, 
and  not  unfrequently  exhibited  envy  ami  ill-will; 

L'hose  often  obtained  the  prize,  who  were  the 

least  ing  of  it;  (6)  Those  who  had  be- 

come considerably  acquainted  with  a  study  had 
greatly  the  advantage  of  others  in  their  cla 
who  had  enjoyed  less  opportunity;  (7)  Parents 
were  frequently  led  to  take  the  part  of  their 
children,  and  to  believe  they  were  treated  un- 
fairly."  Cowper,  in  Tirocinium,  or  a  Review  <f 
Schools,  gives  the  following  condemnatory  de- 
scription .if  emulation  : 

■•  \  principle,  whose  proud  iirrteusious  pass 
Unquestioned,  though  tUo  jewel  bu  but  glass— 


ENCOURAGEMENT 


ENGLAND 


261 


That,  with  a  world  tint  often  over-nice, 

Ranks  :is  a  virtue  and  is  just  a  vice; 
Or  rather  a  gross  compound, — justly  tried, — 
Of  envy,  hatn  d,  jealousy,  and  pride — 
Contributes  most,  perhaps,  to  enhance  their  fame; 

\ini  Emulation  is  its  specious  came." 

.Most  of  tlic  severe  condemnation  passed  upon 
emulation  seems,  however,  to  be  based  upon  a 
definition  of  it  that  includes  too  much  of  per- 
sonal rivalry,  of  the  selfish  desire  for  reward, 
and  of  the  mere  craving  for  approbation,  the 
natural  concomitants  of  which  are  "envy,  hatred, 
and  jealousy:'"   whereas,  the  desire  of  attaining 

excellence  in  worthy  things  does  not  necessarily 
include  these  baser  motives,  although,  it  must  be 
confessed,  the  tendency  is  in  that  direction  un- 
less it  is  carefully  regulated.  "  Emulation,"  says 
a  distinguished  educator, '' is  a  generous  ardor 
which  nature  herself  kindles  and  nourishes. 
There  may  be  minds  so  indolent,  so  unhappy,  as 
never  to  have  warmly  felt  its  influence.  There 
may  be  whole  schools  in  which,  thanks  to  bad 
organization,  the  indifference  of  the  master,  or 
other  circumstances,  emulation  is  only  weakly 
manifested;  but  in  the  school,  as  elsewhere,  it 
exists  naturally,  and  there  is  less  need  of  excit- 
ing it  than  of  directing  it  aright."  In  this,  as 
in  most  other  respects,  the  educator  has  great 
need  to  watch  the  indications  of  character  in 
his  pupils.  Sonic  minds,  largely  affected  by  ap- 
probativeness,  or  having  excessive  sell-esteem, 
may  be  greatly  injured  by  a  system  that  tends  to 
foster  these  qualities;  others  may  need  the  in- 
centive of  emulation  to  bring  out  their  powers. 
The  prevailing  system  of  treating  all  minds  and 
dispositions  alike  must  often  do  irreparable  in- 
jury. "  There  is  no  ground,"  says  ( iurrie,  in  The 
Principles  mnl  Practice  of  Common-School 
Education,  "for  confining  the  application  of 
this  principle  so  exclusively  as  we  do  to  the 
work  of  instruction.  It  is  true  that,  in  school, 
intellectual  occupation  is  the  chief  work  of  the 
pupil,  and  that,  therefore,  to  it  there  must  be  the 
nn  ist  frequent  occasion  of  applying  the  principle. 
Nevertheless,  the  teacher  is  supposed  to  have  in 
view  the  moral  training  of  his  pupils, whilst  con- 
ducting their  instruction  ;  and  if  he  is  only  im- 
pressed widi  a  due  sense  of  its  paramount  im- 
portance, lie  will  find  many  opportunities  of 
directing  their  attention  to  acts  of  virtue  per- 
formed under  their  observation,  and  of  exciting 
a  spirit  of  emulation  in  this  sphere  of  the  same 
active  kind  as  that  by  which  he  helps  forward 
their  intellectual  work,  'i  he  application  of  this 
principle  to  moral  actions  ought  to  vindicate  it 
against  the  indiscriminate  condemnation  with 
which  we  maybe  tempted  to  visit  it,  when  we 
diink  only  of  its  extreme  exhibition  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  knowledge." 

ENCOURAGEMENT,  as  an  educational 
incentive,  is  of  indispensable  importance  in  deal- 
ing with  a  eei-tain  elass  of  minds,  particularly 
with  those  characterized  by  an  excess  of  caution, 
timidity,  and  diffidence.  (See  Diffidence.)  Many 
teachers  repress  the  exertions  of  their  pupils  by 
failing  to  discern  their  true  character,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  effort  they 
may  have  put  forth  in   order  to  accomplish  an 


assigned  task,  or  to  avoid  a  temptation  to  do 
wrong.  Adopting  an  arbitrary  standard,  they 
Bometimes  condemn  alike  all  who  fail  to  attain 
it,  making  no  allowance  for  diversity  of  talent, 
opportunity,  or  the  power  of  will;  whereas  the 
true  test  of  a  pupil's  merit  is  not  the  accomplish- 

nient  of  the  task,  but  the  exertion  put  forth  and 
the  self  control  exercised  in  the  endeavor  to  com- 
ply with  the  teacher's  precepts  or  direct  ions. 
Encouragement  consist  sin  adjusting  the  standard 

of  success  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  and  traits 

of  the  pupil.  If  the  latter  is  dull,  indolent,  self- 
indulgent,  feeble  in  will,  and  yielding  easily  to 
temptation,  the  educator  who  recognizes  these 
traits,  accepts  with  satisfaction  the  feeblest  efforts 
at  amendment  which  he  sees  have  been  put 
forth,  and  by  judicious  commendation  induces 
stronger  and  more  persistent  ones,  until  the 
foundation  of  moral  or  intellectual  strength  has 
been  safely  laid.  Timid  children  must  be  en- 
couraged to  lay  aside  their  fears  by  being  shown 
that  they  are  groundless.  They  must  not  be  re- 
pressed by  harsh  words  of  censure,  or  by  those 
forms  of  punishment  which  should  be  the  ex- 
clusive penalty  of  willful  wrong-doing.  On  the 
contrary,  they  should  be  made  to  feel  that,  even 
if  they  have  failed,  they  have  won  their  teach- 
er's approving  smiles  by  their  honest  efforts.  All 
the  various  forms  of  encouragement,  within  the 
power  of  a  teacher  of  skill  and  experience,  will 
find  occasions  for  employment  in  dealing  with 
the  endless  diversities  of  character  presented  by 
the  pupils  of  a  large  class  or  school.  Some 
minds,  on  the  other  hand,  need  rather  urging 
than  gentle  encouragement  ;  and  the  latter,  in 
the  form  of  excessive  praise,  to  talented  pupils 
is  often  a  means  of  flattering  their  vanity,  and 
thus  operates  as  a  kind  of  moral  poison,  destroy- 
ing the  force  of  every  true  stimulus  to  activity. 
The  following  are  the  suggestions  of  practical 
educators  :  "Encouragement  inspires  confidence,  ' 
and  children,  more  than  otheis,  need  it.  Let  it 
be  given  in  all  cases  where  this  can  be  honestly 
done.  To  a  want  of  this  in  the  discipline  of 
classes  are  to  be  ascribed  the  timidity  and  reserve 
so  often  manifested  among  pupils  by  a  hesitating 
manner,  a  low  voice,  and  a  lone  of  inquiry  in 
response,  especially  to  strangers.  A  proper  de- 
gree of  encouragement  renders  them  confident 
and  spirited,  eager  to  tell  what  they  know,  and 
in  an  audible  tone  of  voice.  Encouragement  has 
a  peculiar  influence  in  promoting  both  mental 
and  moral  improvement." — (How  to  '/'<<</■}/.  N.Y., 
lb7:5.) 

ENGLAND,  an   important  European  coun- 
try, forming  with  Wales  the  southern  portion  of 

the  island  of  Great  Britain,  and  being  the  prin- 
cipal member  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  (.real 
Britain  and  Ireland.  It  has  an  area  of  58,320 
sq.  miles,  and  a  population,  according  to  the 
census  of  L 871,  of  22,712,266.     On  the  basis  of 

i  lie  official  lists  of  births  and  deaths,  the  popula- 
tion,   in    L875,    was   estimated    by    the    registrar 
general  at  23,944,459.     The  last   official  census 
contains  no  information  of  the  number  of  per 
sons   belonging  to  the  established   Church  of 


262 


ENGLAND 


England  and  other  religious  creeds.  The  pop- 
ulation connected  with  the  established  church  is 
variously  estimated  at  from  55  per  cent  (Martin's 
Yearbook)  to  77.8  per  cent  (Ravenstein's  De- 
nominational Statistics  of  England  and  Wales). 
The  Roman  Catholics  are  estimated  at  4.6  per 
cent  of  the  population. 

Educational  History. — The  history  of  educa- 
tion in  England  is  a  subject  which  deserves  bet- 
ter ami  fuller  treatment  than  it  lias  yet  received. 
Probably,  some  system  of  education  existed  in 
Britain,  or  at  least  in  the  southern  portion  of  it, 
before  Julius  Csesar  visited  its  shores.  Afterthe 
Romans  had  resolved  on  making  Britain  a  per- 
manent addition  to  their  empire,  education  was 
one  of  tlie  means  which  they  employed  to  render 
their  possession  stable.  Tacitus  tells  us  thai 
Agricola  had  the  sons  of  the  chief  men  instructed 
in  the  liberal  arts,  and  the  result  was,  that  the 
Britons  showed  great  ability,  ami  devoted  them- 
selves with  ardor  to  the  new  pursuits.  The  Wo- 
man scl Is  probably  remained    in    existence 

alter  the  Romans  abandoned  the  island.  At  any 
rate,  when  <  'harlemagiie  conceived  the  great  idea 
of  spreading  knowle  Ige  among  all  classes,  it  was 
in  an  Englishman,  Alcuin,  that  he  found  his 
principal  -aide,  as  well  as  his  own  instructor. 
It  is  well  known  that  Alfred  theGreat  did  much 
for  the  sprea  I  of  Learning  and  for  the  English 

universities,  and    many  of   the   grammar  Schools 

were  founded  in  the  middle  ages.  Carlisle 
school,  for  instance,  was  established  in  the  time 

of   William    II.;     Derby,  about   the    year    I  Kid; 

Salisbury,  in  L319 ;  and  Winchester,  the  oldesl 
of  the  so-called  nine  Public  Schools,  in  L387. 
These  schools  were  generally  connected  with 
cathedrals  or  monasteries.  Their  object  was 
mainly  to  train  either  for  the  priesthood  or  for 
.some  lower  service  in  the  church,  as  for  the 
choir.  Speaking  generally,  the  subjects  of  in- 
struction were  grammar  and  music.  Many  of 
these  school-,  were  reorganized  at  the  Reformation, 
and  very  many  additional  ones  were  formed. 
The  range  of  instruction  was  considerably 
widened,  and  most  of  them  were  free;  but  the\ 
helped  to  educate  only  a,  small  portion  of  the 
community  ;   and.    while   the   universities  and   a 

few  of  the  schools  rose  to  eminence, most  of  fches  i 
schools  were  ueglecte  I.  In  process  of  time.  too. 
the  endowments  of  these  schools  were  greatly 
abused;  and  when  a  commission  was  appointed 
to  inquire  into  their  condition  (December  28., 

l^i',  h,  mailers  were  found  in  an  exceedingly  un- 
satisfactory slate.  The  commissioners  excluded 
from  their  examination    the    nine   schools  which 

had  been  already  reported  on.    The  number  of 

schools  which  came  under  their  observation,  ami 

which  they  speak  of  as  endowed,  was  aboul 

TIM);  Imt  they  examined  82  other  schools  doing 
similar    work,    so    that     the    entire    number    was 

782,  in  regard  to  which  they  make  the  follow- 
ing statement:  "  The  aggregate  net  income  from 
endowments  of  the  grammar  and  other  sec- 
ondary scl Is  included  in  our  list  is   £195,184. 

The  gross  inc •  of  the  Bchools  and  charitable 

foundations,     including    grammar    schools,    is 


£336,201 .  The  annual  value  of  exhibitions  to 
which  the  schools  have  a  claim,  but  which  are 
not  included  in  these  amounts,  is  at  least 
£14,264.  The  total  number  of  towns  of  more 
than  2,000  inhabitants,  according  to  the  census 
of  1861,  which  have  endowments  for  a  grammar 
or  other  secondary  school,  is  304.  Many  of  these 
endowments  are  now  applied  to  primary  schools 
only.  There  are  228  towns  of  that  size  without 
any  such  endowment.'* 

The  most  singular  feature  in  the  residts  of  the 
inquiry  was.  that,  in  many  places,  the  endow- 
ments had  come  to  be  regarded  and  treated  as 
private  property.  The  school-master  often  drew 
the  income  without  having  a  single  pupil,  and 
many  school-masters  seemed  to  feel  that  the 
fewer  scholars  they  had.  the  more  comfortable 
would  it  be  for  themselves.  We  quote  some  out 
of  the  very  numerous  examples  which  the  Report 
furnishes:  -At  Bosworth  (net  income  of  school 
£792  a  yean,  the  head-master  taught  three 
hoarders  and  no  others:  the  under-master  only 
attended  when  he  chose:  the  usher  taught  an  in- 
ferior village  school.  Thame  had  two  masters 
receiving  £300  between  them,  one  of  whom  had 
a  good  house  also.  Mr.  Fearon  found  one  boy 
in  the  school.  .V  private  school  close  by  had  Ml 
hoarders  and  40  day  scholars,  paying  higher 
than  the  grammar  school  fees.  At  Witney,  the 
head-master  contented  himself  with  teaching 
Greek  to  one  boy.  Reading  had  three  scholars. 
and  there  was  no  hope  of  the  school's  reviving 

under  the  then  master.  Aynhoe  had  five  schol- 
ars, the  master  having  once  had  a  flourishing 
school  at  Banbury,  and  having  come  to  Aynhoe 
for  retirement.  North  Walsham  (£266)  had 
only  11  pupils,  and  'the  whole  place  wore  an 
aspect  of  decay  and  desolation.'  but  the  master 
objected  to  a  new  scheme's  being  procured." 

In  consequence  of  this  report,  an  executive 
commission  was  appointed  to  prepare  .schemes 
for  the  improvement  of  these  endowed  schools, 
and  to  see  them  carried  into  effect.  This  coin- 
mission  worked  with  greal  vigor,  and  naturally 
aroused  the  opposition  of  those  who  looked  upon 
the  endowments  as  belonging  to  them  by  vested 
right.  The  present  government  listened  to 
these  complaints  and  introduced  an  Amended 
Kndowed  Schools  Bill,  which  transferred  the 
power  of  the  commission  to  the  Charity  Com- 
missii  tiers.      But   the   personal  element  in  the 

administration    was  not    greatly  altered,  and  the 

Charity  Commissioners  are  going  on  with  the 
work  of  reformation  in  an  earnest  spirit.  There 
was  much  need  of  it.  These  schools  were  the 
only  endowed  institutions  which  the  country 
possessed  for  secondary  education.  In  consequence 
of  their  failure   to  do   this  work,   proprietary 

and  private  adventure  schools  had  arisen  in  great 

numbers.  The  private  adventure  schools  were 
for  the  most  part  boarding-schools.  They  were 
conducted  by  a  single  person  as  a  money  specu- 
lation; and.  though  some  of  them  were  admirably 
managed,  most  of  them  were  utterly  unfit  to 
educate.  The  Yorkshire  schools  have  been  de- 
scribed with  wonderful  humor  by  Dickens  in  his 


ENGLAND 


263 


Nicholas  Nickleby ;  but  schools  equally  bad 
existed  over  the  whole  country;  and  some  exist 
to  this  day.  The  proprietary  schools  were  estab- 
lished by  a  number  of  gentlemen  who  combined 
together  in  their  own  districts  to  erect,  maintain, 
and  manage  them.  They  were  much  better,  on  the 
average,  than  the  private  adventure  schools:  but 
many  glaring  defects  were  brought  to  light  by  the 
inquiry  of  the  Endowed  Schools'  Commission. 

These  were  the  means  which  England  had  for 
her  secondary  education.  They  were  marked  by 
the  two  following  characteristics:  (1)  Whether 
endowed,  proprietary,  or  private,  they  had  no 
connection  with  the  state  ;  the  state  did  not  con- 
trol, examine,  appoint  masters  for,  or  in  any  way 
interfere  with,  or  take  the  slightest  superintend- 
ence of ,  these  schools;  {'!)  They  were  to  a  large 
extent  hoarding  schools.  The  boys  left  their  par- 
ents' home  at  an  early  age,  and  live  1  in  houses 
where  only  boys^  and  male  masters  lived;  these 
schools  were  thus  essentially  monastic  institutions, 
and  the  public  opinion  prevalent  in  them  was 
the  opinion  upheld  by  the  majority  or  by  the 
strongest  of  the  boys.  Hence  an  inordinate  love 
of  outdoor  games  and  such  peculiar  customs  as 
that  of  fagging.  These  peculiarities  still  attach 
to  the  schools.  The  state  has  interfered  with 
the  endowments,  and  claimed,  in  consequence  of 
these,  the  right  to  settle  the  nature  of  the  govern- 
ing bodies ;  but,  after  having  once  settled  this, 
the  state  will  withdraw  and  leave  the  schools 
-entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  managers. 

At  the  Reformation,  no  provision  was  made 
for  the  education  of  the  masses,  and  nothing  was 
really  done  for  them  until  the  end  of  the  last 
and  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  A 
very  common  idea  prevailed,  that  it  was  better  for 
the  working  classes  to  be  ignorant.  They  would 
be  more  contented,  it  was  argued,  and  would  con- 
fine themselves  to  their  ordinary  toils,  deriving 
ample  happiness  from  these  in  their  humble 
sphere,  if  they  could  neither  read  nor  write,  and 
knew  little  or  nothing  of  theories  of  government, 
laws  of  trade,  and  the  movements  going  on  in  for- 
eign  countries.  Knowledge  would  only  make  them 
restless.  This  feeling  has  continued  down  to  the 
present  day,  though  it  is  not  often  that  utterance 
is  given  to  it.  The  first  vigorous  effort  made  to 
educate  the  masses  was  due  to  the  zeal  of  Robert 
I:  ilkes  (q.  v.).  who,  in  1780,  established  Sunday 
ols.  The  manner  of  the  commencement  of 
these  is  noteworthy.  The  movement  arose  out 
of  religious  feeling;  and  this  has  characterized 
English  education  in  an  eminent  degree.  In 
other  countries,  education  has  gradually  become 
a  subject  of  interest  to  all.  and  governments, 
cially,  have  deemed  their  interference  essen- 
tial. In  England,  on  the  contrary,  the  effort 
to  educate  has  mainly  arisen  with  the  churches, 
and  the  state  has.  even  to  this  day,  obtained 
"nly  a  subordinate  position  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools.  The  entire  history  of  the 
question  nil]  bring  out  this  curious  aspect  of 
English  education.  It  is  certainly  brought  out 
prominently  in  the  next  stage.  Lancaster  (q.v.), 
a  man -of  strong  impulse  and  generous  heart,  was 


eager  to  educate  the  masses.  lie  made  the  ex- 
periment, and  was  well  supported  in  it  by  the 
community  ;  but  his  success  soon  awoke  suspicion. 
Lancaster  wasa  Quaker,  and  solved  the  religious 
difficulty  by  confining  his  religious  instructions 
to  the  reading  of  the  Bible.  Some  saw  in  this 
a  secret  plot  to  undermine  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land; and  an  effort,  they  felt,  must  he  made  to 
repel  this  insidious  attack.  Lancaster  had  gained 
distinction  by  the  adoption  of  the  monitorial 
system.  Another  educationist.  Dr.  Bell  (q.v.), 
laid  claim  to  having  practiced  this  system  before 
Lam  aster,  ami   a    furious  dispute  arose  on  that 

question,  but  sides  were  formed  according  to 

churches.  Dr.  Bell  was  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  those  who  were  afraid 
for  the  safety  of  that  church  naturally  looked  to 
him  to  organize  an  education  which  should  effect- 
ually oppose  the  Lancasterian  movement.  Out  of 
this  antagonism  arose  two  societies. — the  one.  the 
British  and  Foreign  Society,  in  L808  :  the  other, 
the  National  Society,  in  L811.  The  National 
Society  was  formed  to  establish  schools  in  which 
the  principles  of  the  Church  of  England  should 
be  taught,  and  over  which  the  church  should  ex- 
ercise control.  The  British  and  Foreign  Society 
followed  Lancaster's  system  of  teaching  religion 
from  the  Bible,  and  the  Bible  only,  dhese  two 
societies  proved  themselves  active  in  the  work 
which  they  undertook,  and  schools  arose  in  all 
parts  of  the  land.  But  they  were  utterly  unable 
to  cope  with  the  terrible  destitution  that  pre- 
vailed, and  the  number  of  neglected  and  unedu- 
cated children  was  enormous.  The  religious  dif- 
ficulty, however,  always  intervened  to  prevent 
legislation.  The  House  of  Commons  was  so 
deeply  impressed  with  the  importance  of  the 
subject,  that  it  passed  Mr.  Whitbread's  Parochial 
Schools  Bill  in  1807;  but  the  bill  was  thrown  out 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  none  was  more  earn- 
est in  his  opposition  than  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  Brougham  was  the  next  states- 
man that  attempted  to  grapple  with  the  question. 
He  made  two  distinct  efforts,  one  in  1816,  and 
one  in.  1820.  Brougham's  ideas  were  compre- 
hensive. He  wished  to  see  a  national  system  of 
education,  embracing  the  universities  at  the  one 
end,  and  at  the  other,  parochial  schools  which 
should  furnish  an  elementary  education  tit  for 
the  humblest  of  the  people.  But.  though  he 
labored  with  unremitting  toil  and  with  great 
ability.  Parliament  did  nothing.  Meantime. out- 
side of  Parliament,  there  was  considerable  agita- 
tion in  regard  to  the  subject,  mainly  under  the 
leadership  of  Brougham.  Infant  schools  were 
established.  The  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge  ordered  the  circle  of  Readers. 
The  Central  Society  devoted  its  energies  to  the 
circulation  of  sound  opinions  on  education,  and 
gave  information  as  to  the  progress  and  methods 
of  education  in  foreign  countries.  It  was  not, 
however,  until  1833,  that  Parliament  was  in- 
duced to  do  any  thing  for  education,  when  a  grant 
of  £20,000  was  voted  for  distribution  between 
the  National  Society  and  the  British  and  Foreign 
Society,  to  aid  in  the  erection   of  school  build- 


264 


ENGLAND' 


ings.  During  this  period,  and  for  some  time 
subsequent  to  it,  various  inquiries  were  made 
into  the  educational  condition  of  the  laboring 

classes,  and  the  results  were  found  to  be  unsatis- 
factory in  the  highest  degree.  The  results  of 
the  inquiry  tarried  on  by  the  committee  of  edu- 
cation of  L838  were  as  follows  :  (1  j  That  the  kind 

of  education  given  to  the  children  of  the  working 
classes  was  lamentably  deficient;  (2)  That  it  ex- 
tended, bad  as  it  was,  to  but  a  small  proportion 
of  those  who  ought  to  receive  it;  (3)  That, 
without  some  strenuous  and  persevering  efforts 
on  the  part  of  the  government,  the  greatest 
evils  to  all  classes  might  follow  from  this  neglect. 
The  time  was  ripe  for  further  progress ;  and. 
accordingly,  in  L839,  the  liberal  government 
appointed  an  educational  committee  of  the 
Privy  Council;  and  the  House  of  Commons 
voted  a  sum  of  £30,000,  to  be  distributed  by 
this  committee.  With  this  sum,  little  could  be 
done;  but,  at  any  rate,  there  was  something 
like  a  government  department  for  education. 
The  best  thing  the  committee  did  w  as  to  appoint 
Mr.  .lames  Kay,  afterwards  Sir  .lames  Kay 
Shuttlewortli,  to  be  their  secretary.  JleAvas 
pre-eminently  fitted  for  the  peculiar  position. 
The  committee  arranged  a  system  of  inspection; 
and  if  nothing  more  was  done,  at  least  the  true 
state  of  matters  was  ascertained.  The  committee 
also  attempted  to  found  a  training  college  for 
hers,  but  they  were  baffled  in  tins  effort  by 
the  religious  difficulty.  Sir  J.  K..  Shuttleworth 
resolved  to  set  up  such  an  institution  without 
the  aid  of  government,  and  he  succeeded  The 
various  religious  bodies  followed  his  example ; 
and, '■within  six  years,  fifteen  training  schools 
were  founded."  The  result  is,  that,  up  to  this 
day,  all  the  training  schools  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  churches ;  but  one  body,  the  Inde- 
pendents, took  no  distinct  part  iii  the  work  of 
education,  except  in  founding  and  maintaining  a 
training  school  tor  teachers;  namely,  Bomerton 
College.  In  1846,  the  Committee  of  Council 
aaade  a  still  greater  advance.  A  elaborate  sys- 
tem of  inspection,  with  grants,  was  established, 
much  encouragement  was  given  to  pupil-teach- 
ers an  I  the  profession  of  teacher  rose  in  public 
estimation.  Bui  each  year,  under  this  system. 
the  grants  increased.     They  amounted,  in  L846, 

to   CI  00.000;    in     L859,    they    had    inereascl    to 

1836,920;  and  there  appeared  to  be  no  limit  to 

this    increase.      A    commission    of    inquiry   was 

again  appointed.  Investigations  of  a  most 
tSorough  nature  were  prosecuted,  and  the  report 

was   presented    in    six    volumes.      Mr.   Lowe   was 

at  this  ti vice  president  of  the  Committee  of 

Council  on  Education,  and  was  resolved  to  be 
economical.  The  plan  which  suggested  itself  to 
him  as  the  most  likely  to  serve  the  purpose,  was 

which  he  had  seen  employed  on  the  convicts 

in  A ust l-.i I i,i .  'The  grants  had  been  given  to 
schools,  before  this  time,  on  account  of  general 
efficiency.    The  inspector  reported  on  the  entire 

appearance  of  the  bcI 1:  note  was  taken  of  the 

discipline,  and  of  the  success  of  tin1  pupils  in  all 
departments;  but  especial  praise  was  given  when 


a  school  seemed  to  be  imparting  a  good  intel- 
lectual and  moral  training.  .Mr.  Lowe  thought 
that    government   should    jay  only   for  teaching 

the  three  lis:  and  the  plan  he  proposed  was  to 
devise  various  standards  in  reading,  writing, and 
arithmetic,  to  suit  the  progress  which  scholars 
might  be  supposed  to  make  in  one  year,  and  to 
assign  a  money  value  for  each  of  these  subjects, 
paying  to  the  managers  of  the  school  a  sum 
of  money  according  to  the  number  of  passes 
which  the  pupils  hail  gained  in  the  examination. 
This  plan  was  followed  by  evil  consequences. 
The  higher  branches  were  neglected,  the  profes- 
sion of  teaching  was  lowered,  and  the  instruc- 
tion became  mechanical,  and  passed  into  mere 
cram  for  the  purpose  of  the  passes.  The  one 
-cod  feature  in  the  plan  was  individual  exami- 
nation— a  feature  which  had  existed  to  some  ex- 
tent before,  and  could  well  exist,  if  the  plan  were 
given  up.  The  essential  peculiarities  of  this 
plan  still  exist,  but  the  details  have  been  modi- 
fied. E very  year  sees  changes  in  the  Code,  the 
name  given  to  the  document  which  contains  the 
regulations  in  regard  to  the  standards  and  the 
passes.  Tin'  higher  subjects  have  received  rec- 
ognitdon,  and  various  other  improvements  have 
been  introduced;  bul  the  code  method  must  be 
continued  as  long  as  the  religious  difficulty  bare 
the  way  to  a  comph  tely  national  system.  An 
effort  in  the  direction  of  a  national  system  was 
made  by  Mr.  bolster,  in  his  bill  of  1870.  This 
act    contains    provisions   by   which    local    school 

boards  may  lie  established,  rates  may  be  imposed, 

and  compulsory  clauses  enacted.  It  prescribes 
that  the  religious  instruction  shall  take  place  at 
the  beginning  or  end  of  the  school  day,  and  that 
no  catechism  or  religious  text-book  shall  he  used. 
It  was  thus  only  a  half  measure.  I  be  grants 
were  continued  to  the  denominational  schools. 
The  establishment  of  school  hoards,  the  imposi- 
tion of  rates,  the  employment  of  compulsion, 
and  the  teaching  of  religion,  were  all  to  be 
settled  by  the  special  localities.      Many  localities 

have  taken  advantage  of  the  powers  thus  granted 

them,  and  some,  such  as  the  London  school 
board,  have  done  incalculable  good ;  but  there 
has  been  considerable  rivalry  between  the  school 
hoards  and  the  churches,  and  much  display  of 
bitter  religious  animosity. 

The  elementary  education  actoi  1873  was  de- 
signed to  supplement,  by  some  essential  provi- 
sions, that  of  INTO;  but  more  important  changes 
have  been  introduced  by  that  of  !>7<i.  Thecoin- 
pulsory  attendance  provisions  are  strengthened, 
the  law  declaring   that    "  it    is   the   duty   of   the 

parent  of  every  child  to  cause  such  child  to  re- 
ceive an  efficient  elementary  education';  and. 
not  only,  as  in  the  previous  act.  are  the  school 
boards  vested  with  the  power  to  make  compul- 
sory by-laW8,  but  provision  is  made  for  the  ex- 
tension of  this  authority  by  means  of  school- 
attendance  Committees,  to  lie  appointed,  in  a 
borough,  by  the  town  council,  and,  in  a  parish, 
by  the  guardians.  The  act  of  lSTtiaL"  provides 
for  the  establishment  of  day  industrial  schools, 
in  which  elementary  e  lucation,  combined   with 


ENGLAND 


265 


industrial  training  may  be  carried  on,  the  pupils 
being  supplied  with  one  or  more  meals  each  day. 
Tins  is  designed  to  encourage  and  facilitate  the 
education  of  a  large  class  ot  neglected  children 
whom  the  previous  provisions  did  not  succeed  in 
reaching.  A  new  *  lode  of  Regulations  lias  been 
issued  in  pursuance  of  this  act. 

The  following  table,  compiled  from  official  re- 
turns relating  to  the  elementary  schools  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  (including  those  of  the  Isle  of 
Mam.  gives  a  view  of  the  progress  of  education 
between  the  years  1864  and  1*74. 


Number  of]  Number  of  chil- 

Average  number  of 

Veak 

schools 

dren  that  can  be 

children  in  attend- 

inspected 

accommodated 

ance 



7.134 

1.510.721 

919,922 

1867 

7.601 

1,605,409 

978,332 

1868 

8,051 

1,724,569 

1,060,082 

1869 

8,593 

1,888,416 

1,153,572 

1870 

s.'.im; 

1,950,641 

1,255,083 

1871 

9,621 

2,092,984 

1,345.802 

1872 

10.7.-.1 

2,397,745 

1,445,326 

1873 

11.951 

2,665,467 

1.570,741 

1874 

13.243 

2,982,981 

1,774,143 

Elementary  K  lunation. — National  System. — ■ 
Appropriations  are  annually  made  by  parliament 
for  •' public  education  in  England  and  Wales"; 
ami  the  grants  thus  made  are  administered 
by  the  Education  Department,  which  consists  of 
the  Ix>rds  of  the  Committee  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil on  Education.  The  object  of  the  grant  is  not 
to  make  full  provision  for  the  support  of  schools, 
but  to  aid  local  exertion,  under  certain  condi- 
tions, to  maintain   (1)   elementary  schools,  and 

(2)  training  colleges  for  teachers.  Public  element- 
ary schools  must  be  conducted  according  to  the 
following  legal  regulations :  (1)  No  religious  ob- 
servances, or  attendance  at  any  church  or  Sunday- 
school,  must  be  imposed  as  a  condition  of  ad- 
mission to  the  school ;  (2)  Religious  observances, 
and  instruction  in  religious  subjects,  must  be 
either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the 
school  session,  and   must  not  be  compulsory ; 

(3)  The  school  must  be  open  at  all  times  to  the 
visits  of  the  government  inspectors  ;  but  the  lat- 
ter are  not  permitted  to  take  any  cognizance  of 
religious  instruction.  Unless  the  school  is  con- 
ducted according  to  the  legal  provisions,  it  can- 
not obtain  any  portion  of  the  parliamentary 
grant;  and  no  grant  is  paid  to  any  school,  except 
on  a  report  of  an  inspector.  These  inspectors 
are  appointed  by  the  ( 'rown,  on  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  education  department.  In  order  to 
obtain  participation  in  the  grant,  the  school 
must  be  placed  on  the  list  for  inspection,  after 
application  to  the  Department  by  the  school 
board  or  other  managers.  The  school  premises 
are  required  to  be  "healthy,  well-lighted,  warmed] 
drained,  ami  ventilated,  properly  furnished,  sup- 
plied with  suitable  offices,  and  to  contain,  in  the 
principal  school  room,  and  classrooms,  at  least 
80  cubical  feet  of  internal  space,  and  8  square 
feet  of  area,  for  each  child  in  average  attendance." 
The  principal  teacher  must  lie  certificated.  If, 
on  the  inspector's  report  of  any  school,  there  ap- 
pears to  be  any  serious  objection,  the  grant  may 
he  withheld  ;  but  a  second  inspection,  by  another 


inspector,  is  always  made.      There   must    be    I 

Less  than    loo  morning  and  afternoon  sessions 

of    tlie   school   during   the   year.      The    grant    is 

based  on  the  average  attendance  and  the  proficien- 

c\    of    the    pupils    in    Certain    branches,    that   is, 

so  much  i  I  s.)  for  each  pupil  in  attendance,  and 
so  much  for  each  pass  in  reading,  writing, arith- 
metic, geography,  grammar,  history,  etc.  \\  1  let  her 
the  mode  of  examination  shall  lie  oral  or  writ- 
ten, is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  inspector. 

The  girls  must  be  taught  "plain  needle-work  and 
cutting  out"  as  a  regular  branch  in  the  day 
schools;  and  to  show  the  proficiency  acquire* I. 
specimens  must  be  worked  on  the  day  of  the  in- 
spection. The  evening  schools  must  hold  at  least 
1 5  sessions  during  the  year,  and  are  similarly 
inspected  and  paid  for.  Attendances  must  not 
be  reckoned  for  any  pupil  in  a  day  school,  under 
3  years  of  age  or  above  18  ;  or,  in  an  evening 
school,  under  12  or  above  21.  The  standards 
are  six  (from  I.,  the  lowest,  to  VI.,  the  highest), 
and  minutely  prescribe  the  degrees  of  proficien- 
cy to  be  attained  in  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, grammar,  geography,  and  English  history. 
Reductions  are  made  in  the  grants  for  various 
reasons,  including  an  unfavorable  report  of  the 
inspector,  or  the  want  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
pupil-teachers,  who  are  prescribed  as  follows: 
for  the  first  GO  pupils,  none  ;  for  any  number 
between  01  and  100,  inclusive,  one;  between 
101  and  140.  two,  etc.  The  recognized  classes 
of  teachers  are  three  :  (1)  certificated  teachers; 
(2)  pupil-teachers  ;  (3)  assistant  teachers.  Cer- 
tificates are  obtained  on  examination,  which  is 
open  to  (1)  students  who  have  resided  for  at 
least  one  year  in  training  colleges  under  inspec- 
tion, or  (2)  candidates  who  are  upward  of  21 
years  of  age,  and  have  either  completed  satis- 
factorily an  engagement  as  pupil-teacher,  ob- 
tained a  favorable  report  from  an  inspector,  or 
served  as  assistants,  for  at  least  six  mouths,  in 
schools  under  certificated  teachers.  These  exam- 
inations are  held,  in  1  lecember  of  each  year,  at 
the  several  training  colleges  under  inspection, 
and  "  at  such  centers  as  may  be  necessary":  and 
the  list  of  successful  candidates  is  published. 
Each  certificate  records  the  relative  proficiency 
of  the  candidate  receiving  it.  Candidates  must, 
after  examination,  serve  as  teachers  under  pro- 
bation, before  receiving  certificates.  The  certifi- 
cates are  of  three  classes  ;  and  no  certificate 
above  the  second  class  is  originally  issued:  the 
third  (lowest)  includes  special  certificates  for 
teachers  of  infant  classes.  '««/  service  alone 
entitles  any  teacher  to  a  certificate  of  the  first 
class.  Those  of  the  second  class  remain  in  force 
ten  years.  Pupil-teachers  are  boys  or  girls  em- 
ployed to  serve  in  a  school,  under  certificated 
teachers.  They  must  be  ai  least  L3  years  of  age  : 
and  not  more  than  four  must  be  engaged  for 
every  certificated  teacher.  At  the  close  of  their 
engagement,  these  pupil-teachers   may   become 

assistants,  or  thej  maybe  examined  for  admis- 
sion into  a  training  college,  or  be  provisionally 
certificated  for  immediate  service  in  small  schools. 
—  A  training  college  includes  both  a  "college 


266 


ENGLAND 


for  boarding,  lodging,  .and  instructing  candidates  I 
for  the  office  of  teacher  in  elementary  schools," 
and  a  "  practicing  school,  in  which  candidates 
may  learn  the  i-xeicise  of  their  profession".  An- 
nual grants  are  made  to  these  institutions  on  the 
same  conditions  as  to  public  elementary  schools. 
Each  college  is  entitled  to  £100  for  every  master, 
and  £70  for  every  mistress,  who,  after  two  years' 
training,  completes  the  prescribed  period  of  pro- 
bation, and  becomes  qualified  to  receive  a  teach- 
er 3  certificate,  or  who  has  completed  a  like  period 
K)d  service  as  an  elementary  teacher  in  the 
army,  royal  navy,  or  in  the  poor-law  schools,  cer- 
tified industrial  schools,  or  certified  reformatories. 
Examinations  for  admission  are  held  annually. 
and  are  open,  without  restriction  by  the  educa- 
tion department,  to  pupil-teachers,  and  others 
who  intend  band  fide  to  adopt  and  follow  the 
profession  of  teacher  in  elementary  schools.  All 
candidates,  before  a  Imission,  must  be  passed  by 
the  in  ■  li'-al  officer  of  the  college,  who  must  cer- 
tify that  they  are  in  good   health    and    free  from 

his  bodily  defect  or  deformity.  If  candidates 
are  admitted  in  violation  of  the  rules,  the  edu- 
cation department  refuses  to  -rant  them  certifi- 
cates. -Pensions  are  granted  to  teachers  in  cer- 
tain  cases,   the    maximum   number  and  value 

ivable  at  > time,  in  England  and  Scotland 

together,  being  270,  as  follows  :  20  of  £30  each: 

LI f   £25  each:  and   L50  of  £20  each:  all  of 

which,  with  special  gratuities  and  donations, 
amount  t  >   66,500. 

Besides  the  schools  that  receive  grant-  of 
public  money,  according  to  the  Code,  there  are 

iols  thai  are  inspected,  but  receive  no  grant, 
and  private  schools,  the  latter,  however,  rapidly 
diminishing  in  number.  The  school  boards, con- 
stituted under  the  ad  of  1870,  consist  of  not 
less  than  .">  nor  more  than  I  j  members,  elected, 
in  the  boroughs,  by  the  persons  on  the  burj. 
roll;  in  a  parish,  by  the  rate-payers,  except  in  the 
metropolis.  Every  voter  may  give  all  his  vote- 
to  one  candidate,  or  distribute  them  among  the 
candidates  as  he  thinks  tit.  Boroughs  and  par- 
ishes may  be  united  by  the  education  depart- 
ment so  as  to  form  a  united  school-district.  The 
societies  which  have  the  charge  of  the  inspected 

BCl Is,  besides    the    school    boards,    are    the    fol- 

Iowing :  (1)  The  British  and  Foreign  School 
Society,  supported  by  Christians  of  all  denomi- 
nations; l-i  The  National  Society  fo]  the  edu- 
cation   of   the    poor    in    the    tenets    and   ob.-crv- 

ances  of  the  established  church:  (3)  Diocesan 
Boards  of  Education  which,  in  connection 
with  special  dioceses,  look  after  the  education 

en  in  church  schools  ;  (I)  The  Church  of 
England  Education  Society,  consisting  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Evangelical  party,  which  gives  aid  to 
Bchools,  but  does  aol  establish  any;  (5)  The  <  !om- 
mittee  appointed  by  the  Roman  <  latholics  to 
watch  over  the  education  of  the  pour;  (6)  The 

era!  Committee  on  Education,  appointed  h\ 
the  VVealeyans,  for  the  firsl  time,  in  1840.  There 
are  other  societies  of  less  note,  such  as  the  I  loine 
and  Colonial  Society, the  London  RaggedSchool 
'  Inion,   the  London  <  lommittee  of  the  British 


Jews,  and  the  Voluntary  Society.  The  educa- 
tion furnished  by  the  school-board  schools  ap- 
pears to  be  the  best,  the  reports  showing,  on  the 
whole,  a  larger  percentage  of  passes  in  the 
standards.  The  teachers  of  the  board  schools 
are  better  paid,  and  of  superior  efficiency.  The 
income  of  all  the  schools,  except  the  board 
schools,  arises  from  the  following  sources: 
(1)  voluntary  subscriptions;  (2)  fees;  (3)  govern- 
ment grants  according  to  the  Code.  In  the  board 
schools,  instead  of  the  voluntary  subscriptions, 
there  is  the  rate.  Fees  and  government  grants 
are  common  to  all. — There  are  also  schools  for 
special  classes:  (1)  Ragged  Schools,  (2)  Indus- 
trial Schools,  (3)  Reformatories.  Ragged  schools 
are  supported  entirely  by  voluntary  contribu- 
tions, and  consist,  as  the  name  denotes,  of  neg- 
lected, but  not  criminal  children.  The  industrial 
schools  give  both  intellectual  and  moral  training 
and  instruction  in  the  industrial  arts.  These 
schools  are  subsidized  by  the  government.  Re- 
formatprii  s  are  Largely  supported  by  the  govern- 
ment ,  being  intern  Lei  1  f<  »r  juvenile  offenders.  There 
are  also  schools  connected  with  work-houses. 
Schools  for  the  children  of  soldiers,  and  training 
ships,  in  which  boys  are  trained  for  marine  ser- 
\  ice.  -Special  notice  should  also  be  taken  of  the 
Science  and  Art  Department,  which,  under  the 
fostering  care  of  the  Late  Prince  Albert,  has 
done  so  much  to  spread  a  knowledge  of  science 
and  art  over  the  country.  Art  schools  have  been 
established  in  various  cities,  and  prizes  offered 
and  awarded.  Examinations  in  science  maybe 
held  iii  any  town  in  which  a  committee  can  be 
formed  ;   certificates   arc   granted   to    those    who 

pass,  and  the  teacher  receives  a  sum  of  money 
for  each  pupil  thai  passes. 

Educational  Statistics. — The  following  statis- 
tics, for  the  year  1ST"),  show  what  progress  has 
been  made  in  national  elementary  instruction: 

Expenditure  from  Education  Grants. 

(TABLE  A  — Classified  according  to  Object  of  Grant. 

1.  Iii  annual  grants  to   elementary         £       s.    d. 
Bchools  under  the  new  cede,  viz.: 

For  day  scholars 1,074,411    1  3 

For  evening  scholars 1s,;ii;t  17  5 

2.  Grants  to  school  boards  317  10  11 

3.  Toward  the  building  and  tarnish- 
ing of  school  premises 34,491  13  2 

4.  In  grants  to  training  colleges....       '.i-l,:>7ii  i;>      4 
■.  Unexpired  pensions His  i;,      o 

6.  Administration: —    £       b.    d. 

For  inspection.  .79,527  L8    L0] 
For  office   and  > 

contingencies,  16,613  11      7)       126,141  10      5 

7.  Organization  of  districts,  etc 7, mil  11    11 

Total 1,356,746  19      5 

Table  B)  —Classified  according  to  Denomination. 

On  Bchools  connected  with  Church  £       s.    d. 

of  England 822,565    9    5 

On    British,    Wesleyan,    and    other 

Bchools ". 235,887    6    6 

On  Roman  Catholic  Schools 7:s,ssl  19    ,r. 

On  Board  Bchools 90,231   10  10 

(in  Parochial  Union  Schools 120    0    0 

Administration  (as  in  Table  A) 126,141  10    5 

Organization  of  districts,  etc 7,601   11  11 

Grants  to  School  beards ;;i7  in  11 

Total 1,356,746  19    5 


ENGLAND 


26T 


The  number  of  certificated  male  teachers  in 
the  schools  receiving  grants  was  1 0,1*2 1  ;  of  fe- 
male certificated  teachers,  11,731;  of  male  as- 
sistant teachers.  872  ;  of  female  assistant  teach- 
ers, l,i 549  ;  of  male  pupil-teachers,  L0,886;  and 
of  female  pupil-teachers,  18.406.  The  number 
of  schools  actually  inspected  daring  the  year 
ending  August  31.,  1875,  and  the  number  of 
pupils,  according  to  the  denominations  that  edu- 
cate, are  given  in  the  following  tables. 

NUMBER  OF  SCHOOLS. 


DENOMINATIONS 

I»a\ 

Schls. 

Night 
Schls. 

Total 

Schools  <■( >i 1 1! c  . ■  t .  .  1  with  National 
Society  or  Church  of  England. . 

British  Wesleyan  and  other 
schools  not  connected  with  the 

School-Board  Schools 

9,449 

2,034 

598 

1,136 

17 

52 
4 

9,466 

2.0S6 
598 

1,140 

Total 

13.217 

73 

13,290 

NUMBER  OF  PUPILS  LN  AVERAGE  ATTENDANCE. 


DENOMINATIONS 


Schools  connected  with  Na- 
tional Society  or  Church  of 
England 

Brit.  Wesl.  and  other  Schools 
not  connected  with  the 
Church  of  England 

Roman  Catholic  Schools 

School-Board  Schools 

Total 


Day  Schools 


Boys         Girls         Total 


643,971 


190,802 
5  1,074 

128,036 


531,318 


137,378 
53.352 
98.649 


1,175,289 


328,180 
100,426 


1,016,483  820,697  1,837,180 

i . __ 

Night  Schools 


Schools  connected  with  Na- 
tional Society  or  Church  of 
England 

Brit.  Wesl.  and  other  Schools 
not  connected  with  the 
Church  of  England 

Roman  Catholic  Schools 

School-Board  Schools 


Males     Females     Total 


23,418 


10,207 
1,737 
3,235 


5,081 


2,707 

1,136 

861 


28,499 


12,914 

2,873 
4,096 


Total 38,597        9,785  148,382 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of 
pupils  on  the  school  registers,  and  the  number 
of  pupils  for  whom  accommodation  is  provided 
at  80  cubic  feet  of  internal  space,  and  8  square 
feet  of  area  per  pupil : 


DENOMINATIONS 


Schools  connected  with  Na- 
tional Society  or  Church 
of  England 

British  Wesleyan  and  other 
schools  not  connected 
with  Church  of  England. 

Roman  Catholic  Schools... 

School-Board  Schools 


Scholars  on 
the  school 
registers 


Scholars 

that  may  be 

iccommodated 


1,735,895 


492.588 
351,967 


2,011,434 


571.582 
387,227 


Total 2,744,300      |      3,159,47'.) 

_  Of  the  pupils,  64  percent  attended  the  Na- 
tional Society  schools;  L8  per  cent,  the  British 
Wesleyan  schools;  5.5  percent.  Roman  Catholic 

schools;  and  12.5  per  cent,  the  Board  schools. 


The  pupils  on  the  school  registers  were  divided 
in  regard  to  aye  as  follows : 


AGE 

No.  of  scholars 

Per  cent 

19.358 
111,409 

0  70 

Between    3  and    4  years 

4.06 

4    ••      5      "     .... 

232,680 

8.48 

5     •'      6       «     .... 

297.1:;  I 

10.83 

6     "      7      "     

323.404 

11.79 

"           7     "       8       "     

320, tl 2 

11.68 

"          8     "      9      •'     

324.901 

11.74 

9     "     10      "     

315.496 

11.49 

10     "     11       '•     .... 

292,72 1 

10.67 

11     "     12      •'     .... 

242,012 

8.82 

12     "13       "     .... 

172.449 

6.28 

13     "14       "     .... 

65,307 

2.38 

26,944 

0.98 

London  School  Board — Of  all  the  school 
boards  created  by  the  act  of  1870,  that  of  the 
metropolis  had  the  heaviest  task  imposed  upon 
it;  and  it  has,  accordingly,  accomplished  the 
greatest  results.  The  first  board  (elected  Nov. 
29.,  1870)  contained  many  eminent  members, 
among  them  Prof.  Huxley,  and  Dr.  Elizabeth 
Garret-Anderson.  rlhe  School-Board  district 
embraces  a  population  of  3.400,000,  out  of 
4,200,000  people  inhabiting  what  is  now  called 
Greater  London,  which  covers  698  square  miles. 
The  number  of  school  districts  is  10.  which  are 
represented  in  the  board  by  49  members,  elected 
by  ballot.  The  population  of  London,  in  1871, 
was  3,265,005,  of  whom  681,107  were  children 
between  the  ages  of  3  and  13;  and  of  these,  it 
was  estimated  that  more  than  200,000  needed 
school  provision.  Up  to  November,  1875,  the 
number  of  new  schools  opened  by  the  board  was 
102,  and  33  were  in  course  of  erection.  There 
were,  at  that  time,  under  the  control  of  the 
board,  199  school-houses,  in  436  departments, 
containing  112,901  pupils.  The  school-houses 
have  been  erected  with  great  care,  and  upon  the 
most  approved  principles  of  school  architecture. 
(See  Robson's  School  Architecture,  1875,  and  R. 
T.  Smith's  School  Buddings  and  Fittings,  1875.) 
"  The  result  of  the  School  Board  action,"  says 
Sir  Charles  Reed,  the  chairman  of  the  Board,  "has 
been  to  add  over  60,000  children  now  (1875)  in 
attendance  at  the  board  schools,  and  about 
45,000,  to  the  denominational  schools." 

Teachers'  Associations.  —  The  teachers  of 
England  have  formed  various  associations  at  dif- 
ferent times,  of  which  the  most  effective  is  the 
College  of  Preceptors  (see  Preceptors,  Col- 
lege of),  which  holds  meel  ings  and  examinations, 
gives  diplomas,  and  more  recently,  has  instituted 
a  professorship  of  education.  Since  1870,  the 
elementary  teachers  have  formed  an  association 
called  the  National  Union  of  P^lementary 
Teachers,  which  is  increasing  in  influence. 

Secondary  Education.- — The  schools  for  second- 
ary education  in  England  comprise  the  great 
endowed  or  foundation  schools,  including  the 
nine  so-called  public  schools  ;  the  proprietary 
schools;  and  the  Ladies'  Colleges. 

The  public  schools*  or  colleges,  nine  in  num- 
ber, are    Eton,  Winchester,    Westminster,  - 
Caul's  School,  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  Char- 
terhouse, 1 1  arrow,  Rugby,  and  Shrewsbury.    Iu 


268 


ENGLAND 


18G1,  the  government  appointed  a  commission 
to  inquire  into  the  revenues  and  management 
of  these  schools ;  and  the  results  of  the  inquiry 
were  published  in  four  volumes  (1864) ;  and,  in 
1868,  a  Public  Schools  Art  was  passed,  giving 
the  commission  power  to  frame  statutes  and 
.illations  for  these  schools.  They  were  accord- 
ingly remodeled,  upon  a  new  and  uniform  plan. 
The  chief  features  are  here  presented. — (1)  Man- 
agement IV tore  the  appointment  of  the  com- 
mission bodies  quite  different  in  character  were 
the  managers.   Tims,  at  Eton,  the  managers  were 

the  provost  and  fellows  of  the  college  ;  at  Win- 
chester, the  warden  and  fellows;  but  the  head- 
master had  nearly  absolute  control.  The  Court 
of  Assistants  to  the  Mercers'  Company  were  the 

governors  of  St.  Paul's;  and  the  Courl  of  As- 
sistants to  the  Merchant  Taylors,  of  the  school 
of  that  name.  Harrow.  Rugby,  and  Shrewsbury 
were  governed  by  trustees.  The  new  statutes  of 
tin:  commission  have  established  something  like 
a  system  in  the  mode  of  electing  the  various 
governing  bodies,  without  entirely  removing  the 
peculiarities  of  each  school.  Thus,  the  govern- 
ing body  of  Eton  is  now  composed  of  (1)  the 
provost  of  Eton,  (2)  the  provost  of  King's  *  !ol- 
iege  Cambridge,  (3)  (me  member  to  he  elected 
by  the  hebdomadal  council  of  <  Ixford  '  Imversity, 
1 1  oii'\  by  the  council  of  the  senate  of  Cam- 
bridge, (5]  one.  by  the  council  of  the  Royal 
Society,  (6    one  to  he  nominated  by  the  Lord 

Chief  -1  list  ice.    7    on,'  to  be  i  lected  by  the  head. 

lower,  and  assistant  masters,  (8)  not  less  than 

two.  nor    more  than    four,  to   he  elected    by    the 

governing  body  it-elf.     The  governing  bodies  of 

the  other  schools  are  constituted  in  a  similar 
manner,    having   regard    to    the    peculiarities 

of  each   locality.      These    managers   have   entire 

control  over  the  endowments,  make  regula- 
tions iii  regard  to  the  buildings,  and  elect  and 

dismiss  the    head-master.      They   are    subject    to 

no  supervision  excepl   that  ol  the  Visitor,  who 

i-   always    a     person    of    great    eminence. — 

2    '/'  tchers.    The  head-master  appoints  all  the 

masters  and  other  persons  engaged  in  teaching 

in  the  school,  and  all  hold  their  positions  during 

his  pleasure.  The  exercise  of  the  power  of  dis- 
missa]  by  the  head-master  has.  however, given  rise 
to  several  disturbances.    The  masters,  in  these 

Schools,   occupy    a  peculiar    position.      They   ari' 

keepers  of  boarding-houses,  as  well  as  teachers  : 
and  their  incomes  are  mainly  derived   from  the 

former.  The  expenses  at  the  various BCl Is  dif- 
fer.   Those  at  Barrow  are  given  asa  specimen: 

d  and  Bcho  '1  charges  (per  annum), 
:  private  tuition  ( per  annum),  £15  :  board, 
washing,  etc.,  nt  head-master's  boarding-house  (per 
annum),  v.- ;  entrance  fees,  £12.  The  other  board- 
e  divided  into  two  cilassea, — large  /e<«s< s. 
in  « liieli  the  annual  charge  for  board  etc.  i-  £90,  and 
small  houses,  in  which  are  received  private  boarders 
:it   in  .iiiiiu  il  rli  irge  of  £135. 

Instruction.     Classical  instruction  has  al- 
ways I'  sen  the  pi- incut  Feature  of  these  schools. 

•  Mh.T  branches, such  as  mathematics,  geography . 
history,  and  modem  languages  were  formerly 
more  or  less  neglected.    The  methods  of  teach 


in-  were  had.  The  tone  of  feeling  prevalent 
discountenanced  study.  The  boy  who  wished 
to  gain  the  respect  of  his  fellows,  was  compelled 
to  distinguish  himself  in  the  cricket  field,  or  in 
other  athletic  sports.  If  he  tailed  in  thi 
success  in  study  brought  him  into  contempt, 
instead  of  respect.  The  Public  Schools 
Act  has  introduced  greal  changes,  and  an  ap- 
proach to  a  uniform  system.  The  following 
subjects  are  prescribed  by  the  statutes  for  Eton: 
religion,  classics,  writing,  arithmetic,  mathe- 
matics, history,  geography,  and  English;  French, 
for  hoys  who  have  attained  the  middle  division 
a/  tin  ft Hi  form,  but  German  or  Italian  may  he 
taken  instead:  natural  science,  for  all  after  en- 
tering the  middle  division  <f  tin-  fifth  form, 
and  for  every  hoy  in  the  school  whose  parents 
desire  it.  After  a  hoy  has  come  within  the  first 
hundred,  facilities  are  afforded  him  for  pursuing 
special  branches.— The  age  of  admission  is  not. 
exactly  the  same  at  all  the  schools  ;  but,  on  the 
average,  it  may  he  said  that  no  one  is  admitted 
below  10  years  or  above  15;  and  no  one  is  al- 
lowed to  remain  beyond  the  age  of  19.  A  pre- 
liminary examination  is-  required.  The  number 
of  classes,  or  firms,  varies  in  the  different 
schools.  Each  school  is  divided  into  two  parts, — 

an  upper  and  a  lower  school.     The  upper  si  1 1 

of  Eton  is  thus  divided,  the  Sixth  class  being 
the  highest:  (I)  Fourth,  consisting  of  (1)  Lower 
Remove,  (2)  Middle  Remove,  and  (3)  ('/>/»r 
Remove)  II  Remove, consisting  of  (1)  Upper 
Remove,  ami  (2)  Lower  Remove]  (III)  Fifth, 
consisting  of  (1)  Lower  Division,  (2)  Middle 
Division,  and  (3)  Upper  Division  (the  lower 
and  middle  divisions  being  each  subdivided  into 
a  lower  and  upper  remove)  ;  (IV)  Sixth. 

Before  the  commission  sat,  there  was  a  great 
diversity  in  the  numbers  allowable  in  a  division. 
At  present,  the  statutes  strictly  limit  this.  In 
Eton,  there  must  be  not  less  than  one  classical 

master    to  every     LOO    hoys   in   the    school.      In 

Rugby,  there  is  to  be  at  hast  one  master  for 
i  vei\  'jn  hoys,  including  the  head-master,  and  no 

class  of  hoys  under  inst  met  ion.  except  the 
Sixth  furm.  musl  exceed  32  in  nuiuhcr.  with- 
out permission  of  the  governing  body.  — 
Annual  examinations  of  these  schools  are  con- 
ducted by  examiners  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ing bodies.  In  all  these  schools,  the  pupils  are 
divided  into  two  classes,—; foundationers  ami 
non-foundationers.  The  former,  as  the  name 
implies,  in  sonic  schools,  receive   their  education 

gratuitously;  in  others,  both  their  education  and 
maintenance.  *  tften,  they  have  to  gain  admission 
to  a  foundation  by  a  competitive  examination. 

The  Others  arc  hoarded  with  the  master,  and 
sometimes,  as  tit  Harrow  and  Rugby,  they  re- 
side with  their  parents.  In  the  masters' houses, 
the  masters  act  as  tutors.     Fagging  (q.  v.)  is  a 

custom  peculiar  to  these  schools  ;  hut  the  right 
to  fag  belongs,  in  most  schools,  to  onl\  a  .-mall 
Dumber  of  seniors.  At  present,  this  custom  is 
not  w  holly  condemned.  Indeed,  the  commission, 
after  a  strict   investigation,  reported  that,  "on 

the  whole,  it  is  a  popular  institution." 


ENGLAND 


269 


The  location  and  date  of  foundation  of  each 
of  these  schools  are  here  given: 


NAME 


Location 


London 

Eton   opp.  Windsor) 

Harrow-ou-the-Hill 


Charterhouse 

Ktoii 

Harrow 

Merchant  Taylors' London 

Rugby Rugby 

St.  Paul's London 

Shrewsbury Shrewsbury 

Westminster Westminster 

Winchester Wincliester 


\\  hen 

founded 


Hill 
1440 
1571 
1501 
1507 
1512 
1551 
1500 
1378 


Other  endowed  schools  are  Christ's  Hospital 
(q.  v.),  Dulwich  College,  at   Dulwich,  a  suburb 

of  London,  founded  in  1619;  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's School,  at  Ipswich  (1565);  the  Free 
Grammar  School  at  .Manchester,  founded  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.;  St!  Andrew's  College,  at 
Bradfield,  near  Reading;  the  Tonbridge  Free 
Grammar  School  (1552) ;  Repton  School  (1557); 
King  Kdward's  School,  Birmingham  (1552)  ; 
Wellington  College,  near  Wokingham,  Berk- 
shire, founded  by  public  subscription,  in  honor 
of  the  duke  of  Wellington,  for  the  education  of 
the  sons  of  deceased  military  officers  ;  and  the 
City  of  London  School,  incorporated  in  1834. — 
According  to  the  Grammar  Schools  Act,  gram- 
mar schools  include  all  endowed  schools  main- 
tained for  the  purpose  of  teaching  Latin  ami 
Greek,  whether  the  instruction  be  limited  to 
these,  or  extended  to  other  blanches,  either  of  lit- 
erature or  science.  The  purpose  of  these  schools, 
as  stated,  is  to  give  "an  education  higher  than  the 
rudiments,  conducted  under  religious  influences, 
within  the  reach  of  all  classes,  but  with  an 
especial  preference  for  the  poor  boy  who  is  apt 
to  learn,  and  frequently  also  for  some  particular 
locality."  The  amount  of  endowment  of  the 
schools  ranges  from  that  of  Christ's  Hospital,  the 
largest  (over  £42,000  a  year),  to  some  consisting 
simply  of  a  rent  charge  of  about  £5  a  year. 
Usually,  the  school  possesses  a  school-house,  a 
master's  house,  and  an  annual  income.  There  are 
15  grammar  schools  which  have  net  incomes  ex- 
ceeding £2,000  a  year;  13,  at  least  £1,000  a 
year;  55,  at  least  £500  ;  222,  at  least  £100;  and 
the  rest  are  under  £100  a  year.  The  date  of 
the  oldest  of  the  existing  endowed  schools  is 
1216  A.  D.  The  endowed  collegiate  and  gram- 
mar  schools  are  782  in  number ;  and  other  en- 
dowed schools  number  2,559  ;  but,  including 
those  that  have  small  endowments,  the  total  is 
given  at  4.021.  The  Endowed  Schools  Act 
(1869)  intrusted  to  a  commission  the  task  of  re- 
organizing these  schools,  chiefly  in  the  direction 
of  extending  the  benefits  of  the  endowments. — 
The  proprietary  colleges  and  schools  arc  of  the 
same  grade  and  character,  as  educational  institu- 
tions, as  the  public  schools.  The  most  important 
are  the  following:  Marlborough  College,  Chel- 
tenham College,  Haileybury  College,  Clifton 
College,  Brighton  College,  Lexington  College, 
and  Rossall  School,  near  Fleetwood,  Iancashire. 
Besides  these,  there  are  King's  College  School 
and  the  University  College  School,  at  London, 
which  are  partly  preparatory  schools.  The  gram- 


mar schools  in  the  Metropolis  are  quite  numer- 
ous, and  some  of  old  foundation,  as  the  Mercers' 
Company's  School,  founded  in  L542;  St.  Sa- 
viour's, Southwark,  in  1562;  and  the  Brewers' 
Company's  School,  in  1687. 

Ladies*  <  'oUeges. — Queen's  ( lollege,  Harley  St., 
London,  incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  L853, 
was  instituted  for  the  general  education  of 
ladies,  and  for  granting  certificates  of  knowledge. 
Queen's  College  School,  for  children  from  5  to 
14  years  of  age,  is  attached  to  the  college. — Bed- 
ford College,  London,  was  founded  in  1st!),  and 
incorporated  in  1869.  The  affairs  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  council  of  management,  and  the  lady 
president;  and  the  members  of  the  college  (26 
male,  and  32  female)  include  many  eminent 
educationists. — North  London  Collegiate  School, 
established  in  1850,  is  endowed  by  a  grant  from 
the  estate  of  Alderman  Richard  Piatt.  It  pur- 
sues the  course  of  study  preparatory  for  the  uni- 
versity examinations  tor  women.  The  Camden 
School  for  Girls,  established  in  1871,  is  under 
the  same  governorship. — The  (  heltenhain  Ladies' 
College  was  established  in  1854,  and  now  num- 
bers 320  pupils.  The  object  of  the  institution  is 
"to  provide  for  the  daughters  of  gentlemen  a 
sound  and  religious  education  of  the  highest 
order,  and  on  moderate  terms.'' — Girton  Col- 
lege, Cambridge  (incorporated  in  1872),  was 
opened  at  llitchin.  in  1869 ;  and,  in  1873, 
entered  on  the  occupation  of  the  present 
buildings,  which  had  been  erected  by  public 
subscription.  The  capital  fund  is  now  above 
£20,000.  The  college  is  designed  to  hold,  in 
relation  to  girls'  schools  and  home  teaching,  a 
position  analogous  to  that  occupied  by  univer- 
sities toward  the  public  schools  for  boys;  and 
the  promoters  seek  to  obtain  for  the  students 
admission  to  the  examination  for  degrees  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  and  to  place  the  col- 
lege in  connection  with  that  university.  The 
course  occupies  about  three  years,  half  of  each 
year  being  spent  in  the  college. — The  Ladies' 
College,  Southampton,  was  established  by  the 
Ilampkin  Association  for  promoting  female 
education,  with  the  view  of  raising  the  tone 
of  female  education  in  the  south  of  England. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  universities  of 
Oxford  and  ( 'ambridge  long  stood  alone  as 
university  representatives  of  higher  education. 
(See  Cambridge  and  Oxford.)  The  growing 
wealth  and  importance  of  the  provinces  how- 
ever, and  the  increasing  demand  on  the  part 
of  the  prosperous  middle  classes  for  the  more 
advanced  education,  from  which  they  were 
practically  shut  out  by  the  cxehisivencss  and 
cxpensiveness  of  the  great  seats  of  learning, 
have  led  to  the  establishment  of  colleges  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country.  Indeed,  the  old 
universities  have  begun  to  recognize  the  neces- 
sity for  an  extension  of  their  own  influence  and 
usefulness.  In  1873,  the  Cambridge  senate  organ- 
ized a  scheme  of  local  lectures  ;  and.  at  the  end 
of  1873.  and  again  at  the  beginning  of  1874,* 
session  of  twelve  weeks  was  held  in  Nottingham, 
Derby,  and  Leicester ; — the  subjects  taught  be- 


270 


ENGLAND 


ing  political  economy,  physical  science,  constitu- 
tional history,  ami  English  literature,  and  the 
Dumber  of  students  ranging  from  30  to  500.  In 
L874,  the  scheme  was  extended  to  Bradford, 
Halifax,  Keighley.  and  Leeds;  and,  in  1874 — 5, 
applications  were  received  from  Derby,  Not- 
tingham, Leeds.  Bradford,  Halifax.  Keighley. 
Liverpool.  Birkenhead,  New  Brighton,  Leicester, 
Burslem,  Hanley,  Newcastle-under-Lyne,  and 
Stoke-upon-Trent.  Three  conditions  were  in- 
sisted on  :  (1;  a  standard  of  excellence  to  give 
definiteness  an  1  thoroughness  to  study  ;  (2)  - 
ttlar  and  systematic  class  teaching ;  and  (3)  a 
system  of  examination,  regulating  the  granting 
of  certificates.  The  reports  of  the  examiners 
were  highly  satisfactory. 

The  University  of  Durham  was  instituted  in 
L 832,  under  an  act  of  parliament  empowering 
the  dean  and  chapter  of  Durham  to  appropriate 
an  estate  at  South  Shields  for  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  a  university  in  connection 
with  the  cathedral.  The  management  was  in- 
trusted, under  the  bishop  as  Visitor,  and  the 
•lean  and  chapter  as  Governors,  to  the  warden, 
a  senate,  and  a  convocation,  -the  senal  •  being 
composed  of  the  ward  m.  the  professors  of  ( Ireek, 
mathematics,  ami  divinity,  the  two  proctors, 
and  live  other  members  of  the  convocation. 
The  convocation  originally  consisted  of  gradu- 
ates of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  who  arc  now  re- 
inforced by  the  graduates  of  the  university  it- 
self. The  office  of  warden  is  permanently  an- 
nexed to  the  deanery  of  Durham;  and  a  can- 
oncy  in  the  cathedral  to   each  of  the    professors 

in  divinity  and  Greek.    University  College  was 

formed,  at  the  opening  of  the  university,  for  tli  • 
purpose  of  uniting  a  system  of  domestic  disci- 
pline with  academical  instruction.  The  Castle 
of  Durham  is  held  in  trust  for  the  University, 
its  hall  being  used  as  a  college  hall,  ami  its 
chapel     as   a   college   chapel.        To    extend    the 

!'n  Gits  of  residence  to  persons  of  limited  means, 
Bishop  Hatfield's  Hall  was  founded  in  1846 ; 
and  Bishop  Cosin's  Hall,  in  L851  ;  the  students 
of  the  latter,  however,  were  transferred  to  the 
former  in  L864.  The  general  academical  in- 
struction is  similar  to  thai  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge :  and  the  l'».  A.  degree  examination  is  held 
at  the  end  of  two  years,  of  26  weeks  each.  There 
is  a  special  course  of  theological  study,  and  a 
License  in  Theology,  granted  on  examination; 
and  in  the  theological  faculty  alone  is  there  any 
isl    or  subscription.     In    ls7o,   the 

'  le    up  mi  -  Tyne     <  lollege     of     Medicine 

(founde  linl851  bet  ame  the  Durham  University 
•'"II  ■-  ■  of  Me  licine,  and  its  Btudents  arc  mem- 
fa   s  of  the   University.     To  obtain  a  license  in 

medicin •  in  surgery    a  student   must  spend 

four  years  at    some  approved  medical   school, 

'.  at  this  college),  and  | 
two  prof  sional  examinations.  The  College  of 
Physical  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  was 
foun  led  in  1871 .  and  incorporated  with  the 
I  niversity  of  Durham,  in  L87  I.  The  endowment 
of  the  college  was  provided  partly  by  the  uni- 
ity.  and  partly  by  the  leading  landed  proprie- 


tors, employers  of  skilled  labor,  etc.  in  the 
North  of  England.  There  are  chairs  of  pure 
and  applied  mathematics,  chemistry,  physical 
and  experimental  philosophy,  geology,  and 
biology  and  physiology ;  and  lectureships  in 
(lassies.  French,  German,  English  literature,  and 
mechanical  drawing.  The  course  lasts  two  years, 
and  successful  students  graduate  as  associates  in 
physical  science.  The  general  government  is  in 
the  hands  of  17  members,  partly  ex  officio,  and 
partly  elected  :  and  the  ordinary  administrators 
are  a  council  of  15,  elected  out  of,  and  by,  the 
governors.  In  L875,  Codrington  College,  Bar- 
bados, was  affiliated  to  the  University.—  Owens 
College,  -Manchester,  opened  in  1851.  (See 
OWENS  COLLEGE.)  The  Yorkshire  College  of 
Science  was  established  in  1*7-1.  to  supply  in- 
struction in  those  sciences  which  are  applicable 
to  the  manufactures,  engineering,  mining,  etc. — 
The  University  of  London  was  chartered  in 
1836.  (Sec  London,  Untvebsity  op.)  There  is 
aboard  of  governors,  life,  elected,  and  representa- 
tive; and  a  council  of  '21  members,  elected  from 
and  by  them,  for  the  administration  of  the  college 
affairs.  'I  here  are  (hairs  of  mathematics  and  ex- 
perimental physics,  chemistry,  geology  and  min- 
ing, biology,  and  civil  and  mechanical  engineer- 
ing; and  an  instructor  in  textile  industries.  The 
title  of  Associate  in  Physical  Science  is  conferred 
on  students  who  attend  (lasses,  in  not  less  than 
three  departments,  for  each  of  two  entire  sessions, 
and  who  pass  a  special  examination  in  each  class 

at  the  end  of  their  course.  These  departments 
are  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  geology,  bi- 
ology, and  civil  and  mechanical  engineering.    In 

the  session  of]  875-  (i.  there  were  85  day  students 
(of  whom  28  were  students  of  chemistry  belong- 
ing to  the  Leeds  School  of  Medicine),  and  246 
evening  and  occasional  students. —  University 
College,  Bristol,  was  instituted,  in  1876,  to  sup- 
ply, lor  persons  of  both  sexes  above  the  ordinary 
school  age,  the  means  of  continuing  their  studies 
in  science',  languages,  history,  and  literature, 
and  more  particularly  to  afford  appropriate  in- 
struction in  those  branches  of  applied  science 
which  are  employed  in  the  arts  and  manufact- 
ures. There  are  both  dav  and  evening  lectures 
and  classes:    and   medical   education  IS  provided 

by  the  Bristol  Medical  School,  which  is  affiliated 
t  >  the  college. 

Professional  and  &  >■  nlific  Instruction.    The 
institutions  for  theological  instruction  are  very 
numerous  including  those  of  the  various  denomi- 
nations :  1 1  :  Church  of  England,  as  follows:  St. 
Aidan's  College,  Birkenhead  (founded  in  184 
the  Missionary  College  of  St.  Augustine,  Canter- 
bury (founded  as  an  abbey  in  605  A.  D.,  sup- 
prosed   in    1538,  restored   in  1848);  Chichester 
Theological  '  lollege  I  I  839);  <  'uddesdon  'I  heol 
ical  College,  Wneatley, Oxfordshire  (1854);  Lon- 
don College  of   Divinity,  St.  John's  Hall,  High- 
burj  i  1863);  Lichfield  Theological  College  (181 
Gloucester  Theological  College  (1869  ;  St.  Bees 
( lollege,  (  umbel-land  (181  6) :  Salisbury  Theoli 
ical  College  I L860   ;    Wells  Theological  College 
(1840);  St.    David's   College,  Lampeter  (1822; 


ENGLAND 


271 


chartered,  1828),  which  prepares  for  the  civil 
service  and  other  professions,  as  well  as  holy 
orders;  The  Queen's  (  tollege,  Birmingham  (facul- 
ty of  theology,  founded  in  1852) ;  and  Church 
Missionary  College,  Islington.  (2)  We&leyan; 
Wesleyan  Theological  Institution,  near  Manches- 
ter I1- 34);  Wesleyan  Theological  Institution, 
Leeds  (1868);  Richmond  College  (1843),  for 
training  missionary  students;  Primitive  Method- 
ist Theological  Institute.  Sunderland  (1868);  and 
United  Methodist  Free  Church  Theological  In- 
stitute (lsT2).  (3)  Congregational:  Hackney 
College  (1803);  The  Countess  of  Huntington's 
College,  Cheshunt,  Berts  (1768);  Spring  Bill 
i  lollege,  Birmingham  (1  831 );  Rotherham  College, 
Yorkshire  (1756);  New  College,  London,  founded 
in  1850  by  the  union  of  several  other  Colleges : 
Lancashire  Independent  College, near  Manchester 
(181  •'•);  and  Bala  Independent  College,  founded 
in  1842.  (4)  Roman  Catholic:  College  of 
St.  Peter  and  Paul,  Bath  (1867),  designed  to 
furnish  a  liberal  education  for  the  higher  classes, 
based  on  the  principles  of  the  R.  C.  Church,  its 
course  in  philosophy  and  theology  embracing 
5  years;  St.  Mary's  College,  Birmingham  (1793), 
which  affords  a  classical  education,  as  well  as 
professional  instruction;  and  St. Bruno's  College, 
St.  Asaph,  designed  exclusively  to  prepare  candi- 
dates for  the  priesthood.  (5)  Baptist:  New  Col- 
lege, London  (1810)  ;  North  \Yales  Baptist  Col- 
lege, Llangollen  (1802)  ;  Baptist  Theological  In- 
stitute. Pontypool,  Monmouth  (1807);  The  Bap- 
tist College,  Haverford-west  (1839)  ;  Pastor's 
College,  instituted  at  Camberwell  in  1856,  re- 
moved to  Metropolitan  Tabernacle,  in  1861  ; 
Bristol  Baptist  College  (1770)  ;  General  Baptist 
College,  Chilwell,  near  Nottingham  (1797) :  and 
Rawdon  College,  near  Leeds  (1804).  (6)  Pres- 
byterian: Carmarthen  Presbyterian  College 
(1719) ;  and  Theological  College,  London  (1844). 
(7)  Unitarian:  The  Unitarian  Home  Mission- 
ary Board,  Manchester  (1854).  (8)  Calmnistic 
Methodist:  Trevecca  College,  near  Talgarth, 
Wales;  (9)  Free  Religious  Thought:  Manchester 
New  College  (1786). 

There  are  four  Inns  of  Court,  qualified  to  call 
students  to  the  Bar  :  (1)  Lincoln's  Inn,  (2)  the 
Middle  Temple,  (3)  the  Inner  Temple,  and 
(4)  Gray's  Inn.  Each  of  these  nominates  two 
benchers,  and  the  eight  benchers  constitute  the 
Council  of  Legal  Education.  The  council  appoints 
five  readers,  who  deliver  lectures  in  each  term, 
and  guide  the  professional  studies  of  young  men 
preparing  for  the  Bar. — There  are  medical  schools 
connected  with  the  universities ;  also  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons, the  Society  of  Apothecaries;  Metropolitan 
'hospitals  and  schools  of  medicine:  St.  Barthol- 
omew's, Charing  Cross,  City's.  King's  College, 
Middlesex,  St.  George's,  St.  Mary's.  St. Thomas's, 
I  niversity  College;  and  the  following  provin- 
cial schools:  Queen's  College,  Birmingham  ;  Bris- 
tol Medical  School;  Cambridge  Medical  School; 
Leeds  School  ;  Liverpool  Royal  Infirmary  and 
School;  Manchester  Royal  School;  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne   (Durham)  ;     and  Sheffield  Medical 


School. —  Scientific  instruction  is  given  in  the 
Science  and  Art  Department  of  the  Committee 
of  Council,  South  Kensington,  which  administers 
a  sum  of  money  voted  annually  by  parliament 
to  promote  instruction  in  science,  especially 
among  the  industrial  classes.  Science  schools  or 
classes  may  be  formed  in  any  locality  under   the 

management  of  a  local  committee.  The  aid  is 
given  in  the  form  of  (1)  public  examinations, 
held  annually,  in  which  Queen's  prizes  of  books 
and  instruments  are  awarded;  (2)  payments 
(from  £1  to  C4  per  student)  to  teachers  or  com- 
mittees, on  the  result  of  the  examinations; 
(3)  Scholarships  and  exhibitions;  (4)  building 
grants;  and  (5)  grants  toward  the  purchase  -of 
fittings,  apparatus  etc.  'I  he  science  schools  ex- 
amined in  May,  1876,  numbered  as  follows  :  in 
England,  1,206;  in  Scotland.  113;  and  in  Ireland, 
165;  having  an  aggregate  of  4,559  classes,  and 
52,330  students.  The  schools  of  art  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  in  1^75,  numbered  L36,  with 
23,381  students;  and  the  night  classes.  57!)  (in 
England  alone,  543),  with  21,601  students. 
Other     scientific    schools    are    the   following : 

(1 )  the  Agricultural  College,  ( !irencester,  founded 
in  1842,  which  has  a  farm  of  500  acres.  The 
teaching  staff  comprises  professors  of  agricult- 
ure, chemistry,  veterinary  surgery,  natural  his- 
tory, mathematics  and  surveying,  and  drawing. 

(2)  The  Royal  School  of  Mines,  founded  in  1851, 
having  grown  out  of  the  Geological  Survey  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  commenced  in  lb34,  by 
the  late  Sir  Henry  de  la  Beche.  its  first  professors 
being  the  officers  of  the  Survey.  There  are  vari- 
ous exhibitions,  scholarships,  and  free  admissions 
attached  to  the  school.  (3)  The  Royal  Academy 
of  Arts,  founded  in  1768,  removed  to  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  in  1838,  and  to  Burlington  Home, 
in  1869.  (4)  The  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
founded  in  1822,  receives  an  annual  parliament- 
ary grant.  (5)  The  Royal  Military  Academy,  at 
Woolwich,  founded  in  1745,  and  the  Royal  Mili- 
tary College,  at  Sandhurst,  in  1799.  also  the 
Royal  Military  Staff  College.  (6)  The  Royal 
Naval  College  at  Greenwich,  founded  in  1873, 
and  (7)  Eastman's  Royal  Naval  Academy.  South- 
sea,  founded  in  1851. — See  Sir  J.  K.  Shuttle- 
WORTH,  Public  Education,  3  vols.  (1853)  ;  Four 
Periods  of  Public  Education  (1862)  ;  and 
Thoughts  and  Suggestions  on  Certain  Soda/ 
Problems  (1873) ;  Ernest  Wagner,  Vblksschul- 
in  sen  in  England  (1864);  Donaldson,  Lectures 
on  Ed  mutant  in  Prussia  and  England  (1874). 
In  regard  to  secondary  instruction,  see  Report 
of  Her  Majesty's  Commissioners  appointed  to 
inquire  into  the  Revenues  and  Management  of 
certain  Colleges  and  Schools,  etc,  1  vols.  (1864); 
Return-  -Public  Schools  (statutes,  etc.),  printed 
by  order  of  the  Bouse  of  Commons  (1876); 
Demooest  and  Montdcoi,  De  lenseignement  se- 
condaireen  Angleterreeten  11  •  -  I  Paris,  186 
Staunton,  The  Great  Schools  of  England  1 1 8651; 
Maxwell,  -1  History  of  Eton  College  (1875); 
Turner,  Educational  Legislation  (bond..  1876); 
Pascoe,  .1  Handbook  to  the  Schools  of  England 
(Lond.,  1 877).  (See  also  Cambridge,  and  Oxford.) 


272 


ENGLAND 


ENGLISH 


ENGLAND,  Church  of.  See  Episcopal 
Church. 

ENGLISH,  The  Study  of.  The  mother- 
tongue  has  peculiar  relations  to  education.  Lan- 
guage baa  a  twofold  nature, — on  the  one  side, 
Voice,  on  the  other,  thought.  Early  thought  is 
almost  all  stimulated,  guided  and  supported  by 
the  mother-tongue.  All  early  acquisition  of 
knowledge  may  be  regarded  as  the  study  of  the 
mother-tongue;  and,  even  in  civilized  nations,  few 
persons  ever  advance  beyond  the  knowledge  store  I 
up  for  them  in  their  native  speech.  The  mother 
■■•li  is  also  tli  ■  means  of  communicating  with 
others,  and  of  influencing  them;  so  that  the 
study  of  it  as  an  art  includes  the  study  of  rhet- 
oric and  oratory,  and  of  the  art  of  poetry. 

It  would  seem  then  that  there  are  four  chief 
direct  uses  in  studying  English :  (1)  To  under- 
stand what  is  spoken  or  written  in  that  langu 
(2)  To  speak  it  well;  (3)  To  write  it  well ;  an  1 
( I  To  master  English  literature.  And  there  are 
three  remoter  ends :  (I)  To  master  the  languag  i 
ntifically;  (2)  To  acquire  the  knowledge  of 
language  in  general ;  an  I  (3)  General  culture. 

Early  study,  in  infant  Softools,  kindergartens, 
and  primary  schools. — The  me  ming  of  wor  Is 
istb  thing  children  learn  of  languages.  Tha 

nam  ss  of  a  few  familiar  objects  and  acts  are  re- 
peated in  connection  with  the  objects  and 
themselves  bo  often,  that  the  infant's  thought 
passes  promptly  from  the  sound  to  the  thing. 
Thus  papa,  mamma,  kiss,  laugh,  make  the  child 
think  of  the  person  or  act  before  it  can  speak 

any  words.      Many   words   are  also   attached   to 

thoughts  by  being  often  hear  I  connected  with 
other  wor  Is  in  discourse.  Such  knowledge, 
caughl  by  the  child  rather  than  taught  to  it,  is 
for  th  ■  in  ><t  pari  very  indefinite  and  inexact, 
but  qo  pari  of  education  is  more  important. 

The  objects  named  shoul  I  be  objects  worthy 
of  thought.  Good  and  bad  qualities  should  be 
marked  by  such  tones  and  manner  as  will 
give  their  names  correct  and  powerful  associa- 
tions.   The  means  of  expressing  the  affections 

.should  be  carefully  taught.  In  the  kindergarten 
or  other  infant   school,  care   should  be  methol- 

tcalrj  bak  sn  to  teach  the  words  which  accurately 

name  the  olij eels  and  processes  that  the  children 

learn;  unnamed  objects  and  pro  s,  however 
amusing  or  ingenious,  enter  little  into  thought 

and  contribute  little  to  culture.     A  leading  pur- 

in  all  objecl  tea  shine  should  be  to  give  val- 
uable   ideas;     hut    thai     is   the    same    as  giving 

familiarity  with  good  words.    Teachers  of  infant 

Bcho  i  good  hooks,  containing  classified 

important  words,  with  directions  how  to 

h     them     by    means    of    well-chosen    object 

less,, li-.  and  amusing  occupations.    See  Cindsr- 

>i  n  an  I  Object  Teaching.)  Pot  children  of 

•■i    larger   growth,  we  have  a  great  Dumber  of 

lers   and     Definer8,    and    small    dictionaries 

which  teach  the  meaning  of  English  words.  The 
latter  should  be  constantly  used. 
The  Btudyof  meanings  in  such  manuals  is, 

however,  of  little  worth,  unless  supplemented  by 
object   teaching   on    the    one    hand,   and    by  the 


study  of  discourse  on  the  other.  Manuals  of 
object  teaching  arranged  for  the  purpose  are 
wanting.  Object  teachers  often  contrast  the 
study  of  words  with  the  study  of  things,  and 
condemn  the  study  of  words,  instead  of  teaching 
them  through  their  exercises.  There  are  many 
bonks  made  up  of  progressive  selections  of  dis- 
course, intended  to  introduce  young  pupils  to 
words.  Most  Primers  and  Readers  attempt- 
something  in  this  way,  and  some  are  skillfully 
preparel  with  notes  and  exercises  for  this  pur- 
pose.    (See  Primer,  and  Reading.) 

To  speak  well  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
meanings  of  words  and  of  the  combinations  in 
which  they  are  actually  used,  of  the  meanings 
and  uses  of  grammatical  prefixes  and  suffixes,  and 
of  the  exact  sounds  which  are  made  by  good 
speakers.  Speaking  must  go  on  at  a  certain 
speed  :  and,  therefore,  thoughts,  Avoids,  and  the 
movements  of  the  vocal  organs  must  be  closely 
associated,  so  as  to  follow  one  another  without 
effort  and  with  great  rapidity.  Much  practice 
in  speaking  is  necessary  in  order  to  speak  well ; 
and,  in  general,  practice  in  the  very  kind  of 
-peaking  in  which  the  excellence  is  desired.  In 
the  early  stages  of  education,  this  must  be  almost 
wholly  imitative  practice.  Children  catch  and 
w^v  the  sounds  and  forms  which  make  the  live- 
liest impression  on  them,  ami  which  they  hear 
oftenest ;  to  use  a  form  or  sound  once,  makes  it 
most  likely  to  occur  to  the  mind  again.  Teachers 
should,  therefore,  train  by  inducing  imitation  of 
their  own  speech.  Exercises  may  be  used  in 
i.  peating  after  the  teacher  the  elementary 
sounds,  and  afterwards  difficult  words,  and  then 
familiar  dialogues,  and  finally  passages  of  poetry, 
or  elevated  prose,  which  the  teacher  likes  and 
can  repeat  with  feeling.  Incorrect  articulation 
and  bad  grammar  should  be  constantly  corre<  ted, 
not  by  repeating  and  caricaturing  what  is  faulty 
but  by  substituting  the  correct  expression.  Chil- 
dren should  also  be  encouraged  to  talk,  at  proper 
times,  to  repeat  the  explanations  of  the  teacher, 
not  verbatim  throughout,  but  yet  with  a  con- 
stant, close,  and  correct  use  of  the  technical 
terms  or  important  words  ;  nor  is  it  unscientific 
to  commit  to  memory  formulas  of  permanent 
importance,  to  be  fully  comprehended  afterwards; 
such  as  the  multiplication  table,  catechisms  of 
moral  and  religious  truth,  and  noble  utterances 
which  it  does  men  good  to  haw  fast  in  the 
memory.  The  youth  should  be  led  on  by  lan- 
guage faster  and  farther  than  his  own  thoughts 
could  have  gone  alone.  Practice  of  this  kind 
Mill  naturally  go  along  with  reading. 

Learning  t<>  read  should   begin  early.    The 
monstrous  spelling  of  the  English  language  makes 

this  much  more  difficult  than  to  learn  to  read 
German;  and  teaching  the  names  of  the  letter, 
and  (he  sounds  of  the  syllables  as  if  made  up  of 
them,  has  a  mischievous  effect  on  the  reason  of 
the  learners.  Several  methods  arc  used  in  our 
schools  to  overcome  (lie  difficulties.  The  word- 
method  (a.  v.)  is  one.    In  this, children  are  taught 

to  recognize  words  as  wholes  before  learning  the 
letters.      In  skillfully  prepared  books,  with  pic- 


English 


273 


torial  illustrations,  children  learn  to  read  very 
rapidly  by  this  method,  l>ut  not  so  accurately; 
and  it  is  very  hard  to  teach  them  to  spell.  Skill- 
ful teachers  will  use  a  judicious  combination  of 
the  two  methods.  Books  are  also  prepared  with 
an  alphabet  in  which  each  letter  has  always  the 
Bame  sound,  a  proper  phonetic  alphabet,  and  with 
classified  examples  of  words,  and  reading  extracts, 
spelt  in  the  phonetic  alphabet  wholly  at  first, 
and  gradually  passing  to  our  standard  spelling. 
These  have  been  used  for  some  years  in  Xew 
York.  Boston,  St  Louis,  and  elsewhere,  and  are 
reported  to  save  one  half  of  the  time  usually  de- 
voted to  Learning  to  read.  There  isnowanactive 
movement  for  the  reform  of  our  spelling  which 
it  may  be  hoped  will  save  the  next  generation 
much  time  and  toil.  (See  Orthography,  and 
Phonetics.)  Books  of  this  kind  are  Leigh's 
edition  of  various  elementary  reading-books;  also 
Davis's  American  Primer,  Douai's  Rational 
Phonetic  Primer,  Loxgley's  America n  Phonetic 
Primer.  Sheldon's  Xew  Phonetic  Primer, 
Shearer's  Combination  Speller,  Vickroy's  Pho- 
iii  tie  First  Reader.  Primary  cards  and  charts 
to  aid  in  this  early  instruction  are  to  be  had  in 
1  variety.  Practice  in  writing  is  one  of  the 
best  aids  in  learning  to  read  and  spell,  and  hence, 
copying  choice  extracts,  and  then  writing  them 
down  from  memory,  is  quite  useful.  Soon  after 
lessons  in  penmanship  begin,  grammar  should  be 
taken  up. 

Grammar  is  often  used  as  a  name  for  the 
whole  science  of  language  and  the  art  of  using 
it ;  but  by  masters  of  the  science  of  language,  it 
is  now  confined  to  the  classification  of  words 
into  parts  of  speech,  according  to  their  uses  in 
discourse,  the  description  and  exposition  of  the 
changes  of  form  called  inflections,  and  the  uses 
of  these  in  the  correct  construction  of  sentences. 
There  woidd  be  some  advantage  in  dropping  the 
old  traditional  definitions,  which  lead  teachers 
and  pupils  to  expect  that  the  study  of  English 
grammar  will  make  them  able  to  speak  and  write 
the  English  language  correctly.  It  is  only  one  of 
the  helps  to  correctness  in  speaking  and  writing. 
The  attempt  by  makers  of  school  grammars  and 
by  teachers  to  do  too  much  is  one  reason  wdiy  the 
study  is  so  much  neglected  and  abused.  Descrip- 
tive grammar  consists  of  definitions  of  the  parts 
of  speech,  paradigms,  and  rules  of  syntax.  With 
children,  a  careful  selection  of  simple  and  typ- 
ical matter  should  be  made,  just  as  in  botany  or 
in  any  other  science.  This  matter  should  consist 
of  definitions  and  rules,  stated  in  accurate  sci- 
entific language,  but  simply  and  briefly  ;  and  of 
selections  of  words  and  sentences,  also  simple  and 
clear,  and  suited  to  illustrate  the  definitions  and 
rules.  This  matter  should  be  managed  by  the 
teacher  so  as  to  use  mere  verbal  memory  as  little 
as  possible,  and  to  train  the  pupil  to  see.  hear, 
and  think  as  much  as  possible.  The  definitions 
and  the  rules  should  be  learned  like  rules  in 
arithmetic,  but  the  main  work  should  be  the  ap- 
plication of  them  to  examples.  The  scholar 
should  every  day  hand  in  written  grammar 
Work  on  the  slate  or  on  paper,  like  sums  in 
18 


arithmetic;  and  the  preparation  and  explanation 
of  this  work  should  be  the  main  grammar  lesson 
in  the  early  years.  This  method  needs  some 
system  ot  notation  by  which  any  sentence  may 
be  put  on  paper  or  on  the  blackboard  with  its 
words  SO  designated  by  signs,  or  by  an  arrange- 
ment in  diagrams,  that  the  analysis  and  parsing 
of  it  may  be  made  plain  to  the  eye.  Such  systems 
are  found  in  several  books.  A  considerable  Dum- 
ber of  our  best  teachers  use  substantially  this 
method,  many  of  them,  without  a  book,  dictat- 
ing, day  by  day,  definitions  which  the  pupils  are 
to  remember,  and  giving  out  words  and  sentences 
to  be  classified  and  analyzed,  also  proposing  trials 
in  collecting  and  inventing  words  and  sentences 
of  the  kind  to  be  studied.  Looks  are  often  whol- 
ly condemned  by  these  teachers,  who  collect,  year 
by  year,  in  their  own  note-books,  or  memories, 
a  store  of  happy  questions  and  examples,  as  well 
as  carefully  considered  definitions  and  rules  ;  and 
it  would  obviously  be  a  great  help  to  young 
teachers,  as  well  as  to  pupils,  to  get  a  good  note- 
book of  tliis  kind,  neatly  printed,  and  there  are 
some  books  for  beginners  which  are,  in  substance, 
such  note-books;  we  mention  A  Parser  ami 
Analyzer  for  Beginners  with  diagrams  and 
suggestive  pictures,  by  F.  A.  March  (New 
York),  and  Greene's  Analysis  (Phila.).  (See 
A nalysis,  Grammatical.) 

Advanced  Study  in  High  Schools  and 
Colleges.  —  Students  entering  the  high  school 
should  have  been  taught  general  descriptive 
grammar  thoroughly,  so  as  to  be  able  to  apply 
its  definitions  and  rules  promptly  and  accurately 
to  sentences  wdiich  they  understand,  and  which 
have  no  strange  idioms.  They  should  also  have 
mastered  some  system  of  notation  to  set  forth 
their  grammatical  knowledge  in  writing.  They 
should  have  also  been  trained  in  articulation  and 
in  the  idioms  of  common  conversation,  and  should 
have  had  some  practice  in  writing  compositions. 
The  study  of  English  will  now  be  directed  to 
acquire  skill  in  speaking  and  in  writing,  and  a 
mastery  of  English  literature,  and  the  philos- 
ophy of  speech.  Each  of  these  demands  special 
study  and  practice. 

I.  Skill  in  Speaking.  —  This  should  be  cul- 
tivated in  various  ways  :  (1)  By  free  conversa- 
tion on  topics  at  set  times,  when  the  teacher  may 
act  as  a  model  and  censor;  (2)  By  the  declamation 
of  selections  from  standard  authors ;  (3)  By  trans- 
lating from  foreign  languages,  the  student  being 
required  to  give  the  thought  of  the  author  in  his 
own  English  with  the  common  rapidity  and  in- 
flections of  his  own  discourse  ;  (4)  By  recitations 
by  topics.  (In  all  studies  which  admit  of  it,  the 
scholar  should  be  made  to  stand  up,  face  his 
audience,  and  speak  to  them  on  the  topic  on 
which  he  is  to  recite.  This  is  probably  the  most 
efficient  means  of  giving  power  of  connected  dis- 
course.) (5)  By  debates  on  assigned  topics  ;  (6) 
By  the  study  of  grammar.  Some  larger  gram- 
mar which  gives  a  minute  exposition  of  all  the 
idioms  of  the  language  should  be  taken  up.  A 
historical  and  scientific  grammar  is  the  best.  But 
for  immediate  use  in  speaking,  correct  and  clearly 


274 


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stated  generalizations  of  the  facts  of  the  language 
are  what  is  wanted.  A  knowledge  of  these  is 
necessary  to  correct  speaking.  It  is  a  great 
stake  to  suppose  that  if  one  never  heard  1  tad 
English,  lie  would  always  speak  correctly.  In 
the  mother-tongue,  every  one  generalizes  instinct- 
ively. The  child  makes  all  its  plurals  in  s,  and 
says  mouses  fur  mice,  mans  for  men  :  so  it  says 
buyed  for  bought,  and  the  like,  making  its  in- 
stinctive and  incorrecl  generalizations  continu- 
ally. This  process  is  active  with  every  speaker 
until  accurate  generalizations,  i.  e.,  grammatical 
knowledge,  are  substituted  for  the  instinctive 
work  of  association.  The  subject  usually  pre- 
cedes a  verb;  hence,  the  instinctive  talker  uses 
who  for  whom  before  the  verb.  The  object  usually 
follows  a  verb;  the  instinctive  generalization 
suggests  it  is  me,  for  it  is  /.  In  the  households 
of  educated  people,  a  continual  correction  of  the 
young  folks  is  kepi  up,  until  they  learn  the  most 
common  words  and  phrases  pretty  thoroughly ; 
but.  in  the   less  common    literary  style,  in  which 

abridged  constructions,  tropical  expressions,  and 
relics  of  obsolescent  forms  occur  continually,  no 
one  ever  speaks  with  uniform  correctness,  un- 
less he  studies  grammar  carefully.  The  greatest 
feniuses  are  qo  exceptions.  <  !haucer,  Ben  Jbnson, 
lilton,  and  Addison  for  example,  were  careful 
students  of  grammar.  The  text  of  Shakespeare's 
plays  has  to  be  corrected  like  a  school  boy's 
theme.  Moreover,  all  of  us  bear  much  bad 
English,  and  need  carefully  and  intelligently  to 

Study  the  laws  of  the  language,  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish the  good  from  the  bad.  This  kind  of 
study  should  he  constantly  applied  in  the  criticism 
of  the  speech  and  writing  of  pupils  at  school, and 
of  printed  matter.  A  knowledge  of  descriptive 
grammar  is  also  needed  for  intelligent  conversa- 
tion  upon   the    meaning    of    obscure    sentences. 

Anion-'  the  many  g 1   descriptive  grammars  of 

modern  English,  we  may  mention  Brown's,  Bul- 
lion's.  Butlers,  Clark's,  Oovell's,  I'Ywsniith's, 
Greene's,  Mart's,  Kerl's,  Murray's.  Pinneo's, 
Weld's.  Quackenbos's,  Viekroy's,  and  Whitney's. 
We  shall  mention,  farther  on,  works    in  which  a 

historical  view  of  English  grammar  is  presented. 
II.  Skill  in  writing  demands  practice  in  writ- 
ing.    Prom  the  time  of  entering  the  high  school 

the  Student  should  write  often  and  carefully. 
To  study  without  pen  in  hand  is  to  dream.      I'>c- 

~\'l'  the  writing  of  grammatical  exercises  as 
■. e  described,  those  who  have  their  future  oc- 
cupation decided,  should  he  trained  in  the  writ- 
ing needed  in  that  occupation.  Future  business 
men  should  practice  the  writing  of  imaginary 

business  Letters,  answers  to  advertisements  in  the 

newspapers,  and  the  like.  Any  student  may 
keep  a  journal,  may  write  descriptions  of  build- 
ings, machines,  scenery,  persons,  meetings,  con- 
versations, 1 b  '    prepare  reports  on  such 

matters  examined  l>\  committees forpri- 

vate  corporations,  or  public  meetings.  They 
should  also  write  in  connection  with  their  stud- 
ies, preparing  careful  statements  upon  assigned 
topics,  notes  of   lectures,  written  examinations 

on    general   SUbjeCta,  and   the    like.      Then    there 


are  more  elaborate,  ornate,  rhetorical  perform- 
ances, and  elegant  essays,  and  metrical  compo- 
sition. 

Two  periods  may  be  mentioned  in  the  mastery 
of  language.  In  the  first,  the  ruling  idea  is 
imitative,  the  writer  seeks  to  fashion  his  speech 
after  that  of  the  authors  or  persons  whom  he 
admires.  1  le  aims  to  have  every  expression  bear 
the  current  stamp,  and  will  reject  every  phrase 
not  familiar  in  good  books.  Most  writers  never 
pass  out  of  this  stage.  The  source  and  model  of 
good  writing  to  them  is  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  literature.  But  great  writers,  original 
thinkers,  learn  that  the  current  phrases  do  not 
convey  their  peculiar  thoughts,  and  they  advance 
to  invention  according  to  their  own  ideals.  Vital 
signs  should  not  be  neglected  even  in  school 
days;  it  is  by  following  these  that  the  most  per- 
teet  mastery  of  the  language  is  to  be  attained: 
hut  school  work  will  lie  mostly  in  the  first  stage. 
Active  and  careful  practice  in  writing  is  generally 
the  hot  stimulus  and  help  to  the  thorough  study 
of  English.  Imitative  work  has  its  value.  Fix  in 
the  memory  the  thought  of  an  admirable  pa- 
in a  classic  author,  then  write  it  as  well  as  pos- 
sible, and  compare  the  result  with  the  original. 
There  are  some  good  books  prepared  as  aids  to 
the  young  writer:  Abbot  &  Seelev's  English 
Lessons  (X.  Y.)  :  Swinton's  Language  Lessons 
i  X.  Y.i:  A  bbot's  Bow  to  Write  clearly  |  Boston); 
Crosby  &  Li  dlow's  First  Lessons;  Day's  Young 
Composer,  English  Composition,  and  other 
works  (X.  Y.i  :  Parker's  Aids  to  Coiujuisition 
(X".  Y.);  Quackenbos's  First  Lessons  in  Compo- 
sition (X.  Y.),  and  other  works  by  Cox.  Drew, 
Frost,  Harper,  Hart.  Kerb  Pinneo,  Sprague. 
These  lead  on  to  rhetorics,  like  those  of  Bain, 
Blair,  Day,  Spencer's  Philosophy  if  Style, 
Shedd,  Wnately,  and  the  like.  A  great  part  of 
the  writing  should,  however,  be  the  record  of 
thought  and  research  in  the  study  of  English 
literature. 

III.  The  philological  study  of  English  is  the 

study  of  the  language  as  used  in  literature,  i.  <■., 

as  shaped  by  the  idea  of  the  beautiful.  The  lan- 
guage of  literature  is  an  ideal  language  of  men 
of  genius.  It  is  to  he  studied  in  their  writings. 
The  main  object  of  the  study  is  to  rethink  their 
thoughts.  Every  classic  language  contains  in  its 
literature  the  record  of  the  noble  thoughts  ami 
acts  of  thousands  of  years,  expressed  in  thousands 
of  happy  and  harmonious  phrases,  the  invention 
of  thousands  of  men  of  genius.  This  is  the 
richest  inheritance  of  a  cultured  race.  Youth 
who,  if  they  had  no  classic  speech,  could  (\o 
nothing  better  than  watch  birds  and  hugs,  to 
snare  and  kill  them.  can.  by  means  of  speech, 
rise,  almost  in  childhood,  to  the  bighesi  thoughts 

of  all   thi'  ageS  before  them.       The  Studj    of    these 

masterpieces  of  literature  may  be  carried  on  by 
two  methods.  One  is  rapid  reading,  enjoying 
ami  emphasizing  special  Beauties,  and  making 
ional  esthetic  and  explanatory  criticism, 
but  avoiding  all  minutq  researches,  especially  all 
grammatical  and  scientific  labor,  which  might 
rive  a  distaste  tor  the  lesx m   and  the  author. 


ENGLISH 


275 


The  Other  method  is  that  of  giving  minute  and 
profound  study,  linguistic  and  philosophic,  to  the 
representative  passages  of  representative  works. 
The  first  method  gives  a  delightful  occupation 
to  sympathetic  pupils,  and  proves  especially 
valuable  in  the  education  of  women.  Tlic  un- 
sympathetic and  hard-headed  are  unaffected  hy 
it;  and  it  is,  at  its  best,  but  an  introduction  to 
the  authors,  leaving  the  real  philological  mastery 
of  them  yet  to  lie  attained.  'This  comes,  if  it  come 
at  all.  from  long  dwelling,  and  much  study,  line 
by  line,  word  by  word,  such  as  is  bestowed  on 
the  noble  passages  of  Greek  or  Latin  writers.  In 
studying  the  literature  of  the  mother-tongue,  it 

is  hard  to  get  this  concentrated  and  prolonged 
attention.  The  familiar  words  slip  rapidly 
through  the  mind,  and  delude  the  young  student 
with  the  impression  that  he  thoroughly  under- 
stands them.  There  is  a  fatal  facility  in  extem- 
porizing the  lessons.  This  difficulty  is  overcome 
by  making  the  text  the  foundation  of  further 
study,  and  by  requiring  written  papers.  What- 
ever is  necessary  to  comprehend  all  the  thoughts 
and  allusions,  matters  of  history,  biography, 
mythology,  geography,  physics,  metaphysics, 
theology,  and  the  like,  will,  of  course,  be  care- 
fully looked  up.  The  history  of  the  book  which 
is  being  studied,  should  also  be  learned,  both  as 
to  its  growth  in  the  mind  of  the  author,  and  its 
reception  and  influence.  The  character  of  the 
author  and  his  life  and  times  should  be  studied, 
as  essential  to  a  comprehension  of  his  work  and 
speech,  so  as  to  see  the  man  as  a  representative 
man.  and  the  work  as  a  representative  work. 
The  rhetorical  laws,  and  the  principles  of  poetic, 
epic,  and  dramatic  art  should  be  applied  word  by 
word,  line  by  line.  Then  there  is  the  study  of 
the  words,  their  exact  meaning  and  associations 
in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  to  be  learned  partly 
by  gathering  up  his  different  uses  of  them,  an 
easy  and  delightful  labor  in  those  authors  for 
whom  a  concordance  has  been  made,  as  Shake- 
speare, Milton.  Pope, Tennyson ;  it  implies  also 
a  study  of  the  general  usage  of  the  time  of  the 
writer.  The  study  of  synonyms  also  comes  in, 
and  of  derivations,  as  a  guide  and  aid  in  fixing 
the  exact  meaning  of  words.  Written  analyses, 
derivation  papers,  synonym  papers,  and  tables  of 
rhetorical  figures,  will  make  sure  that  the  work 
is  done.  Happy  phrases  and  notable  sentences 
may  be  learned  by  heart;  and  by  studying  many 
works,  the  knowledge  of  English  as  a  record  of 
culture  may  be  attained,  which  is  the  purpose 
of  classical  philological  study. 

rv.  Comparative  philology,  as  the  science  of 
language  is  often  called,  Buggeste  still  further 

©  Op 

study.  It  sets  before  us  English  as  a  member  of 
a  great  family  of  languages,  having  a  history, 
and  laws  of  growth,  and  made  up  01  words  and 
phrases,  each  of  which  has  its  own  history,  to  be 
Understood  in  view  of  the  laws  of  thought  and 
voice.  It  calls  for  the  study  of  the  physiology  of 
the  organs  of  speech  as  the  basis  of  the  classifica- 
tion of  the  vocal  sounds  made  in  English, and  for 
the  study  of  psychology  to  explain  the  meanings 
of  the  sounds.     The  English  speech,  as  far  as  its 


grammatical  forms  are  concerned,  is  a  develop- 
ment of  the  Anglo-Saxon;  in  its  vocabulary,  it  is 
a  mixed  language,  made  up  originally  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Norman-French,   and    later  enriched 

by  contributions  from  Latin,  Greek,  and  many 

ot  her  languages.  The  languages  which  are  nearest 
of  kin,  and  throw  most  light  on  it,  are  Friesic, 
Gothic.  Icelandic,  and  High  German  on  the  one 
side  :  French  and  Latin,  leading  on  to  I  neck  and 
Sanskrit,  on  the  other. 

Phonology  gives  a  history  and  exposition  of 
the  sounds  of  English.    It  shows  that  the  present 

sounds  of  most  words  are  changed  from  earlier 
ones,  and  it  seeks  the  laws  which  govern  the 
changes.  It  also  points  out  and  explains  the  re- 
lations of  these  sounds  to  those  in  other  lan- 
guages. The  fullest  discussion  of  historic  pho- 
nology in  any  available  text-books  for  schools  is 
in  .March's  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon.  Ellis's  Early  English  Pronunciation 
(London),  still  incomplete,  is  the  gnat  store- 
house of  facts.  Sweet's  History  of  English 
Sounds  (London),  and  the  historical  grammars 
mentioned  below,  are  also  worthy  of  study. 

Grammatical  etymology  seeks  to  explain  the 
origin  of  all  the  inflections.  In  modern  English, 
cases  and  tenses,  and  the  like,  seem  to  be  formed 
by  adding  letters,  or  changing  vowels  at  pleas- 
ure ;  we  add  s  to  form  the  possessive  John's, 
d  to  form  the  past  loved;  we  change  a  to  e  to 
form  the  plural  men,  o  to  e  to  form  the  past 
held.  When  we  follow  these  words  back  to 
Anglo-Saxon,  we  find  that  our  monosyllables  are 
there  polysyllables,  and  many  of  them  obvious 
compounds,  whose  meaning  we  see  at  once  ;  lorn/, 
is  there  a  trisyllable,  compounded  of  love  and 
did.  But  many  words  are  not  soluble  in  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  we  turn  to  other  languages  for  aid. 
Gothic  is  the  first  great  source  of  light.  Anglo- 
Saxon  is  of  the  9th  century,  but  in  Gothic  we 
have  the  forms  of  the  4th  century  of  a  nearly 
kindred  speech,  and  the  gain  is  great  :  held, 
which  is  an  obscure  monosyllable  in  Anglo- 
Saxon,  in  Gothic  shows  haihald,  a  reduplicated 
root.  The  Gothic,  however,  often  fails  to  solve 
the  problem,  but  it  generally  serves  to  identify 
the  forms  with  some  like  form  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  which  may,  perhaps,  give  the  key,  or,  if 
not,  lead  us  on  to  the  Sanskrit,  where  so  large  a 
number  of  inflection  forms  and  affixes  of  deri- 
vation, are  seen  to  be  compound  words,  that  the 
philologist  works  on  the  theory  that  they  all  are, 
and  thus  makes  large  progress  in  their  solution. 
These  languages.  —  Anglo-Saxon.  Gothic,  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Sanskrit,  have  been  most   laboriously 

studied;  and  excellent   manuals  of  comparative 

grammar  and  ety logical  dictionaries  of  each 

are  at  band,  at  least  to  the  German  scholar,  for 
the  titles  of  which  see  the  articles  on  these  lan- 
guages. Icelandic,  or  Old  Norse,  is  also  of  great. 
aid    in    Studying  the  forms  of   English,  especially 

in  the  transition  period  from  Early  Anglo  Saxon. 
All  these  the  earnest  scholar  may  study.  The 
High  German  also  has  been  much  worked  over, 
and  Strengthens  the  inductions  made  from  mw 
nearer  kin,  occasionally  throwing  light  on  a  doubt  • 


276 


ENGLISH 


ful  point.  The  comparative  study  of  derivation, 
syntax,  and  prosody  leads  through  the  same 
historical  course.  Parallel  with  tin-  external  his- 
tory of  the  forms,  runs  a  history  of  their  mean- 
ing, a  history  of  thought,  and  its  laws  of  change 
and  progress  in  connection  with  language.  The 
science  of  language  does  not  stop  with  the  Indo- 
European  family,  but  for  a  perfect  understanding 
of  English  compares  it  with  the  other  great  lan- 
guages of  the  world,  —  with  the  Semitic,  the 
Chinese,  and  the  aboriginal  tongues  of  America. 
It  seeks  to  determine  its  relations  to  all  lan- 
guages, and  to  an  ideal  form  of  speech. 

How  much  of  this  study  should  lie  attempted 

in  our  schools  and  colleges,  and  in  what  method, 

an- ted  questions  with  educators.     Germany 

has.  heretofore,  been  the  chief  seat  of  this  learn- 
ing, and  it  has  been  given  in  lectures  to  select 
classes  in  the  universities.  It  is  gradually  work- 
ing its  way.  through  our  best  grammars  and 
teachers,  especially  of  Greek,  into  the  common 
stock  of  linguistic  knowledge  and  teaching.  A 
considerable  Dumber  of  the  American  colleges 
give  a  few  lectures  on  the  subject  in  the  senior 
year,  or  study  Whitney's  Language  mnl  !],<■ 
Study  of  Language.  In  L855,  a  department  of 
tin'  Knglish  language  and  comparative  philology 
was  established  in  Lafayette  College,  and  an  ar- 
rangement of  all  the  linguistic  studies  of  the 
college  attempted,  by  which  the  topics  of  com- 
parative philology  might  be  gradually  introduced 
to  the  students,  in  connection  with  the  recitations, 
in  reading  the  classic  authors  of  each  language. 
Phonology  is  taken  up  the  first  term,  lessons 
in  the  pronunciation  oi  Latin,  (J  reek,  or  other  lan- 
guages, are  given,  with  the  history  of  the  sound,-, 
and  the  laws  of  letterchange.  Then. at  tin'  daily 
Lesson  in  reading,  attention  is  called  to  such  illus- 
trations of  these  laws  as  occur  in  the  text,  and 
the  facts  of  each  language  are  compared  with 
English.  A  special  examination  in  these  mat- 
ters   is     held    at    the    end    of  the  term.      In  suc- 

ive  terms,  the  etymology  of  the  verb  and  the 
noun,  derivation,  syntax,  and  prosody,  are  taken 
up  in  the  same  way,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
comparative  philology,  with  daily  application  to 
the  text.   The  languages  are  studied,  in  the  clas- 

meal   course,  in    the   following  order:    Latin   and 

Greek,  French,  German,  Anglo-Saxon,  English. 
In  the  scientific  course,  the  early  work  is  through 
a  comparison  of  words  in  English,  French,  and 
German;  then  come  Anglo-Saxon  and  higher 
English.  It  goes  on  ii nection  with  a  literary 

and  critical  .study  of  the  authors,  and  ends  with  a 
8J  OOptical  general  course,  including,  in  one  tern i. 

tin-  science  of  language,  and  in  another  a  sum- 
mary of  English  literature.  This  course  has  been 
eery  successful  at  Lafayette  College,  and  has  been 
introduced,  in  its  application  to  Anglo  Saxon  and 

lish,  into  some  other  i nst  it  ut  ions,  and  has  at- 
tracted   interest    and   eotiiineiidat ion    in    Europe. 

Perhaps  no  study,  certainly  no  linguistic  study, 
has  grown  more  rapidly,  within  i  he  last  15  years, 
than  that  of  English.  Previous  to  that  time,  there 

was  |1„. i,  hardly  an  attempt  at  the  scientific  his- 
torical study  of  it  in  England  or  America.  There. 


were  no  text-books,  —  historical  grammars  or 
other  histories  of  the  language,  nor  good  etymo- 
logical or  historical  dictionaries,  nor  editions  of 
classic  English  authors  with  philological  ap- 
paratus for  study.  Now,  all  our  good  colleges 
and  universities,  and  many  of  our  best  high 
schools  and  academies,  attempt  a  course  of  En- 
glish, and  a  fair  supply  of  textdbooks  of  every 
kind  is  to  be  had.  Of  these  the  following  is  a 
summary:  Method  of  Philological  Study  of  the 
English  Language,  by  Francis  A.  March, 
New  York,  1865).  This  gives  minute  directions 
for  carrying  out  a  course  of  study  like  that  al » >\ 
described.  It  begins  with  Bunyan, and  sets  forth 
topics  for  an  introductory  essay  on  his  life  and 
works,  with  bibliographical  references.  Then  it 
gives  an  extract  from  The  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
and  references  to  parts  of  the  grammar  to  be  stud- 
ied, accompanied  by  questions  applying  the  mat- 
ter to  the  text. given  in  full,  like  a  verbatim  report 
of  a  recitation,  six  pages  of  questions  on  twelve 
lines  of  text.  Synoptical  questions  and  topics 
for  essays  follow.  Milton  comes  next,  and  then 
foil  »w  Shakespeare,  Spenser,  and  ( 'haucer.  treatei  1 
in  the  same  way,  but  with  a  progressive  series  of 
grammatical  and  philological  topics.  This  method 
has  been  used  in  several  high  schools  and  col- 
leges with  good  success.  The  work  is  also  to  be 
had  bound  in  one  volume  with  Fowler's  ( '> ram- 
mar,  to  which  frequent  references  are  made. 
Spragoe's  Masterpieces  of  English  Literature 
i  New  York)  is  prepared  for  the  same  kind  of 
study;  it  contains  selections  from  Chaucer.  Spen- 
ser, Bacon,  Shakespeare,  Milton,  and  Bunyan, 
with  notes  for  progressive  grammatical,  phil- 
ological, and  rhetorical  study,  beginning  with 
phonetics  in  connection  with  Chaucer,  and  end- 
ing with  comparative  philology  in  connection 
with  Bunyan.  Day's  Introduction  to  English 
Literature  (New  York)  is  of  similar  content 
and  method.  Craik's  English  of  Shakespeare 
[London  and  Boston)  consists  of  the  text  of 
Julius  Ca>sar,  prepared  with  copious  notes  on 

philological  matters  suggested  by  the  text,  and 
other  apparatus  for  thorough  study, — an  excellent 
book.  To  these  maybe  added  Greer's  Studies 
in  (he  English  of  Bunyan  (Phila.);  and  Car- 
penter's English  of  the  XIV.  Century  (Boston). 
From  American  editors,  we  have  the  following 
series  of  classics  pre] tared  for  school  use,  with 
more  or  less  annotation:  Boyd's  Series  (New 
Yorki.  including  Cowper's  Task,  Milton's  Para- 
dise Lost,  PoSok's  Course  of  Time,  Thomson's 
Seasons,  Young's  Ntght  Thoughts,  and  Bacon's 
Essays;    Hudson's  Series    (Boston)  a  valuable 

one;  the  note-  and  other  apparatus  are.  in  the 
main,  directly  explanatory  or  critical,  primarily 
for   rapid    reading;     it    includes    plays  of    Sfiake- 

speare;  A  Textbook  of  Poetry,  consisting  of 
selections  from  Wordsworth.  Coleridge,  Burns, 
Beattie,  Goldsmith,  and  Thomson;  .1  Text-book 
Prose,  containing  selections  from  Burke, 
Webster,  and  Bacon  ;  Rolfe's  Series,  New  York, 
including  Shakespeare's  Merchant  of  Venice, 
The  Tempest,  Henry  VIII.,  and  Julius  Co?sar; 
and  Goldsmith.     (Sec  Enqlish  Literati  re.) 


BNGUSB 


KX4JIJSII   LITERATURE 


277' 


From  the  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford,  England, 
are  issued  for  students  of  Bngliflh,  Chaucer,  by 
\V~.  W.  Skeat;  Specimens  of  Early  English,by 
]{.  Morris  and  W.  W".  Skeat;  77/ c  \'isiau  </ 
William  concerning  Piers  the  Plowman,  by 
\\\  W.  Skeat  :  Shakespeare, — Hamlet,by  \Nr. G. 
Clark;  The  Tempest,by  W.  Aldis  Wright; 
King  Lear,byW.  Aldis Wright;  Milton, —  The 
Areopagitica,  by  J.  W.  Hales;  Addison, — sv- 
lectionsfrom  the  Spectator,  by  T.  Arnold  :  7///<- 
/,•//  Selections  from  the  Sixteenth  to  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  with  notices  mid  notes;  Speci- 
mens of  Lowland  Scotch  and  Northern  English, 
by  J.  A.  H.  Mrm;  w;  also  a  series  of  English  clas- 
sics for  students,  especially  for  ladies'  schools  and 
middle  class  schools,  under  the  superintendence 
of  Rev.  J.  S.  Brewer,  M.  A.,  professor  of  En- 
glish literature  at  King's  College,  London,  in- 
cluding Parts  of  Chaucer,  of  Spender's  Faerie 
Queene,  Hunker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  Book  l, 
Shakespeare^  Merchant  of  Venice,  Richard 
tlii>  Second,  and  Macbeth;  Bacon, — Advancement 
of  Learning,  and  Essays;  Mi  Hon, — Poems; 
parts  of  Dryden,  Bunyan,  Pope,  Johnson, 
Burke,  and  Gowper. 

Grammars,  Historical  and  Comparative,  for 
the  earliest  period  are:  .March's  Comparative 
Grammar  (New  York)  (see  Anglo-Saxon); 
Hadley's  Brief  History  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage (Springfield);  Compendium  of  ike  Com- 
parative Grammar  of  the  Indo-European  Lan- 
guages, Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Latin,  by  A. 
Schleicher,  translated  by  H.  Bexdale  (London); 
A  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Teutonic  Lan- 
guages, by  J.  Helfenstein  (London);  Historical 
Outlines  of  English  Accidence,  by  R.  Morris, 
(London):  Elementary  Lessons  in  Historical  En- 

ih  Grammar,  by  R.  Morris  (London);  ^1 
Shakespearian  Grammar,  An  Attempt  to  illus- 
trate some  of  the  differences  between  Elizabethan 
and  Modern  English,  by  Rev.  E.  A.  Abbott. 
(London):  Handbook  of  the  English  Tongue,by 
J.  Angus  |  London);  Latham's  English  Language 
(London  and  New  York);  Fowler's  English 
Language  (New  York);  IFaldeman's  English 
Arfi  /•»>■  1 1 'hi  la.)  The  great  German-English  gram- 
mars are  M.etzner's,  now  translated  in  London, 
and  Kocu's, fur  which  see  Anglo-Saxon. 

Dictionaries.  —  Webster's  Unaiiridged  Dic- 
tionary of  ///c  English  Language  (Springfield, 
1  865 . :  Wi  mm  ester's  Dictionary  (Boston);  Shake- 
speare-Lexicon, by  I>r.  Alexander  Schmidt 
Berlin  and  London,  1875);  Halliwei.l's  Diction- 
ary of  \.  Irchaicand  Provincial  Words  ( London); 
.1  Dictionary  of  the  Old  English  Language, 
I2th—15lh  Centuries,  by  V.  II.  Stratmann  (2d 
■  i..  London,  L873);  .1  Dictionary  of  English 
■ Etymology,  by  H.  Wedgwood  (2ded.,  London, 
L872);  Etymologisches  Wbrterbuch  der  engli- 
schen Sprache,by  Ed.  Mueller  (Kothen,  L865); 
Jamieson's  Dictionary  of  the  Scottish  Language, 
ed.  by  Lonomuir  (Edinburgh,  L867);  Bartlett's 
Dictionary  of  Americanisms  (  Boston). 

Further  aids  are:  Lectures  on  the  English 
Language  (New  York);  and  Lectures  on 
the  Origin  and  History  if  the  English   Lan- 


guage, by  G.  P.  Marsh  (New  York):  Eladley's 
Essays,  Philological  and  Critical" (Ken  Fork); 

\\  hitm-'.y's  Oriental  anil  Linguistic  studies 
(New  York):  Muller's  /.rehires  on  die  Science 
of  Language, and  Chips froma  German  Work- 
shop  (1 don   and    New    Fork);    Shepherd's* 

History  of  the  English  Language  (New  York); 
De  Vere's  Studies  in  English  (New  Fork); 
Gould's  Good  English  (New  York);  Swinton's 
Rambles  in  Words  (N ew  York):  Select  Gloss- 
anj  of  English  Words  used  formerly  in  Senses 
different  from  the  present,  by  R.  C.  Trench 
(London);  ThePhilotogy  of  die  English  Tongue, 
I iv  •!.  Earle  (London);  On,  the  Study  of  Words, 
and  English  fast  and  Present,by  R.  (/.Trench: 
alford's  Queen's  English  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.L 
and  Moon's  Dean's  Emjlisli  (Lond.  and  X.  Y.), 
and  Bad  English  (Lond.);  White's  Words  and 
their  Uses  (N.  Y.);  Outlines  of  the  History  of  the 
English  Language,  by  G.  L.  Craik  (London); 
Sources  of  Standard  English,  byOLiPHANT  (Lon- 
don): Changes  in  the  Emjlisli  Language  be- 
tween  the  publication  of  Wiclifs  Bible  and  that 
of  the  authorized  Version,  A.  D.  140(1  to  A.  D. 
1600,  by  H.  T.  W.  Wood  (London);  English 
Writers,  by  H.  Morley  (London);  History  of 
English  Sounds,  by  II.  Sweet  (London). 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  To  know 
the  writings  and  the  lives  of  the  best  English 
authors,  to  learn  what  past  or  foreign  literature 
influenced  their  minds  and  culture,  to  be  able  to 
trace  a  certain  development  of  thought  and  style 
from  the  period  of  the  Beowulf  down  to  the 
time  of  Tennyson  and  Browning,  to  know  a 
writer's  place  among  his  contemporaries,  to  be 
able  to  give  the  period  and  even  the  author  of 
a  passage  seen  for  the  first  time, — to  have  in 
one's  head,  in  short,  some  kind  of  historical  view 
of  the  whole  of  our  great  literature,  is  a  large 
ambition,  which — like  many  other  ambitions — 
has  a  strong  tendency  to  "overleap  itself."  But, 
if  wisely  begun  at  school,  and  followed  out  with 
zeal  at  the  university,  it  is  found  to  be  a  kind  of 
knowledge  as  solid  as  most  others,  and  far  ex- 
celling many  in  its  sources  of  delight,  inspiration. 
and  strength.  But  the  subject  is  an  enormously 
large  one  for  school  purposes;  indeed,  its  very 
magnitude  would  seem  to  shut  it  out  from  the 
list  of  school  subjects.  The  whole  cycle  of  liter- 
ature is  no  more  to  be  known  by  one  person  than 
the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences,  still  less  by 
young  people  at  school.  The  impossibility  of 
achieving  the  whole  task  being  seen,  two  ques- 
tions at  once  arise  :  (1)  What  shall  we  teach  and 
what  leave  untaught'.'  and  (2)  How  shall  we 
teach  it '! 

In  attempting  to  answer  the  first  of  these 
questions,  we  can  find  some  guidance  from  an- 
alogy  ;  and  the  school  subject  which  appears,  in 

its   vast    size    and    the    enormous   contents  of   its 

wealth,  to  have  the  closest  resemblance  to  liter- 
ature is  the  subject  of  geograjih)/.  Now,  in 
geography,  we  do  not  burden  the  attention  and 
overload  the  memory  of  our  pupils  with  the  in- 
finite number  of  names  of  small  towns,  insignifi- 
cant rivers,  diminutive  lakes,  and  unimportant 


278 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


headlands ;  but  we  take  only  the  most  prominent 
and.  as  it  were,  the  central  features  of  the  world, 
and  round  these  we  group  the  knowledge  which 
is  intended  to  abide  with  the  pupil,  and  to  serve 
as  a  nucleus  for  his  subsequent  accumulations. 
In  the  same  way.  there  are  certain  nanus  which 
the  sifting  of  time  has  caused  to  stand  out  with 
always  increasing  clearness:  there  arc  certain 
books  which  have  been,  and  which  continue  to  be, 
forces  in  the  development  of  civilized  humanity; 
and  it  is  with  these  authors  and  with  these 
books  that  the  teacher  should  make  the  pupil 
acquainted.  Thus  stated,  the  path  seems  to  be 
plain  -so  plain  thai  no  good  teacher  can  miss 
it.  Bui  there  arc  two  dangers  —  two  besetting 
sins,  which  await  the  teacher  in  bis  attempts 
toward  the  systematic  treatment  of  a  subject  BO 

large;  and  these  are  the  vices  of  encyclopcedism 
and  abridgment.     Looked  at  more  closely,  both 

these  vices  arc  seen  to  be  only  two  sides  of  the 
same  central  error-  an  error  which  pervades  all 
kinds  of  teaching,  and  w  hich  is.  indeed,  the  most 
prevalent  educational  error  of  the  present  day. 
By  encyclopa?dism,is  meant  the  desire  to  include 
too  many  tacts  -  and.  in  the  present  instance. 
too    many    authors  -within     the     ranee    of    the 

pupil's  mental  vision;  and  the  consequence  is  a 
pressure  which  results  in  an  abridgment  of  the 
closest  kind— an  abridgment  in  which  nothing  is 
said  of  no  tacts  aiv  given  about  -the  author, 
but  when  he  was  horn,  and  when  he  died,  and 
the  name  of  his  best-known  hook.  It  is  plain 
that  such  knowledge  is  no  knowledge  al  all.  and 
is  of  no  more  value  than  an  acquaintance  with 
the    street   directory.       The    desire   to  teach  too 

much  ends  in  achieving  too  little;  the  attempt 
to  learn  everything  results  in  nothing.  He- 
sides,  the  pupil  must  have  a  living  and  in- 
terior knowledge  of  English  literature,  and  not 
a  dead  and  external  acquaintance  with  its  mere 
busk,  appendages,  and  circumstances,  lie  must 
be  trained  to  know -and  that  is  to  love- 
Chaucer  and  Spenser,  Dryden  and  1 'ope.  Words- 
worth and  Coleridge;  and  the  question  which 

presses  upon  the  teacher  is  therefore  :  How  is  this 

to  be  done.'    Before  answering  this  question,  the 

teacher   must    have   Settled  with   himself   wJlOtis 

to  be  done. 

(I)  Let  us  suppose  that,  seeing  the  impossibil- 
ity of  embracing  all  the  details  of  so  large  a  field, 
he  has  resolved  upon  making  a  selection  of  the 
besl  writers  in  prose  and  verse  in  each  epoch. 

Round  each  of  these  he  will  then  collect  the  most 

able  of  his  contemporaries,  and  explain  to  bis 
class  their  relations  and  the  influence  which  each 
had  upon  the  other,  and  winch  the  requirements 

and  spirit  of  the  period  had  upon  them  all.    The 

teacher  will  then,  probably,  select  Chaucer  as 
the  type  of  the  chivalric  period  of  English  Liter- 
atim 1/  udeviUe  as  the  "Father  of  English 
Spenser  as  the  richest  poet  of  the 
Elizabethan  era;  Shakespeare  as  the  greatest 
dramatist  of  the  period  when  the  drama  was  al 
its  highest;  Hooker  as  the  type  of  the  ornate 
and  elaborate  prose  style  of  the  sixteenth  century; 
B  con     as  the    most    compact    ami    thoughtful 


English  essayist;  Milton  —  as  the  poet  of  the 
Reformation,  and  the  master  of  the  most  sublime 
rhythms  in  the  language,  and  in  his  prose  works 
the  most  elaborate  of  sentence-makers;  Butler 
lin  parts) — as  the  antipode  of  Milton;  Jeremy 
Taylor — as  the  sweetest  prose-writer  of  the 
seventeenth  century ;  Dryden — as  the  herald  of 
a  new  and  more  "  popular''  style  :  Pope — as  the 
culmination  of  the  most  polished,  clear-cut,  and t 
sparkling  English;  Swift — as  the  most  powerful 
intellect  of  his  time;  Johnson — as  the  representa- 
tive of  the  massive  common-sense  of  his  coun- 
try,   too   ponderously,    though    characteristically. 

expressed;  Goldsmith  —  as  the  most  charming 
writer  of  his  generation:  Burke-  as  the  most 
brilliant  rhetorician  that  the  modern  world  has 
seen:    Cowper — as  the  transition  and  the  link 

between  the  age  of  I 'ope  and  the  nineteenth 
century-  Wordsworth— as  the  dawn  and  the 
bright  shining  of  the  new  day  of  English  liter- 
ature, and  De  Quincey,  as  the  most  wonderful 
prose-writer  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

2)  Bui  it  is  evident  that  all  the  works  of 
these  writers  cannot  be  read  in  school;  and  a 
selection  from  them  is,  therefore,  necessary.  Here 
again  common  repute  comes  to  our  aid  and  maps 
out  our  course  for  us.  in  Chaucer,  we  should 
probably  find  it  sufficient  to  read  the  Prologue, 
or  the  KniglUes  '/'"A.orthe  Mmi  qfLawes  Tale; 
in  Mandeville,  a  few  chapters  of  his  True 
in  Spenser,  a  hook  or  two  of  the  Eaeru  Queene; 
in  Shakespeare,  one  or  two  plays,  such  as  the 
Merchant  of  Venice  or  King  Lear  (Hamlet  is  too 
difficult    and   super-subtle,    while   the   subject  of 

Othello  must  always  keep  it  out  of  schools) ;  in 
Hooker,  the    first    Book  of  his    Ecclesiastical 

Polity;    in    Bacon,   twenty  of   his   best    h'ssm/s, 

such  as  those  on  Envy,  Great  Place,  or  Travatle; 
in  Milton,  the  Lycidas,  the  Gomus,  the  Hymn 
t<>  the  Nativity,  and  his  other  minor  works,  with 
perhaps  one  book  of  the  Paradise  Lost;  in 
Butler,  one  or  two  Cantos  of  the  Hudibras;  in 
Jeremy  Taylor,  a  few  chapters  of  the  Holy  Liv- 
ing and  perhaps  a  Sermon  ;  in  Dryden,  the  ^1A- 
S'llum  and  Achitophel  and  the  Mac  Flechno\  : 
in  Pope,  the  Rape  of  the  Lock  and  the  Essay 
en  Criticism;  in  Dr.  Johnson,  two  or  three  of 
bis  Lives  of  the  Poets  and  the  Prefaa  to  the 
Dictionary,  with  perhaps  Rasselas;  in  Gold- 
smith, the  Vicar  </  Wakefield,  the  Traveller 
and  the  Deserted  Village;  in  Burke,  the  Reflec- 
tions in,  the  French  Revolution  and  one  of  bis 
speeches;  in  Cowper,  the  Task,  the  Progress  qf 
Error,    Truth,8Jaa   some  of   his  minor  poems, 

while    biS    Letters    should    be    read.    Were    it     only 

for  their  style;  in  Wordsworth,  the  best  of  his 
Sonnets,  the  Lines  on  Tintern  Abbey,  Laodamia, 
and  man]  of  his  minor  poems;  and  in  De  Quin- 
cey, bis  Suspiria  <//■  Profundis,  his  Vision  of 
Sudden  /)>■<!//,.  and  some  of  bis  criticisms. 

But,  even  after  all  this  ha.-  been  done  and  well 
done,  there  arc  still  two  things  to  do.  The  first  is 
i"  give  the  pupil  an  intelligible  and  striking  view 
of  our  literature  before  Chaucer — that  is.  from 
the  Beowulf  of  the  5th  centurj  a  poem  which, 
like  the   Ihad.  existed  only  in  the  memorj  and 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


279 


not  in  a  written  form,  for  several  hundred  years 
—  down  to  C'aedmon,  Beda,  and  King  Alfred,  to 
the  Saxon  Chronicle  and  Chaucer.  This  ought  to 
be  done  orally  by  the  teacher,  who  should,  at 
the  same  time,  write  upon  the  blackboard  short 
characteristic  extracts  from  the  works  of  these 
authors,  and  explain  and  illustrate  the  growth 
of  the  oldest  English,  with  its  highly  inflected 
forms,  into  our  present  English.  The  second 
thing  to  be  done  is,  to  connect  every-where  the 
appearance  and  the  work  of  a  •writer  with  the 
social  condition  and  the  political  events  of  the 
age  in  which  he  lived,  and  to  show — as  far  as  this 
can  be  shown  to  a  young  audience  —  how  these 
influenced  the  character  and  the  feelings  of  the 
writer.  Nothing,  for  example,  can  be  clearer  or 
more  easy  to  explain  than  the  influence  of  the 
two  opposite  views  of  politics  upon  the  writings 
of  the  two  contemporaries,  Milton  and  Butler. 

The  stan  ling  difficulty  and  perpetual  tempta- 
tion— a  difficulty  with  which  the  teacher  will  have 
constantly  to  fight,  and  a  temptation  which  he 
will  have  at  every  moment  to  resist — is  to  present 
to  his  pupils  conclusions  the  data  for  which  have 
not  been  given,  and  critical  results  the  steps  to 
which  have  never  been  taken  by  the  pupils  them- 
selves. There  is  nothing  more  prejudicial  to  the 
young  mind — nothing  so  fatal  to  its  kindly  and 
harmonious  growth,  as  the  presence  within  it  of 
ready-made  thoughts,  of  alien  ideas,  and  of  too 
easily  accepted  results.  The  pupil  may  seem  to 
be  in  possession  of  such  ideas  and  conceptions, 
but  he  is  not ;  they  may  seem  to  be  the  fruit  of 
his  own  mind,  but  they  are  really  dead  artificial 
apples — the  witnesses,  not  of  a  vigorous,  sponta- 
neous life,  but  of  mental  poverty  and  death.  The 
second-hand  is  the  deadly  foe  of  original  life. 

A  large  part  of  the  benefit  of  a  course  of 
literature  will  be  lost  to  the  pupils,  if  they  are 
not  required,  always  and  every-where,  to  react 
with  their  own  mind  upon  the  material  they  re- 
ceive, and  the  forms  which  they  are  asked  to  con- 
template. This  view  demands  that,  accompany- 
ing every  step  of  the  course,  there  should  be  a 
well -selected  and  judiciously  chosen  set  of  exer- 
cises   .Such  exercises  might  include  the  following: 

(1)  An  account  of  a  poem  such  as  Chaucer's 
Prologue,  in  the  pupil's  own  words, — always 
avoiding  the  vile  practice  of  "paraphrasing."  (2)  A 
short  life  of  an  author,  from  memory.  (3)  An 
abridgment  of  an  important  chapter  from  some 
prose  work.  (4)  The  turning  into  modern 
English  of  a  passage  from  a  writer  of  the  11th  or 
12th  century.  (5)  A  critical  comparison  be- 
tween the  treatment  of  the  same  subject  by  two 
different  writers.  (Thus  Autumn  has  been  treated 
both  by  Keats  and  Shelley  ;  the  Nightingale  by 
Milton,  Keats,  and  Matthew  Arnold  ;  the  Death 
of  a  Friend  by  Spenser — in  his  Astrophel — and 
by  Shelley — in  his  Adonais  ;  an  Escape  by 
Shelley — in  his  Fugitives,  and  by  Campbell,  in 
his  Lord  Dl/in's  Daughter)  (6)  The  discussion 
of  separate  literary  dicta — like  the  following  by 
Russell  Lowell :  "  Style,  like  the  grace  of  perfect 
breeding,  makes  itself  felt  by  the  skill  with  which 
it  effaces  itself,  and  masters  us  at  last  with  a 


sense  of  indescribable  completeness."  (This 
might  be  at  first  discussed  in  the  class-room  ;  and 
then  the  line  of  argument  and  the  results  would 
be  given  in  the  form  of  an  essay  or  paper.) 
(7)  The  story  of  a  play  of  Shakespeare.  (8)  The 
analysis  of  some  character  in  a  play.  There  are 
many  others  which  will  naturally  occur  to  the 
teacher  in  the  course  of  his  work. 

The  steady  purpose  to  be  kept  in  view  in  this 
instruction  is  to  deposit  in  the  pupil's  mind  a 
few  nuclei  of  thought,  and  to  collect  around 
these  nuclei  as  large  an  accretion  of  cognate 
ideas  from  different  writers  and  from  different 
ages  as  possible.  The  existence  of  these  nuclei 
will  enable  the  teacher  to  preserve  unity  in  his 
teaching — to  link  together  his  lessons  with  bonds 
of  "  natural  piety;"  and  thus  to  make  the  thought- 
ful child  the  father  of  the  wise  and  instructed 
man.  And,  from  the  point  of  view  of  intel- 
lectual training,  they  will  enable  him  to  keep 
true  to  the  central  principle  of  repetition  with- 
out monotony. 

The  study  of  English  literature  is  incomplete 
unless  it  include  a  view  of  the  works  of  Amer- 
ican authors,  by  whom  many  departments  of  the 
literature  of  the  English  language  have  been 
greatly  enriched.  Thus,  in  poetry,  the  chief  pro- 
ductions of  Poe,  Whittier,  Longfellow,  Willis, 
Bryant,  etc.,  should  be  classified  and  criticised, 
and  compared  also  with  the  productions  of  En- 
glish poets  in  the  same  departments.  In  history, 
due  attention  should  be  given  to  Prescott,  Hil- 
dreth,  Bancroft,  and  Motley ;  and,  in  general 
literature,  including  essays,  fiction,  etc.,  Irving, 
Poe,  Hawthorne,  Emerson,  Tuckerman,  Whipple, 
and  a  host  of  others,  claim  attention.  The 
principles  and  methods  suggested  in  regard  to 
English  authors,  in  this  article,  are  equally  ap- 
plicable to  the  American  literature  of  the  En- 
glish language. 

Many  valuable  books  of  reference  have  been 
published  on  this  subject  which  the  teacher 
should  have  at  hand  for  consultation.  In  English 
literature  proper,  we  may  refer  to  Chambers, 
Cyclopaedia  of  English  Literature  (3d  Ed.,  1876 
— 7);  Alliboxe,  Critical  Dictionary  of  English 
Literature  (3  vols.,  Phila.,  1858 — 73)  ;  Craik, 
History  of  English  Literature  and  Language 
(London,  1861);  Taine,  Histoire  de  la  litteralure 
anglaise  (Paris,  1864),  English  translation  (N.Y., 
1871);  Spaldixg,  History  of  English  Literature 
(N.  Y.,  1853),  a  brief  manual,  good  in  parts,  but 
very  dry,  and  abounding  in  conceptions,  views, 
and  criticisms  which  only  a  mature  and  widely 
read  person  can  appreciate ;  Arnold,  Manual 
of  English  Literature  (London,  1862), — this  has 
many  good  points,  but  is  a  little  confused,  and 
wants  perspective  ;  the  latter  half  of  the  work— 
the  Critical  Section — is  very  much  like  Spalding; 
Shaw,  A  Complete  Manual  of  English  Literature, 
edited  by  Wm.  Smith,  LL.  !>.,  with  a  sketch  of 
American  literature,  by  ILT. Tuckerman  (X.Y., 
L867) ;  Morell,  Biographical  History  of  En- 
glish Literature,  full  of  lessons  useful  to  young 
ns:  Collier,  .1  History  of  English  Liter- 
ati//^ (N.Y.,  1867),  a  brief  and  useful  manual; 


280 


ENTHUSIASM 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


Cleveland, -4  <1i>/n/><',i,Iimn  of  English  Liter- 
at>in>.  from  Mandcville  to  Cowper  (Phila.,  L848), 
and  English  Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  Cent- 
ury (Phil..  L852},  also  'Compendium  of  Amer- 
ican TAterature  (Phila.,  L859) ;  Underwood,  .1 
Hand-Bpok  of  English  Literature — British 
.  I  athors  i  l>oston,  1871),  and  Amerirmi  . I  uthors 
(Boston,  1872);  Duyckinck,  Cydopcedia  of 
American  Literature  (2  vols.,  N.  Y.,  1856).  Of 
series,  t lie  following  may  be  mentioned:  The 
Clarendon  Press  Series,  one  of  the  best  pub- 
lished, is  edited  by  men  who  know  the  En- 
glish language  and  understand  their  subject  ; 
Chaucer,  by  It.  Morris,  is  one  of  the  most  care- 
fully edited  books  in  any  language ;  the  Shake- 
speare Plays  are  also  well  done.  Starr's  .S'c/vVs 
is  also  excellent :  many  of  the  books  are  edited 
by  teachers,  who  understand  best  where  pupils 
are  liable  to  meet  with  difficulty.  Of  the  London 
Series,  only  one  book  has.  as  yet,  appeared — 
Bacon's  Essays,  edited  by  K.  A.  Abbott.  This  is, 
however,   a   model  of    its   kind,  showing   how  a 

work  like  the  Essays,  full  of  weighty  thoughts 
and  precious  English,  ought  to  be  edited. — Sec 
also  .M  \i;sn.  The  Origin  and  History  of  the 
English  Language  (N.  V„  L862);  and  Reed, 
Lectures  on  English  Literature  (  Phila.,  L855). 

ENTHUSIASM  is  an  emotion  of  so  strong 
a  kind  as  to  beget  Belf-forgetfulness,  and  to 
awaken  the  most  powerful  energies  of  the  mind. 

When  made  to  rest  11)11,11  an  admiration  of  the 
good,  the  tine,  and  the  heant il'ul.  it  becomes  an 
educational  stimulus  of  a  very  useful  and  effect- 
ive character:  it.  must  not.  however,  be  per- 
mitted to  supersede  the  exercise  of  conscience, 
or  the  sense  of  what  is  right,  and  thus  de- 
generate into  moral  weakness.  Earnestness, 
rather  than  enthusiasm,  should  be  the  qual- 
ity inspired  by  the  educator;  and  this  is  to  be 
effected  I  hrough  the  force  of  example,  because  the 
sympathetic  influence  of  the  true  teacher  upon 
the  mind  of  his  pupil  is  almost  without  limit. 
Especially  should  that  spurious  kind  of  enthusi- 
asm be  repressed  which    is  characterized  by  a 

habitual  excitement  about  every  thing  thai  is 
new,  and  which  tends  to  destroy  every  thing 
that  is  rational  and  stable  in  the  character.  En- 
thusiasm is  an  exceedingly  important  quality  in 
the  teacher  as  well  as  in  the  pupil:  indeed,  a 
teacher  can  scarcely  meet  with  any  true  success 
in  his  profession  vJ,,,  js  not  enthusiastic  in  his 
devotion  to  it.  While  this  is  true  of  those  en- 
gaged in  any  vocation,  it  is  peculiarly  the  case 
with  the  educator;  since  the  effectiveness  of 
his  work  depends  so  largely  upon  his  personal 

zeal.  The  best  results,  perhaps,  of  his  labors  are 
those    which    he   accomplishes   by  what    has  been 

aptly  called  unconscious  tuition, 

EPEE,  Charles  Michel,  Abbe  de  1',  a 
noted  French  teacher  of  deaf-mutes,  and  the 
founder  oi  the  Bystem  of  instructing  the  deaf  and 
dumb  by  means  of  a  language  of  signs,  was  born 
at  Versailles,  Nov.  25.,  1712,  and  died  in  Paris, 

Dec.  23.,  1789.     lie    was  at    first    an  ecclesiastic. 

but  was  suspended  from  the  priesthood  in  conse- 
quence of  his  .lanseni.-t  opinions.     While  living 


a  life  of  literary  leisure  in  Paris,  he,  in  17.">.V 
chanced  upon  two  deaf-mute  sisters  whose  edu-' 
cation  had  been  commenced  by  Pere  Yanin.  but 
who  were  then,  in  consequence  of  his  death, 
without  the  means  of  instruction.  I>e  I'Epee 
took  so  great  an  interest  in  their  condition,  that 
he  determined  to  undertake  the  task  of  teaching 
them.  lie  at  first  continued  the  method  of 
Yanin.  that  of  pictures,  and  then  tried  articula- 
tion ;  but  being  dissatisfied  with  these  methods. 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  using  a  system  of  signs. 
lie  succeeded  so  well  that  he  took  others  under 
his  instruction,  and  soon  organized  a  school 
which  he  continued,  at  his  own  expense,  till  Iris 
death.  It  is  said  that,  even  in  his  7<ith  year,  he 
deprived  himself  of  fuel  in  order  to  support  his 
school.  Joseph  II.  of  Austria  and  Catherina  II. 
of  Russia  offered  him  royal  gifts,  but  he  declined 
them;  as  his  great  wish  was  to  obtain  the  royal 
endowment  of  an  institution  for  deaf-mute  edu- 
cation. I  lis  desire  was  not  realized  till  after  bis 
death.  A  bronze  statue  has  been  erected  at 
Versailles  to  the  memory  of  De  I'Epee,  and  a 
bas-relief  placed  by  citizens  of  Sweden  in  the 
church  of  St.  Sulpiee.  In  L855,  the  centennial 
anniversary  of  the  establishment  of  bis  school 
was  celebrated  at  Paris  by  a  large  concourse  of 
persons,  including  delegations  from  many  of  the 
countries  of  Europe,  lie  wrote  a  work  entitled 
Institution  des  sourds  et  muets  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
I  77  I  1.  which  was  revised  and  republished  under 
the  title  of  7w  veritable  maniere  d'instrtiire  les 
sourds  et  muets  (Paris.  L784).  P.  Berthier,  a 
deaf-mute,  wrote  bis  biography  [L'Abbe  de  VE- 
p4e,  sa    Pie,  son  Apostolat,  etc.,  1852).  —  See 

also  I.  VALETTE,    17c  «/c  /'.|////e  1/.'  /7.'/»:     1  I'aris. 

L857) ;  and  Bebian,  Eloge  de  C.  dl.de  VEpee 
(1833). 

EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  in  the  wider 
sense  of  the  word,  is  applied  to  any  church  hav- 
ing an  episcopal  form  of  government.  In  a  nar- 
rower sense,  it  is  commonly  used  as  the  collect  ive 
nunc  of  the  churches  which  had  their  origin  in 
the  English  Reformation  under  Henry  VIII.  The 

most  important  of  these  bodies  are  the  Church 
of  England,  the  Church  of  Ireland,  and  the 
Protestant      Kpiscopal    Church    of    the     United 

States.  The  church  of  England  and  the  Church 

of  Ireland  constituted,  from  L801,  in  which  year 
the  Act  of  Union  between  England  and  Ireland 
was  passed,  until  dan.  I ..  Is71 ,  when  the  Church 
of  Ireland  was  disestablished,  only  one  body 
under  the  name  of  the  United  Church  of  Eng- 
land and  Ireland.  Now  each  of  these  churches 
is  an  independent  body,  as  are  also  the  Scotch 
Episcopal  Church  and  the  Protestanl  Episcopal 
( lunch  of  the   United   States.     In    L867,  the 

bishops    of    all     these    churches    assembled    ill    a 

Pananglican  Council,  under  the   presidency  of 

the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,   to  deliberate  on 

the  common  interests  of  these  bodies.  \\  e  shall 
treat  of  these  churches  separately. 

I.  The  Church  of  England  The  parent 
body  is  the  Church  of  England.  When  its  con- 
nection with  tin' see  of  Rome  was  severed,  under 
Benry  VIII.,  the  avowed  intention  was  to  return 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


281 


to  the  purity  of  the  primitive  church  and  to  re- 
tail! its  creed  and  its  discipline.  The  doctrinal 
standards  of  the  church  are.  after  the  Scriptuj  ss, 
the  Book  of  Homilies,  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles, 

and  the  Prayer-Hook.  There  arc  within  the 
church  three  widely  differing  schools,  known  as 
the  High  Church,  the  Low  Church,  and  the 
Broad  Church.    The  High  Church  men  regard 

the  apostolical  succession  in  the  three  orders  of 
the  ministry  as  a  divine  institution:  the  Low 
Church  men  generally  look  upon  episcopacy  as 
not  essential  to  the  being  of  the  church,  and 
recognize  the  claims  of  dissenters  to  he  members 
of  Christ's  body.  The  Broad  Church,  which  is 
of  more  recent  origin,  is  tolerant  of  doctrinal 
difference  :  and.  while  its  own  tendency  is  toward 
what  is  called  liberal  Christianity,  it  would  keep 
the  platform  of  the  church  sufficiently  broad  to 
have  room  also  for  the  high  and  low  church 
parties.  The  Church  of  England  is  the  established 
church  in  England  and  Wales,  and  the  king  is  its 
supreme  head  on  earth.  England  as  an  ecclesi- 
astical territory  is  divided  into  two  provinces, 
Canterbury  and  York,  with  an  archbishop  in 
each  and  25  bishops.  Each  province  has  a  pro- 
vincial synod,  called  a  convocation  and  consist- 
ing of  two  houses,  the  upper  house,  which  com- 
prises all  the  bishops  of  the  province,  and  the 
lower  house,  which  comprises  the  deans,  arch- 
deacons, proctors  of  chapters,  and  proctors  for 
the  parochial  clergy.  The  convocation  is  sum- 
moned by  the  archbishop  at  the  command  of  the 
kin-',  and  its  decisions  have  no  legal  force,  since 
the  regulation  of  all  church  affaire  belongs  to 
Parliament.  As  no  religious  census  is  taken  hi 
England  and  Wales,  there  are  no  official  state- 
ments of  the  numerical  strength  of  the  church ; 
the  population  connected  with  it  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  50  to  77  percent  of  the  entire 
population.  As  the  Church  of  England  is  estab- 
lished by  law,  most  of  the  great  institutions  of 
learning,  including;  the  national  universities  of 
Oxford.  Cambridge,  and  Durham,  and  King's 
College.  London,  are  under  its  control.  All  these 
four  institutions  have  a  number  of  theological 
chairs,  and  until  recently  (1856)  academic  de- 
grees were  conferred  by  them  only  upon  candi- 
dates who  had  subscribed  to  the  thirty-nine  ar- 
ticles. All  the  Great  Public  Schools  and  the 
large  majority  of  Grammar  Schools  are  under 
the  management  of  clergymen  of  the  Church  of 
England.  The  study  of  theology  can  now 
be  pursued  at  any  of  the  universities  which 
have  been  named,  or  in  one  of  the  theological 
seminaries  which  have  been  founded  by  the 
bishops  since  the  beginning  of  the  present  centu- 
ry. According  to  the  "  Kalendar  of  the  ( /hureh 
of  England  for  1876."  the  Church  of  England 
had.  in  1^75,  theological  seminaries  at  Birken- 
head (St.  Aidan's,  founded  L846),  Birmingham 
(theological  department  of  the  Queen's  College), 
Canterbury  (St.  Augustine's  Missionary  College, 
founded  in  lido,  suppressed  in  L 53^,  restored  in 
1848,  to  educate  ministers  for  the  distant  depen- 
dencies of  the  empire);  Chichester  (1859);  Cud- 
desdon(1854);  Cumberland  (St  .Bees,  L816);  Lam- 


(St.  David's  College,  incorporated  1822); 
Lichfield  (1857);  Balfebury (1860);  Wells(1840). 

There  were  in    the  same  year,  under  the  control 

of  the    Church,  2.'i  colleges  and  scl Is  for  the 

training  of  school-masters  and  school-mistresses. 
The  educational  societies  connected  with  the 
Church  are  (1  i  The  Society  for  promoting  Chris- 
tian knowledge,  founded  in  1698;  ('-')  The  Na- 
tional Society  for  promoting  the  education  of  the 
1  'cor  in  the  Principles  of  the  established  <  'hureh 
throughout  England  and  Wales,  instituted  in  L811, 
incorporated  in  1817;  (3)  Home  and  Colonial 
School  Society,  for  training  teachers  and  for  the 
improvement  and  extension  of  education  in  I  'hris- 
tian  principles,  instituted  in  1836;  (4)  Church 
of  England  Education  for  the  maintenance  of 
schools  in  poor  districts.  The  number  of  colonial 
and  missionary  dioceses  of  the  ( 'hureh  of  Eng- 
land has  rapidly  increased  during  the  present 
century,  and  in  connection  with  them  a  large 
number  of  educational  institutions  have  been 
established.  The  first  colonial  see  established 
was  that  of  Nova  Scotia,  in  1787.  In  1875, 
the  whole  number  of  dioceses  was  60,  of  which 
5  were  in  India,  6  in  the  West  Indies.  12  in 
Africa,  16  in  Australasia,  and  15  in  North 
America.  For  further  information  in  regard  to 
the  schools  of  the  Church  of  England  in  the 
colonies  see  the  articles  on  the  several  provinces 
of  Canada,  on  India,  and  on  Australasia. 

II.  Tlie  Church  of  Ireland. — Although  sepa- 
rated from  the  Church  of  England  in  point  of 
administration  since  its  disestablishment,  in 
1871,  it  fully  agrees  with  it  in  doctrine.  The 
(hureh  has  two  archbishops,  at  Dublin  and  at 
Armagh,  and  ten  bishops.  It  is  governed  by  a 
general  synod,  meeting  annually  in  Dublin,  and 
consisting  of  a  house  of  bishops  and  a  house  of 
clerical  and  lay  delegates.  The  population  con- 
nected with  the  Church  was,  according  to  the- 
census  of  1871,  683,295,  or  over  12  per  cent  of 
the  total  population.  The  largest  and  richest  edu- 
cational institution  of  Ireland,  the  University  of 
Dublin,  also  called  Trinity  College,  is  in  close 
connection  with  the  Church  of  Ireland,  to  which 
its  officers  and  professors  belong.  As  religious 
tests  have  been  abolished,  the  General  Synod 
has  resolved  to  establish,  under  the  direct  man- 
agement of  the  Church,  a  new  divinity  school. 
The  college  of  St.  Columba,  at  Rathfarnham, 
near  Dublin,  was  founded  in  L843,  to  afford  a 
good  English  education,  and  to  inculcate  the 
principles  of  this  church.  The  education  com- 
mittee of  the  General  Synod  specially  designs 
"  to  add  to  the  secular  training  of  teachers  in 
the  central  school  of  the  National  Hoard  of  Edu- 
cation, as  efficient  religious  instruction  as  they 
can  impart  in  the  very  limited  time  at  their  dis- 
posal." 

III.  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  i"  tl/<' 
United  States. — The  organization  of  the  "Church 
of  England  people"  in  the  United  States  into  an 
independent  ecclesiastical  body  was  not  com- 
pleted until  1785  :  but,  before  this,  Dr.  Seabury 
had  been  elected  by  the  Episcopalians  of  Con- 
necticut to  be  their  bishop  and  had  been  conse- 


282 


EPISCOPAL   CHURCH 


ERASMUS 


crated,  Nov.  14.,  1784,  by  three  Scottish  bishops. 
The  doctrinal  standards  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land were  retained,  and  in  the  few  alterations 
which  were  made  in  the  English  formularies,  it 
was  expressly  stated  that  "this  church  is  far  from 
intending  to  depart  from  the  Church  of  England 
in  any  essential  point  of  doctrine,  discipline,  or 
worship,  or  further  than  local  circumstances  re- 
quire." The  dioceses  formerly  corresponded  in 
number  and  extent  with  the  states  ;  but,  in  1834, 
a  division  of  the  state  dioceses  began.  Each 
diocese  has  a  diocesan  convention,  which  meets 
annually  and  is  composed  of  the  bishop,  clergy, 
and  delegates  chosen  by  the  laity.  The  General 
Convention,  which  meets  triennially,  is  composed 
of  all  the  bishops,  who  constitute  the  upper 
house,  and  four  clerical  and  four  lay  delegates 
from  each  diocesan  convention,  who  constitute 
the  lower  house.  The  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Com- 
missioner of  Education  for  1874  mentions  the 
following  universities  and  colleges  as  being  under 
the  control  or  influence  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church:  College  of  William  and  Mary,  at 
Williamsburgh,  Va.,  organized  in  L693;  Colum- 
bia College,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  organized 
in  1754  under  the  name  of  King's  Collej 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Ct.,  L823;  llobart 
College,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  L824  ;  Kenyon  Coll 
Gambier,  O.,  1826;  Norwich  University,  North- 
field,  Yt.,  1834;  Burlington  College,  Burlington, 
N.  J.,  1846;  St.  Paul's  College.  >almyra.\\Io., 
1848;  Racine  College,  Racine,  Wise.,  L852;  St. 
Stephen's  College  Anandale,  N.  Y.,  1858.  Ne- 
braska College,  Nebraska  City,  Nebr.,  1865  ; 
Lehigh  University,  S.  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  L866;  Mis- 
sionary College  of  St.  Augustine,  Benicia,  Cal., 
1868;  University  of  the  South,  Suwanee,  Tenn., 
1868.  Columbia  College,  N.  Y.,  which  is  enumer- 
ated in  this  list,  has  not,  however,  a  strictly  de- 
nominational character,  as  different  religious  de- 
nominations are  represented  in  the  board  of 
trustees ;  but  the  majority  of  the  board  and  the 
presidents  of  the  institution  have  always  belonge  I 
to  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  Beside  these 
institutions.  14  schools  for  the  superior  instruction 
of  women  are  classified  as  Protestant  Episcopal, 
with  a  considerable  number  of  academies  and 
seminaries.  The  oldest  theological  school  of  the 
church  is  the  General  Theological  Seminary  of 
New-  York  City,  which  was  organized  in  I 
and  is  under  the  immediate  control  of  the '  ieneral 
Convention.  The  board  of  trustees  consists  of 
all   the  bishops  of    the    Protestant     Episcopal 

( 'hureh,  of  Olie  trustee  from  each  diocese,  of  one 

additional  for  every  eight  clergymen,  of  one  more 

trustee   for  every  $2,000  contributed,  until  the 

ne  amounts  to  $10,000;    and  one  for  every 

additional  $10,000  < tributed.      Since    then.    9 

other  schools  of  tl logy  have  been  organized. 

The  Sunday  Si  hools  of  the  church  had.  in  L875, 

235,943  scholars  taughl  by  23,4  18  teachers.   The 

denominational  societies  for  educational  purpo  ee 
arc  (1)  The  P.  E.  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Evangelical  Knowledge;  (2)  The  P.  B.  Evan 
ical   Education  Society;  (3)  The  General  P.  E. 
Sunday-School  Union  and  Church  Hook  Society. 


The  General  Convention,  at  its  triennial  meet- 
ings, regularly  appoints  a  joint  committee  on 
Christian  education. 

EPISCOPAL  METHODIST  COLLEGE, 
at  I-ewistown,  111.,  an  institution  for  the  edu- 
cation of  both  sexes,  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  It  was 
opened  in  1873,  and  incorporated  in  1875.  It 
has  a  preparatory,  an  academic,  and  a  collegiate 
course.  Instruction  is  given  in  French.  German, 
music,  drawing,  painting,  and  book-keeping,  for 
which,  except  the  last,  an  extra  charge  is  made. 
The  regular  tuition  fee  varies  from  $20  to  $50 
per  year.  For  the  special  business  course,  pur- 
sued separately,  the  fee  is  840  a  year.  In  L874 
■ — 5,  there  were  6  instructors  and  89  students 
preparatory.  27  academic,  13  collegiate,  and 
I  1  in  special  branches).     W.   S.  McKinney  is 

(1876)  the  president. 

EQUATION.     Sec  Algebra. 

ERASMUS,  Desiderius,  was  bom  in  Rot- 
terdam, Holland,  ( let.  28.,  1467, and  died  in  Basel, 
duly  12.,  1536.  His  original  name,  Gerard,  he 
translated  into  its  supposed  Latin  and  Greek 
equivalents,  Desiderius  and  'Epdauwg;  these  he 
united  to  form  the  new  name  which  he  after- 
wards assumed.    In  the  convent  school  of  Deven- 

ter,  \\  here  he  was  educated,  he  distinguished  him- 
self so  much,  that  even  then  it  was  predicted 
that  he  would  become  the  most  learned  man  of 
the  age.  After  the  death  of  his  parents,  his  tutors 
sent  him  to  a  school  at  Bois-le-Duc  to  prepare 
himself  for  the  priesthood;  and.  in  L486,  a  friend 
persuaded  him  to  enter  a  convent  near  Gouda. 
In  1492,  the  bishop  of  Cambray  took  him  into 
his  service, and  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood. 
Five  years  later,  he  left  for  the  University  of 
Paris;  and  thenceforward,  he  lived  in  France, 
England, the  Netherlands,  and  Italy,  for  the  most 
part  independent,  or  supported  by  distinguished 
patrons,  lie  acted  as  a  private  teacher  here  and 
there, and  was  for  a  short  time  professor  of  theol- 
ogy and  Greek  at  Cambridge;  but  he  soon  re- 
signed, and  avoided  after  that  any  fixed  position. 
The  fame  of  his  learning  spread  throughout  the 
civilized  world,  and  honorary  degrees  were  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  several  universities.  Hi' bold- 
ly attacked  Scholastic  theology,  and  worked  most 
powerfully  to  revive  classical  learning.  This  he  did 
as  well  by  the  clearness  of  his  own  style  and  by 

his  classical  knowledge  as  by  the  satire  and  rid- 
icule which  he  directed  against  the  Scholastics. 
For  a  long  time  the  Reformers  regarded  him  as 

in  sympathy  with  them,  but  he  soon  separated 
from  them   and    was   even   involved  in  a  literary 

conflict  with  Luther.  In  personal  character,  he 
was  egotistic,  timid,  and  undecided,  —  faults 
which  became  especially  prominent  at  that 
period  of   the    Reformation.    He  contributed 

little  to  the  profound  tint. king  of  his  time,  but 
was  a  critic  and  a  scholar  rather  than  a  phi- 
losopher :  nevertheless,  his  unbounded  powers  of 
satire  served  to  wrench  men  violently  out  of 
their  accustomed    mode  of   thinking,  and.  in  this 

way,  he  acted  as  a  powerful  ferment,  especially 

in    the   revival  of    classical    studies.      His   great 


ERASMUS 


'ERIGENA 


283 


acquaintance  with  classical  authors  and  his 
mastery  of  the  Latin  language  made  his  ridicule 
t In-  most  effective  possible  against  the  dense 
ignorance  of  his  opponents.      His    two  moat 

famous  works  in  this  direction  were  his  MoriCE 
Encomium  (Praiseqf  Fotty), published  in  L512, 
and  the  Couoquia  Puerilia  (Children's  Talks), 
in  1518.     The  former  derided  the  dialectical 

labyrinth  in  which  the  theologians  had  lost 
themselves,  the  syllogisms  of    the   Scholastics) 

and  the  zeal  with  which  they  persecuted  and 
condemned  every  opinion  which  differed  from 
their  own.  The  latter  contains  conversations  upon 
almost  every  thing,  but, at  the  same  time,  is  full 
of  satires  upon  the  monks,  a  cloister  life,  pilgrim- 
ages, etc.  'This  book  was  condemned  by  the 
Sorbonne,  forbidden  in  Prance,  burned  in  Spain, 
and  prohibited  in  Rome  to  all  Christendom: 
nevertheless,  both  works  exerted  a  tremendous 
influence.  In  1516,  Erasmus  published  an  edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  New  Testament  with  a  Latin 
translation,  which  worked  powerfully  in  the  in- 
terests of  the  Reformation.  Of  his  educational 
works,  the  most  important  are:  Adagia  (The 
Adages  ,  published  in  L500;  De  Ratione  Studii 
(Of  the  Order  of  Studies),  in  L512;  the  trans- 
lation of  Theodore  Gaza's  Greek  grammar;  and 
Instiiutio  Principis  GhrisUani  (Education  of  a 
Christian  prince)  in  1516.  In  1526,  he  pub- 
lished a  book  upon  Christian  matrimony,  the 
last  section  of   which  treats  of  family  culture. 

Erasmus  divides  education  into  four  parts: 
(li  Religious-ethical  culture;  (2)  Intellectual 
culture:  (3)  Material  culture;  (4)  Formal  cult- 
ure. By  the  third  division  is  meant  cleverness 
or  skill  in  our  daily  labors  ;  and.  by  the  fourth, 
a  knowledge  of  the  amenities  of  cultured  society. 
This  division,  however,  was  not  very  strictly  ob- 
served by  him.  He  regarded  the  institution  of 
marriage  as  of  the  highest  importance  for  the 
proper  culture  of  children.  He  gives  many  rules, 
partly  medical  and  partly  moral,  upon  the  way 
in  which  matrons  should  live  in  order  to  secure 
the  Inst  results  for  their  children.  The  greatest 
car.  he  asserted,  should  be  taken  with  young 
children  to  prevent  vanity  and  vice  from  spring- 
ing up.  Good  birth  is  much,  but  good  education 
is  nmre.  In  the  weight  which  he  placed  upon  edu- 
cation in  comparison  with  inherited  tendencies, 
Erasmus  incurred  the  charge  of  Pelagianism. 
Indeed,  in  his  work  1)*'  Pueris  statim  ac 
liberaliter  instituendis,  he  expressly  refers  the 
chief  part  of  so-called  original  sin.  to  temptation 
and  bad  example.  Instruction  proper  should 
no1  begin  before  the  seventh  year.  Upon  the 
subject  of  teachers  and  school-houses.  Erasmus  is 
never  tired  of  pouring  out  a  flood  of  ridicule. 
The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  the  selection 
of  teachers  ;  and  if  possible, instruction  should  be 

private.  The  contagion  of  great  schools  oughl  to 
be  guarded  against.  A  clear  pronunciation,  as  well 
as  facility  in  reading  and  writing,  is  an  absolute 
necessity  for  all  classes.  Rich  parents,  however, 
should  not  fail  to  teach  their  children  some 
trade.  The  study  of  language  Should  precede 
the  study  of  things,  as  a  knowledge  of  things  can 


be  reached  only  through  language.  The  first 
thing  to  study  is  Greek  and  Latin  grammar,  for 

nearly  every  thing  worth  knowing  is  found  in 
these  languages.  They  should  also  be  studied 
together,  as  their  near  relationship  lightens  the 
labor  of  acquiring  them.  The  grammatical  rules 
must  be  as  i'i'\\  and  precise  as  possible;  and  the 
study  of  language  should  be  carried  on  rather  by 
leading  than  by  learning  rules  by  heart.   As  soon 

as  anyone  has  a.  fair  foundation  in  the  languages, 

he  should  proceed  to  study  things.  The  best 
sources  for  this  study  are  the  Greek  authors. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  strengthen  the  memory, 
and  the  best  means  are  a  right  understanding  of 
the  subject,  a  proper  order  of  thought,  and 
careful  distinction.  The  notion  that  all  Latinity 
must  be  Ciceronian  filled  him  with  incredible 
disgust.  The  study  of  Latin  ought  to  include 
all  the  authors,  and  those  pretended  Ciceronians 
who  will  hear  of  nobody  but  ('ieero  were  in- 
tolerable. The  pseudo-classical  enthusiasm  which 
could  find  nothing  valuable  in  any  other  litera- 
ture also  came  in  for  condemnation.  Above  ami 
before  all  else,  is  religious  instruction  important. 
The  minds  of  children  must  be  so  oiled  with 
the  great  facts  of  the  Christian  religion,  that  it 
shall  seem  to  them  the  greatest  reality  of  life. 
The  world  and  life  must  always  be  spoken  of  as 
under  the  immediate  control  of  God.  If  good 
seed  be  sown  in  this  way.  the  best  fruit  may  be 
looked  for ;  still  the  most  important  means  of 
teaching  morality  is  by  example. 

Erasmus  insisted  also  upon  similar  instruction 
for  girls.  It  is  sufficient  according  to  many,  he 
says,  to  keep  a  girl  shut  up  and  away  from  men 
until  she  is  married,  while  often  enough  she  is 
more  injured  by  shallow  women  than  by  an  as- 
sociation with  men.  Chastity  must  of  course  be 
maintained ;  but  she  alone  is  chaste  who  knows 
what  chastity  is,  and  how  to  maintain  it.  Inno- 
cence suffers  chiefly  from  bad  example ;  and 
parents  ought  to  be  careful  to  do  nothing  unbe- 
coming in  the  presence  of  even  their  youngest 
daughters.  He  also  inveighs  severely  against 
love  songs  and  romances,  lascivious  dances 
and  pictures.  Girls,  too.  ought  to  receive  a 
liberal  education.  The  multitude  holds  it  to  be 
folly,  but  wise  men  know  that  nothing  is  more 
advantageous  to  the  morals  of  women  than  ex- 
tended knowledge. 

An  edition  of  the  works  of  Erasmus  was 
published,  after  his  death,  by  Uheiianus.  at  P>asel 
(9    vols..   1540 — 11):    a    more  complete   edition 

was  published  by  Le  Clerc,  in  Leyden  (1<»  vols., 
fob.  17(13  —  6).  Biographies  of  Erasmus  haw 
been  published  in  English  by  Jortin,  Knight. 
Charles  Butler,  and  lb  B.  Drummond  (2  vols., 

London.  1  873  I. 

ERIGENA,  John  Scotus,  one  of  the  great- 
est philosophers  and  scholars  of  the  middle  ages, 
was  born  in  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century  in 
One  of  the  British  Islands  (probably  Ireland),  and 
died  about  SMI.    Charles  the  Laid  appointed  him 

head-master  to  the  court  school  of  Paris,  which 
under  his  direction  made  so  great  progress,  that  it 
was  no  Longer  called  schola  PalcUii,  but  Palatium 


284 


ERNESTI 


ESTHETIC  CULTURE 


pi 

T 


sckolce.  His  instruction,  which  was  confined 
chiefly  to  philosophy  and  the  classics,  (fare  a 
great  impulse  to  the  progress  of  philosophical 
studies.  As  his  own  philosophical  views  re- 
sembled,  in  some  respects,  those  held  by  the 
Neoplatonista  of  Alexandria,  he  has  been  called 
the  fast  of  that  school  :  at  the  same  time,  he  is 
rded  as  (he  first  forerunner  of  the  Scholas- 
tics. Special  works  on  Erigena  have  been  written 
by  Staudenmaier  (1H34),  Taillandier  (1843), and 
Huber  (1861). 

ERNESTI,  John  August,  a  German 
ihilologist  ami  educator,  horn  August  4.,  1707, in 
ennstiidt,  Thuringiajdied  September  LI.,  1781. 
In  1731,  lie  became  connected  with  the  Thomas 
School  at  Leipsic;  and.  in  1  711*.  he  was  made 
professor  at  the  university  of  the  same  city,  in 
which  position  he  remained  until  his  death.  His 
chief  fame  rests  upon  bis  philological  studies  and 
writings.  He  edited  a  great  many  classical  works, 
and  was  a  most  enthusiastic  Humanist.  His 
work  on  the  interpretation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment [InstitvMo  Tnterpretis  Nbvi  TestamenH, 
3d  edit..  17"."):  English  translation  by  ( '.  II. 
Perrot,  Edinburgh, 2  vols..  L833  13)  opened  the 
way  to  a  freer  exegesis  of  the  Scriptures,  and  is 
regarded  as  a  forerunner  of  the  later  rationalistic 
criticism.  The  sum  of  all  culture  lay.  for  him. 
in  the  classics.  "They  unite  beauty  of  conl 
with  beauty  of  form  :  and  out  of  them  one  wins 
political  sagacity,  practical  wisdom,  and  moral 
culture."    According  to  his  method,  less  weight  is 

placed  upon  grai atical  rules  than  upon  diligenl 

reading,  which  he  thoughl  th  ■  best  way  to  learn 
to  read  and  write  Latin  fluently.  This  reading, 
too,  should  be  rapid,  taking  in  whole  hooks  in  a 
short  time;  thishethoughl  a  betterwayof  acquir- 
ing the  spirit  of  a  language  than  spending  weeks 

upon  single  sentences  with  grammar  and  diction- 
ary. Literal  translation  he  banished,  and  in- 
sisted upon  an  acquaintance  with  the  public  life 
of  the  ancients,  in  order  to  understand  them 
rightly.     Besides    his    classical    works.   Ernesti 

published  a  book   upon    tin'   elements  of   various 

studies  (Initio  Doctrince  Solidioris).     It  treats 

of  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  the  elements  of 
philosophy.      These   are  divided    into  five  parts  : 

1 1 )  Metaphysics,  embracing  ontology,  psychology, 

ami  natural  theology;  (2)  Dialectics;  (3)  Morals, 

embracing    ethics   and    the    law   of    nature:    ill 

Politics  ;  (5)   Physics.     The  high  estimation  in 

which  Ernest]  was  held    in  Saxony,  is   shown  by 

the  fact  that  his  system  was  adopted  by  the 
state  Latin  schools  in  1  77."..  and  remained  almost 
entirely  unchanged  until  I  835. 

ERSKINE  COLLEGE,  at  Due  West.  Ab- 
beville Co.,  S.  C,  under  the  control  of  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterians  (the  Associate  Reformed 
Synod  of  the  South),  was  founded  in  L839.  It 
has  large  and  commodious  buildings ;  libraries, 
containing  12,500  volumes;  a  well  selected 
ological  cabinet  ;  a  philosophical  and  chemical 
apparatus:  together  with  an  excellent  equatorial, 
refracting  telescope,  mounted  in  an  observatory 
which  affords  a  magnificenl  view  of  the  heavens. 
The  amount  of  its  productive  funds  i.-  $45,000. 


There  is  a  preparatory  course  of  two  years,  and 
a  collegiate  course  of  four  years.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  ■  >  professors.  77  students  (56  collegiate, 
13  preparatory,  and  8  irregular),  and  356 
alumni.      The    Lev.   W.    M.    Grier,   1>.    P..   is 

i  I  876)  the  president. 

ESTHETIC    CULTURE.     Esthetics   (Gr. 
al<T&ijTiK6g,    from  aitr&aveo&cu,    to  perceive!,   the 

science  which  treats  of  taste  and  its  object,  the 
beautiful  in  nature  and  art.  has  been  recog- 
nized, since  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  as 
an  independent  branch  of  philosophy.  Depend- 
ing, as  it  does,  upon  the  exercise  of  a  special  fac- 
ulty of  the  mind,  it  forms  a  part  of  the  basis  of 
a  complete  and  harmoniou>  education.  How- 
ever well  the  intellect,  the  will,  or  the  conscience 
of  an  individual  may  have  been  trained,  if  es- 
thetic culture  is  wanting,  he  must  continue  rude 
and  unrefined;  ami.  hence,  in  a  comparison  of 
nations  which  are  esthetically  cultivated  with 
such  as  are  deficient  in  this  respect,  we  find  a 
marked  difference  in  the  degree  as  well  as  in  the 
general  character  of  the  civilization  which  they 
respectively  present.  The  esthetic  element. how- 
ever, cannot  lie  wholly  wanting.  Even  the  rud- 
est nations  or  the  most  barbarous  tribes  manifest 
delight  in  those  objects  which  satisfy  their  nat- 
ural sense  of  the  beautiful.  Like  children,  they 
fci|  an  intense  fondness  for  showy  ornaments, 
uncouth  pictures  and  images,  harsh  and  dis- 
cordant music,  and  grotesque  dances.  The  love 
of  these  things  BpringS  from  the  esthetic  prin- 
ciple in  their  minds,  in  its  uncultivated  and 
partly  undeveloped  condition.  Their  percep- 
tions of  the  beautiful  are.  like  their  thoughts  and 

their  reasonings,  processes  unregulated  and  mis- 
directed. They  have,  also,  the  moral  sense-  the 
sense  of  right  and  wrong,  but  not  knowing  how 
to  distinguish  right  from  wrong,  thev  often  eon- 
Bcientiously  perform  acts  which,  judged  by  a 
proper  standard   of  rectitude,  are    reprehensible 

in  the  highest  degree;  for  conscience  is  only  the 
general  impression  that  a  distinction  between 
right  and  wrong  exists,  not  a  power  to  discrim- 
inate between  specific  right  ana  wrong.     In  the 

Same   manner,  the  esthetic  principle  is  the  sense 

by  which  the  mind,  in  a  general  way.  distin- 
guishes between  what  is  beautiful  and  w  hat  is 
ugly;  but  ii  does  not  teach  specifically  what  ob- 
jects tire  beautiful.  Hence,  however  advanced 
pel-sons  may  he  in  esthetic  culture,  they  will  still 

differ  to  some  extent  iii  this  specific  discrimina- 
tion.   This  difference  we  attribute  to  a  diversity 

of  taste,  the  word  taste  being  used  to  designate 

the  esthetic  principle  or  faculty  of  the  mind. 
We  find,  also,  the   same  diversity  in  the  exercise 

ot  the  moral  sense,  in  the  absence  of  a  settled 

standard,  some    persons   regarding  as   worthy  of 

approbation  the  same  act  that  others  look  upon 
as  decidedly  sinful. 

The  aim  of  esthetic  education  must,  therefore. 

be  to  cultivate  the  sense  of  the  beautiful,  i.  e.,the 
taste,  1 1 i  by  Bhowing  what  the  elements  of  beau- 
ty are,  and  thus  establishing  in  the  mind  a  proper 
standard  of  the  beautiful:  (2)  by  presenting  to 
the  mind  simple  forms  of  beauty,  tor  the  purpose 


ESTHETIC  CULTURE 


285 


of  illustrating  this  analysis  of  the  elements,  ami 

also  impressing  tliein  deeply  upon  the  mind,  as 
the  Foundation  of  esthetic  culture;  and  (3)  by 
practice  in  criticism,  so  that  the  mind  may  be 
trained  to  judge  whether  in  any  complex  object, 

either  of  nature  or  art.  the  elementary  principles 
of  beauty  are  present,  and  in  their  normal  or 
proper  combination.  The  elements  of  beauty 
are  to  lie  sought  for  in  the  constitution  of  the 
human  mind;  and.  therefore,  our  knowledge  of 
what  they  are  and  how  they  are  to  be  combined 
must  lie  derived  from  experience  and  observation, 
upon  the  results  of  which  esthetics  as  a  science 
must  be  based.  The  educator  must,  antecedent- 
ly to  the  exercise  of  his  professional  skill,  have 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  this,  just  as  the  teacher 
of  mathematics  or  of  physics  must  be  versed  in 
those  branches,  b  fore  lie  learns  how  to  teach 
them  :  but  with  this  difference,  that  in  esthetical 
culture,  it  is  the  faculty  that  is  immediately  ad- 
dressed, the  primary  object  being  disciplinary  ; 
while  in  most  other  departments  of  instruction, 
discipline  is  a  secondary  object,  the  primary  aim 
being  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  the  subject 
taught.  To  illustrate,  we  do  not,  in  elementary 
schools,  teach  esthetics  as  such  ;  but  we  strive  to 
cultivate  the  esthetic  faculty  by  instruction  in 
drawing,  painting,  music,  etc.  (See  Art-Educa- 
tion. Drawing,  and  Music.)  In  this  department 
of  teaching,  the  practical  value  of  the  subjects 
themselves  is  a  consideration  of  great  importance, 
but  the  development  of  the  pupil's  taste  is  in- 
dispensable to  any  true  progress,  and,  therefore, 
during  the  earlier  stages  at  least,  must  be  the  pri- 
mary aim  of  the  educator.  When  the  mind  has 
become  enriched  with  varied  forms  of  beauty,  the 
mechanical  skill  will  soon  advance  to  the  degree 
requisite  to  give  them  expression.  This  work 
commences  in  the  kindergarten,  and  is  continued 
in  the  object  lessons  of  the  primary  school,  by 
means  of  varied  exercises  in  form  (q.  v.)  or 
color  (q.  v.)  The  most  rudimental  exercises  in 
drawing  should  have  a  strict  reference  to  this 
principle;  that  is  to  say,  the  pupils  should  be  re- 
quired to  delineate  not  uncouth  figures,  but 
simple  forms  of  beauty.  The  hand  and  the  eye 
may  be  trained,  it  is  true, by  practice  in  drawing 
any  forms,  whether  beautiful  or  not ;  but  the 
taste  is  to  be  developed  and  cultivated  as  well ; 
and,  therefore,  only  such  forms  as  appeal  to  the 
esthetic  sense  should  lie,  at  first,  presented.  The 
elementary  forms  of  the  script  letters  are  illus- 
trative of  the  esthetic  principle ;  and,  hence, 
writing  is  a  means  of  esthetic  culture.  The  let- 
ters themselves  being,  however,  complex  forms, 
it  is  held  that  rudimentary  drawing  should  pre- 
cede writing.  "The  experience  of  many  good 
teachers,"  says  Wickersham,  "  seems  to  prove 
that  pupils  should  receive  instruction  in  the  ele- 
ments of  drawing  before  they  begin  to  write, 
and  that  such  lessons  are  better  calculated  than 
any  others  to  aid  the  pupil  in  attaining  the 
power  of  conceiving  forms  correctly." 

Esthetics  is  not  only  concerned  in  the  beauty 
of  forms;  it  embraces  the  objects  of  every  bodily 
sense,  and  also  of  what  may  be  called  the  inner 


sense,  a  discriminative  consciousness  of  the 
beautiful  ill  thought  and  action,  which  the  rhet- 
orician, the  poet,  and  the  orator  recognize  and 
address  in  their  several  spheres  of  activity.    That 

pari  of  esthetics  which  depends  upon  the  ob- 
jects of  hearing  is  cultivated  by  means  of  music, 
which  is  the  expression  of  the  beautiful  in 
sound.  The  same  guiding  principle  is  appli- 
cable to  instruction  in  this  as  to  the  teaching  of 
form.  Simple  melodious  combinations,  regular 
and  beautiful  in  themselves,  should  be  constantly 
employed;  all  that  is  harsh  and  dissonant  should 
be  avoided.  (See  Music]  The  beauty  of  com- 
position, that  is,  rhetorical  beauty,  depending  up- 
on subtler  principles,  requires  a  more  careful 
treatment  in  education.  Habit  and  association, 
however,  play  an  important  part  in  this  branch 
of  esthetic  culture;  and,  therefore,  the  child, 
even  from  its  earliest  years,  should  be  accus- 
tomed to  hear  only  chaste,  pure  expressions;  and 
the  most  familiar  colloquialisms  should  be  en- 
tirely tree  from  what  is  coarse  and  vulgar,  and 
especially  from  slang.  The  esthetic  element  in 
poetry  cannot  be  addressed  until  an  advanced 
stage  of  culture  has  been  reached.  Poetiy  is 
the  expression  of  the  beautiful  by  means  of 
words  ;  it  embraces  rhetorical  beauty,  and  the 
beauty  of  thought  and  action,  as  well  as  of  ex- 
ternal forms. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  quite  ob- 
vious that  teachers  themselves  should  possess 
esthetic  culture,  and  should  fully  understand  the 
peculiar  function  of  this  department  of  educa- 
tion in  a  harmonious  development  of  the  human 
mind.  Nothing  with  which  the  young  pupil  i;- 
brought  in  contact  should  be  of  such  a  character 
as  to  offend  the  finest  taste.  What  may  be 
called  the  esthetics  of  the  school-room  should  re- 
ceive the  most  careful  attention.  There  are,  in 
every  school-room,  resources  for  producing  pleas- 
ant impressions.  The  furniture  should  be  neat 
and  tasteful,  and  should  be  kept  in  precise  order; 
the  apartment  should  be  scrupulously  clean;  and. 
as  far  as  possible,  should  be  embellished  with 
pleasing  natural  objects,  such  as  flowers,  plants, 
shells,  etc.;  as  well  as  with  simple  works  of  art, — 
pietures,  busts,  etc.  Maps,  globes,  and  other 
school  apparatus,  kept  in  good  order,  and  ar- 
ranged in  the  school-room  in  a  proper  maimer 
and  ready  for  use,  will  have  a  pleasing  and  happy 
effect  on  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  The  following 
are.  the  observations  of  a  practical  teacher  who 
has  evidently  learned  to  apply  the  esthetic 
culture  of  her  own  mind  to  the  simple  purposes 
of  district  school  instruction:  "Much  can  be 
done  toward  making  a  room  pleasant  by  a  skill- 
ful seating  of  pupils.  There  are  harmonies  of 
proportion  and  color  to  be  observed.  A  girls' 
school  always  seems  brighter  than  a  boys'  school. 
The  colors  of  the  dress  of  girls  give  warmth  to 
the  room  in  winter,  and  the  light  clothing  of 
summer  gives  an  air  of  freshness  and  coolness. 
The  eye  requires  that  the  pupils  shall  be  graded 
from  rear  to  front  according  to  size.  A  hap- 
hazard arrangement  in  this  regard  is  never  satis- 
factory  But,  after  all,  the  soul  of  the  teacher 


28<» 


ETIEXXE 


EVENING   SCHOOLS 


has  greatly  to  do  -with  the  beauty  of  the  school. 
A  light  clows  in  the  face  of  the  conscientious, 
gentle,  sympathetic  teacher,  which  illuminates 
all  the  room  with  its  brightness.  In  the  reflec- 
tion of  her  own  character,  she  sees  in  the  Beats 
truthfulness,  confidence,  respect,  and  love:  and 
so  the  spiritual  beauty  sanctities  and  glorifies  all 
the  beauty  secured  by  ornamentation,  by  any 
and  everydevice  in  material  things." 

Among  the  foremost  writers  on  esthetics,  are 
Baumgarten,  who  first  established  the  claims  of 

esthetics  to  he  classed  as   a   separate  science,  I  le- 

gel,  Schiller,  Vischer,  Carriere,  in  Germany; 
<  krasin,  Jouffroy,  and  Taine,  in  France  :  Dugald 
Stewart.  Bntchison,  Alison,  Jeffrey,  and  Payne 
Knight,  in  England;  and  Henry  N.  Day  (Tlie 
Science  of  Esthetics,  New  Haven,  L872)  and 
Bascom  [Lectureson  Esthetics,  New  York,  L872), 
in  the  United  States.  A  critical  history  of 
esthetics,  from  Plato  to  the  present  times,  has 
been  written  by  Schuster  [Eritische  Geschichte 
d(  r  Aesthetik,  Berlin,  L872). 

ETIENNE,  or  Estienne,  Henry  and 
Robert.     Sec  Stephens. 

ETON  COLLEGE.     See  England. 

ETYMOLOGY  (Gr.  hvfioXayia,  from  irv- 
fiov,ihe  true  meaning  of  a  word),  a  depart- 
ment of  philological  science  which  explains  the 
derivation  of  words  and  their  literal  meaning. 
'This  is  historical  etymology.  (See  English, 
Study  of.)  The  term  etymology  is  also  ap- 
plied to  that  part  of  grammar  which  relates  to 
the  classification  of  words  as  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, and  their  various  inflections,  used  to  in- 
dicate their  relations  to  one  ; fcher,  or  modifi- 
cations of  the  general  ideas  which  they  express. 
This  is  grammatical  etymology.  (See  Grammar.) 
Asa  branch  of  elementary  instruction,  it  teaches 
the  component  parts  of  words.— root,  prefix,  and 
suffix, and  by  explaining  the  primitive  meaning 
of  these  parts  in  the  language  from  which  they 

are  derived,  shows  the  exact  literal  meaning  of 
the  words.       (See  WORDS,   ANALYSIS   OP.) 

EUREKA  COLLEGE,  at  Eureka,  Wood- 
ford county,  111.,  under  the  control  of  the 
Church  of  the  Disciples,  was  founded  as  an 
academy  in  L849,  and  chartered  as  a  college  in 
L855.  The  college  campus  is  in  a  spacious  grove 
of  forest  trees.  There  are  two  substantial  brick 
buildings.  The  endowment  fund  is  Dearly 
850,000,  only  about  half  of  which  is  now  avail 
able.  The  institution  has  libraries  containing 
2,500  volumes,  apparatus  for  the  illustration  oi 
the  physical  sciences,  and  a  museum  of  geology 
and  natural  history.  It  comprises  live  depart- 
ments; namely,  college,  Bible  (preparatory  to 
the  ministry),  normal,  business,  and  music  The 
college  department  comprises  a  preparatory,  a 

■  ■a  laureate  (similar  to  the  ordinary  colic-.' 
COm  ieniitie.    and    an    academic    course. 

The  scientific  course  differs  from  the  baccalaure- 
ate in  omitting  the  Greek  and  one  half  of  the 
Latin.  The  academic  course  omits  the  Greek, 
one  half  of  the  Latin,  two  terms  in  algebra,  an- 
alytical    ge !trj    and    the    calculus,   and    adds 

French  or  German.     French  or  German   may 


be  substituted  for  the  Latin  of  the  scientific 
and  the  academic  course.  The  college  year  is 
divided  into  three  terms,  and  the  tuition  fee 
per  term  is  as  follows :  preparatory  course,  $8  ; 
Bible,  free:  college,  810:  normal.  $10.  In 
1-7  I — 5,  there  were  (i  professors,  215  students 
in  the  College  department.  27  in  the  Bible  de- 
partment. 68  in«he  commercial  department, and 
47  in  the  music  department;  total,  deducting  rep- 
etitions, 234,  of  whom  146  were  males  and  88 
females:  the  number  of  alumni  was  71.  The 
presidents  have  been  as  follows:  W'm.M.  Brown, 
George  Callender,  C.  L.  Loos,  B.  W.  Johnson, 
H.  \\ .  Everest,  A.  M.  Weston,  and  B.  J.  Bad- 
ford,  the  present  incumbent. 

EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION,  a  re- 
ligious denomination  in  the  United  States,  which 
took  its  rise  in  Pennsylvania  in  1800,  through  the 
labors  of  the  Rev.  Jacob  Albright,  who  desired 
to  reform  the  German  churches  in  eastern  Penn- 
sylvania. 'I  he  confession  of  faith  and  the  polity 
of  this  church  are  so  similar  to  that  of  the  Meth- 
odist   Episcopal    Church,  that   it   has   sometimes 

been  called  the  German  Methodist  Church.  Like 
the  Methodists,  it  has  annual  conferences  and  a 
general  conference, which  meetsevery  four  years. 

The  form   of   government    is  episcopal,   but    its 

bishops  are  elected  only  for  a  term  of  four  years, 
not.   as  among  the  Methodists,  for  life.      For  25 

years,  the  church  had  to  struggle  against  violent 

opposition  :    hut    since   then    it    has   made    rapid 

progress ;  so  that,  in  1875,  it  had  1 9  annual  con- 
ferences with  836  itinerant  preachers,  519  local 
preachers,  95,253  members,  and  L  ,233  churches. 

The  church  arose  among  the  Germans,  and  has 
remained  to  a  large  extent  a  German-speaking 
body.  Two  of  the  annual  conferences  are  out- 
side of    the  United    States,  the   one  in    Canada, 

and  the  ot  her  in  Germany.    The  first  college  of 

the   church,  the  Noort  h-ucstem    College,  was   or- 

ganizedal  Plainfield,  Will  Co..  111.,  in  L861,and 
received  a  charter  in  L865.  In  1870,  the  coll 
was  removed  to  Naperville.  I  >u  Page  Co..  111., 
and  has  now  an  endowment  fund  of  9100,000. 
rts  annual  expenditures  amount  to  about  SI 4.000. 
(See  North-western  College.)  A  theological 
school,  The  Union  Biblical  Institute,  has  bees 
established  in  connection  with  the  college,  at  the 
same  place,  having  an  endowment  fund  of 
$30,000.  Other  educational  institutions  under 
the  control  of  the  church  are  the  Union  Semi- 
nary, at  New  Berlin,  Pa.,  and  the  Ebenezer 
Orphan   Institution,  at    Flatrock,  Ohio.    Great 

attention    is  given    to   the    Sunday-school    cause. 

The  Dumber  of  schools  of  this  class  was  re- 
ported, at  the  General  Conference  of  L875,  as 
1,509,  with  16,875  officers    and   teachers    and 

90,090  scholars. 
EVENING  SCHOOLS,  or  Night  Schools, 

have  been  established  in  many  count  ric-.  gener- 
ally in  large  cities,  as  a  part  of  the  public-scl 1 

Bystem,  for  two  purposes:  (I)  to  give  to  those 

of  (he  school  population  w  ho  cannot  avail  them- 
selves of  the  advantages  of  the  day  school,  an  op- 
portunity to  obtain  an  elementary  education: 
and.  i '.' i  to  enable  adults  who  have  finished  the 


EVENING   SCHOOLS 


287 


oonrse  of  instruction  in  the  public  flay  school,  to 
acquire  additional  knowledge,  especially  on  sub- 
jects relating  to  their  particular  occupations  or 
professions.  In  England,  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany,  there  are  elementary  evening  schools 
for  children  employed  in  factories;  in  the 
United  States,  a  large  portion  of  the  pupils  of 
evening  schools  consists  of  persons  who  have 
passed  the  school  age.  In  most  cases,  the  school 
regulations  exclude  all  children  below  a  certain 
age,  and  also  provide  that  no  pupils  shall  be  ad- 
mitted who  are  not  engaged  in  a  useful  occupa- 
tion during  the  day.  In  those  countries  where  edu- 
cation has  been  made  compulsory,  the  evening 
schools  are  almost  exclusively  schools  for  adults, 
being  chiefly  intended  to  give  to  young  apprentices, 
mechanics,  clerks,  or  peasants  an  opportunity  to 
continue  their  school  education.  (See  Adults, 
Schools  for.)  In  Germany,  the  Sunday-schools 
inn-  served  for  this  purpose,  as  the  keeping 
of  evening  schools  on  week-days  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin.  But  wherever  even- 
ing schools  have  been  established,  they  are  pre- 
ferred by  a  large  number  of  pupils.  In  some 
countries,  the  Sunday  school  and  the  evening 
school  are  combined,  the  pupils  being  taught  in 
some  subjects,  such  as  drawing,  on  Sundays,  and 
in  others  on  the  evenings  of  the  week  days.  Even- 
ing high  schools,  which  offer  instruction  in  the 
higher  1  (ranches  of  study,  or  afford  technical  in- 
struction to  artisans  and  others,  are  compara- 
tively rare.  Such  are  the  Evening  High  School 
and  the  schools  of  the  Cooper  Union  (q.  v.),  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  the  Maryland  Institute 
Art  Night  Schools  in  Baltimore,  and  the  O'Fal- 
lon  Polytechnic  Institute  of  St.  Louis.  In  some 
of  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  foreigners 
derive  very  great  benefit  from  the  evening  scho<  >ls, 
in  the  instruction  afforded  in  the  English  lan- 
guage by  teachers  who  speak  the  language  of 
the  students.  Free  evening  drawing  schools 
are  quite  numerous  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  countries  of 
Europe.  For  statistics  in  regard  to  the  evening 
schools  in  the  different  cities,  see  their  respective 
titles,  hi  England,  according  to  the  "  New  Code 
of  Regulations,"  of  1876,  the  managers  of  an 
evening  school  which  has  held  not  less  than  forty- 
five  sessions  in  the  course  of  a  year,  may  claim  a 
government  grant.  Special  provisions  regulate 
the  examination  of  each  of  these  schools.  The 
number  of  night  schools  in  England,  in  1875, 
was  ~:>,  with  38,597  male  pupils,  and  8,785 
females.  In  Wurtemberg,  local  magistrates  are 
authorized  to  enforce  the  statutes  by  which  all 
mechanics  who  have  attained  the  16th  year  are 
required  to  attend  the  technical  complementary 
evening  schools,  thus  making  evening  school  in- 
struction compulsory,  fn  the  city  of  St.  Louis, 
evening  school  pupils  are  rewarded  for  regular 
and  punctual  attendance,  good  behavior,  and  at- 
tention to  study,  by  a  years  free  membership  in 
the  public  library.  More  than  L,000  of  these 
pupils  have  obtained  this  award  during  a  single 
term  by  attending  sixty  evenings  out  of  the  sixty- 
four. 


In  the  organization  and  management  of  even- 
ing schools,  great  care  should  lie  taken  to  adapt 
the  subjects  and  processes  of  instruction  to  the 
age,  character,  and  circumstances  of  the  pupils. 
Those  methods  which  are  particularly  appropri- 
ate for  the  education  of  children,  and  most  of  the 
machinery  of  school-keeping  which  is  associated 
with  childhood  should  be  discarded  as  distasteful 

to  the  more  mature  years  and  more  serious  pur- 
pose of  evening  school  students.  The  studies 
pursued  should  be  practical,  and,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, should  have  an  immediate  reference  to  the 
pursuits  and  occupations  of  the  students.  The 
usefulness  of  the  knowledge  imparted  inthisclass 

of  scl Is,  is  paramount,  to  any  consideration  of 

mental  discipline,  the  latter  being  of  secondary 
importance.  On  this  principle,  drawing,  book- 
keeping, penmanship,  and  phonography,  have 
proved  eminently  popular  branches  of  study. 
The  same  principle  should  guide  in  the  selection 
of  teachers,  none  but  those  of  superior  tact,  ex- 
perience, and  skill  being  appointed  to  this  work. 
They  should  also  be  of  mature  years  and  char- 
acter. A  young  man  or  a  young  woman  who 
attends  school  with  an  earnest  desire  for  self- 
improvement,  is  not  willing  to  submit  to  trivial, 
perfunctory,  or  formal  school-teaching ;  and 
the  very  seriousness  of  the  student's  purpose 
renders  his  judgment  of  the  teacher  extremely 
critical  and  severe.  Mere  amateurs  in  teaching 
should  never  be  allowed  to  trifle  with  the  time 
of  evening  school  students.  When  the  teaching 
is  of  a  right  character,  the  discipline  will  take 
care  of  itself,  provided  the  organization  of  the 
school  is  correct,  and  the  rules  proper  and  judi- 
cious. None  but  those  who  are  zealous  in  study 
should  be  permitted  to  attend  these  schools. 
Evening  schools  cannot  be  efficient  reformatory 
institutions  unless  especially  organized  for  that 
purpose.  In  the  Report  of  tho  Superintendent 
of  Schools  of  the  City  of  New  York  for  1871, 
there  is  found  an  enumeration  of  the  difficulties 
experienced  in  conducting  the  evening  schools  of 
that  city,  probably  experienced  also  in  most 
other  places.  These  are,  briefly,  as  follows  :  (1) 
The  difficulty  in  obtaining  for  these  schools 
teachers  of  the  requisite  capability  (the  super- 
intendent remarking,  that  "teachers  of  mature 
judgment,  extensive  general  information,  tact  in 
management,  and,  above  all,  an  earnest  spirit, 
are  especially  needed ;  (2)  The  imperfect  organ- 
ization of  these  schools,  owing  to  the  haste  with 
which  pupils  are  admitted,  and  the  consequent 
inaccuracy  of  their  classification  ;  (3)  Pupils  are 
admitted  at  too  early  an  age;  very  young  boys 
and  girls  (under  12)  do  great  injury  to  the  school, 
being  generally  in  a,  physically  exhausted  con- 
dition, and  so  unlit  for  any  mental  exercise  as 
to  be  often  found  asleep  at  their  desks ;  besides, 

the  older   pupils  are   disgusted   and   repelled  by 

being  classed  with  these  young  children ;  (4)  The 
exercises  are  dull  and  uninteresting  to  that  large 

class  of    fche    pupils    who.    feeling  deeply  t  he  neei  I 

of  elementary  education,  are  willing  to  devi 

themselves  lal loriously,  during  the  winter  even- 
in--,  to  obtain  it ;   (5)   The  absence  of  instructive 


288 


EVERETT 


EXAMINATIONS 


and  interesting  lectures,  calculated  to  make  a 
deep  impression  upon  the  minds  of  the  pupils, 
enkindling  an  ambition  for  excellence  and  a  love 
of  rectitude  and  truth.  This  statement  of  defi- 
ciencies may  very  well  serve  to  show  what  con- 
ditions  and  characteristics  are  requisite  to  insure 
efficiency  in  this  class  of  schools.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  such  schools  constitute  an  essen- 
tial part  of  every  common-school  system,  partic- 
ularly in  large  communities,  in  which  many  chil- 
dren are  obliged  to  leave  the  day  school  before 
they  have  acquired  even  the  rudiments  of  an 
education.  The  office  of  technical  schools,  while 
different,  is  no  less  important,  since  an  increase  of 
skilled  labor  in  any  community  is  one  of  the  hk  ><t 
valuable  elements  of  its  wealth  and  prosperity. 

EVERETT,  Edward,  an  illustrious  Amer- 
ican orator  and  statesman,  distinguished  for  his 
advocacy  of  common  schools,  and  his  liberal  and 

enlightened  views  in  regard  to  education  in  gen- 
eral, lie  was  born  in  Dorchester,  Mass.,  April 
11.,  1794,  and  died  in  Boston,  Jan.  15.,  L865. 
At  the  early  age  of  1  7.  he  graduated  at  1  [arvard 
Coll  ii  the  highest  honors,  and  became  a 

tutor  in  that  institution,  at  the  same  time  pur- 
suing divinity  studies.  In  L813,  he  was  settled 
as  pastor  of  a  church  in  Boston,  and  soon  became 
distinguished  tor  the  eloquence  of  his  sermons. 
Subsequently,  he  was  for  several  years  Eliol  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  in  Harvard  College.  J  lis  public 
life  began  in  I  siM,  when  he  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, m  which  he  served  continuously  for  ten 
years.  In  is,'!."),  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  three  times  re-elected.  In 
L840,  he  was  appointed  minister  plenipotentiary 
to  England;  and  in  this  position,  was  enabled 
to  perform  very  important  services  for  the  Uni- 
ted States.  On  his  return,  in  L845,  he  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  College.  In  1852, 
he  was  appointed  to  succeed  Daniel  Webster  as 
secretary  of  state. on  the  decease  of  that  eminent 
statesman,  and  served  during  the  last  four 
months  of  Fillmore's  administration.    The  nexl 

year,  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate; 
but,  in  consequence  of    ill  health,  he  resigned  his 

Beat  the  year  after.  In  1HG0,  he  received  the 
nomination  of  vice) president  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  ticket  w  ith  John  Bell  of  Tennessee 
as  president.  1 1  is  oration  on  Washington,  re- 
peated about  L50  times  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States,  added  greatly  to  his  fame  as  an 
orator  as  well  as  a  patriot,  inasmuch  as  the  pro- 
ceeds from  its  delivery  were  in  the  main  COD 
triliutcd  to  the  Mount  Vernon  fund.  During 
the  civil  war,  Everetl  adhered  strongly  to  the 
cause  of  the  Union,  which  be  benefited  by  many 
eloquent   and  patriotic  speeches.     In   L863,  he 

delivered  the  address   at   the  consecration  of   the 

national  cemetery  at  Gettysburg,  Pa  His  last 
address  was  delivered  in    Paneuil  Ball,  Boston, 

in   behalf  of  the  Buffering  people   Of   Savannah, 

only  a  few  days  before  his  death.  It  is  not  in- 
tended here  to  give  mon-  than  a  brief  reference 

to  his  career  as  a  statesman  ;  as  an  orator,  he 
Was  distinguished  for  dignity  and  elegance-  in  de- 
livery;   and  his  published  orations,  which  till 


four  large  volumes,  contain  an  amount  of  intel- 
lectual' wealth  of  priceless  value,  still  further  en- 
riched by  a  style  of  unsurpassed  elegance.  In 
relation  to  education,  the  most  valuable  of  these 
addresses  are.  The  Education  of  Mankind,  de- 
livered in  1833  ;  Education  favorable  to  IAb  rrty, 
Moral*,  mul  Kiiitir/i'i/i/i',  in  1835  ;  Superior  and 
Popular  Education,  in  1837;  Education  the 
Nurture  of  the  Mind,  in  1838  ;  Importance  of 
Education  in  a  Republic,  in  1838;  Normal 
Schools,  in  ls3(),  in  which  he  reviewed  the  his- 
tory of  normal-school  instruction,  and  advocated, 
in  the  most  intelligent  and  eloquent  manner,  the 
necessity  of  special  training  and  instruction  for 
teachers:  Urn' remit//  Education,  in  1846  ;  Con- 
ditions of  a  Good  School,  in  1851  ;  Education 
ami  Civilization,  in  1S52;  and  Academical 
Education,  L857.  His  various  utterances  in 
regard  to  education  have  been  collected  and  pub- 
lished in  a  single  volume.  A  full  collection  of 
his  Orations  and  Speeches  on  Various  Occa- 
sions  has  been  published  in  four  volumes 
(Boston.  18(59). 

EXAMINATIONS  constitute  an  important 
part  of  the  educator's  work  in  order  to  test  the 
result  of  what  has  already  been  accomplished, 
and    to    incite   his    pupils    to    additional    efforts. 

While  it  is  perfectly  true  that  the  best  effects  of 
educational  training  can  be  but  imperfectly, if  at 

all,  tested  by  any  personal  examination;  yet. 
there    is   no   other   ready  and  definite  method  of 

ascertaining  the  efficacy  of  the  teacher's  work 

and  the  proficiency  of  the  student.  Examina- 
tions, moreover,  are  of  great  educative  value,  if 
they  are  conducted  on  sound  principles.  The 
judicious  examiner  who  is  master  of  the  subject, 
while  ascertaining  what  the  student  has  learned, 
necessarily,  to  some  extent,  shows  him  what  he 
has  failed  to  learn,  either  in  consequence  of  an 
imperfect  method  of  Study  or  a  lack  of  attention 
to  certain  important  parts  of  the  subject.  Thus 
he  is  taught  how  to  make  his  future  efforts  more 
Successful  ;  and,  further,  by  coining  in  contact 
with  a  mind  more  mature  in  its  operations  and 
attainments,  he  obtains  views  of  the  subject 
which  no  amount  of  study  of  his  own  could  im- 
part. On  this  account,  examination  and  recita- 
tion should  go  hand  in  hand,  the  student  show- 
ing, in  the  first  place,  what  he  has  learned  of  the 
leSSOn  assigned  to  him.  and  the  teacher  then,  by 
skillful  examination,  demonstrating  to  him  his 
ignorance  on  certain  points,  and  in  this  way  in- 
structing him  in  Such  things  as  maybe  beyond 
the  grasp  of  his  unaided  research.  Examinations 
of  this  kind  form  an  indispensable  part  of  in- 
struction itself;    those  which  occur  at  the  end  of 

certain  periods, either  for  promotion, or  for  grad- 
uation, have  in  view  the  exclusive  aim  of  testing 
the  actual  progress  of  the  pupil.  Indirectly, 
however,  such  examinations  being  anticipated  by 
the  student,  guide  and  stimulate  his  efforts,  both 

in  acquirine  and  remembering.  The  considera- 
tions  to  be  presented  in  this  article  will  be  dis- 
tributed under  (I)  Examinations  of  Schools; 
(Mi  Examinations  of  Teachers;  (III)  College 
and  University  Examinations. 


EXAMINATIONS 


289 


I.  Examinations  cf  ScJ/nnfc. — This  includes 
(1)  examinations  for  classification  and  promo- 
tion, in  which  the  merits  of  individual  pupils 
are  tn  be  carefully  ascertained  and  compared 
with  a  certain    standard  of    attainment,    ami 

_'  examinations  for  official  supervision,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  need  be  only  tn  ascertain  the 
methods  and  skill  of  the  teacher,  and  the  gen- 
eral efficacy  of  his  work, the  relative  standing  of 
the  different  pupils  of  a  grade  or  class  not  com- 
ing under  consideration.  The  latter  (inspectional 
■  caminations)  are  of  great  value  in  every  system 
of  instruction,  particularly  in  those  in  which 
large  masses  of  children  arc  to  be  educated, 
and.  of  course,  a  great  number  of  teachers  to 
be  employed,  for  the  following  reasons  :  (l)They 
promote  uniformity  of  instruction;  (2)  They 
stimulate  the  teacher,  and  guide  his  efforts; 
(3)  They  prevent  negligence  on  the  part  of  those 
whose  duty  it  is  to  instruct,  train,  and  discipline 
the  children  :  and  (4)  If  the  results  are  def- 
initely and  discriminatively  published  and  made 
the  liasis  of  commendation  or  censure  to  the 
teacher,  they  promote  emulation  among  the 
teachers,  and  thus  incite  them  to  exertion,  in 
order  to  attain  the  standard  fixed  by  the  course 
of  instruction  and  the  method  of  the  examiner. 
It  is.  thus,  not  only  a  means  of  supervising  the 
teacher's  work,  but  also  of  instructing  the  teach- 
ers themselves.  "The  teacher,"  says  Beale.  "may 
be  very  earnest,  but  an  experienced  critic  of  his 
work  may  be  able  to  point  out  where  and  why  he 
has  failed,  and.  from  a  larger  experience,  to  sug- 
gesl  improved  methods."     (See  Supervision-.) 

II.  Examinations  of  Teachers. — As  a  prelim- 
inary to  their  employment  in  public  schools, 
teachers  are  required  by  law  to  be  licensed  or 
certificated.  The  license  is  the  legal  permission 
to  teach  ;  the  certificate  is  the  written  or  docu- 
mentary evidence  that  such  permission  has  been 
given  by  the  properly  constituted  authority. 
(See  License,  Teacher's.)  This  permission  is 
granted  usually  after  an  examination  in  certain 
prescribed  branches  of  study.  The  examination 
is  generally  conducted,  in  the  different  states  of 
the  Union,  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  the  superintendents  or  boards  of 
education  of  cities,  or  the  county  commissioners 
of  schools.  In  some  places,  public  examinations 
are  appointed  at  certain  times,  and  all  who  desire 
to  obtain  the  certificate,  attend  as  candidates. 
In  such  cases,  the  examination  is  generally  not 
competitive,  but  only  qualifying,  all  who  show 
the  degree  of  scholarship  prescribed  obtaining 
certificates.  The  methods  of  conducting  these 
examinations  are  almost  as  various  as  the  indi- 
viduals conducting  them.  When,  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  particularly  in  the  rural  districts, 
the  licensing  officer  has  no  technical  knowledge 
of  education  or  of  schools,  the  kind  of  examina- 
tion (generally  oral)  is  far  from  being  such  as  is 
required  to  test  properly  either  the  teacher's 
knowledge,  professional  training,  or  special  skill. 
Perhaps  some  peculiar  vagary  or  conceit  of  the 
examiner,  who  may  be  a  lawyer,  physician,  mer- 
chant, or  perhaps  a  farmer  or  mechanic,  is  made 

19 


to  serve  as  a  procrustean  standard  by  which  the 
merits  and  defects  of  all  who  present  themselves 
are  judged.     Graduates  of  state  normal  schools 

are  generally,  ipso  facto,  licensed  teachers;  inas- 
much as  the  state  superintendent  has  the  super 

vision  of  these  schools  as  a  part  of  the  common- 
school  system  of   the  state. 

III.  College  and  University  Examinations. — 

In  the  higher  institutions  of  learning,  periodical 

examinations  constitute  an  essential  part  of  the 
process  of  education,  which,  in  recent  years,  has 
received  much  more  attention  than  formerly. 
''Ours  is  an  age  of  examinations."  says  Toil- 
hunter,  referring  to  the  rapid  institution  of  thffi 
system  of  scholastic  iinpiiry,  in  various  forms,  in 
connection  with  the  English  universities.  Every 
point  in  regard  to  this  system  has  been  carefully 
discussed,  to  the  most  important  of  which  we 
here  refer:  (1)  The  general  usefulness  and  ex- 
pediency of  university  examinations;  (2)  The 
relative  value  of  written  and  oral  examinations; 
(3)  Also  of  competitive  and  qualifying  examina- 
tions ;  (4)  The  mode  of  estimating  and  marking 
the  results  of  written  examinations. 

(1)  Most  educators  are  agreed  that  there  are 
serious  evils  connected  with  the  examination 
system,  as  there  are,  indeed,  in  all  systems  that 
incite  the  diligence  of  the  student  by  indirect 
means.  Undoubtedly,  a  deep  interest  in  the 
subject  studied  can  alone  insure  the  lust  results; 
but  it  is  obvious  that  this  cannot  generally  lie 
awakened  in  the  mind  of  the  student  previous 
to  his  engaging  in  the  study ;  and  hence  the 
necessity  of  bringing  into  play  some  indirect 
force.  "  The  love  of  knowledge  and  the  love  of 
distinction,  with  the  fear  of  disgrace,"  says 
Whewell,  "  are  the  two  mainsprings  of  all  edu- 
cation, and  it  does  not  appear  wise  or  safe  to  try 
to  dispense  with  either  of  them;"  but  he  further 
remarks  with  great  propriety."  We  cannot  make 
the  examinations  every  thing  to  our  students 
without  making  the  love  of  knowledge  nothing." 

©  ©  © 

Examinations,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  are 
only  a  means  to  an  end ;  namely,  a  good  educa- 
tion, comprehending  a  sound  liberal  culture  of 
all  the  mental  faculties ;  and.  consequently,  ex- 
aminations cease  to  be  a  benefit  when  they  inter- 
fere with  this  object.  On  this  point.  Whewell, 
in  English  University  Education,  remarks  as 
follows:  "Examinations,  or  something  equiva- 
lent, must  exist  in  a  university  ;  but  when  they 
are  considered  as  the  only  means  of  university 
education,  it  is  easily  seen  that  the  education 
must  be  bad.  For  their  requisitions  must  be 
lowered  to  the  level  of  the  average  power  of 
mind  and  of  application  which  young  men  pos- 
sess, in  order  that  university  degrees  may  be  the 
general  mark  of  a  liberal  education;  and, hence, 
the  substance  of  such  examinations  cannot  be 
sufficient  to  exercise  and  improve  the  quicker 
and  more  capacious  intellects.  Moreover,  for 
reasons  already  stated,  the  knowledge  which  is 
acquired  for  examinations  operates  less  as  cult- 
ure, than  that  which  is  obtained  under  other  cir- 
cumstances. And  when  the  examination  is  a 
compulsory  one,  there  is  a  servile  and  ignoble  in- 


•290 


EXAMINATIONS 


fluence  breathing  about  it,  since  it  acts  not  on 
the  hopes,,  but  on  the  tears:  and  hoicks  disgrace 
and  degradation  before  the  eyes  of  the  candidate. 
Such  examinations  may  be  necessary,  hut  they 
can  never  be  more  than  a  necessary  evil  ;  and 
that  system  would,  indeed,  be  unworthy  of  a 
great  and  highly  civilized  nation,  in  which  the 
machinery  of  education  was  all  of  this  structure." 

In  the  same  connection,  Todhunter  remarks.  •■  It 
is  easy  to  refine  and  elaborate  our  examination 
machinery  ;  but  the  results  will  scarcely  repay 
the  expenditure  of  money,  time,  and  ability. 
We  cannot  by  our  examinations  create  learning 
or  genius;  it  is  uncertain  whether  we  can  in- 
fallibly discover  them  :  what  we  detect  is  simply 
the  examination-passing  powerof  the  candidates, 
and  this  can  be  adequately  appreciated  by  sim- 
pler and  less  costly  processes."    This  remark  can 

have  hut  little  application  to  the  "  local  examina- 
tions" recently  founded  by  the  English  univer- 
sities; inasmuch  as  these  tests,  while  determining 
the  " examination-passing  power"  of  the  candi- 
dates, also  ascertain  their  special  scholarship  : 
and,  besides,  operate  as  a  powerful  stimulus  to 

Studious  exertion,    in    the    case   of   thousands  of 

persons  anxious  to  obtain  cert  ificatea  of  Learning, 
as  well  as  the  things  to  which  they  are  a  passport. 
Thev  also  exert  a,  very  important  influence  on 
education  at  Large,  and  tend  to  elevate  the  qual- 
ifications of  teachers.     Indeed,  it  was  for  this 

express   purpose,   that   these   examinations   were 

established  in  L858 ;  and  it  is  acknowledged, 
that  they  have  been  highly  successful  "in  raising 

the    tone   of  middle-class   schools,  as   well    as    in 

widening  the  area  of  the  influence  of  the  uni- 
versities."   In  December,  L875,  1. 1  it.")  candidates 

of  both  sexes  underwent  the   local  examinations 

of  Cambridge,  and,  in  June,  1876,  2,141  those 
of  Oxford.  "The  local  examinations,"  says  Beale 
[University  Examinations  for  Women,  Lon- 
don, l8T")j.  "  have  been  very  useful,  especially 
in  girls'  schools,  bringing  them  into  relation 
with  tin'  national  centers  of  education.  The 
old-fashioned  parrot-learning,  and  slovenly,  in- 
exact work  have  been  shown  to  he  worthless, 
.■mil  a  better  curriculum  has  been  introduced." 
of  the  higher  university  examinations  in  Eng- 
land, several  are  open  to  women  over  eighteen 
years  of  age.     (See  Female  Education.) 

In    the    German    universities,    less    resort    has 

been  hail  to  examinations  than  in  the  United 
ee  of  England,  more  dependence  being  placed 

on  the  lecture   system,  or  on   the   Greek  mode  of 

teaching  by  dialogue.  University  examinations 
have  been  emphatically  condemned  by  Borne  dis- 
tinguished German  educators;  hut  by  others 
they  have  been  advocated  as  necessary  to  check 
idleness  on  the  part  of  the  students,  many  of 
whom,  it   was  found,  failed  to  attend  the  lectures. 

and  others,  although  present, gave  little  or  no  at- 
tention to  them.       Against  thi  Se  examinations  in 

the  German  universities  various  objections  have 
been  urged  ;  as,  1 1  -  that  they  do  not  incite  to 
the  right  kind  of  study;  (2)  thai  they  are  for 
school-boys,  and,  therefore,  il   is  an  indignity  to 

subject  university  students  to   them;    (•'<)    that 


the  number  of  candidates  is  too  large  to  admit 
of  a  thorough  and  impartial  examination  (the 
oral  method  being  used);  (4)  that  a  large  share 
of  the  examiners  lack  the  requisite  skill  in  ex- 
amining :  and  (5)  that  the  results  are  unreliable, 
because  the  students  so  greatly  differ  in  disposi- 
tion, temperament,  etc..  a  bashful,  though  ex- 
cellent student,  being  likely  to  fail,  while  the 
confident  one.  with  less  merit,  comes  off  tri- 
umphantly. Most  of  these  objections  are  ob- 
viously weak,  ami  are  satisfactorily  answered  by 
Von  Raumer  (German  Universities,  English 
translation,  by  Barnard). 

i  - 1  The  comparative  value  of  written  and  oral 
(or  viva  voce)  examinations  as  tests  of  proficiency 
litis  been  much  discussed  ;  of  course  for  the  pur- 
pose of  instruction,  the  viva  voce  method  is  in- 
dispensable. The  object  of  the  examination  is 
an  important  element  in  determining  this  ques- 
tion. When  it  is  simply  desired  to  ascertain  the 
qualifications, — the  scholarship,  culture,  and  gen- 
eral characteristics  of  the  person  examined,  with- 
out regard  to  any  precise  standardof  attainment. 
the  oral  method  is  often  preferred;  hut  there 
are  usually  some  written  tests  as  well.  A  skillful 
examiner,   who    is   master  of    the   Subject    under 

consideration,  can  by  a  few  judicious,  well- 
arranged  questions  ascertain  very  speedily  both 
the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  candidate's 
knowledge;  but,  of  course,  this  requires  skill 
and  experience,  as  well  as  good  sense  and  judg- 
ment, on  the  part  of  the  examiner.  In  the  ex- 
amination of  teachers,  where  there  is  so  much 
besides  mere  scholarship  to  test,  the  oral  method 

OUght  not  to  be  entirely  excluded.  The  objec- 
tions urged  against  oral  examinations  may  be 
briefly  stated  as  follows:  (1)  They  are  wanting 

in  fairness  and  thoroughness,  because  they  are 
necessarily  very  brief  and  hurried,  and  when 
chisses  are  examined  the   questioning  is   uneven. 

so  that  a  poor  student  may  pass  while  a  meri- 
torious < >ih'  tails,  particularly  if  the  latter  is  dif- 
fident and  timid:  (2)  The  questions  cannot  be 
carefully  prepared,  and  hence  may  be  quite  im- 
perfect tests:  and  (•'!)  The  candidate  has  no  time 
for  proper  deliberation, and  therefore  must  often 
fail  to  show  what  his  real  attainments  are.  <>n 
the  other  hand,  the  advantages  of  a  written  ex- 
amination are  the  following:  ill  The  same 
questions  are  given  to  each  candidate,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  test  is  even:  (2)  The  candidates 
are  left  entirely  to  themselves,  without  sugges- 
tion or  aid  from  the  examiner;  (3)  Thequestions 
can  be  more  carefully  prepared;  i  li  The  candi- 
date has  more  time  for  deliberation  in  answer- 
ing; and  (5  The  examiner  has  a  better  oppor- 
tunity to  consider  the  answers,  and  to  form  a 
just  conclusion  as  to  the  merits  of  the  candidates. 
The  question  of  written  or  viva  voce  examina- 
tions in  universities  has  been  much  discussed  in 

England;   and  the   superior   value   of   the    latter 

has  been  particularly  urged  by  various  eminent 
professors  in  the  University  ot  Cambridge.     In 

this  connection,  Todhunter  remarks.  "1  will 
acknowledge  thai  if  only  two  or  three  candidates 

have  to  be  examined,  and  we  have  the  command 


EXAMINATIO?  S 


EXAMPLE 


291 


of  unlimited  time  and  of  adequate  examining 
force,  then  whatever  may  be  the  subject  of  ex- 
amination, the  viva  voce  method  may  be  not  on- 
ly allowed  bu1  strongly  recommended.  We  may 
ascertain  with  reaped  to  each  candidate  both 
what  lit'  knows  ana  what  he  does  not  know,  and 
whether  he  shows  evidence  of  independent 
power."  Still,  mi  the  whole,  considering  the 
subjects  of  the  examinations  and  the  circum- 
stances under  which  they  occur,  he  strongly 
prefers  the  written  method,  which  is  favored  by 
most  authorities  both  in  theory  and  practice. 

(3)  The  remarks  already  made  afford  sufficient 
materials  for  a  judgment  as  to  the  comparative 
importance  of  competitive  and  qualifying  exami- 
nations. The  aim  of  the  examination  may  or 
may  not  necessitate  any  comparison  of  the  merits 
of  different  candidates  ;  but  when  such  a  com- 
parison is  necessary,  there  is  no  doubt  that  a 
written  examination  by  entirely  equal  tests 
should  be  exclusively  employed.  For  such  a 
purpose,  however,  the  construction  of  the  exami- 
nation questions  should  be  such  as  to  bring  out 
more  than  the  mere  accuracy  of  the  knowledge 
of  the  candidate.  There  should  be  considerable 
diversity,  some  of  the  questions  requiring  only 
brief  statements  of  facts ;  while  others,  of  a 
topical  character,  necessitate  fuller  expositions, 
showing  the  relations  of  facts  to  each  other  and 
to  principles,  and  tints  giving  scope  for  the  dem- 
onstration, by  the  student,  of  his  power  of 
reasoning  and  analysis,  as  well  as  of  expression. 
The  general  requisites  for  a  set  of  examination 
questions  are  (1)  that  they  should  be  free  from 
ambiguity,  (2)  that  they  should  strictly  refer  to 
what  the  candidate  may  be  expected  to  know, 
(3)  that  they  should  be  judiciously  arranged 
(difficult  questions,  for  example,  not  being  placed 
first),  and  (4)  that  they  should  not  require  more 
time  than  is  to  be  given  to  the  particular  ex- 
ercise, so  as  to  make  the  candidate  feel  hurried 
and  nervous. 

(4)  The  manner  of  estimating  and  marking 
tin'  results  of  written  examinations  requires  a 
careful  consideration.  The  value  of  each  ques- 
tion as  a  test  should  be  exactly  estimated,  and 
the  character  of  the  answer  given  marked  ac- 
cordingly. Any  scale  may  be  adopted,  but  that 
of  1 00  is  the  most  convenient  and  the  most  gen- 
erally chosen.  Whatever  number  may  be  an- 
nexed to  each  question  as  its  specific  value,  the 
result  can  be  readily  reduced  to  a  per  cent,  which 
will  thus  show  the  absolute,  as  well  as  relative, 
value  of  every  paper.  The  system  of  negative 
marks  is  advocated  by  Todhunter ;  that  is,  to 
give  marks  for  correct  work,  and  to  subtract 
marks  for  errors.  The  justice  of  this  method 
h''  illustrates  as  follows:  "Suppose  that  one 
candidate  has  solved  twenty  questions  all  cor- 
rectly; and  suppose  that  another  has  also  solved 
twenty  questions  all  correctly,  and  has  attempted 
four  more  and  failed  completely  in  them  :  then, 
assuming  that  the  questions  are.  on  an  average, 
of  equal  value,  the  two  candidates  would  lie 
pronounced  equal  on  our  actual  method.  Yet, 
it  may  happen  that  the  four  failures  betray  such 


ignorance  and  incapacity  as  to  demand  some 
mine  decisive  condemnation  than  simple  want  of 

notice."     This  method  would  probably  be  found 

impracticable,  and  the  tendency  would  be  to  in- 
justice: DOT  does  it  seem  necessary  if  the  ques- 
tions are  properly  weighted,  since  the  omission 
to  answer,  or  the  failure  in  answering,  a  difficult 
question  would  cause  the  loss  of  a  large  number 
of  marks,  and  negative  mark.-  would  be  duplicat- 
ing this  loss.— See  W  hewell,  English  Univer- 
sity Education  (London,  1838) ;  von  Raumer, 
German  Universities,  English  trans.,  edited  by 
Barnard  (X.  V..  L859);  Todhi  nter,  The  Conflict 
of  Studies  etc.,&.  v.  Competitive  Examinations 
(London,  isT.T)  ;  Beale,  University  Examina- 
tions for  Women  (London.  L875 

EXAMPLE,  the  Influence  of.  This  de- 
pends upon  imitation  and  sympathy,  two  prin- 
ciples of  action  which  are  exceedingly  potent  in 
the  minds  of  all  persons, but  particularly  in  those 
of  children.  Its  influence  among  men  is  shown 
by  the  existence  of  national  customs,  prejudices, 
vices,  fashions,  etc.,  and  by  the  use  of  language, 
which  would  be  scarcely  possible  without  the 
force  of  imitation  or  example.  In  infancy  and 
early  childhood,  this  principle  is  the  almost  ex- 
clusive means  of  education,  and  the  impressions 
which  it  makes  are  so  strong  and  durable,  that 
they  are  hardly  ever  obliterated  in  after  life.  I  'ar- 
ents  very  rarely  appear  to  realize  that  they  are, 
by  a  kind  of  "  unconscious  tuition,"  educating 
their  children  simply  by  what  they  say  and  do  in 
their  presence.  Locke  says,  "He  that  will  have  his 
son  have  a  respect  for  him,  and  his  orders,  must 
himself  have  a  great  reverence  for  his  son.  Max- 
ima debetur  pueris  revere////".  You  must  do 
nothing  before  him,  which  you  would  not  have 
him  imitate;"  and  also,  "  Of  all  the  ways  where- 
by children  are  to  be  instructed,  and  their  man- 
ners formed,  the  plainest,  easiest,  and  most  effi- 
cacious, is  to  set  before  their  eyes  the  examples 
of  those  things  which  you  would  have  them  do, 
or  avoid.  . . .  The  beauty  or  uncomelinessof  many 
things,  in  good  and  ill  breeding,  will  be  better 
learnt,  and  make  deeper  impressions  on  them,  in 
the  examples  of  others,  than  from  any  rules  or 
instructions  that  can  be  given  about  them.'' 
(See  Thoughts  Concerning  Education.)  The 
power  of  example  has  an  important  application 
in  the  education  of  the  intellect ;  since,  in  giving 
instruction  in  any  department  of  science  or  art, 
the  illustrative  power  of  the  teacher,  in  showing 
to  the  pupil  what  it  is  desired  that  he  should  ac- 

i plisn,  has  great   efficacy  in  stimulating  his 

efforts,  and  more  especially  in  fixing  in  his  mind. 
a  definite  standard  to  the  attai cut  of  which 

he  may  direct  his  aim.      Indeed,  in  every  branch 
of  instruction,  imitation  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant   principles  for  the  teacher  to  recognia 
and  employ.      I!ut  it  is  in  moral   education   thai 

the  force  of  example  has  its  chief  sphere  of 
activity.  In  it  is  comprehended  all  that  we 
mean  by  the  personal  influenceoi  the  instructor. 
I  lis  manners, his  modes  of  action  and  speech,  tin 
expression  of  his  countenance,  and  the  tones  of 
his  voice,  all  are  constituent  elements  of  this  in- 


</y  o?  Tiri-, 


292 


EXCHANGES 


EYE 


fluence.  This  personal  power,  it  has  been  well 
said,  is  an  "emanation  Bowing  from  the  very 
spirit  nt  the  teacher's  own  life,  as  well  as  an  in- 
fluence acting  insensibly  to  form  the  life  of  the 
scholar."  See  Unconscious  Tuition,  by  Prof. 
Huntington,  in  Barnard's  Jour  mil  of  Edu- 
cation. 
EXCHANGES,  Educational.     See  Hol- 

BBOOK,  JOSIAH. 

EXHIBITIONS,  School,  are  arranged  for 
the  public  display  of  some  of  the  ornamental  ac- 
complishments of  the  pupils,  such  as  music,  rec- 
itation,  and  declamation,  and  of  other  exercises 
that  admit  of  a  ready  performance  in  public, 
and  can  be  made  attractive,  Buch  as  reading, 
composition,  calisthenics,  etc.  Exhibitions  of 
this  kind  are  given  for  the  purpose  of  bringing 
the  school  before  the  public,  and  popularizing  it. 
Many  parents  take  great  delight  in  serin-  their 
children  participate  in  these  public  exercises; 
and,  hence,  they  generally  attract  a  large  audi- 
ence. While  they  are,  in  some  respects,  valuable, 
their  general  tendency  as  they  are  usually  given, 
is  injurious.  They  pervert  not  only  the  regular 
order  of  exercises  of  the  school  into  a  special 
preparation  for  display,  but  also  the  proper  aim 
of  the  pupils,  which  should  be  to  make  progress 
in  their  studies,  not  to  gratify  their  vanity  by 
the  exhibition  of  superficial  accomplishments. 
Children  whose  special  talents  lie  in  this  direc- 
tion, are  apt  to  be  greatly  injured  by  excessive 
praise  for  these  efforts  at  display,  and  arc  in 
this  way  unfitted  for  any  steady  exertion.  Many 
teachers,  on    this  account,  entirely   avoid   giving 

public  exhibitions  or  receptions.  Besides,  an 
exhibition  does  nut  present  the  best  results  of 

thi'  instruction  given,  but,  chiefly,  such  accom- 
plishments as  are  showy.  The  reading  of  essays 
and  other  cniniiositions.it  is  true,  shows  some- 
thing  of  the   culture,  intelligence,  and  power  of 

expression   of  the  pupils;   but,  in  elementary 

schools,  this  must  be  very  limited.  In  college 
CO lelieeinelits.    t he    essays    being   of    a    higher 

character,  show  to  a  greater  extent  the  students' 
intellectual  development  ;  but,  still,  they  do  not 
at  all  exhibit  their  special  scholastic  attainments, 
upon  which  their  time  and  study  have  been 
principally  expended.  On  this  account,  some 
educators  have  endeavored  to  devise  a  method  of 

Bhowing  these  attainments  in  school  exhibitions, 
and  in  some  eases  with  considerable  success. 
When  the  classes  are  so  well  trained  that  they 
can  be  presented  in  public  with  an  invitation  to 
;  1 1 1  \  competent  person  in  the  audience  to  examine 
them,  the  effect  is  very  interesting,  and  quite 
Batisfactorj .  because  every  suspicion  of  unfairnesE 
i.-  prevented.     The  following  is.  in  part,  the  sug- 

gestii f  a  teacher  as  to  the  method  of  gri  ing  a 

school  exhibition:  (1)  Engage  a  large  hall,  or 
use  your  school  room  If  necessary;  (2)  Spread 

out    upon    tables   a    portion    of    the  work   of   the 

pupil-    specimens  of   penmanship,  written   ex- 
ercises in  arithmetic,  etc.) ;  (3    Place  upon  the 
walls  the  mails  and  drawings,  herbariums, etc., of 
the  pupils,  in  charge  of  suitable  persons  to  ex 
plain  :,i    Let  the  pupils  exhibit  cabinets,  philo- 


sophical apparatus,  etc.,  of  their  own  collection  or 
construction;  (5)  During  the  exhibition  have 
the  pupils  display  their  musical  attainments  by 
singing. etc.:  [6)  Intersperse  dialogues. recitations, 
declamations,  etc.,  or  class  examinations,  of  a 
suitable  character.  In  this  way  an  exhibition 
maybe  made  not  only  interesting  to  an  audience 
but  a  useful  incentive  to  the  pupils. 

The  term  exhibition,  in  the  English  universi- 
ties and  Public  Schools,  is  used  to  denote  an 
allowance,  or  bounty,  paid  to  the  students,  under 
certain  conditions,  for  their  maintenance  while 
pursuing  their  studies  in  the  university.  Hence 
such  students  are  called  exhibitioners.  (See 
England.) 

EXPULSION  is  often  resorted  to  in  schools 
in  the  case  of  pupils  who,  by  their  willfulness, 
insubordination,  reckless  and  disorderly  conduct. 

general  depravity,  a  ase  to  be  amenable  to  the 
ordinary  regulations  of  the  school,  or  are  likely 
to  contaminate  the  manners  and  morals  of  the 
other  pupils.  Tt  is  an  extreme  measure  ;  and,  in 
public  schools,  should  not  lie  taken  until  all  other 
proper   means  to   control  the   pupils   have   been 

employed;   because  it  generally  deprives  these 

pupils  of  all  opportunity  of  receiving  the  educa- 
tion for  which  the  laws  of  the  state  provide. 
Two  circumstances  can  alone  justify  it :  (1)  That 
the  pupil  is  utterly  uncontrollable  by  any  of  the 
ordinary  means  of  school  government  ;  (2)  That 
the  depraved  character  of  the  pupil  is  such  as  to 
imperil  the  welfare  of  the  other  pupils.      Expul- 

aon,  in  some  places,  is  used  as  a  substitute  for 

corporal  punishment  ;  but  the  propriety  of  this 
has   been    called    in    question.       (See    CORPORAL 

Punishment.)  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  ex- 
pulsion of  incorrigible  pupils  must  be  occasion- 
ally necessary  under  all  circumstances,  it  would 
appear  that  a  reformatory  institution  constitutes 
an  essential    part   of  every   public-school  system. 

(See  Reform  Schools.) 


■■) 
EYE,  Cultivation  of  the.     The  sense  of 

sight  is  capable  of  an  almost  incredible  improve- 
ment by  culture;  of  this,  modern  scientific  in- 
vestigations lea\e  lio  doubt.  We  see  improve- 
ment in  this  respect  not  only  in  individuals  but 

in  the  general   visual  capacity  of  whole   nations. 

There  .ail  In'  no  question,  for  example,  that. 
3,000  years  ago.  when  the  civilization  of  the 
Chinese  came  to  a  stand-still,  they  were  very  de- 
ficient in  the  power  of  seeing  perspectively ;  so 

that,  in  spite  of  all  their  skill  in  drawing  and 
painting,  their  pictures  show  all  objects  on  the 
same  plane,  without  any  variation  of  size,  or  of 
lighl  and  shade,  in  Older  to  represent  the  dis- 
tances and  relative  positions  of  the  objects  de- 
picted. Many  proofs  alight  be  adduced  to  show- 
that,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  the  human  eye 
has  improved  in  power.  The  aim  of  education 
in  this  respect    is    twofold:    (l)    To   improve  the 

physiological  conditions  of  sight,  by  renio^  ing  any 
causes  oi  a  morbid  state,  or  by  strengthening  the 
physical  organ  of  vision;   (2)  To  cultivate,  by 

judicious  practice,  the  sense  of  sight,  so  as  to 
tender  it  more  observant,  and  able  to  receive 
more  full  and  accurate  impressions  of  the  objects 


EYE 


293 


which  [muss  before  it.  This  is  of  special  impor- 
tance, as  of  all  the  senses  that  of  sighl  is,  with- 
out doubt,  the  most  far-reaching,  and  leads  to 
the  most  numerous  ami  vivid  conceptions. 

'I'he  cultivation  of  the  eye  should  begin  soon 
after  birth,  and.  for  a  tew  weeks,  should  lie  COn- 
tined  to  keeping  the  infant  from  all  excessive 
glare  of  light;  but,  at  the  same  time,  allowing 
ii  sufficient  light  properly  to  excite  the  nervous 
activity.  Children, like  plants,  need  a  great  ileal 
of  sunlight,  which,  provided  it  is  not  dazzling, is 
the  most  important  agent  of  both  bodily  and 
mental  growth.  At  the  first,  it  should  be  a  re- 
flected,  diffuse,  and  mild  light,  direct  sunlight 
being  admitted  only  after  several  weeks,  and 
then  gradually.  Weak  eyes  may  also  be  caused 
by  surroundings  of  but  one  color,  particularly 
if  decidedly  brilliant.  Hence,  it  is  well  to  re- 
lieve the  impression  made  by  a  single  color,  by 
alternation  with  its  complementary.  Red  or  blue 
curtains  should  never  be  allowed  continuously  to 
throw  their  tinge  upon  the  infant's  eve  ;  but,  as 
a  rule,  subdued  colors  shoul  l  be  preferred.  The 
power  of  distinguishing  both  outlines  and  shades 
of  color  is  susceptible  of  cultivation  by  means  of 
the  slow  movement  of  bodies  of  different  hues 
before  the  child's  eves  This  is  an  exercise  which 
i>  employe  1  in  Froebel's  nursery  education,  and 
is  very  properly  accompanied  by  singing,  because 
the  sense  of  hearing,  having  an  earlier  develop- 
ment, is  well  adapted  to  excite  the  action  of 
sight.  After  the  second  or  third  month,  when 
the  infant  can  wield  its  hands  and  arms,  the 
sense  of  touch  should  be  called  into  activity  in 
order  to  correct  the  impressions  made  on  the 
eye.  Various  contrivances  may  lie  resorted  to 
for  this  purpose,  among  them  the  suspende  1 
wooden  globe  and  colored  balls  which  Froebel 
sii--  sts  for  use  at  this  stage  of  education.  As  the 
chill  learns  the  meaning  of  simple  language  fully 
one  or  two  years  before  it  is  able  to  repeat  the 
words,  it  is  safe  to  let  it  hear  the  names  of  the 
things  which  it  sees  an  1  handles,  but  always  in 
connection  with  the  objects  themselves.  Thus 
language  fixes,  at  the  age  of  infancy,  the  various 
impressions  of  the  senses,  which  impart  a  definite 
me  ining  t  i  every  word,  and  thus  secure  the  proper 
expressions  when  the  child  begins  to  speak. 
When  language  has  been  acquired  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  teacher  shoul  1.  by  means  of  skillful 
questioning,  attract  the  child. s  attention  to  those 
visible  properties  and  peculiarities  of  things 
which,  without  a  trained  observation,  are  gener- 
ally passed  by  without  notice.  It  is  surprising 
how  much  may  be  instantaneously  perceived  by 
a  train  •  1  eye,  and  how  delicate  and  far  reaching 
sense  of  sight  may  become,  under  circuni- 
Btances  requiring  its  constant  exercise.  Thus 
the  practiced  astronomer  is  able  to  notice  the 
most  minute  points  of  light,  which  the  ordinary 
observer  utterly  fails  to  detect.  On  the  other 
band,  the  eye  is,  of  all  our  organs  of  sense-per- 
ception, th-  most  delusive  if  it  is  permitted 
habitually  to  gaze  at  objects  without  any  com- 

Erehensn  ;  or  discriminative  view  of  their  pecu- 
arities  and  less   obvious  details.     It  is  on  this 


accounl,, that  Froebel  invented  that  well-arranged 

system   of    kinder-art  en    occupations,    by    which 

the  free  self-activity  of  the   child,  stimulated  by 

agreeable  intercourse  with  those  of  his  own  a 

learns  how  to  employ  his  sense  of  sight  in  an 
endless  variety  of  pleasurable  work,  that  never 
ceases  to  educate  both  mentally  and  morally. 
(See  Kindergarten,  and  Object  Teaching.) 

Without  any  special  or  technical  aid.  the 
t  aeher  may  readily  discover  whether  any  of  his 
pupils  are  color-blind,  by  a  proper  use  of  color- 
charts  or  color-tablets.  Every  child  that  cannot 
select  from  among  the  tablets  the  exact  color 
which  is  pointed  out  on  the  chart  is,  of  course, 
more  or  less  color-blind,  and  should  have  the 
benefit  of  frequent  exercises  with  (1)  the  three 
primary  colors,  and  (2)  with  their  double  and 
triple  combinations.  By  using  very  strong  and 
brilliant  colors  alternately  with  those  comple- 
mentary to  them,  this  kind  of  defect  in  sight 
may  be.  in  part  at  least,  removed.     (See  <  !oLOR.) 

Teachers  should  not  permit  their  pupils  to 
stoop  while  engaged  in  reading,  writing,  or  draw- 
ing; since  this  tends  to  injure  the  sight.  It  is 
also  advisable  to  accustom  the  pupils  to  use 
their  eyes,  at  changing  distances  of  the  object, 
with  an  equal  degree  of  perfection  especially 
in  reading,  writing,  and  drawing.  Then,  if 
the  eye  be  tired  at  a  given  angle  of  sight,  it 
may  continue  its  work,  without  injury  or  dis- 
comfort, at  a  smaller  or  larger  angle,  and  thus 
be  enabled  to  do  more  work  without  detri- 
ment to  the  sight.  Many  of  the  ordinary  school 
arrangements  are  more  or  less  injurious  to  the 
organ  of  sight.  '■Short-sightedness."  says  I.ieb- 
reich  {School  L ife  in  its  Influence  on  Siglit,  Lon- 
don, 1872),  '-is  developed  almost  exclusively 
during  school  life;  rarely  afterwards,  and  very 
rarely  before  that  time.  Is  this  coincidence  of 
time  accidental, — i.  e.,  does  the  short-sightedness 
arise  at  the  period  about  which  children  go  to 
school,  or  has  school  life  caused  the  short-sighted- 
ness''' Statistical  inquiries  prove  the  latter  to 
lie  the  case,  and  have  shown,  at  the  same  time, 
that  the  percentage  of  short-sighted  children  is 
greater  in  schools  where  unfavorable  optical  con- 
ditions prevail."  There  are.  according  to  this 
writer,  three  changes  in  the  functions  of  the  eve, 
which  are  immediately  developed  under  the  in- 
fluence of  school  life :  (1)  Decrease  of  the  range 
of  vision — short-sightedness  [myopia),  (2)  De- 
crease of  the  acuteness of  vision  (amblyopia). and 
(3)  Decrease  of  tic  endurance  of  vision  {astheno- 
pia). Thes  ■  are  chiefly  caused  by  such  arrange- 
ments as  afford  cither  insufficient  light,  or  admit 
it  in  an  improper  manner.  The  following  is  an 
important  practical  direction  in  this  respect: 
••  The  light  must  be  sufficiently  strong,  and  must 
fall  on  tin'  table  from  the  left-hand  side.  and.  as 
far  as  possible,  from  above.  The  children  ought 
to  sit  straight,  and  not  have  the  book  nearer  to 
the  eye  than  ten  inches  at  the  least.  Besides 
this,  the  book  ought  to  be  raised  20°  for  writing, 

and  about  10°  for  reading.   -SeeFAHRNER,  '/' 
Child  and  the  Desk.     (See   Hygiene,   School, 
and  Senses,  Education  ok.) 


294 


FACTORY  SCHOOLS 


FACTORY  SCHOOLS  are,  as  the  name 
indicates,  elementary  schools  for  the  instruction 
of  children  employed  in  factories.  They  are 
established  in  the  factory  buildings,  and  gener- 
ally supported  by  the  owners  of  the  factories.  In 
proportion  as  legislators,  in  modern  times,  have 
become  desirous  to  extend  the  benefit  of  edu- 
cation to  all  the  children  of  the  state  the  school- 
ing of  factory  children  has  attracted  their  atten- 
tion; and  the  question,  what  can  and  should  be 
done  to  secure  to  these  children  the  benefits  of 
education,  now  often  engages  the  attention  of 
the  legislatures  of  civilized  states.  With  the 
recent  development  of  the  factory  Bystem,  the 
employment  of  children  in  fa  stori  ss  has  assumed 
large  dimensions.  They  have  been  found  to  be 
useful  helpmates  in  many  mechanical  proa 
in  some  even  indispensable  ;  and  th  y  hav  i 
employed  to  a  large  extent  in  house  industries, 
mining,  pottery,  agriculture,  as  well  as  in  all 
kinds  of    factories:   and   aowhere   more   than   in 

Great  Britain,  where  formerly  children,  som 
young  as  six  yearsof  age,  were  severely  empl 
sometimes  for  1  -.  If.  I  6,  or  1 8  hours  a  day,  or,  by 
a  relay  system,  during  all  the  night,  and  frequent- 
ly at  very  exhaustive  work,  under  unwholesome 
con  litions  and  in  morally  dangerous  surround- 
ings, while  no  time  for  school  or  home  education 
was  granted.  The  inhumanity  and  the  dangerous 
effects  of  this  practice  began  to  lie  publicly  dis- 
cussed more  than  a  century  ago  ;  but  it  led  to 
no  concerted  action,  until  the  abolition  of  the 
conspiracy  laws  against  the  coalition  of  laborers 
in  England,  in  1813.  The  first  efforts  to  counter- 
act these  baneful  influences  were  made  by  asso- 
ciations of  English  laborers,  and  by  their  repeated 
petitions  to  Parliament,  which  led  (1S1!')  to 
enactments  regulating  children's  factory  labor. 
These  were,  however,  entirely  disregarded,  no 

agency    being    ordained    for    their    enforcement. 

a-ainst  the  greed  of  profit  on  the  part  of  em- 
ployers, and  the  necessities  of  poor  families.      A. 
constantly  repeated  agitation  by  the  workmen 
brought  aboul   a  parliamentary  commission  of 
inquiry  and  the  enactment  of  the  law  of  L833. 
This  related  only  to  factories  in  a  very  nai 
-.-.  confine  I  the  work-lay  within  the  houi 
LM.  and  9j  P. M.,  and  the  working  time  of 
ons  from  13  to  L 8  years  of  age  to  12  hours, 
liildren  from  9  to  L 3  years  of  age  to  8  hours. 

and  allowed  the  employment  of  children  of 
than  9  years  in  exceptional  cases  only.  The  latter 
two  classes  of  children  were  to  be  employed  only 
mi  ler  the  condition  that  they  could  show  by  some 
certificate,  thai  they  had  enjoyed  or  were  enjoy- 
ing bcI 1  advantages  amounting  to  150  hours 

in  the  year.  This  latter  clause  was  illusory,  and 
could  be  easily  circumvented  like  the  rest  of  the 
law  :  \et  it  vvas  stricken  out  in  a  new  enact- 
ment  (Sept.   lo..  |s  it;,  win,!,  allowed  only   Hi 

honi  \ork  day  for   children   above    I.'!,  and 

■  '.i  hours  for  those  below    I  '■'•  years 
vi  age.     rin-,  law  v,  ain  have  remaine  1  a 


dead  letter  but  for  the  appointment  of  factory 
inspectors,  with  very  restricted  powers,  among 
whom  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  merit, Leonard 
Horner  (1833 — 59),  who.  together  with  the 
trade  unions  and  some  few  philanthropists. 
worked  with  untiring  energy,  to  accumulate,  in 
his  reports  to  Parliament,  a  huge  mass  of  evidence 
in  relation  to  the  abuses  of  the  factory  system, 
and  especially  its  direful  influences  on  women 
and  children.  Later  legislation  gradually  ex- 
tended the  benefit  of  the  factory  laws  to  chil- 
dren employed  in  most  kinds  of  industry,  and 
slightly  restricted  their  laboring  time,  chiefly  by 
confining  il  within  the  hours  of  the  day  (Chil- 
dren's Employment  Act  of  L867J  ;  but  thefactory 
schools,  being  dependent  on  the  school  fees  of 
parents,  voluntary  private  donations,  and  denom- 
inational Sunday-Schools,  continued  to  be  of  the 
;    inadequate   character  down  to   the    new 

scl 1  act  of  I  870  ;  and  this  still  left  much  to  be 

red  in  respect  to  working  children. 

The   legislation  of  all  the  other  countries  in 

which  modern  industry  is  largely  developed,  is, 

more  or  less,  a  copy  of  the   English,  with  hardly 

a  sir  are  of  improvement  upon  the  latter 

a-  regards  the  restriction  of  children's  employ- 
ment, and   with    tin;   disadvantage   that    there   is 

r  no  board  of   factory  inspectors  provided, 

or  where  there  is,  or  was  (in  Prance  it    has  been 

abolished),  that  the  inspection  is  of  no  value.  In 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium,  however,  a 

Bufficieni    provision   exists   for  schools  which  are 

accessible  to.  or  even  compulsory  on.  every  facto- 
ry child,  thus  affording  a  s<  hoofing  facility  which 

extends  from  the  earliest  childhood  up  to  the 
adult  age.  or  is  about  being  so  far  extended. 
Prussia  was  the  second  state  to  regulate  the 
hours  of  children's  labor  in  factories,  with  the 
view  to  afford  opportunity  for  school  attendance. 
The  laws  of  1839,  mere  copies  of  the  English  act 

(if  1833,  were,  in  L853,  SO  far  improved  as  to  ex- 
clude from    factories  all   children  below    1 '_'  years 

of  age,  permitting  those  below  1  l  to  work  only 

6  hours  in  each  half  day.  tinder  the  condition  of 
."hours'   attendance   at    school.      The   law  of   tin' 

new  German  Empire  (Nov.  10.,  1871)  is.  in  all 

ntials,  th"  same.     France  followed    Pru 
with  a  law  (March  22.,  1841    which  entirely  ex- 
cluded children  below  eighl  years  and  required 

::H  below  I  ■>  to  prove  some  attendance  at  school  : 

hut   the  law.  having  no  enforcing  clauses,  was 

altogether    disregarded.       The    Austrian    factory 

law  approves  of  the  labor  of  children  above  lo 
years  or  age;  and  thence  up  to  I  I.  it  allows  an 
ascending  scale  from  six  to  l(|  hours,  and  be- 
tween I  l  and  16  years.  12  hours;  exceptionally. 
I  I  hours.  The  legislature  of  the  Netherlands 
adopted,  in  1875,  a  law  akin  to  the  modern  En- 
glish law,  bu1   without  any  enforcing  provisions. 

In     Belgium,  there    were,   according    to  the    latest 

reports,  900  factory  schools,  comprising  158,060 

children  of  all    ages,  and    schools  e iceted  with 

i  rerj  factory  in  which  young  children,  to  the 


FACULTY 


FALK 


205 


Bomber  of  33,878,  were  instructed.  The  law  reg- 
ulates tlif  attendance  at  school,  but  does  nol  es- 
sentially restrict  tlif  maximum  time  of  employ- 
ment. An  attempt,  made  in  L855,  by  the  city 
council  of  Berlin  to  establish  four  factory  schools, 

failed,  as  the  school  had  to  lie  discontinued  after 
one  year's  existence.  Belgium  is  the  only  coun- 
try in  which  the  state  law  has  made  provision 
for  the  establishment  of  factory  schools.  In 
Massachusetts  (General  Statutes,  1863,  eh.  12), 
the  law  ordains:  "  No  child  under  the  age 
of  12  years  shall  be  employed  in  any  manu- 
facturing establishment  more  than  10  hours 
in  a  day."  The  official  labor  statistics  of  that 
state  show  that  the  law  is,  almost  every- 
where, a  dead  letter.  The  law  of  New  Jersey 
(March  II..  L855)says:  "No  children  under  10 
years  shall  be  admitted  in  any  factory,  and  no 
minor  tor  more  than  10  hours  a  day."  The  Re- 
vised Statutes  of  Rhode  Island  (1857,  eh.  .'ill) 
say:  "  No  minor  who  has  attained  the  age  of  L2 
years  and  is  under  the  age  of  15  shall  be  em- 
ployed more  than  1  1  hours,  nor  before  5  A.  M., 
nor  aftei  7.  •'!()  P.M."  The  enactments  of  ether 
states  are  similar;  but  there  is  nowhere  an  effi- 
cient provision  for  the  enforcement  of  the  laws. 
The  legislation  of  most  other  states  only  requires 
that  factory  children  should  attend  school  for  a 
specified  length  of  time.  It  is  easy  to  see,  and 
is  generally  admitted,  that  factory  children  are 
not  so  situated  that  they  can  avail  themselves 
of  the  public  schools.  Their  attendance  at  the 
day  schools  will  always  be  irregular  and  of  short 
duration.  The  larger  children  may,  to  some  ex- 
tent, enjoy  the  advantage  of  evening  schools  and 
Sunday-schools  ;  but,  as  long  as  children  are  em- 
ployed in  factories,  they  will  have  to  obtain  their 
education  in  schools  especially  adapted  to  their 
wants.  Many  schools  of  this  class  have  been 
established  by  the  proprietors  of  large  factories, 
of  which  the  best  known,  in  Europe,  are  those 
connected  with  the  Krupp  establishment  in 
Essen,  with  that  of  I  )olf uss  in  Miilhausen,  Alsace, 
ami  that  of  Greg,  Co.  of  Chester,  England.  The 
latter  is  a  fair  example  of  most  of  the  schools. 
The  proprietors  of  the  factories  assume  the  entire 
care  of  the  children,  chiefly  orphans  and  poor- 
house  pupils,  clothe,  feed. and  lodge  them,  and  edu- 
cate them  in  special  schools. — See  Vox  Pi.kxer, 
The  English  Factory  Legislation,  English  trans., 
with  I nt rod.  by  A.  J.  Mundella  (  London);  HuBEK, 
Reis  briefe  aus  England  im  Sommer  (1854). 

FACULTY  (Lat.  facultas),  a  term  originally 
applied  to  a  body  of  men  to  whom  any  partic- 
ular privilege!  or  right  is  granted  ;  hence,  in  a 
college  or  university,  the  faculty  consists  of  those 
upon  whom  has  been  conferred  the  right  of 
i  aching  as  professors  of  specific  subjects  \faculr 
tas  prqfilendi  et  docendi.)  The  faculties  of  a 
university  are  subordinate  corporations,  each 
consisting  of  a  body  of  teachers,  or  professors,  in 
some  particular  department  of  knowledge.     At 

first    the    European    university    (that    of    Paris) 

comprised  but  two  faculties,  -that  of  arts  (q.  v.) 
and  that  of  theology,  to  which,  in  the  L3th  cent- 
ury, those  of  canon  ami  civil  law  and  of  medi- 


cine were  added.  The  division  into  four  facul- 
ties was  transferred  from  the  Pniversity  of  Paris 

to  the  German  universities;  the  faculty  of  arts 
was  afterwards  named  the  philosophical  faculty. 
Many  changes  have  been  introduced  in  this  part 
of  university  organization  since  that  time.  In 
American  universities  and  colleges,  the  faculty 
consists  of  the  body  of  professors,  with  the  presi- 
dent at  its  head,  and  has  the  power  of  conferring 

degrees. 

FAGGING,  a  peculiar  custom  which  has 
existed,  from  the  earliest  times,  in  the  great 
public  schools  of  England — Eton,  Harrow.  Rug- 
by, etc.,  according  to  which  boys  of  the  Lower 
forms  (classes)  perform  certain  personal  services. 

for  those  of  the  higher.  These  services  are  either 
due  to  a  particular  student-  the  special  master — 
or  to  the  whole  higher  class.  The  former  are 
such  as  carrying  the  master's  messages,  preparing 
his  breakfast,  waiting  upon  him  at  dinner,  stok- 
ing his  fire,  etc.;  and  the  general  duties  are  to 
attend  at  the  games,  in  cricket,  for  example, 
standing  behind  the  wickets  to  catch  the  balls, 
and  other  such  minor  services.  While  many  of 
these  services  appear  to  be  of  a  menial  character, 
they  are  not  considered  such,  inasmuch  as,  with- 
out a  fag,  the  boy  would  be  obliged  to  perform 
them  for  himself.  The  system  of  fagging,  like 
pennalism,  in  the  German  universities,  has  been 
the  means  of  great  abuse  and  tyranny  exercised 
upon  the  younger  students,  yet 'it  has  strenuous 
defenders,  as  being,  on  the  whole,  beneficial. 
(See  England.) 

FALK,  Johann  Daniel,  a  German  educator 
and  philanthropist,  born  in  Dantzic,  in  1770,  and 
died  in  1826.  After  studying  at  the  university 
of  Halle.. he  distinguished  himself  as  the  author 
of  several  satirical  poems,  and  was  introduced 
by  Wieland  into  the  literary  circles  of  Weimar. 
He  founded,  in  that  city,  a  children's  aid  society 
and  the  first  German  house  of  refuge.  He  had 
great  faith  in  the  efficacy  of  music  and  labor  as 
educational  agencies,  and  was  very  anxious  to 
foster  in  the  minds  of  his  pupils  a  spirit  of  cheer- 
fulness. At  the  request  of  the  Pedagogical  So- 
ciety of  Leipsic,  of  which  he  was  a  member,  he 
wrote  an  essay  on  common  schools  ( Ueber  die 
Gtrenzen  der  Vblks-  und  Gelehrtenschule,  1821), 
which  is  still  highly  valued.  In  an  appeal  to 
the  diet  of  Saxe-Weimar and  the  entire  German 
people  [Aufrvf  zundchsi  mi  die  Landstdnde  des 
Grossherzogthums  Weimar  >'/<■..  L819),  he  warned 
the  German  people  against  confounding  popular 

education  with  popular  instruction.  His  institu- 
tion (Falkisches  Jnslitut)  was  carried  on  after 
his  death  by  his  widow,  until  1829,  when  the 
state  government  took  charge  of  it. — See  A. 
W  \i;xi'.H,  Fit///*  Liebe,  Leben,  und  Leiden  in 
Gott  (1818). 

FALK,  Paul  Ludwig  Adalbert,  Prussian 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cational, Ecclesiastical,  .and  Medical  affairs,  born 
An-.  H»..  L827,  at  -Metschkau.  Province  of  Sile- 
sia, Prussia,  is  the  son  of  a  Protestant  clergy- 
man,   lie  received  his  first  educational  Schweid 

nitz  and   Landshut,  attended   the    Friedrich's- 


296 


FALK 


Gymnasium  at  Breslau,  and.  after  graduation, 
studied  for  the  legal  professional  t lie  university 
at .  the  same  city,  also  paying  great  attention  to 
history  and  natural  philosophy.  Be  entered  the 
Prussian  state  service  in  1847,  received  the  de- 
gree of  LL.  I »..  in  the  same  year,  and,  after  having 
abandoned  his  original  intention  of  preparing 
himself  for  a  professorship  in  laws,  and  passed 
through  the  intermediate  stations  of  liis  career, 
he  obtained,  successively,  the  appointment  of 
istant  state  attorney  at  Breslau.  and  (1853) 
that  of  state  attorney  at  Lyk.  In  1858,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Prussian  Chamber  of  Deputies 
and  acted  as  a  member  of  the  Committee  on 
Petitions,  Budget,  and  Military  affairs  during 
the  legislative  period  of  L858 — 61.  In  L861,  he 
was  appointed  state  attorney  at  the  Kammerge- 
riihi  in  Berlin,  and,  iii  the  following  year  ( L862), 
councilor  of  the  court  of  appeals  in  Glogau, 
Silesia.  During  this  time,  he  took  part,  with 
other  eminent  jurists  in  the  edition  of  several 
standard  works  on  law.  Although  not  engaged  in 
practical  polities,  which  he  studiously- avoided  in 
consideration  of  his  judicial  office,  he  was  elected 

(1867)  to  represent  the  district  of  Glogau  (Sile- 
sia) in  the  provisional  Parliament  of  the  North 
German  Union,  but  peremptorily  declined  a  re- 
election. In  L868,  he  was  appointed  privy 
councilor  of  justice  [Geheimer  Justiz-Raih)  and 
Referent  in  the  state  ministry  of  justice,  in  which 
position  he  took  a  very  important  part  in  the 
new  codification  of  laws  for  the  North  German 
Union,  and,  subsequently,  for  the  German  Em- 
pire. In  L871,  King  William  appointed  Falkone 
of  the  representatives  of  Prussia  in  the  Federal 
<  louncil  i  Bundesrath,OT  Upper  I  [ouse  of  the  Ger- 
man Parliament),  where  headed  as  chairman  of 
the  committee  of  justice,  in  which  capacity  he  ren- 
dered very  important  services  in  the  re-organiza- 
tion of  the  system  of  legal  proceedings,  adapted 
to  the  new  order  of  things  in  Germany.  In 
January,  L872,  Von  Muhler,  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  Ecclesiastical,  Educational, and  Medical 
affairs,  resigned  his  office,  and  Falk  was  ap- 
pointed his  successor  by  ting  William.  From  the 
\ei\  beginning  of  his  administration,  a  fresh  and 

energetic   spirit    seemed   to   be    imparted   to   the 

management  of  this  important  branch  of  the 
state    government.      The   new   minister   found 

himself   the  inheritor  of  all  the  difficulties  which, 

at  that  time,  beset  his  department,  arising  from 
the  differences  between  the  authorityof  the  state 

ami  the  church   in    regard   to  the  supervision   of 

the  schools,  public  and  private,  a  conflict  which 
had  already  Btrongly  manifested  itself  during  the 
administration  of  his  predecessor  in  office.  In 
February,  L872,  Minister  Falk  introduced  a  law, 
which  w  I   March  1 1 .  of  the  same  year, 

according  to  which  the  supervision  of  all  schools 
was  declared  to  be  the  exclusive  prerogative  of 
the  state.  This  law  was  carried  against  the 
united  efforts  ol  the  Catholic  and  Conservative 
Protestant  panics  of  the  Prussian  parliament. 
It  provided  that  the  supervision  of  all  educa- 
tional institutions, public  or  private,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  laws  of  some  of  the  provinces  of  the 


kingdom,  should  be  the  sole  prerogative  of  the 
state  :  that  all  officials  or  corporations  charged 
with  such  supervision  should  be  considered  as- 
state  commissioners;  and,  finally,  that  this  law 
should  not  affect  the  co-operation  in  the  super- 
vision of  such  institutions,  on  the  part  of  com- 
munities ami  their  constitutional  organs,  as 
authorized  by  statute. 

In  a  rescript,  dated  March  13.,  1872,  and  pub- 
lished in  the  official  Gentralblatt  fur  die  Vnier- 
riehlsverwattung,  Falk  explained  the  radical 
change  which  the  new  law  effected  in  the  rela- 
tion of  the  public  schools  to  the  state  churches. 
"  1  leretofore."  the  minister  says,  "  the  inspection 
of  schools  was  immediately  vested  in  the  church 
officers,  the  pastors  of  the  united  Evangelical 
Church  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  these 
being  inspectors  of  schools,  in  virtue  of  their 
offices.  By  the  operation  of  the  new  law.  the 
right  of  inspecting  schools  belongs  exclusively  to 
the  state:  and  all  authorities  and  officers  to  whom 
this  inspection  is  entrusted,  act  in  the  name  of 
the  state."  The  new  law  vacated  nearly  all  the 
offices  of  school  inspectors  in  towns  ami  ••  circles  '* 
(subdiv  idotis  of  provinces):  but. to  guard  against 
interruption,  all  the  incumbents  were  to  con- 
tinue provisionally  the  discharge  of  their  former 
duties.  'The  minister  declared,  however,  that  no 
person  would  be  allowed  to  remain  in  this  office, 
or  would  be  appointed  to  it.  who  was  not  known 
to  be  faithfully  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the 
state.  The  inspectors  in  the  Polish  districts  of 
the  state  were.  Inoivov  er.  expected  to  take  special 

care  that  the  teaching  of  the  German  language 
was  not  neglected.  This  law  has  since  been 
gradually  carried  into  practice,  and  the  number 
of  lay  school  inspectors  who  take  the  place  of 
clergymen  has  steadily  increased. 

The  Catholic  bishops  made  a  determined  op- 
position to  the  new  policy  of  the  government. 
In  a  joint  pastoral  letter  to  the  clergy,  they  in- 
structed them  not  to  lay  down  their  offices  as 
school  inspectors  without  previously  consuH 
the  diocesan  bishop  :  and.  in  a  memorial  ad- 
dressed to  tin'  government,  they  solemnly  de- 
clared that  they  regarded  this  law  as  an  incroach- 

nient  upon  the  inalienable,  holy  right  of  the 
Church  as  to  the  public  schools,  and  that  they 
expected  from  it  disastrous  consequences  both  to 

church  ami  state,  balk,  however,  continued,  by 
a  number  of  measures,  to  assert  the  exclusive 
right  of  the  state  to  legislate  in  all  school  affairs. 
A  rescript  of  June  L5.,  1 8 72,  excluded  members 

of  ecclesiastical  orders  and  congregations  from 

holding  positions  in  the  public  schools:  a  decree 
dated   .Inly    I.,  abolished   the  so  called    Mariauie 

congregations,  ami  forbade  the   pupils  of  state 

institutions  to  participate  in  them. 

In  January,  L873,  Minister  Falk  proposed  and 
defended  an  ad  in  relation  to  the  scientific  re- 
quirements exacted  by  the  state  for  the  admis- 
sion of  candidates  to  ministerial  functions,  re- 
quiring an  examination  of  maturity  from  a  gv  ui- 
Qashim,  an  academic  triclinium,  and  a  scientific 
state  examination  of  candidates,  with  proper  ex- 
emptions ;    also  conferring    upon   the  state  the 


FAU.MEirs  COLLEGE 


FEAB 


207 


right  of  supervising  Catholic  seminaries,  and  of 
appiw  ing  appointments  to  office  by  the  bishops. 
The  acl  was  passed  by  both  houses  of  the  Prus- 
sian Parliament,  and  became  a  law  by  nival 
sanction,  May  11..  L873.  It  is  the  first  of  the 
famous  May  laws.  Other  difficulties  arose  in 
the  province  of  Posen,  where  a  large  proportion 
of  the  inhabitants  are  of  Polish  nationality  ami 
profess  the  Catholic  religion.  A  decree  of  the 
state  ministry  prescribe! I  that,  in  all  higher  educa- 
tional institutions  in  which  the  German  language 
was  ordinarily  used,  religious  instruction  should 
likewise  be  imparted  in  German.  Archbishop 
Ixdochowski  of  Posen  instructed  his  subordi- 
nates to  disregard  this  decree,  and  to  use  the 
Polish  language  exclusively  in  religious  instruc- 
tion. The  government,  at  first,  did  not  proceed 
against  the  prelate  directly,  but  suspended  a 
number  of  Catholic  clergymen  and  instructors 
who  obeyed  the  archiepiscopal  ordinance  in  pref- 
erence to  the  ministerial  decree.  The  persistent 
opposition  of  the  archbishop  led  to  further 
measures  against  him,  and,  ultimately,  to  his 
being  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  two  years 
(Febr.  3.,  1874).  Before  the  year  1873  ended, 
the  Prussian  government  found  itself  involved 
in  similar  proceedings  against  the  other  bishops 
of  the  kingdom,  all  of  whom,  without  exception, 
refused  obedience  to  the  so-called  May  laws. 
These  proceedings  terminated  in  the  same  way: 
and  the  bishops  who  next  followed  the  Areh- 
■  bishop  of  Posen  into  prison  were  the  Bishop  of 
Treves  and  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  Other 
re  measures  followed,  and  the  Archbishop  of 
Posen  was  deposed  (April  15.,  1874).  In  May, 
L874,  the  Prussian  chambers  passed  a  law  regu- 
lating the  administration  of  all  Catholic  bishop- 
rics which  may  be  vacated  by  incumbents  thri  >ugh 
legal  decisions.  The  contest  between  the  state 
and  church  authorities  is.  however,  not  yet  ended 
(1876). 

While  substituting  for  the  former  co-operation 
of  state  and  church,  in  the  inspection  of  the 
public  schools,  the  sole  right  of  the  state,  Fa  Ik 
also  conceived  the  plan  of  a  total  re-organization 
of  the  school  system.  Twenty  prominent  men, 
representing  all  the  different  parties,  were  called 
to  Berlin  to  discuss  a  draft  which  had  been  pre- 
pared by  the  minister.  The  conference  lasted 
from  June  11.  to  dune  20.,  1872  ;  and,  on  the 
basis  of  its  deliberations,  the  minister,  Oct.  1.").. 
L872,  issued  general  regulations  concerning  the 
public  schools  and  teachers'  seminaries.  These 
regulations  were  intended  as  a  forerunner  to  a 
new  school  law;  and  they  were  regarded  as 
modifying,  in  very  many  essential  points,  the 
principles  on  which  the  former  school  regulations 
oi  Prussia  were  base  I,  and  as  requiring  a  return 
to  the  educational  principles  advocated  and 
practiced  by  Pestalozzi. 

FARMERS'  COLLEGE,  at  College  Hill, 
Hamilton  Co.,  Ohio,  near  Cincinnati,  was  char- 
tered in  1846.  It  is  supported  by  the  interest  of 
a  fund  of  about  .S<i7.n(i(i.  The  institution  belongs 
to  the  contributors  to  its  funds;  each  contributor 
to  the  amount  of  $100  receives  a  certificate  en- 


titling  him    perpetually    to    the    education    of  a 

pupil  free  of  charge  for  tuition.    The  holders  of 

these    certificates    elect    trieiuiially    1  .">    of    their 

number  directors  to  manage   the  college.    The 

college  has  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, the  latter  having  a  classical  and  a  special 
course.  Facilities  are  afforded  for  instruction  in 
drawing  and  music.  Both  sexes  are  admitted. 
Libraries  of  over  2,000  volumes  are  connected 
with  the  institution.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $10 
per  term  of  20  weeks.  In  L875 — 6,  there  were 
8  instructors  and  "•'>  students  (38  male  and  38 
female). of  whom  "J  1  were  in  the  collegiate  depart- 
ment. The  presidents  of  the  college  have  been 
as  follows:  Freeman  G.  Cary,  1847 — 53;  Isaac 
I.  Allen,  18f>3 — 6;  Freeman  G.  Cary.  jn-o  tern., 
1856 — 7;  the  Lev.  Dr.  Charles  N.  Mattoon, 
L857— 60  :  Jacob  Tuckerman,  1860—6  ;  Charles 
Curtis.  L866 — 70;  J.  S.  Lowe,  the  present  in- 
cumbent (1870),  elected  in  1873.  During  1870 
— 73,  rival  boards  of  directors  were  at  law,  and 
the  college  was  closed. 

FEAR,  a  sense  of  danger,  the  apprehension 
of  coming  injury,  or  the  anticipation  of  pain,  is 
;;n  emotion  of  the  mind  which  the  educator 
often  finds  it  necessary  to  excite,  in  order  to  con- 
trol the  actions  of  his  pupil,  but  which  lie 
should  address  with  extreme  care  and  only  after 
other  means  of  persuasion  have  failed.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  government. — that  of  influi  i 
and  that  of  force  ;  and  the  former  should  always 
be  preferred  to  the  latter,  because  it  addn 
the  inner  nature  and  produces  a  permanent  effect 
upon  the  character,  while  the  latter  can  be  only 
temporary.  By  the  one.  the  will  of  a  child  is 
trained,  and  a  self-controlling  power  is  fixed  in 
the  mind;  by  the  other  the  misdirected,  per- 
verted will  is  still  left  a  prey  to  vicious  propen- 
sities, the  operation  of  which  is  checked  only  as 
long  as  the  external  restraint  continues.  Some 
dispositions,  however,  need  to  be  restrained  by 
a  sense  of  fear  before  other  influences  can  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  them.  Many  children  are 
inconsiderate,  rash,  and  impulsive,  and  accord- 
ingly yield  at  once  to  their  propensities.  Phys- 
ical punishment  seems  to  be  needed  in  order  to 
produce  any  conscientious  observation  of  their 
own  conduct  ;  but,  without  great  care  on  the 
part  of  the  educator,  in  inflicting  pain  for  this 
purpose,  much  injury  may  lie  done  to  the  child. 
Unless  the  educator's  personality  in  this  inflic- 
tion can  be  subordinated,  in  the  child's  mind,  to 
the  sense  of  deserved  punishment  for  wrong- 
doing, he  will  antagonize  the  child,  and  destroy 
all  means  of  controlling  him  by  personal  influ- 
ence. -'The  moment  a  child's  mind  is  strongly 
affected  by  fear."  says  Horace  Mann,  ••  it  flies  in- 
stinctively away,  and  hides  itself  in  the  deepest 

recesses  it  can  find,  often  in  the  recesses  of  dis- 
ingenuousness  and  perfidy  and  falsehood.  In- 
stead of  exhibiting  to  you  his  whole  conscious- 
ness, hi'  conceals  from  you  as  much  of  it  as  he 
can  ;  or  he  deceptively  presents  to  you  some 
Counterfeit  of  it,  instead  of  the  genuine.  No 
frighted  water  fowl  whose  plumage  the  bullet  of 
the  sportsman  has  just  grazed,  dives  quicker  be- 


298 


FELBIGER 


neath  the  surface  than  a  child's  spirit  darts  from 
your  eye  when  you  have  filled  it  with  the  senti- 
ment of  tear.''  This  is  especially  true  of  certain 
dispositions;  and,  hence,  this  appeal  to  fear 
should  not  be  made  without  very  careful  dis- 
crimination. Becker,  in  the  Scientific  Basis  of 
Education  fN.  Y.,  1868),  says,  " If  cautiousness 
is  too  large,  seek  to  influence  the  child  through 
his  affections.  Fear  will  paralyze  such  a  mind. 
To  make  this  faculty  useful  where  it  is  pre- 
dominant, the  teacher  must  get  the  affections  of 
the  child,  and  he  can  then,  by  proper  direction, 
make  fear  an  intelligent  restraint."  Formerly, the 
idea  of  school  government  was  identical  with 
that  of  absolute  tyranny, — arbitrary  power  in 
the  teacher,  and  unthinking  obedience  in  the 
pupil, enforced  bythe  greatest  severity  of  punish- 
ment. Dr.  Johnson,  in  the  defens  •  of  the  school- 
master I  lastie,  said.  "  ( !hildren  being  not  reason- 
able, can  be  governed  only  by  fear ;"  hut  educa- 
tors do  nor  And  all  children  without  reason  and 
conscience,  and.   therefore,   the    proposition    was 

too  sweeping.  When  Boswell  repealed  toJohn- 
son  the  following  sentence  of  a  speech  of  Lord 
Mansfield:  '  My  Lords,  severity  is  not  the  way 
to  govern  either  hoys  or  men."  he  replied.  •■  Nay. 
it  is  the  way  to  govern  them.  I  know  not 
whether  it  be  the  way  to  mend  them."  Bui  no 
school  government  can  be  approved  that  is  not 
intended  to  amend  as  well  as  to  control.  Chil- 
dren should  be  made  to  fear  to  do  wrong ;  and 

this  should  be  brought  about  as  much  as  possible 
by  what  Berber!  Spencer  calls  the  method  of 
nature,  tih&i  is,  by  making  punishment  the  neces- 
sary consequence  of  the  wrongful  act,  on  the 
principle  involve  I  in  the  maxim,  "The  burnt 
child  dreads  the  fire."  This  eliminates  the  per- 
sonal element  in  the  fear  implanted  in  the  mind 
of  the  child  He  does  not  tear  the  teacher,  but 
he  fears  to  offend,— to  do  wrong.  The  same 
consideration  excludes  from  discipline,  all  threat- 
ening, scolding,  and  harsh  words,  for  the  purpose 
of  engendering  fear,  and,  especially  excludes  anger 

in  punishment.  'The  fear  to  be  excited  in  the  mind 

of  the  chilli  should  not  be  an  apprehension  of 

personal    safety,   leading   to    meanness,    cunning, 

and  deception  as  a  means  of  self  protection,  but 
should  be  akin  to  that  feeling  which  Solomon 
referred  to  when  he  said,  ••  The  fear  of    the  Lord 

is  the  beginning  of  wisdom."  This  is  not  incon- 
sistent with  a  constant  appeal  to  the  higher 
motives  and  finer  feelings  of  human  nature,  but 
may  be  made  a  means  of    their  development, 

which  is  the  true  end  of  all  moral  education. 

FELBIGER,  Johann  Ignaz  von,  one  of 
the  fore al  reformers  of  the  public-school  sys- 
tem  of    Austria.    Was    Worn    in    L724,   at     GrOSB- 

glogau  in  Silesia,  and  died  at  Presburg,  Hungary, 
i'1  1788.      \tier  studying  Catholic  theology, he 

entered  th  •  order  of  St.  Augustine,  and.  in  L758, 
became  abb  't  of  the  house  of  his  order  in  Sagan, 

Silesia.       In    this    position,    it    was    his    duty    to 

superintend  the  churches  and  schools  of  Sagan 
.and  some  of  the  neighboring  villages.  The  wretched 

Condition  in  which  he  found  th,'  schools,  induced 

1 to  risil  Berlin  secretly,  in  order  to  acquainl 


himself  with  the  new  real  school  of  that  city  and 
the  tabular  and  literal  method  of  Uiihn  (q.  v.). 
As  the  result  of  this  visit  was  entirely  satisfactory 
to  him.  he  not  only  repeated  it  several  times. but 
sent  a  number  of  young  men  there  to  be  edu- 
cated as  school-masters.  After  the  end  of  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  he  displayed  great  activity  in 
founding:  new  schools,  some  of  which  were  organ- 
ized  as  model  schools:  he  also  drew  up  several 
courses  of  instruction,  and  prepared  a  number 
of  school  books,  "which  were  printed  at  his  own 
printing  establishment,  and  obtained  a  very  large 
circulation.  Halm's  method  became,  through 
his  efforts,  predominant  in  all  Silesia,  and  was 
often  called  after  him  Felbiger's  or  the  Sagan 
method.  In  1774.  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Empress  Maria  Theresa  chief  director  (Ober- 
director)  of  the  German  schools:  and.  Dec.  6., 
1774.  thi'  empress  sanctioned  the  general  regula- 
tion tor  tin'  German  model,  head,  ami  trivial 
schools  which  had  been  drawn  up  by  Felbiger. 
This  regulation  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new 
period  in  the  history  of  Austrian  schools.  It  be- 
gins with  the  following  significant  sentence  : 
••The  education  of  youth  of  both  sexes  is  the 
mosl  important  basis  of  the  true  happiness  of 
nations."  Though  it  did  not  make  education 
compulsory,  it  expressed  the  expectation  that  all 

Children  of  both  sexes  who  did  Hot  receive  pri- 
\ate  instruction,  would  attend  the  German 
school  for  six  or  seven  years,  beginning  with  the 
Bixth  year  of  age.  Public  education  was  treated 
as  a  state  affair  :  the  methods  of  instruction  and 
discipline  and  the  course  of  instruction  wen' 
regulated,  a  proper  classification  introduced,  and 
provision  made  for  the  erection  of  school-houses. 
for  cheap  and  good  schoohbooks.  and  for  the 
better  education  and  compensation  of  teachers. 
In  regard  to  salaries,  the  provisions  were,  how- 
ever, far  from  being  satisfactory,  as  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  the  regulation  expressly 
allows  teachers  to  work  in  their  leisure  hours  as 
book-binders,  joiners,  shoe-makers,  tailors,  and 
weavers.  They  were,  however,  absolutely  for- 
bidden to  keep  taverns.  In  order  to  elevate  the 
school-teachers   to  a  higher  social    position,    the 

regulation    assigned    to   them   a   comparatively 

high  rank  among  public  functionaries.  As  re- 
gards the  different  clashes  of  the  common  schools, 
i  town,  market  -  town,  and  parish  was  to 
receive  a  trivial  school,  which  had  only  one 
teacher,  and  imparted    instruction  in   reading. 

writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  elements  of  agri- 
culture. In  each  circle,  at  least  one  head  school 
(Hatiptschule)  was  to  be  established,  which 
should  have  three  classes,  three  teachers,  and  a 
director,  and  teach,  besides  the  subjects  of  the 
trivial    school,    German     composition,    drawing. 

surveying,  history,  and  geography  (especially  of 
the  native  country),  and  also  the  elements  of  the 
Latin  language.    Wherever  circumstances  would 

allow    it.  female  schools  were  established,  besides 

the  head  schools  for  boys.  Every  province  waa 
to  have  at  least  one  normal  school,  which  was 
to  combine  the  character  of  a  model  school  and 

of  a  teachers'  seminary.     The  course  of  instruc- 


FELBIGER 


FEMALE  EDFC/ATION 


299 


Soon  after 
an  end  to 
of  military 
rejected  by 


tion  embraced  all  the  subjects  of  the  head  school, 
and.  besides,  natural  Bcience  and  physics,  Latin, 
the  history  of  arts  and  trades,  architecture, 
and  mechanics.  The  establishment  of  a  German 
school  book  publishing  office,  in  connection  with 
the  Vienna  Normal  School,  gave  a  powerful 
impulse  to  educational  literature.  The  empress. 
in  1777,  induced  Felbiger  to  relinquish  alto- 
gether his  citizenship  in  Prussia,  and.  at  the 
game  time,  appointed  him  provost  at   Presburg. 

this,   the    death   of  the  empress   put 

his  educational  labors.  The  plan 
schools,  which  he  had  drawn  up,  was 
Joseph  1 1.. and  he  was  removed  from 
the  chief  direction  of  the  Vienna  Normal  School. 
He  was  directed  to  remain  at  Presburg,and  labor 
for  the  improvement  of  public  instruction  in 
Hungary.  He  was,  however,  unable  to  accom- 
plish much,  and  died  almost  forgotten.  Felbiger 
wrote  a  number  of  school  books,  and  a  manual 
explaining  his  method  of  instruction  to  teachers 
(Eigenschaften,  Wissenschqften,  und  Bezeigen 
iffener  Schulleute).  The  best  biography 
of  Felbiger  is  found  in  Helfert,  Die  ostreichi- 
Volfcsschule,  vol.  i. 
FELLENBERG,  Philipp  Emanuel  von, 
a  Swiss  educator  and  philanthropist,  was  burn 
in  Bern,  June 27.,  1771,  and  died  there.  Nov.  21., 
1844.  J  lis  father  being  a  friend  of  Pestalozzi, 
he  early  conceived  the  idea  that  society  can  be 
protected  against  revolution  only  by  an  im- 
proved system  of  education.  He  believed  that 
he  had  discovered  the  basis  of  a  radical  reform 
in  the  connection  of  education  with  agriculture. 
He  bought,  in  179D.  a  large  estate  near  Bern, 
the  Wylhof,  called  by  him  Hofwyl,  and  there 
founded,  in  1804,  his  first  school,  for  the  purpose 
of  educating  poor  boys,  and  even  convicts,  as 
agriculturists.  Fellenberg  endeavored  to  make 
tins  school  self-supporting,  and  to  cause  instruc- 
tion to  be  regarded  by  the  pupils  as  a  recreation. 
His  institution  proved  a  great  success.  All  the 
visitors  were  struck  with  the  cheerfulness  and 
the  eagerness  to  learn  which  were  shown  by  the 
pupils  generally  ;  and  a  number  of  the  pupils 
subsequently  distinguished  themselves  as  edu- 
cators and  teachers.  Fellenberg  also  believed 
that  his  institutions  fully  supported  themselves 
by  the  labor  of  the  pupils:  although,  as  liberal 
contributions  were  received  all  the  time  from 
friends  of  education,  this  has  been  doubted  by 
many.  Twice  (in  1804  and  1.817),  Pestalozzi 
was,  for  a  short  time  connected  with  the  institu- 
tions of  Fellenberg.  but  they  found  it  impossible 
to  agree.  Fellenberg,  being  descended  from  a 
noble  family  ami  having  himself  filled  high  posi- 
tions in  the  state,  was  accustomed  to  rule  and 
had  dictatorial  manners:  while  Pestalozzi.  who 
as  a  practical  educator  was  greatly  his  superior, 
to  act  as  a  subordinate  to  him  in 
matters.  The  fame  of  the  school  of 
Hofwyl  was.  to  a  large  extent, due  to  Wehrli  (q. 

V.),  wild  became  connected  with  it,  in  L810.  In 
the  mean  time,  several  new  institutions  for  poor 
children  had  been  established  by  Fellenberg.  In 
1807,  he  opened,  in  buildings  which  the  govern- 


was  unwilling 
educational 


mentof  Bern  had  presented  to  him.  a  special  school 
of  aio-icult urc. with  which. in  \H{)H,ap//ilnnlhropin 
for  children  of   wealthy    parents    was  connected. 

This  school,  in  L825,  had  eighty  pupils,  taught 
by  twenty-two  teachers.  Among  those  who  suc- 
cessively taughl  in  the  institutions  of  Fellenberg, 

were  some  of  the  foremost  educatorsof  Germany, 
as  llcrbart  (q.  v.)  An  institution  for  females, 
which  was  subsequently  added,  under  the  man- 
agement of  the  wife  and  daughtersof  Fellenberg, 
was.  like  the  original  school  of  Hofwyl, chiefly  in- 
tended for  the  i r.  In  1830,  a  real  school,  de- 
signed tor  the  education  of  the  children  of  the 
middle  classes,  was  established,  and  still  later  an 
infant  school.  As  the  education  of  teachers  had 
been  sadly  neglected  in  the  canton  of  Pern,  Fel- 

lenberg,  with  the  approval  of  the  government, 

called  forty  teachers  to  Hofwyl  for  a  three 
months'  normal  course.  The  next  year,  the 
government  denied  i(s  consent,  as  it  feared 
that  Fellenberg  would  obtain,  in  this  way,  too 
great  an  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the  canton. 
In  1833,  the  government  again  arranged  for 
holding  a  teachers'  institute  in  Hofwyl:  but.  as 
the  arrangements  were  not  entirely  satisfactory 
to  Fellenberg.  he  opened  another  normal  course 
for  one  hundred  teachers  at  his  own  expense. 
The  institutions  of  Fellenberg  were  celebrated 
throughout  Europe,  and  were  even  visited  by 
some  of  the  reigning  princes.  A  number  of 
other  institutions  were  f<  utnded  after  their  m< >i lei. 
After  Fellenberg's  death,  the  institutions  were  for 
a  time  continued  by  his  son.  Wilhehn  Aon  Fel- 
lenberg, but  were  afterward  abandoned.  In  his 
religious  views,  Fellenberg  shared  the  rational- 
istic principles  which  at  that  time  were  pre- 
dominant in  Germany  and  .Switzerland;  but, 
unlike  most  of  the  Philanthropists,  he  attributed 
great  importance  to  the  religious  element  of 
instruction,  and  devotional  exercises  were  strictly 
and  solemnly  observed  in  all  his  institutions. — 
See  W.  Hamm,  Fellenberg's  Leben  und  Wirken 
(Bern,  1845b  American  Annals  of  Education, 
vol.  i.  (1831).  An  interesting  account  of  the 
school  of  Hofwyl  may  also  be  found  in  the  auto- 
biography of  one  of  its  American  pupils,  Bobert 
Dale  Owen  (Threading  My  Way,  N.  Y.,  1874). 
(See  also  Hofwyl.) 

FEMALE  EDUCATION.  This  subject 
will  be  treated  in  two  sections:  (I)  The  history 
of  female  education,  and  (II)  the  discussion  of 
its  principles,  or  theory. 

I.  History. — The  history  of  education  in  the  an- 
cient world  almost  exclusively  refers  to  the  educa- 
tion of  the  male  sex.  In  the  ancient  monarchies 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  no  provision  was  made  for  the 
instruction  of  girls  in  educational  institutions.  In 
China,  the  daughter,  after  the  10th  year  of  age, 
was  confined  to  the  house.  There  she  was 
taught  to  behave  modestly  and  politely,  to  listen 
and  to  obey.  She  had  to  sew  and  to  weave  in  hemp 
and  silk,  and  to  learn  how  to  prepare  the  meals. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen,  when  she  was  betrothed, 
she  received  the  ornament  of  the  head-needle; 
and.  at  the  age  of  twenty,  she  was  married.  In 
education,  as  well  as  in  all   other  departments  of 


300 


FEMALE  EDUCATION 


life,  China  has  remained  stationary:  and  the 
education  of  girls  is  now  substantially  the  same 

it  was  thousands  of  years  ago.  While  the 
instruction  of  boys  is  quite  general,  nine-tenths  of 
all  the  women  can  neither  read  nor  write:  and 
it  is  only  the  daughters  of  the  wealthiest  families 
thai  receive  even  a  meager  education.  In  India, 
the  instruction  of  the  female  sex  was  also  totally 
negleeteil.  An  exception  was  made  only  in  the 
case  of  public  dancers,  or  bayaderes.  The  latter 
are  daughters  of  poor  parents,  and.  in  ehildhood, 
are  kept  for  the  service  of  the  temple.  The 
priests  teach  them  to  read  and  write,  and  have 
them  carefully  taught  music,  dancing,  singing, 
and  all  the  ways  of  female  coquetry,  in  Persia, 
which  had  a  system  of  national  schools,  the  girls 
were  generally  excluded  from  public  instruction. 
Still  there  seem  to  have  been  exceptions  ;  for  the 
plot  of  a  Persian  novel  is  base  1  upon  the  love  pf 
two  persons,  which  is  represented  as  beginning 
at  school.  In  Egypt,  the  female  sex  occupied  a 
more  dignified  and  independent  position  than  in 
the  other  oriental  nations,  attending  to  the 
business  of  the  market  ami  to  commerce:  hut 
no    provision   was    made     for    their    instruction. 

Cleopatra  is,  however,  reported  to  have  been  one 
of  the  most  accomplished  women  of  antiquity, 
ami  to  have  spoken  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Ethiopic, 
Syriac,  and  other  languages.  The  legislation  of 
Sparta  excelled,  in  this  respect,  not  only  every 
oriental  country,  lmt  also  every  other  Hellenic 
state.    The  Spartans  hell  a  very  high  opinion 

of  the  dignity  of  the  family,  and  the  wife 
and  mother  was  the  center  of  family  life.  'Hie 
wife  was  held  in  especially  high  esteem  ;   she  was 

called  dearroiva,  mistress,  ami  exerted  a  consider- 
able influence  over  her  husband.  This  social 
position  of  woman  required  that  her  education 
should  be  similar  to  that  of  the  other  sex.  'I  he 
Spartans  thought  that  free,  noble  men  could  only 
spring  from  noble,  well-formed,  healthy  mothers; 

ami  the  gills,  therefore,  participated,  though  w  ith 
some  modifications,  in  the  peculiarities  of  Spartan 
education.    They  were  to  he  inspired  with  feel- 

ingsof  morality  ami  patriotism  no  less  than  men. 

The  society  of  experienced  matrons  was  one  of 
the  chief  means  of  their  education;  ami  exercises 

ill  singing,  the  stilly  of  the  poets,  and  the  learning 

of  choruses  were  used  to  pr ote  their  general 

culture.     They    practiced    gymnastic  exercises, 

on  arenas  specially  provided  for  them,  ami  grace- 
ful mimetic  dances.     At   certain  festivals,  they 

and   danced    in    public.      Young    men  were 

usually  presenl  at  these  exhibitions ;  and  females 
attended  those  given  by  the  males.  Thus  a 
rivalry  arose  1> 'tween  the  two  sexes,  which  hail 
a   beneficenl    influence  upon   the  education   of 

both.       \s  the  result  of  this  education,  the  young 

women  of  Sparta  manifested  a  bodily  vigor  and 
beauty,  and  a  national  pride,  which  were  admired 
by  all  foreigners.  The  school  of  Pythagoras 
which,  like  the  Spartans,  represents  the  peculiar 
development  of  the  Doric  tribes,  produced 
several  female  writers  on  education  (Theano, 
Phintys,  Periktione),  whose  writings  are  by  far 
the  best  that  can  he  found  on  the  subject  in  the 


literature  of  the  ancient  world.  The  Dorians  re- 
garded piety  as  the  basis  of  self-control,  and 
music  and  gymnastics  as  means  for  attaining  it. 
This  and  a  due  harmony  between  the  intellect 
and  the  will  were  viewed  by  them  as  the  chief 
results  of  all  sound  female  education.  In  Athens, 
female  education  was  not  so  well  provided  for  as 
in  Sparta,  and  the  elevated  position  which  the 
Spartans  conceded  to  their  wives  was  derided  by 
the  Athenians  as  gynocracy,  or  female  govern- 
ment. With  them,  the  wife  was  not  the 
deonoiva,  or  mistress,  but,  in  fact,  the  servant  of 
the  house.  Only  in  exceptional  cases,  did  the 
daughters  of  a  family  receive  instruction  ex- 
tending beyond  the  usual  domestic  duties  :  female 
schools  were  unknown.  Women  appeared  in 
public  only  at  public  festivals,  and  it  was  only 
the  educated  keta?ra  that  the  intelligent  Athe- 
nian could  meet  in  society.  The  Romans  had  a 
very  exalted  idea  of  the  dignity  of  family  life  and 
the  position  of  woman.  In  no  nation  of  antiquity 
was  monogamy  so  strictly  observed  as  in  Rome, 
The  kings,  according  to  popular  tradition,  and 
afterward  the  decemvirs,  were  expelled  from 
power  on  account  of  attacks  made  upon  female 
virtue.  The  mother  of  the  family  [mater familias) 
presided    over   domestic    affairs    as    a    venerable 

priestess,  and  regarded  the  education  of  all  her 

children,  boys  a.-  well  as  girls,  as  her  most  sacred 
and  most  important  duty.  Thus  the  girls  received 
an  excellent  home  education:  and  it  would 
seem  that  they  also  attended  schools,  for  we  read 

that  Virginia  was  seized  by  order  of  the  decem- 
vir Appius  Claudius  as  she  was  going  to  school. 
The  influence  of  Christianity  upon  female 
education    shows    itself,   for   several   centuries. 

only  in  the  regeneration  of  family  life.  The 
firsl  places  in  Christian  countries  in  which  in- 
struction was  provided  for  girls,  outside  of  their 
families,  were  the  convents.  The  nuns,  as  we 
see  from  the  correspondence  of  Boniface,  not  only 

copied  the  Biblical  books,  lmt  also  taught  secular 
sciences.      The  number  of  girls  w  ho  were  <  ducat- 

ed  in  these  schools  was,  however,  small  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  hoys.  The  daughters  and 
sisters  of  Charlemagne,  as  appears  from  their  cor- 
respondence with  Alcuin.  took  an  active  part  in 

the  learned  studies  which  distinguished  the  court 
of  that  great  emperor:  and  their  example  was  sub- 
sequently followed  by  several  other  princesses  and 

nuns:  still  no  steps  were  taken  toward  a  general 

provision  for  female  instruction, during  the  first 

part    of   the   middle   ages.      The   development    of 

knighthood  organized  a  system  of  instruction  for 

a  small  but  very  influential  portion  of  female 
youths,      the    daughters    of     the    nobility.        No 

special    institutions  were   founded  for  them  :   but 

it  was  conn  iiou  to  have  a  number  of  tin  in  brought 

up  together  iii  the  castle  of  a  count  or  other 
nobleman.     The   pupils,   in    this  case,    inhabited 

111  e. iion  a  separate  part  of  the  building,  were 

placed  under  a  common  -ov  ermss.  and  received 
instruction  from  a  priest,  sometimes  also  from 
traveling  artists,  singers,  and  poets.  Reading 
and  writing  were  the  principal  part  of  this  in- 
struction, and  the  young  ladies  were  called  upon, 


FEMALE    EDUCATION 


301 


En  the  long  winter  evenings,  to  read  to  the  family 
or  to  a  select  company  new  songs,  Legends,  and 
stork's.  Sometimes  they  also  acquired  a  knowl- 
tedge  of  foreign  languages,  especially  of  French 
and  Latin.  They  were  also  instructed  in  singing, 
and  playing  upon  musical  instruments.  When  the 
towns -rcw  strong,  in  their  struggles  against  Icings 
and  nobles,  important  progress  was  made  by 
the  establishment  of  female  schools.  In  Brussels, 
we  find,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  J 
a  school  for  small  girls,  with  four  female  teachers  ; 
and  boys  and  girls  who  were  brothers  and  sisters 
were  often  allowed  to  attend  the  same  school. 
Similar  schools  were  found  in  some  of  the  other 
cities,  hut  only  in  a  limited  number.  In  the 
convents,  only  those  girls  received  instruction 
in  reading  and  writing  who  intended  to  enter 
the  on  lei.  In  some  of  the  towns,  the  girls 
were  allowed  to  attend  boys'  schools.  The 
r  impulse  which  was  given  to  the  extension 
of  female,  schools  by  the  Reformation,  in  the 
16th  century,  is  generally  recognized,  even  by 
Catholic  writers.  Luther,  in  his  appeal  to  the 
magistrates  of  the  German  towns,  urged  them  to 
establish  schools,  not  for  boys  only,  but  also  for 
girls.  All  the  church  and  school  regulatii  >i  is  which  ! 
were  issued  during  this  period  recognized  the  need 
of  establishing  female  schools.  The  chief  reason 
adduced  for  the  demand  was  the  duty  of  women 
as  well  as  of  men  to  read  the  Scriptures.  The 
greatest  zeal  for  the  establishment  of  female 
schools  was  displayed  by  Bugenhagen  (q.  v.),  who 
demanded  these  schools  not  only  for  the  towns 
hut  also  for  villages.  The  course  of  instruction 
embraced  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  catechism. 
Bible  history,  and  singing.  Although  the  ideas 
of  the  reformers  were  not  carried  out  to  their 
full  extent,  the  number  of  schools  for  the  in- 
struction of  girls,  established  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  was  very  large.  They  were  partly 
parish  schools  which  were  attended  by  both  boys 
and  girls,  and  partly  schools  for  girls  exclusively, 
which  aimed  to  impart  a  higher  education  than 
could  be  found  in  the  parish  schools.  Little 
progress  was,  however,  made  in  the  second  half 
of  the  Kith  and  in  the  17th  century*;  and,  after 
the  devastations  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  female 
schools  were,  in  Germany  and  other  countries  of 
the  European  continent,  in  a  less  flourishing 
condition  than  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 
The  work  was  resumed  in  the  18th  century;  but,  , 
at  first,  withonlyslow  progress.  (Gradually, how- 
ever, the  adoption  of  the  principle  of  compulsory 
education  (q.  v.)  prepared  the  way  for  the  univer- 
sal education  of  female  youth  in  public  elementary 
schools.  In  some  of  those  countries  of  Europe 
where  the  principle  of  compulsory  education  has 
not  yet  been  adopted  or  carried  out,  a  largo 
portion  of  the  female  youth  still  grow  up  with- 
out any  instruction.  Among  the  most  backward 
countries  in  this  respect,  is  Russia.  While,  in 
1874,  the  number  of  boys  attending  school  in 
proportion  to  the  entire  school  population  varied 
in  the  nine  school-districts  into  which  the  empire 
is  divided  from  1:1..")  (in  Dorpat)  to  1:10.5  (in 
Moscow);  the  proportion  of  girls  attending  school 


was  as  follows:  Dorpat,  1:2.1:  Warsaw.  1:6; 
St. Petersburg,  L:19;  Odessa,  1:2:!:  Wilna,  L:51; 
Kharkof.  L:5l;  LCasan,  1  :•'{.'{;  Kief,  L: 65.8;  .Mos- 
cow, 1:49.4.  Among  the  seventeen  provinces 
into  which  Austria  proper  is  divided,  there  were, 
in  1874,  four  (Lower  Austria.  Upper  Austria, 
Salzburg,  and  Vorarlberg)  in  which  the  number 
of  girls  attending  the  public  schools  exceeded 
that  of  boys,  seven  in  which  the  number  of  girls 
was  a  little  inferior  to  that  of  boys,  and  six  in 
which  it  fell  considerably  below  that  of  boys; 
namely,  Triest,  boys  6,188,  girls  i.'M'l;  Goritz 
and  Gradisca,  boys  8,183,  girls  6,4  1 1  ;  [stria,  boys 
7,961,  girls,  4,146;  Galicia,  boys,  !).'!. 756,  girls, 
60,193;  Bukovina,  boys.  6,858,  girls,  2,957  ;  Dal- 
matia,  boys,  8,436,  girts,  1,898.  Other  statistics 
of  this  class  may  be  found  in  the  articles  on  the 
several  countries  of  Europe. 

The  need  of  schools  providing  a  higher  than 
elementary  education  for  girls  was  very  generally 
and  deeply  felt,  especially  when  England,  France, 
and  ( Germany  entered  successively  into  the  golden 
age  of  their  national  literature.  An  excellent 
institution  of  the  kind  was  founded  by  A.  H. 
Francke  (q.  v.),  but  there  was  a  great  diversity 
of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  course  of  instruction  to 
be  prescribed  for  the  higher  education  of  females. 
The  large  majority  of  the  schools  of  this  class 
have  ever  since  been  private  institutions  ;  but,  in 
Germany  and  several  other  European  countries, 
the  state  governments  as  well  as  the  municipal 
authorities  have,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  begun 
to  establish  female  schools  of  a  higher  grade.  In 
England,  the  education  of  the  daughters  of 
wealthy  parents  at  home  by  governesses  is  more 
general  than  in  any  other  country  of  the  Christian 
world  ;  but,  recently,  considerable  progress  has 
been  made  iu  the  establishment  of  female  schools 
of  a  higher  grade.  (See  England.) — In  Catholic 
countries,  a  very  great  majority  of  the  female 
schools  of  a  higher  than  elementary  grade  have 
been  under  the  control  of  female  religious  orders. 
The  number  of  these  schools  has  largely  in- 
creased since  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 
When  the  Cardinal  Archbishop,  Carlo  Borromeo, 
of  Milan,  died,  in  1584,  there  were,  in  his  diocese 
alone,  600  Ursuline  nuns,  in  11  houses,  who 
devoted  themselves  to  the  instruction  of  girls. 
During  the  last  three  centuries,  a  number  of  new 
religious  orders  have  been  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  affording  girls  a  higher  education.  There  are. 
at  present,  more  than  30  orders  of  this  class,  with 
several  thousand  members;  and  their  schools  are 
not  only  attended  by  <  'atholic,  but  also  by  large 
numbers  of  Protestant  girls.  (See  Roman  ( 'vru- 
oi.ns.)  For  statistics  relating  to  female  schools 
in  Europe,  see  the  articles  on  the  several  coun- 
tries.— The  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  in 
his  report  for  187  1.  enumerates  214  institutions 
for  the  superior  instruction  of  women,  of  which 
1 1 4  were  authorized  by  law  to  confer  degrees. 
These  are  in  part  styled  colleges, and  in  part  semi- 
naries, iits/it»J<'s,  etc.  The  oldest  of  these  institu- 
tions is  the  Bradford  Academy,  at  Bradford. 
Mass..  chartered  in  1K04;  the  oldest  having  the 
title  of  Coll'ye&re  the  Maine  Wesleyan  Seminary 


302 


FEMALE  EDTJ CATION 


ami  Female  College,  at  Kent's  Hill,  Me.,  and  the 
i  rranville  Female  <  !ollege,at  <  rranville,  *  >hio,char- 
teredin  L821  and  L834, respectively.  The  progress 
of  the  higher  education  of  women  is  illustrated  by 
the  following  tacts:  in  1870, the  number  of  these 
institutions  in  the  United  States  reporting  to  the 
Bureau  of  Education  was  •"!■'!.  the  number  of  in- 
structors 378,  and  the  number  of  students  5,337  ; 
while  in  L874,  the  number  of  institutions  is  re- 
ported  at  209;  the  number  of  instructors.  2,285, 
and  the  number  of  students.  23,445.  These 
institutions  commonly  comprise  a  primary,  a 
preparatory,  and  a  collegiate  department.  The 
Last  extends  through  a  course  of  three  or  four 

years,  and  embraces  the  higher  English  branches, 

with  the  addition  generally  of  Latin  and  French, 
frequently  of  <  rerman,  and  sometimes  of  <  Ireek, 

Spanish,  and  Italian.  Facilities  are  afforded,  in 
most  if  not  in  all  cases,  for  instruction  in  vocal 
and  instrumental  music,  drawing  and  painting, 
etc.  The  principal  degrees  conferred  by  female 
colleges  are  Graduate  in  Arts  (A.  BA  Graduate 
in  Science  (B.  Sc),  Sister  of  Arts  I  A.  S.),  .Mistress 
of  Liberal  Arts  (M.  L  A..),  Mistress  of  liberal 
Learning  (M.  L.  L.),  Mistress  of  Science  (M.  Sc.  . 
Mistress  of  English  Literature  (M.  E.  L.),  and 
Mistress  of  Music  .Mis.  Mus.).  In  some  of  the 
higher  co-educative  institutions,  there  is  a  separate 
course  for  females  [Ladies'  Course)  similar  to 
that  of  most  female  colleges ;  in  others,  there  is 

no  distinction,  females  being  admitted  to  the 
same  classes,  and  on  the  same  terms,  as  males. 
Among  higher  institutions  for  females  exclusive- 
ly.  Vassar  College  q.v.),a1  Poughkeepsie,  \.  V.. 
Smith  College,  a1  Northampton.  Mas-,  (organized 
in  L875),  ami  Wellesley  College,  at  Wellesley, 
Mass.  (organized  in  1 875),  hold  a  high  rank. 

II.  Theory  of  Female  Education. — This  is  a 
subject  which, especially  in  recent  years,  has  very 
greatly  engaged  the  attention  of  practical  educa- 
tors, scientific  educationists,  physicians,  and  all 
others  who  have  either  written  or  spoken  on 
questions  concerning  the  present  condition  and 

future  prospects  of  human  society  and  human 
welfare.     The   proper  education   of  woman    has 

been  recognized  as  an  important,  perhaps  the 
chief,  factor  of  social  progress,  fn former  times, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  as  we  have  seen,  woman 
in  general,  occupied  a  secluded  state;  and  it  was 
only  in  the  extreme  privacy  of  the  home  circle 
thai  she  exerted  the  potent  influence  inseparable 

from  her  sex.  whether  as  daughter,  wife,  or 
mother.  The  Roman  matron,  within  this  narrow 
limit,  was  an  educator  of  her  daughters  always, 
and  sometimes  chiefly  of  her  sons,  as  in  the  case 
of  Cornelia,  only    illustrious    as   the   "  mother  of 

'lie   Gracchi."     Ancient   history  affords  many 

t  women  who,  breaking  through  the 

barriers  of  social  custom,  became  illustrious  for 

their  learning  ami  eloquence.  Such  were  Aspasia 

of  Athens,  and  I  Ivpatia  of  Alexandria.  The  Career 

of  such  women  illustrated  the  intellectual  capacity 
ot  their  sex  under  circumstances  permitting  oren- 
coin  culture.  Female  education,  however, 

has  always  been  viewed  as  radically  distinct  from 
that   of  males, — as  presenting  entirely  different 


aims,  and  requiring  different  processes  of  train- 
ing and  instruction,  and  a  widely  different  cur- 
riculum of  study.  Much  has  been  said  and 
done  in  recent  years  to  modify  very  greatly  this 
view;  but  it  is  still  generally  entertained,  and  is. 
at  the  present  time,  the  principle  on  which  most 
schemes  for  the  education  of  females  are  based. 
"A  system  of  education,"  saysMaudsley,  "adapted 
to  women  should  have  regard  to  the  peculiarities 
of  their  constitution,  to  the  special  function  in 
life  for  which  they  are  destined,  and  to  the  range 
and  kind  of  practical  activity,  mental  and  bodily. 
to  which  they  would  seem  foreshadowed  by  their 
sexual  organization  of  body  and  mind."'  "  From 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  year."  says  Schwarz, 
"the  two  sexes  require,  in  almost  every  reap 
a  different  education."  "The  culture  of  girls," 
Bays  Vim  Raumer,  commonly  requires  a  process 
of  instruction  entirely  different  from  that  of 
boys.'*  Alonzo  Potter,  in  the  School  and  the 
SchoolmasU  r  I  X.  V..  L842),  emphasizes  this  prin- 
ciple: "One  cannot  look  at  the  female — with  less 
muscular  vigor  and  more  nervous  sensibility 
than  the  other  sex;  with  more  timidity  and 
gentleness;  with  deeper  affections  and  more 
acute  sensitiveness — without  perceiving,  that  she 
has  been  appointed  to  a  sphere  very  different 
from  that  of  man.  Her  appropriate  empire  is 
over  the  family,  where  she  not  only  lays  the 
foundation, during  childhood,  of  individual  char- 
acter, but  where  she  ever  exerts,  through  her  ac- 
quaintance, and  especially  through  her  husband 
and  children,  a  humanizing  influence  over  the 

world."      "  Hence."  he  armies,  "there  should   be, 

in  the  education  of  females,  a  special  reference 

to  their  sex  and  condition  of  life."  "The  best 
educational  (raining  for  a  boy,"  says  Dr.  Clarke, 
in  Seat  in  Education  (Boston,  lb"H).  "is  no!  the 
best  for  a  girl,  nor  that  for  a  girl  best  for  a 
boy."  Such  are  the  views  upon  which  the 
education  of  females  has  been  based.  Ar- 
ranged, as  it  has  been  by  the  other  sex.  the 
only  considerations  that  have  dictated  its  meth- 
ods and  processes  have  been  the  average  phys- 
ical weakness  of  women  as  compared  with  men, 
and  the  accomplishments  they  nii.uht  need  as 
wives  and  matrons.  It  is  not  difficult  to  per- 
ceive that  were  the  education  of  men  arranged 
by  the  other  sex  from  an  analogous  stand-point.it 
would  also  be  narrowed  in  its  scope  and  proc- 
esses.     During  the  last  few  years,  the  questions 

pertaining  to  female  education  have  been  vig- 
orously discussed  by  writers  of  both  sexes ;  and 
much    experience    lias    been    gathered,    which 

appeal's  to  show  that  the  necessity  tor  a  modified 

system  of  education  for  females  is   by    no   means 

real  as  has  been  supposed  and  asserted.  (See 
Co-Education  ok  the  Sf.xk.s.)    We  say  modified 

System  of  education,  because  just  as  it  is  necessary 
to  adapt  the  educational   processes   to   individual 

traits,  so  is  it  equally  necessary,  upon  the  same 
principle,  to  adjust   the  training  and  teaching 

processes    to    male    and    female,   as    far   as   they 

severally    present   peculiar  characteristics.     In 

home  education,  these  proper  discriminations 
must  naturally  be  made.     The  girl  is  treated  as 


FEMALE  EDUCATION 


:\u:\ 


a  girlj  ami  the  boy  as  a  boy  in  manners,  habits, 
amusements,  and  accomplishments.  Over  the 
Conner  the  mother  exercises  a  peculiar  care. 
The  ueed  of  this  all  educators  recognize.  "tin-Is." 
says  Schwarz,  "require  chiefly  the  guidance  of 
the  maternal  hand,  in  order  that  their  tender 
nature  may  1 1> >t  lie  rudely  handled,  their  purity 
not  invaded,  and  the  appropriately  female  direc- 
tion of  their  development  not  interfered  with. 
Their  understanding  and  their  feelings  should  be 
exposed  to  no  rude  touch,  that,  like  the  rosebud, 
they  may  develop  themselves  purely  from  with- 
in, and  like  the  chaste  mimosa,  shrink  from 
even  the  least  contact."  Such  accomplishments 
are  taught  as  are  properly  feminine;  such  as 
Bewing,  embroidery,  the  methods  of  household 
management,  which  every  woman  should  under- 
stand, to  which  may  be  added  music  and  dancing. 
In  every  thing-  thus  taught,  the  future  destiny  of 
the  girl,  as  a  member  01  society,  should  be  kept 
in  view ;  not,  as  has  been  usually  advocated, 
that  her  education  is  to  be  exclusively  such  as 
will  fit  her  to  perforin  the  duties  of  wife  and 
mother,  but  such  as  will  enable  her  to  live  in- 
dependently of  these  relations,  should  such  be 
her  destiny.  "  As  the  general  rule,"  says  Miss  0.  E. 
Beecher,  -every  true  woman  would  prefer  to  be 
a  wife,  mother,  and  housekeeper,  could  her  ideal 
be  fully  met.  But  in  multitudes  of  cases  this 
can  never  he.  and  so  every  woman  should  prepare 
herself  not  only  for  the  ordinary  duties  of  the 
family  state,  but  also  for  some  profession  to 
secure  an  independent  livelihood." 

In  public  elementary  instruction,  as  shown  in 
the  article  on  Co-MIucation  of  (lie  Sexes  (q.  v.), 
girls  and  boys  are  frequently  instructed  not  only 
in  the  same  schools,  but  in  the  same  classes. 
There  are,  however,  numerous  private  female 
seminaries,  many  of  which  are  boarding-schools. 
In  such  institutions,  the  discipline,  instruction, 
and  studies  are  all  specially  adapted  to  impart 
that  culture  and  confer  those  accomplishments 
which  an'  deemed  to  be  proper  for  the  female  sex. 
The  benefits  of  this  one-sided  training  have  been 
much  called  in  question;  many  contending  that 
the  sexes  should  never  be  entirely  separated  in 
education.  In  this  connection  Mrs.  Willard,  an 
experienced  educator  of  females,  says  :  "Feminine 
delicacy  requires  that  girls  should  be  educated 
chiefly  by  their  own  sex.  This  is  apparent  from 
considerations  that  regard  their  health  and  con- 
veniences, the  propriety  of  their  dress  and 
manners,  and  their  domestic  accomplishments." 
In  her  Address  in  the  Public  (1819)  in  relation 
to  female  education,  she  discussed  very  ably  and 
fully  its  defects,  and  thus  enumerated  in  particular 
those  of  boarding-schools  for  girls:  (1)  A  want 
of  suitable  accommodations,  as  well  as  of  neces- 
sary apparatus  for  instruction;  (2)  Incompetency 
of  instructors,  those  who  keep  these  schools 
being  unable,  and  sometimes  unwilling  to  pay 
for  properly  trained  and  cultured  teachers; 
(3)  Imperfection  of  organization;  (4)  Tendency  to 
teach  showy  accomplishments  rather  than  such 
as  are  solid  and  useful,  the  immediate  and  soli- 
object  being  profit,  and  hence  a  wish  to  gratify 


the  caprices  and  vanity  of  ill-judging  parents, 
female  seminaries  of  all  kinds  have  especially 
been  subject  to  the  latter  reproach;  but  the 
Circumstances  that  have  given  occasion  to  it  were 
due.  in  great  part,  to  the  false  system  ,,f  female 
education  so   long  prevalent.      Hannah    More,  in 

this  connection,  remarked:   "Not  a  few  of  the 

evils  of  tin-  present  day  arise  from  a  new  and 
perverted  application  of  terms;  among  these, 
perhaps,  there  is  not  one  more  abused,  misunder- 
stood, or  misapplied,  than  the  term  accomplish- 
ments. This  word,  in  its  original  meaning, 
signifies  completeness,  perfection  ;  but  I  may 
safely  appeal  to  the  observation  of  mankind, 
whether  they  do  not  meet  with  swarms  of  youth- 
ful females,  issuing  from  our  hoarding-schools, 
as  well  as  emerging  from  the  more  private  scenes 
of  domestic  education,  who  are  introduced  into 
the  world  under  the  broad  and  universal  title  of 
accomplished  young  ladies,  of  all  of  whom  it 
cannot  very  truly  and  correctly  be  pronounced, 
that  they  illustrate  the  definition  by  a  complete- 
ness which  leaves  nothing  to  be  added,  and  a 
perfection  which  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired." 
I  Jut  at  the  period  in  which  this  was  written,  women 
of  scholastic  or  professional  attainments  or  1  i  t  <  -r;  uy 
ability  were  quite  exceptional.  Once,  the  chief 
social  employment  of  young  ladies  was  a  kind  of 
fancy  embroidery  or  needle-work,  which  con- 
sumed, or  wasted,  a  vast  amount  of  time.  Of 
this,  Miss  Edgeworth,  in  Practical  Education, 
says,  "Our  great-grandmothers  distinguished 
themselves  by  truly  substantial  tent-work  chairs 
and  carpets,  by  needle-work  pictures  of  Solomon 
and  the  queen  of  Sheba.  These  were  admirable 
in  their  day,  but  their  day  is  over ;  and  these 
useful,  ingenious,  and  laborious  specimens  of  fe- 
male talents  are  consigned  to  the  garret,  or  pro- 
duced but  as  curiosities  to  excite  wonder  at  the 
strange  patience  and  miserable  destiny  of  former 
generations."  As  late  as  1873,  Rev.  S.  Van  Bok- 
kelen  remarked,  "  I  think  we  may  venture  the 
opinion  that  all  over  the  United  States  the 
academic  education  of  young  women  is  mul- 
tifarious and  desultory.  It  is  comprehensive, 
embracing  a  little  of  every  thing,  but  accurate  in 
almost  nothing.  This  is  because  it  has  no  well- 
defined  purpose.  When  our  young  women,  in- 
stead of  closing  their  books  at  17,  aim  to  prepare 
themselves  for  a  college  course,  their  shams  will 
give  place  to  realities,  and  the  public  exercises  of 
our  own  best  seminaries  for  girls  will  present  a 
more  substantial  programme  than  music  and  senti- 
mental essays,  and  have  a  higher  purpose  than  to 
display  the  skill  of  the  mantua-makers."  (The 
Education  of  Women,  a  paper  read  before  the 
N".  Y.  State  Teachers'  Association,  duly.  lS7.'i.) 
The  subject  of  the  higher  education  of  women 
has  been  chiefly  discussed  with  reference  to  the 
question  of  their  physical  ability  to  undergo  the 
continuous  labor  required  to  pursue  a  full  college 
or  university  course  of  study.  (See  (  !o-Education 
OF  THE  Sexes.)  The  objections  on  this  account, 
it  may  probably  be  said,  have  all    Leu   answered 

either  by  actual  experience,  or  by  the  cogent 
reasoning  of  such   writers  as  Anna  C.  Brackett 


304 


FEMALE  EDUCATION 


FEMALE  TEACHERS 


(Education  of  American  Girls),  Caroline  H. 
I)all  (The  Other  Side),  Mary  P.  Jacobi,  M.  D. 
(Mental  Action  and  Physical  Health), Mis.  E.  B. 
Duffey  (No  Sex  in  Education) ,  and  many  others. 
The  ability  of  young  women  to  compete  with  the 
other  sex,  as  university  students,  and  without 
physical  injury,  appears  to  be  pretty  fully 
established ;  and,  hence,  the  doors  of  universities 
and  other  higher  institutions  of  learning  are  grad- 
ually being  thrown  open  to  women.  This  has 
been  done  only  after  the  most  strenuous  opposition, 
and  by  stemming  the  adverse  current  of  public 
opinion.  Tn  1802,  Mr.  Grote  strongly  advocated 
that  the  University  of  London  should  admit 
women  to  degrees.  "In  refusing  degrees,"  he  ar- 
gued, "the  Senate  was  called  upon  to  say.  '  We 
consider  our  studies  laudable  and  deserving  en- 
couragement oidy  for  men  ;  they  are  not  laudal  >le, 
and  we  intend  to  discountenance  them  for  women. 
We  cannot  grant  academical  honors  and  advant- 
ages which  will  tend  to  encourage  what  is  a  bad 
and  wrong  type  of  education  for  women.'  I 
maintain  this  is  an  answer  which  the  Senate  is 
not  warranted  in  returning.  This  would  be  to 
usurp  the  right  of  determining  by  authority  a 
point  which  individuals  have  a  full  discretion  to 
determine  by  themselves.  I  contend  that  every 
woman  has  a  right  to  choose  for  herself  among 
the  various  types  of  education;  if  among  these 
she  prefers  that  which  coincides  with  our  cur- 
riculum, we  ought  to  be  the  last  to  discredit  her 
for  so  doing.''  The  Senate  of  the  university,  how- 
ever, positively  refused  to  grant  degrees  to  wom- 
en, on  the  ground  that  the  strain  necessary  for 
passing  the  examination  would  be  injurious  to 
their  health.  To  encourage  women  to  compete 
for  degrees,  it  was  stated,  is  to  invite  them  to 
self-destruction.  Actual  experience  in  the  United 
States  disproves  the  latter  assertion.  (See  Co- 
Education  of  the  Sexes.)  In  that  country 
about  fifty  institutions  for  superior  instruction 
are  open  to  both  sexes,  besides  which  there  is  a 
large  number  for  females  exclusively. 

The  progress  already  made  in  the  complete 
education  of  women,  as  well  as  that  which  is 
promised  in  the  future  by  the  continued  opera- 
tion of  the  same  causes  that  have  worked  so 
great  a  change  in  the  past,  cannot  but  redound 
to  the  benefit  of  our  race,  and  shed  a  genial  in- 
lluence  on  modern  civilization.  "Already.''  says 
\  an  Bokkelen,  "an  impulse  has  been  given  to 
society  by  the  education  of  women  ;  yet  no  truly 
womanly  duty  has  been  neglected,  nor  are  wom- 
en less  disposed  to  accept  the  cares  of  domestic 
life,  or  yield  to  the  claims  of  conjugal  or  maternal 
affection."  "Will  woman's  smiles,''  he  asks, 
"cease  to  be  attractive  when  they  are  brightened 
by  intelligence ?  Will  her  conversation  lose  its 
power  when  strengthened  by  words  of  wisdom  i 
W  ill  her  beauty  of  form  and  feature  vanish  amid 
metrical   and   metaphysical   problems?      Will 

her  kingdom  be  circumscribed  as  her  knowledge  is 
enlarged?  Will  her  companionship  be  less  valued 

as  her  ability  to  counsel  w  is.lv  and  control  judi- 
ciously is  increased?''  "Girls  too."  said  Krasmus, 
•'  ought  to  receive  a  liberal  education.     The  mul- 


titude hold  it  to  be  folly,  but  wise  men  know 
that  nothing  is  more  advantageous  to  the  morals 
of  women  than  extended  knowledge."  "Educate 
all  the  men  of  a  generation,"  says  G.  B.  Emerson, 
"and  leave  the  women  uneducated,  and  every 
child  under  their  influence  begins  his  public  edu- 
cation with  all  the  disadvantages  of  his  father. 
Educate  all  the  females,  and  you  will  give  a  per- 
manent impulse  to  the  onward  movement  of  the 
race,  which  it  can  never  lose.  Each  individual 
begins  his  progress  from  a  higher  level,  and,  with 
equal  exertion,  will  bequeath  a  richer  inheritance 
of  knowledge  and  wisdom  to  his  successors." — 
Fenelon,  Trade  de  V education  desfilles  (1687) ; 
Beaudoux,  La  Science  Maternelle  (Paris,  1844)  ; 
Schwabz,  Erziekungslehre  (Leipsic,  1829)  ;  H. 
More,  Strictures  on  the  Modern  System  of 
Female  Education  (1799) ;  Edgeworth,  Prac- 
tical Education  (London,  1798),  and  Lettei-s  on 
Female  Education  (London,  1832);  H.I.  Schmidt, 
History  of  Education,  part  u.  (X.  Y.,  1842) ; 
Geo.  B.  Emerson*,  On  the  Education  of  Females. 
a  lecture  delivered  before  the  American  Institute 
of  Instruction,  August,  1831  ;  Emma  Willard, 
An  Address  to  the  Public,  proposing  a  Plan 
for  improving  Female  Education  (1819),  re- 
printed in  Proceedings  of  N.  Y.  University 
Convocation  (1870)  ;  Emily  Davies,  Higher 
Education  of  Women  (London,  1867);  Barnard, 
Studies  and  Conduct,  s.  v.  Education  of  Girls 
(Hartford,  1873);  E.  1>.  Mansfield,  American 
Education  (N.  V.,  1851);  C. E. Beeciier, Educa- 
t ion nl Reminiscences  (X.Y.,1874);  Omos,  Libe)'- 
al  Education  of  Women  (X.Y.,  1874);  Markby, 
Practical  Essays  on  Education,  s.  v.  The  Educa- 
tion of  Women  (London,  1868)  ;  Brackett,  Tlie 
Education  of  American  Girls  (X.  Y.,  1874) . 
Beale,  University  Examinations  forWomen,  a 
paper  read  before  the  Social  Science  Association 
(London,  L875);  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  for  1874. 

FEMALE  TEACHERS.  As  long  as  female 
education  continued  to  be  neglected,  the  work  of 
instructing  pupils  in  schools  devolved  upon  the 
other  sex  ;  but  inasmuch  as  girls  were  taught 
only  in  the  household,  these  schools  were  com- 
posed exclusively  of  boys.  A  woman  capable  of 
teaching  was  an  intellectual  and  social  phenom- 
enon; for  the  posit  ion  of  females  rendered  the  ac- 
quisition of  learning  unnecessary.  A  writer  of  the 
13th  century  enumerated,  as  the  end  and  aim  of 
female  education,  "  the  knowing  how  to  pray  to 
I  iod.  to  love  man,  and  to  knit  and  sew."  In  pro- 
portion, however,  as  women  were  set  free  from 
the  social  bonds  that  prevented  their  receiving 
tin-  due  culture  of  their  faculties,  it  was  perceived 
that  they  were  well  fitted  to  take  a  due  share  in 
the  work  of  elementary  education.  In  the  United 
States,  the  number  of  female  teachers  by  far 
exceeds  that  of  male  teachers.  According  to  the 
census  of  1870,  out  of  169,577  teachers,  126,822, 
or  about  74  percent,  were  females.  In  the  Xew 
England  states  the  excess  of  female  teachers  over 
males  is  very  great.  Thus,  in  Massachusetts, 
during  L874 — 5,  the  number  of  female  teachers 
employed  in  the  public  schools  was  8,047  out  of 


FEMALE  TEACHERS 


FENELOK 


30.r> 


an  aggregate  of  0.21  (i,  or  nearly  88  per  oeni  ;  in 
Maine,  the  proportion,  in  summer,  is  about  !)T 
per  cent,  in  winter,  only  55  per  cenl  ;  in  Con- 
aecticut,  the  proportion  is  nearly  as  great  ;  in 
Vermont,  in  1<S7.'>.  out  of  4,406  teachers.  '.i,~'M, 
or  nearly  90  per  cent,  were  females.  In  the 
state  of  New  York,  about  67  percent  of  all  the 
teachers  employed  are  females;  in  the  city  of 
New  Fork,  out  of  .'5.14(1  teachers  employed  in 

the  public  schools,  in  1ST"),  2,842,  or  nunc  than 
90  per  cent  were  females.  In  the  other  large 
cities  of  the  Union,  the  preponderance  of  female 
over  male  teachers  is  very  great.  In  lite  city  of 
Boston,  for  example,  out  of  1,289  teachers  em- 
ployed in  1874,  L,091,  or  about  85  per  cent,  were 
females.  In  most  of  the  western  states,  there  is 
a  smaller  percentage  of  female  teachers.  Tims, 
in  Ohio,  in  IsT.'i,  the  number  of  female  teachers 
was  12.110  out  of  21,899;  in  Missouri,  Ken- 
tucky. Tennessee,  and  Kansas,  the  number  of 
li, ale  teachers  is  in  excess  of  that  of  female 
teachers.  In  some  of  the  European  countries, 
the  number  of  female  teachers  shows  a  similar 
preponderance  :  hut.  as  a,  rule,  the  male  teachers 
are  in  a  majority.  Especially  is  this  the  ease  in 
most  of  the  German  states.  Thus  in  the  public 
elementary  schools  of  Prussia,  there  were,  in  1  857, 
31 ,4(17  male  and  only  1,523  female  teachers. 

The  reasons  given  for  employing'  a  large  num- 
ber of  female  teachers  are  chiefly  the  following  : 
(1)  The  peculiar  fitness  of  women  for  the  work 
of  instructing  children;  (2)  The  limited  number 
of  employments  in  which  women  can  engage ;  \ 
{'■'<<  the  superior  compensation  paid  to  female 
teachers,  in  comparison  with  that  paid  in  other 
occupations,  such  as  sewing,  copying,  etc.;  (4)  The 
fact  that  men  of  talent  and  enterprise  can  obtain 
a  larger  compensation  in  other  fields  of  labor,  in- 
duces most  to  quit  the  work  of  teaching  at  an 
early  age ;  (5)  Women  are  often  preferred  to 
men  by  superintendents  and  school  officers  on 
account  of  their  being  more  tractable,  and  more 
willing  to  comply  with  the  regulations  and 
to  carry  out  the  policy  of  special  systems  ;  and 
(l>)  Considerations  of  economy,  the  salaries  paid 
to  female  teachers  being  considerably  smaller  than 
those  paid  to  males.  The  last  mentioned  reason, 
though  generally  very  influential,  in  a  few  cases 
does  not  exist.  The  question  of  equal  compen- 
sation for  equal  service  has  been  much  discussed, 
but  has  rarely  been  decided  in  favor  of  the  female 
claimants  for  equal  salary.  The  city  of  St.  Louis 
makes  no  discrimination  between  male  and  female 
teachers  in  fixing  their  salaries.  The  California 
legislature  of  L873  enacted  that  "females  employed 
as  teachers  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state 
should,  in  all  eases,  receive!  the  same  compensa- 
tion as  is  allowed  to  male  teachers  for  like  services, 
when  holding  certificates  of  the  same  grade.'' 

-Much  has  been  said,  in  addition,  as  to  the  com- 
parative value  of  the  services  of  male  and  female 
teachers;  and  there  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion 
on  this  point.  Many  contend  that  it  is  "woman's 
Bpecial  mission"  to' teach,  and  that,  therefore, the 
whole  field  should  be  left  open  to  her  without 
any  competition  from  the  other  sex ;  and  some 
20 


of  the  School  systems  of  the  states  and  cities  of 
the  I'nion  have  been  based,  wholly  or  in  part, 
upon  this  principle.    In  some  of  the  city  systems. 

all  those  regularly  engaged  in  teaching  are  women, 
male  principals  being  employed  only  for  executive 
duty  in  the  general  management.  These  schools 
arc     however,     mainly    or     wholly,    elementary 

schools.      It    is    the    opini if    most    educators 

that  the  masculine  clement  should  bave  as  effect- 
ive scope  in  education  as  the  feminine.    A  writer 

in  the  Massachusetts  Teacher  (April,  ls?4)  ex- 
pressed this  principle  in  the  following  manner : 

"Ass i  as  our  youth    have    passed    beyond  the 

primary  stage  of  instruction,  their  minds  should 
come  systematically  ii!  contact  with  teachers  of 
both  sexes,  to  such  an  extent  that  the  teaching. 
character,  and  influences  of  one  sex  shall  fairly 
supplement  and  qualify  those  of  the  other.'' 
A  number  of  German  educators,  as  '■.  I!  mil 
GrundzUge  (/>■/•  Elrziehungslehre),  Palmer, 
Evangelische  Pddagogik),  and  Beneke  [Erzie- 
kungslehre),axe  generally  opposed  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  female  teachers;  but  their  views  have 
not  prevailed,  and  in  Germany  as  we'll  as  in  most 
of  the  other  European  countries,  the  scale  on 
which  female  teachers  are  employed  is  steadily 
enlarging,  and  the  number  of  training  schools  for 
female  teachers  correspondingly  increasing.  (See 
Training  Schools).  It  is  sometimes  said  that 
female  teachers  are  more  earnest  and  devoted 
than  male  teachers,  and  consequently  that  their 
work  is  more  successful.  This  might  be  antici- 
pated from  the  fact  that  women  pursue  teaching 
more  as  a  steady  employment  :  while  there  are 
but  few  young  men  engaged  in  elementary  schools, 
who  are  not  looking  forward  to  more  lucrative 
ami  more  influential  occupations.  In  this  con- 
nection, Adams,  in  The  Free  s,-hf>t>I  System  of 
llf  United  States  (1875),  remarks:  '"The  large 
preponderance  of  female  teachers  in  the  States 
will  always  render  the  occupation  of  teacher 
more  or  less  a  temporary  one.  As  a  matter  quite 
of  course,  women  do  not  look  to  teaching  as  a 
lifelong  career.  In  England,  scarcely  one  in 
twenty  of  the  female  teachers  reaches  her  tenth 
year  of  service.  Of  the  female  teachers  trained 
at  Bishop's  Stortford,  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  their  average  school  life  was  under  five 
years.  The  proportion  of  female  teachers  in 
America  is  ten  times  greater  than  in  England. 
Female  teachers  may  have  other  advantages  over 
males,  and  in  the  United  States  are  generally 
conceded  to  have,  but  the  length  of  their  school 
life  is  not  one  of  them.'' 

FENELON,  Francois  de  Salignac  de  la 
Mothe,  a  celebrated  French  educator  and  prel- 
ate,  was  born   Aug.  (i.,  L651  ;  died  .Ian.  7.,  1715. 

lie  was,  in   KiT  I,  ordai 1  a  priest,  and  four 

years  later  appointed  aumonier  of  a  society  of 
French  ladies  for  instructing  Protestant  girls  in 
the  Catholic  faith.  His  experience  in  this  posi- 
tion induced  him  to  write  a  work  on  female 
education,  one  of  the  first  systematic  winks 
written  on  the  subject.  When  the  Duke  of 
Beauvilliers  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
royal   princes,  he  procured   the   appointment  of 


300 


FERULE 


FICTION 


Fenelon  as  one  of  their  educators.  The  results 
of  his  labors  in  this  position  gained  for  him  a 
reputation  as  one  of  the  most  successful  educators 
of  princes  that  ever  lived.  The  oldest  of  the 
princes,  the  Duke  Louis  of  Burgundy,  who  when 
Fenelon  was  appointed  was  only  seven  years  old, 
hut  already  noted  for  a  propensity  to  violent 
anger  and  stubbornness,  became,  under  the  in- 
struction of  Fenelon,  the  model  of  a  meek,  docile 
young  prince,  and  was  enthusiastically  attached 
lis  teacher.  In  l(i'J.">,  the  king  appointed  him 
Archbishop  of  Cambray ;  but,  two  years  later, 
he  fell  iut<>  disfavorwith  the  kin-  in  consequence 
of  theological  controversies  with  Bossuet,  and 
was  removed  from  his  position  of  educator.  His 
famous  work,  Les  Aventures  de  Telemaque,  is 
an  educational  novel,  the  chief  object  of  which 
is  to  develop  the  principles  thai  guided  Fenelon 
in  the  education  of  the  three  princes.  It  was 
completed  about  the  time  his  personal  intercourse 
with  the  princes  ceased.  It  was  published 
against  his  wish,  the  manuscript  having  been 
3tolen  by  a  servant.     The  best  edition  of  his 

educational  works  is  that  of  Didot  (Paris,  1850) ; 
the  besl  English  translation  of  TeUmaque  is  that 
of  Hawkesworth  (4to,  Ixnidoii,  17(is,  and  12mo, 
New  York,  1859). — Sec  also  De  Bausset,  Histoire 
de  F&niUm  i  Paris,  1808). 

PEB.TJLE  (Lat./er^,from/erire,  to  strike), 
an  instrument  used  in  inflicting  corporal  punish- 
ment in  schools.  Allusion  is  made  to  it  by  Hor- 
ace and  Juvenal;  by  the  latter  in  the  remark, 
nimt  a  in  ferulaz  subduximus.  Among  the  Ro- 
mans, this  was  the  instrument  tor  the  lightest 

kind  of  punishment;  of  a  much  severer  kind 
were  the  sruticu,  made  of  twisted  strips  of  parch- 
ment, and  the  terrible  fiageUurn,  a  w  hip  consist- 
ing  of  thongs  of  hard  ox-hide.  'The  exact  form 
of  the  ferula  as  used  by  the  Romans  is  not 
known;  in  modern  tiines.it  was  a  Hat  piece  of 
wood,  narrow  at  the  handle,  generally  with  a 
small  hole  in  the  middle  of  its  broad  part,  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  a  blister  on  the  offender's 
hand.  Sometimes,  it  was  a  broad  leather  strap, 
about  ten  inches  long,  and  at  its  broad  part 
about  four  or  five  inches  wide,  fastened  to  a, 
wooden    handle.       The  Scotch    ferule,  called   the 

taws,  was  a  leather  strap  with  one  end  cul  into 

Strips   and    hardened    in    the    tire.      Sec    COOPER, 

History  of  the  Rod.     (See  also  Coki'or.yl  IYx- 

ISIIMI 

FESTIVALS,   SCHOOL.  See  School  Fes- 

i  IV  \l.-. 

FICHTE,  Johann  Gottlieb,  one  of  Ger- 
many's greatest  philosophers,  ami  one  of  the  most 

noted  writers  on  the  Bubjed  of  national  educa- 
tion, was  born  May  L9.,  L762,  and  died  Jan.  28., 
L814.  Be  was,  for  some  time,  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Jena;  hut  being  charged  with  athe- 
ism by  some  persons  who  had  completely  mis 
understood  him.  he  let!  that  university, and  went 
to  Berlin,  w  here  he  afterward  became  a  professor. 
Eiis  philosophy  is  a  development  oi  that  of  Kant, 

and  rests  ei 1 1  iivlv  upon  the  notion  that   the  mind 

constructs  its  objects  by  an  internal  necessity .  All 
activity,  as  well  a    the  condition  of  the  existence 


of  all  things,  depends  upon  the  ego.  Very  many 
profound  remarks  and  line  psychological  anal- 
yses occur  in  his  philosophical  writings.  His 
bent  of  mind  was  strongly  ethical;  he  viewed 
nature  as  valueless  except  as  a  means  for  devel- 
oping the  moral  character  of  the  individual. 
Like  Kant  he  had  the  greatest  abhorrence  of  all 
utilitarian  ethics,  and  would  not  sanction  any  at- 
tempt to  reduce  the  moral  law  to  a  means  of 
gaining  either  happiness  or  heaven.  His  ad- 
dresses to  the  German  nation,  delivered  while 
Napoleon  was  in  Berlin,  are  full  of  this  ethical 
rigor,  and  are  so  stirring,  that  it  is  a  wonder 
that  Napoleon  suffered  him  to  deliver  them. 
I  lis  connection  with  pedagogy  consists  in  his 
emphatic  enunciation  of  the  doctrine  that  edu- 
cation must  be  an  unfolding  of  the  whole  nature, 
moral  as  well  as  mental.  The  mere  acquisition 
of  knowledge  he  viewed  as  the  smallest  part  of 
education.  The  great  aim  of  instruction  is  to 
make  good  men  ;  or,  since  will  was  the  man 
with  him,  to  develop  a  will  to  do  right.  His  hatred 
of  selfishness — which  was  probably  much  in- 
creased by  the  political  events  of  his  time — 
brought  him  into  sharp  antagonism  with  the  pre- 
vailing theories  both  of  education  and  of  religion. 
He  complained  that  the  aim  of  the  schools  was 
simply  to  make  men  knowing,  and  that  they 
were  utterly  indifferent  to  their  moral  develop- 
ment. Religion  itself,  he  said,  as  taught,  ministers 
toselfishnessliy  its  theory  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments. Selfishness  was.  for  him,  the  root  of  all 
evil,  and  tainted  the  old  methods  in  church,  school, 
and  state.  The  new  education,  therefore,  must 
aim  to  produce  complete  and  unselfish  men. 
This  demand  for  unselfishness  led  I'iehte,  in  his 
Addresses  i<>  the   German    Nation    (the    hook 

which  contains  his  leading  utterances  on  educa- 
tion) to  lay  down  a  theory  of  state  or  national 
education,  in  which  the  rights  of  the  individual 
do  not  receive  proper  recognition.  This  was  a 
necessary  revolt  from  the  individualism  of  the 
previous  century,  but  it  W8S  no  less  one-sided, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  the  opposite  theory  of 
Ih  i hart.  Concerning  i'iehte  as  an  educator, 
see  Schmidt,  Qeschichte  der  Pddagogik;  and 
Stbuempell,  Die  Pddagogik  der  rhilosophen 
Kant,  F-ichte,  Herbart  (1843).  See  also  Fichte's 
Leben  und  Briefwechsel, edited  bj  his  son,  J.  II. 
Fichte  (2  vols.,  1830  31);  and  Dittes,  Schida 
der  Pddagogik  (Leipsic,  hs7<'>). 

FICTION,  Works  of,  constitute  an  import- 
ant part  of   the  literature  used  in    the    education 

of  children.  The  young  mind  delights  in  inter- 
esting tales,  and  receives  impressions  therefrom, 
deeper  and  mole  durahle  perhaps  ilian  those 
derived  from  any  other  source.  W  bile  it  instim  -' 
tively  perceives  what  is  fictitious  in  the  scenes 
and  incidents  of  the  story,  it  imbibes  as  true  the 
characters  of  the  personages  and  their  relations; 

that  is,  it  feds  that  such  characters  and  relations 
may,  possiblj  or  actually,  exist  in  real  life. 
Hence,    the    awe  with    which    children    listen    to 

supernatural  narratives  is  due  nol  only  to  the. 
excited  condition  of  their  imagination,  hut  to  tbo 
feeling   that   had  such  things  never  existed  they 


FICTION 


307 


would  not  have  formed  part  of  the  story;  for 
Btoriee  are  felt  to  be  senseless  and  idle  thai  till 
of  things  entirely  impossible.  Tin's  principle  may 
serve  to  guide  the  educator  in  selecting  or  reject- 
ing works  of  fiction  for  the  young.  They  must 
be  looked  upon  as  powerful  instruments  in  either 
benefiting  or  corrupting  the  minds  of  children. 
The  writings  of  Mrs.  Barbauld,  Miss  Edgeworth, 
Berquin,  and  in  part  those  of  Bans  Andersen, 
are- illustrative  of  this  principle.  Some  of  the 
stories  of  the  latter  must  be  classed  among  the 
impossible,  and  hence  are  much  less  instructive 
and  interesting  to  children.  Nor  do  children  take 
any  real  interest,  in  those  stories  usually  found 
in  Sunday-school  books,  which  are  designed 
to  improve  their  moral  and  religious  nature 
by  presenting  examples  of  juvenile  virtue  and 
goodness,  such  as  they  never  behold  in  real  life, 
and  which  they,  therefore,  look  upon  as  senti- 
mental and  of  no  account.  "There  is. "  said 
Margaret  Fuller,  -  too  much  amongst  us  of  the 
French  way  of  palming  off  false  accounts  of 
things  on  children,  'to  do  them  good',  and  show- 
ing nature  to  them  in  a  magic  lantern,  'purified 
for  the  use  of  childhood',  and  telling  stories  of 
sweet  little  girls  and  brave  little  boys,  —  O,  all  so 
good,  so  bad !  and,  above  all,  so  Utile,  and  every 
thing  about  them  so  little  !  Children  accustomed 
to  move  in  full-sized  apartments,  and  to  converse 
with  full-grown  men  and  women,  do  not  need  so 
much  of  this  babydiouse  style  of  literature.  They 
like,  or  would  like  if  they  could  get  them,  better 
things  much  more.  They  like  the  Arabian 
Nights,  and  Pilgrim's  Progress,  and  Bunyan's 
Emblems,  and  Shakespeare,  and  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey,  —  at  least,  they  used  to  like  them  :  and 
if  they  do  not  now,  it  is  because  their  taste  has 
been  injured  by  so  many  sugar-plums."  In  the 
same  spirit,  Rosenkranz  says,  "The  purest  stories 
of  literature  designed  for  the  amusement  of 
children  from  their  seventh  to  their  fourteenth 
year,  consist  always  of  those  which  were  honored 
by  nations  and  the  world  at  large.  One  has 
only  to  notice  in  how  many  thousand  forms  the 
stories  of  Ulysses  are  reproduced  by  the  writers 
of  children's  tales.  Becker's  Tales  of  Ancient 
Time*.  Gustav  Schwab's  most  admirable  Sagas 
of  Antiquity,  Karl  Grimm's  Tales  of  Olden 
Times, ko,. —  what  were  they  without  the  well- 
talking,  wily  favorite  of  Pallas,  and  the  divine 
swineherd?  And  just  as  indestructible  are  the 
stories  of  the  old  Testament  up  to  the  separation 
Of  Judah  and  Israel.  These  patriarchs  with  their 
wives  and  children,  these  judges  and  prophets, 
these  kings  and  priests,are  by  no  means  ideals  of 
virtue  in  the  notion  of  our  modern  lifeless  moral- 
ity, which  would  smooth  outof  its  pattern  stories 
for  tin  'dear  children'  every  thing  that  is  hard 
and  uncouth." 

By  means  of  suitable  works  of  fiction,  the 
minds  of  children  and  youth  may  be  cultivated 
in  several  respects  :  (1)  By  imparting  vivid  con- 
ceptions of  persons  and  things:  (2)  By  impress- 
ing upon  them  sentiments  of  virtue, courage, and 
patriotism;  (3)  By  developing  and  training  the 
imagination  and  the  taste.  Such  were  the  reasons 


which  prompted  Fenelon  to  write  Tilemaque, 
and  probably  Xenophon  in  the  composition  of 
the  Cyropo>dia;  and  this  office  of  fiction  as  a 
vehicle  of  instruction  and  moral  elevation  has 
been  recognized  by  most,  if  not  all,grea1  educa- 
tors. Pestalozzi  selected  it  as  the  most  effective 
means  of  reaching  the  popular  mind.  In  his 
Leonard  and  Gertrude  (1784),  he  laid  the 
foundation  lor  a  national  pedagogical  literature. 
••As  real  history,"  said  Lord  Bacon,  in  The  Ad- 
vancement of  Learning  f  /)■  Augmentis  Scienli- 
arum),  "disguste  as  w  ith  a  familiar  and  constant 
similitude  of  things,  fiction  relieves  us  by  unex- 
pected turns  and  changes,  and  thus  not  only  de- 
lights, hut  inculcates  morality  and  nobleness  of 
soul.  It  raises  the  mind  by  accommodating  the 
image  of  things  to  our  desires,  and  not,  like  his- 
tory and  reason,  subjecting  the  mind  to  things." 
There  are.  however,  dangers  to  be  avoided  in  us- 
ing fiction  as  an  educational  agent,  which  we 
may  thus  briefly  summarize  :  (1 )  By  its  exciting 
character,  it  may  so  occupy  or  intoxicate  the 
mind,  as  to  destroy  the  taste  for  more  solid  and 
useful  reading.  Such  is  uniformly  the  result  of 
permitting  children  to  read  the  wild,  romantic, 
and  startling  stories,  with  which  some  of  the 
juvenile  periodicals  of  the  day  are  filled.  The 
constant  perusal  of  such  narratives  is  baneful ; 
like  ardent  spirits,  it  intoxicates  but  does  not 
nourish.  (2)  In  the  case  of  narratives  which 
present  instances  of  suffering,  the  sympathies 
are  expended  upon  fictitious  objects,  and  pity 
thus  becomes  habitually  a  mere  sentiment,  instead 
of  prompting  to  active  beneficence.  "In  the 
healthy  state  of  the  moral  feelings,''  says  Aber- 
crombie,  "the  emotion  of  sympathy  excited  by  a 
tale  of  sorrow  ought  to  be  followed  by  some  ef- 
forts for  the  relief  of  the  sufferer.  When  such 
relations  in  real  life  are  listened  to  from  time  to 
time  without  any  such  efforts,  the  emotion  gradu- 
ally becomes  weakened,  and  that  moral  condition 
is  produced  which  we  call  selfishness,  or  hardness 
of  heart."  (3)  By  presenting  to  the  young  mind 
fictitious  scenes  of  immorality,  vice,  or  crime,  it 
becomes  familiar  with  their  associations,  and  is 
thus  depraved.  (4)  By  impressing  upon  the 
mind  false  conceptions  of  the  enjoyments,  duties, 
and  objects  of  life,  itmay  be  the  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  kind  of  infatuation,  unfitting  for  every 
sphere  of  useful  employment.  Johnson,  in  Rus- 
selas  well  describes  this  mental  condition  :  "The 
mind  dances  from  scene  to  scene,  unites  all  pleas- 
ures in  all  combinations,  and  riots  in  delights, 
which  nature  and  tort  line,  with  all  their  bounty, 
cannot  bestow.  In  time,  some  particular  train 
of  ideas  fixes  the  attention;  all  other  intellect- 
ual gratifications  are  rejected:  the  mind,  in 
weariness  or  leisure,  recurs  constantly  to  the 
favorite  conception,  and    tea-Is  on    the  luscious 

falsehood  whenever  she  is  offended  with  the  bit- 
terness of  truth.  By  degrees  the  reign  of  fancy 
is  confirmed  ;  she  grows  imperious,  and  in  time 
despotic.  Then  fictions  begin  to  operate  as  re 
alities,  false  opinions  fasten  upon  the  mind,  and 
life  passes  in  dreams  of  rapture  or  of  anguish.' 
Sec  Imagination,  Culture  ok.) 


308 


FINE    AIM'S 


FINLAND 


FINE  ARTS,  a  term  which  lias,  of  late, 
undergone  considerable  modification.  Formerly, 
it  was  the  collective  name  of  all  those  arts  which, 
through  the  power  of  invention  or  imitation,  arc 
designed  to  produce  pleasure  in  the  mind  ;  Buch 
as  poetry,  music,  etc.  Pine  arts,  in  the  widest 
sense  of  the  word,  constitute  an  important 
agency  in  every  complete  system  of  education; 
tor  the  clement  of  beauty,  which  exists  in  the 
human  mind  and  should  be  trained  no  less  than 
the  intellect,  the  will,  or  the  conscience,  depends 
for  its  development,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the 
proper  application  of  the  arts  of  poetry,  music. 
and  drawing.  (See  Esthetic  Ciltuee,  and  Akt- 
Education).  More  recently,  the  meaning  of  the 
term  Fine  Arts  has  been  restricted  to  painting, 
sculpture,  engraving,  ami  architecture,  which 
influence  us  through  the  eye.  In  a  still  narrower 
sense,  it  is  somtinies  applied  to  painting  and 
sculpture  exclusively. 

Special  art  schools  may  he  divided  into  two 
large  classes,— schools  of  a  lower  grade,  chiefly 
intended  for  industrial  purposes,  and  embracing 
instruction  in  drawing,  modeling,  and  design  ; 
and  schools  of  higher  grade,  specially  intended 
h>r  the  instruction  of  young  artists  in  the  line 
arts,  according  to  the  mure  restricted 
thai  term.  The  former  class  has  been  fully 
treated  of  under  the  head  of  art-education  (q.v.). 
The  scIkmiIs  of  the  latter  class  have  generally 
been  designated  by  the  name  Aca  lemies  of  Art. 
In  ancient  times  and  in  the  middle  ages,  sch 
of  this  kind  were  unknown;  and  the  young 
artist  was  educated  in  the  atelier  of  his  master. 
by  being  trained  to  take  an  immediate  and  active 

pari  in  the  master's  work.     The  first    institution 

which  hears  a  similarity  to  our  present  academies 

of  art,  was  founded  at  Padua  by  Squarcione, 
who,  by  his  collection  of  antique  works  of  ari 
and  by  encouraging  a  thorough  study  of  antique 

art.  exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  Italian 
artists  of  the  L5th  century.  The  school  which 
w;is  opened  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  at  Milan. 
is  designated  by   the   name  of   academy,  and 

even  at  thai  early  period  contained  the  principal 

features  of  the  modern  academy  of  art,  the 
persona]  element  of  the  atelier  being  enlarged  by 
general  instruction.  The  entire  separation  of 
the  academy  of  art  from  the  atelier  began  in 
the  Bchool  of  Bologna,  founded  by  Lodovico 
Caracci,  and  soon  met  with  general  approbation. 
The  influences  proceeding  from  Louis  XIV., 
sly  attached  ;irt  to  the  r,y;d  courts,  and  con- 
verted the  academies  of  art,  to  a  large  extent. 
into  court  institutions.    Among  the  most  Famous 

institutions    Of    this   kind,    were    the   scl Is   of 

Paris,  founded  in  Hi  is,  of  Berlin,  in  L694, 
Men.  in  L697,  and  Vienna,  in  L726.  The 
n  \  i\al  of  the  line  arts,  in  modern  times,  caused 
dso  a  revival  of  the  academies  of  art  and  raised 
them  to  a  higher  standard.  It.  moreover,  re- 
established the  close  connection  which  formerly 
existed  between  instruction  and  the  work  of  the 
ateliers.  Great  celebrity,  in  modern  times,  has 
been  attained  bj  the  schools  of  Munich  and 
Dnaseldorf.      In    Great    Britain    and   Ireland, 


'  there  are  also  schools  for  artists,  located  in 
London.  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin.  France  has 
3  schools  of  tine  Arts;  and  Italy,  25  academies 
and  institutes.  Russia  has  imperial  academies  of 
ari    at    St.    Petersburg    and   Warsaw,    and  a 

School    of    painting    and    sculpture    at    Moscow. 

The  schools  for  artists  in  the  United  States  have 
already  been  mentioned  in  the  article  on  Art- 
Education. 

FINLAND,  a  grand  duchy  in  the  north- 
western pari  of  the  Russian  Empire,  having  an 
ana  of  II  L258  square  miles,  and  a  population, 
in  1st--',  of  1,835,138.  Of  this  number,  about 
five-sixths  are  Finns  ;  and  of  the  remainder 
aboul  30,000  are  Swedes,  and  4,000  Russians. 
The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to 

the    Lutheran   Church,    very   few  of    the    native 

Linns  having  joined  the  <  rreek  church.  Less 
is  known  of  the  early  history  of  Finland  than  of 
any  other  country  of  Europe.  It  was  originally 
governed  by  independent  kings;  but,  in  the 
middle  ol  the  12th  century,  it  became  subject  to 
the  kings  of  Sweden,  who  introduced  Christian- 
ity, and  retained  their  hold  upon  it  up  to  1809, 
when  it  was  ceded  to  Russia.  The  Swedish 
language   had   taken   such  a  deep  root,   however, 

that  the  Russians  have  not  been  able  to  eradicate 

it  up  to  the  present  day.      Very   little  was  done 

for  education  in  Finland  up  to  the  17th  century. 
In  1826,  a  gymnasium  was  founded  in  Abo,  the 
pupils  of  which  were  educated  to  serve  as  clergy- 
men :  but,  in  their  learning  and  manners,  they 

were  not  much  better  than  the  great  mass  of 
the  people.  In  1640,  Abo  obtained  a  university  : 
but  the  great  obstacle  to  the  spread  of  education. 

was  the  want  of  books.  In  1642,  a  Finnish  Bible 
was  published  at  the  expense  of  the  government; 
and,  by  the  efforts. of  the  governor,  Peter  Brahe, 
the  schools  were  greatly  improved.     Duringthe 

northern  war,  which  lasted  up  to  1721,  Finland 
suffered  very  much;  but.  after  the  conclusion  of 
peace,  education  was  revived,  both  in  the  Swed- 
ish and  Russian  parts  of  the  country:  and  insti- 
tutions of  learning  were  every-where  established. 
At  the  present  lime,  education  is  well  cared   for, 

ami  the  Finnish  language,  which  had  been 
neglected  under  the  Swedish  rule,  is  encouraged 
by  the  Russian  government.  A  large  number 
Of     native    Finns    were    sent    to    Germany    and 

Switzerland,  in  order  to  study  the  educational 
.systems  of  those  countries,  and  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  them,  both  theoretically  and 
practically.     Among    them,    one  of    the  most 

prominent  was  L  no  <  'yguaus.  who.  on  his  return. 
advocated  manual  labor  as  a  meansof  education; 
and,  in  his  proposition  for  the  organization  of  a 
public-School  system  for  Finland,  he  embodied 
this  idea.      In    L863,   he    was    intrusted  with  the 

organization  of  a  Finnish  seminary  for  public- 

Bchool  teachers  in  .1  \  \  :bk\  lib  This  met  with  so 
much    BUCCeSS,    that     in     L871,    two    more    were 

inized  for  Swedes,    one  at  Ekeniis  for  female 
teachers,  and  the  other  at  Ny-Karleby  for  male 

teacher8.  According  to  the  latest  accounts, 
there  weri'  71  elementary  schools,  with  about 
9,000  scholars.       Secondary    instruction    is   im- 


FISK    CTNIVERSITT 


FLORIDA 


309 


parted  in  6  gymnasia  ;  and,  for  superior  instruc- 
tion, there  is  one  university  at  Helsingfors,  with 
48  professors.  Special  instruction  is  provided 
tor  in  the  following  schools:  one  cadet  corps  al 
Frederikshamnr  three  navigation  schools,  three 
technological  schools,  three  commercial  schools, 
one  institute  for  rural  economy,  at  Mustiala.  ten 
agricultural  schools,  six  industrial  schools  for 
girls,  ami  one  female  academy,  or  high  school,  at 
Helsingfors. —  See  Bosch,  BeUrdge  zur  Ge- 
schickte  und  Statistic  des  Kirchen-  und  Schul- 
wesens  des  Grossfiirstenikums  Finnland  {1814  |. 

FISK  UNIVERSITY,  at  Nashville.  Tenn., 
was  established  by  the  American  Missionary 
Association  in  1866.  The  name  was  given  in 
honor  of  Gen.  Clinton  B.  Fisk.  then  chief  of  t!i" 
Preedmen's  Bureau  for  Tennessee,  who  aided  in 
its  establishment.  It  was  known  as  the  Fisk 
School  till  1867,  when  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
university.  It  makes  no  distinction  of  race  or 
sex,  but  the  institution  was  especially  designed 
for  colored  youth,  and  the  students  are  mainly 
colored.  It  has  received  some  aid  from  the 
Freedmen's  Bureau  and  the  Peabody  Fund,  and 
,-i  gift  of  between  three  and  four  acres  of  land 
from  the  United  States:  but  its  support  is 
chiefly  derived  from  the  Association.  In  1871, 
a  number  of  the  students  were  organized  as  a, 
singing;  band,  known  as  the  "  Jubilee  Singers." 
These  and  their  successors,  by  concerts  in  the 
Northern  states  and  in  England,  earned  cleat'  of 
expenses  $130,000,  which  was  devoted  to  the 
purchase  of  a  permanent  site  for  the  University, 
comprising  25  acres,  in  a  beautiful  situation  in 
the  suburbs  of  the  city,  and  to  the  erection  of 
a  fine  building  (dedicated  Jan,  1.,  1876),  called 
Jubilee  Hall.  The  singers  are  now  (1876)  in 
England,  engaged  in  the  effort  to  raise  an  en- 
dowment of  $100,000  for  the  institution.  The 
prop  Tiy  of  the  university  is  valued  at  $176,000; 
its  library  contains  1,300  volumes  ;  audit  has 
chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus,  and  a  col- 
lection of  over  3,000 specimens  in  natural  history, 
geology,  and  zoology.  Six  courses  of  study  have 
been  organized;  namely,  a  collegiate,  a  college  pre- 
paratory, a  higher  normal,  a  theological,  a  nor- 
mal, and  a  primary  course.  Other  courses,  in- 
cluding law  and  medicine, are  to  be  added  as  soon 
as  they  are  required.  The  first  college  class,  con- 
sisting of  I  students,  graduated  in  1875.  In  1875 
— 6,  there  were  14  instructors.  The  number  of 
students  was  as  follows  :  in  th  ■  college  course.  1 1 ; 
in  the  college  preparatory,  38  ;  higher  normal.  I  •'>; 
theological,  13;  normal,  93;  primary,  63;  total, 
deducting  repetitions.  '2\2.  The  tuition  fees 
vary  from  $9  to  $13  per  year.  Prof.  John 
Ogden  was  principal  of  the  institution  from 
L866  to  L870;  and  Prof.  A.  K.  Spence,  M.  A., 
from  L870  to  1875.  In  1st:,,  the  Rev.  E.  M. 
Cravath,  M.  A.,  was  elected  president. 

FLATTICH,  Johann.  Friedrich,  a  Ger- 
man educator  of  the  Pietistic  School,  was  born 
October  30.,  L713,  at  Baihingen.  near  Ludwigs- 
burg.  He  was  successively  garrison  chaplain  at 
Uohenasperg,  and  pastoral  Metterzimmern  and 
at  Munchingen,  at  the  latter  of  which  places  he 


died,  June  1..  17!)7.  lie  was  generally  regarded 
in  Germany  as  one  of  the  most  successful  educa- 
tors in  the  country:  and  there  were  always,  at 
his  parsonage,  classes  of  pupils  of  all  ages  and 
various  grades  of  advancement,  lie  seemed  to 
prefer  as  pupils  those  children  whose  parents 
were  unable  to  manage  them,  or  who  seemed 
defective  in  mind  or  maimers.  He  Bought  to 
avoid  severity  in  discipline,  and  to  govern  by 
love.  He  objected  to  the  use  of  the  rod.  not.  he 
said,  because  it  was  not  necessary  with  many, 
hut  because  it  was  difficult  to  use  it  aright,  lie 
believed  that  the  methods  of  instruction  should 
he  adapted  to  each  child,  according  to  his  special 

disposition  and  endowments,  the  circumstances 
of  his  age.  his  bodily  and  mental  strength,  his 
disposition,  his  family  condition,  and  tlie  calling 
to  which  In  wa>  destined.  Progress  in  instruc- 
tion should  he  made  by  slow  steps,  beginning 
with  teaching  of  a  simple  character,  and  grad- 
ually building  up  the  understanding,  and  strength- 
ening the  mental  powers.  Flattich's  fame  rests 
not  so  much  on  his  actual  work  as  a  teacher,  on 
the  distinction  attained  by  any  of  his  pupils,  or 
even  on  his  written  works,  as  on  the  pithy  maxims 
in  which  he  expressed  his  views  on  education. 
These  maxims  are  often  quoted  in  Protestant 
works  on  the  subject,  and  have  had  considerable 
influence  in  molding  the  theory  of  teachers. 
See  Ledderiiose.  Leben  und  Schriften  des  M. 
Johann  Friedrich  Flattieh  (4th  edit.,  Heidel- 
berg, 1859)  :  Scilf.fki;.  Flattieh  "ml  sein  pdda- 
gogisches  System  (Frankfort,  L871). 

FLORIDA  w;h  ceded  to  the  United  States 
by  Spain,  by  a  treaty  concluded  in  Washington 
in  1819,  but  not  ratified  till  1820.  In  1821, the 
United  States  authorities  took  formal  possession 
of  its  new  dominions:  and  in  L822,  President  .Mon- 
roe appointed  William  Duval  of  Kentucky  gov- 
ernor of  the  territory.  It  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  state,  .March  .'!..  1845.  Its  pop- 
ulation, in  1830,  was  reported  to  he  34,730,  of 
whom  15,501  were  slaves;  in  1870,  according  to 
the  census  of  that  year,  the  population  was 
187,748,  of  whom  91,689  were  tree  colored  per- 
sons. The  number  of  inhabitants,  of  all  races, 
lo  veais  old  and  upward,  unable  to  write,  was 

71,803.  Of  these  18,904  were  whites,  ot  whom 
5,083  were  from  10  to  15  years  old.  and  1,345 
from  15  to  21.  Of  the  colored  inhabitants 
52,894  were  reported  as  illiterate.  The  area  of 
the  state  is  59,268  square  miles. 

Educational  History.— As  early  as  1839,  a 
provision  was  inserted  into  the  proposed  consti- 
tution   that     the    lands    received   for  •'the    Use    of 

schools  and  seminaries  of  learning"  should  be 
held  inviolate:  hut  there  was  no  efficient  Com- 
mon school  system  in  the  state  previous  to  1869. 
In  is  pi.  live  years  before  the  admission  of  Flor- 
ida into  tin  1  nion,  there  were  L  8  academies  and 
grammar  schools,  with  732  students,  and  51  com- 
mon and  primary  schools,  with  925  pupils.  Ac- 
cording to  the  census  report  of  I  Sad.  there  w 
1(1  academies  and  69  common    or  public  schools. 

In  I860,  the  census  report  gave  Florida  1*7  pub- 
lic schools,  widi  2,032  pupils;  and  138  acade- 


310 


FLORIDA 


lilies  and  other  schools,  with  4,486  pupils.  The 
whole  educational  income  was  $75,412,  of  which 
$2,045  was  from  endowments.  The  constitution 
of  18G5  contained  a  provision  designed  to  secure 
for  the  benefit  of  the  schools  of  the  state  the  in- 
come derived  from  the  school  lands:  but  little 
was  done  to  promote  the  cause  of  education  till 
the  passage  of  the  school  law,  Jan.  30.,  L869,  on 
which  the  present  school  system  is  based. 

State  Superintendents. —  The  first  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  was  C.  Thurston 
Chase,  appointed  Aug.  13.,  L868,  under  whose 
advice  and  direction  the  school  law  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  enacted,  lie  held  the  office 
until  his  death  Sept. 22.,  1870 ;  and  Rev.  Charles 
Beecher was  appointed  tosucceed  him  March  L8., 
1871,  who  served  until  -Ian.  23.,  1873,  when,  a 
new  administration  coming  into  possession  of  the 
state  government,he  was  superseded  by  Jonathan 

C.  Gibbs.  The  latter  held  the  office  till  his 
death,  which  occurred  Aug.  LI.,  L874.  William 
Watkin  Hicks,  the  present  incumbent,  was  ap- 
pointed March  I ..  L875. 

School  System.  The  school  lawprovides  for 
the  establishment  of  a  uniform  system  of  public 
instruction  tree  to  all  children  between  the  ages 
of  (i  and  i'l  years.  The  officers  of  the  depart- 
ment of  public  instruction  consist  of  a  superin- 
tendent, a  state  hoard  of  education,  a  board  of 
public  instruction  for  each  county,  a  superin- 
tendent of  schools  for  each  county,  local  school 
trustees,  treasurers,  and  agents.  Each  county 
hoard  of  public  instruction  consists  of  not  more 
than  five  members,  appointed  by  the  state  board 
of  education.  'The  hoard  of  education  consists 
of  the  superintendent    of  public  instruction,  the 

secretary  of  state,  and  the  attorney  general,  the 
superintendent  being  the  president  of  the  hoard. 
Its  duties  are.  to  take  charge  of  and  control  the 
sale  or  rental  of  all  lands  granted  to,  or  held  by, 
the    state    for    educational    purposes;     to    have 

charge  and  direct  the  use  of  all  educational 
funds  of  the  state:  to  audit  the  accounts  of  the 
superintendent  ;  to  decide  questions  and  appeals 
referred  to  them  by  the  superintendent  ;  to  re- 
move subordinate  Officers  for  cause  ;  and  to  keep 
in  view  the  establishment  of  a  university,  the 
object  of   which  shall  he  to  impart  instruction  in 

the  professions  of  teaching,  medicine,  and  law, 

in    natural   science,    the   theory    an  I    practice    of 

agriculture,  horticulture,  mining,  engineering, 
and  the  mechanic  arts ;  also  in  the  ancient  and 
modern  languages,  higher  mathematics,  literature. 

ami  in  such  useful   ami   ornamental    branches  as 

are  not  taught  in  the  common  schools.  The 
superintendent  holds  office  four  years,  ami  is  re- 
quired to  have  the  oversight,  management,  and 
'■liar-.- ..i  ill  matters  pertaining  to  public  lands, 
school    buildings,  grounds,   furniture,    libraries, 

i>m  t ks,  and  apparatus ;  to  furnish  all  school 

officers  with  the  necessary  blanks  tor  official  re- 
turns, ami  information  regarding  the  proper  dis 

charge    of    their   duties;     to    provide    plans    ami 

specifications  for  the  construction  and  furnish 
iug   of   school   buildings;    to   call    meetings   of 
counts  superintendents  and  othei  officers  for  the 


purpose  of  advising  and  instructing  them  as  to 
their  duties :  to  grant  certificates  to  successful 
teachers,  and  to  fix  the  grades  and  standards  of 
qualification  of  teachers  in  general  ;  toapportion 
the  interest  of  the  school  fund  and  that  raised 
by  the  one-mill  tax  among  the  counties  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  children  residing  there- 
in between  the  ages  of  6  and  21 ;  to  decide 
questions  and  appeals  arising  under  the  school 
act,  or  to  refer  the  same  to  the  hoard  of  education  ; 
to  collect  and  preserve  useful  educational  and 
historical  documents,  and  specimens  of  natural 
history.  Each  county  board  is  constituted  a 
corporate  body,  and  may  take  and  hold  real  and 
personal  property  for  educational  purposes,  lis 
duties  are  to  have  charge  of  all  educational  prop- 
erty  in    the   county:     to    locate    and     maintain 

-el Is  where  needed,  so   as  to  accommodate  all 

the  children  of  school  age  in  the  county,  not 
less  than  three  months  of  each  year:  to  examine 
candidates  for  teachers'  licenses,  and  grant  certif- 
icates to  those  found  competent  :  ami  to  keep 
a  record  of  its  official  proceedings.  The  county 
superintendent  is  secretary  ex  officio  of  the 
hoard  of  public  instruction  :  and.  in  addition  to 
keeping  the  records,  he  is  required  to  make  him- 
self acquainted  withal!  parts  of  the  county,  and 
to  keep  himself  informed  of  the  needs  and  wishes 
of  the  people  in  regard  to  schools;  to  visit  each 

school  at  least  once   in    each   term,  and  t< nfer 

with  and  direct  the  teachers  in  their  work;  to 
exercise  a  supervision  over  the  trustees,  the  gen- 
eral  management  of  the  schools,  and  do  all  in  his 
power  to  awaken  an  increased  interest  in  parent.-, 
trustees,  and  teachers,  in  regard  to  every  thine 
pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  the  schools ;  also  to 
select  persons  for  trustees,  whose  characters, 
qualifications,  and  sympathy  with  education 
specially  commend  them  for  such  positions;  to 
decide  questions  in  dispute,  or  refer  them  to 
the  hoard  of  public  instruction  :  to  keep  a  record 
of  the  name,  description,  and  locality  of  every 
school  established  :   and  to  perform  the  duties,  as 

far  as  may  he  necessary,  of  the  hoard  of  public 

instruction,  in  case  such  a  body  should  not  be 
organized,  or  should  fail  without  good  cause  to 
perform  its  duties.  The  school  trustees  are  re- 
quired to  take  special  charge  of  the  schools  in 
their  respective  localities,  to  see  to  'he  construc- 
tion and  .-ate  keeping  of  the  school  buildings  and 
other  property,  to  co-operate  with  the  teachers 
in  maintaining  order  and  discipline,  to  suspend 

or  expel  pupils  for  misconduct  :  and   to   make  a 

quarterly  report   to  the  county  superintendent. 

Certificates  of    qualification   to    teach,  valid 

for  one  year,  may  be  granted  by  the  county 
hoards   of   public    instruction,  also   hy    the  .-late 

superintendent  to  graduates  of  the  Department 
of  Teaching,  and  to  eminently  successful  teach- 
ers, valid  in  any  part  of  the  state  during  the 
time  specified.  These  certificates  are  of  three 
grades,  the  standard  for  each  being  fixed  by  the 

state  superintendent.  A  certificate  may  he  an- 
nulled by  the  authority  which  issued  it.  tor  any 
cause  which  would  disqualify  a  candidate  for 
a  License. 


FLORIDA 


FOREIGN  EDUCATION 


111 


Teachers  are  specially  directed  to  labor  ear- 
nestly and  faithfully  for  the  advancement  of  the 
pupils  in  their  studies,  and  to  inculcate  by  pre 
cepl  and  example  the  principles  of  truth,  hon- 
esty, patriotism,  and  the  practice  of  every  chris- 
tian virtue;  to  require  the  pupils  to  observe 
personal  cleanliness,  order,  and  good  manners,  to 
cultivate  in  them  habits  of  industry  and  economy, 
a  regard  for  the  rights  and  feelings  of  others  and 
for  their  own  responsibilities  and  duties  as 
citizens  ;  to  see  that  the  buildings  and  furniture 
are  not  unnecessarily  defaced  or  injured:  toenforce 
needful  discipline,  avoiding  unnecessary  severity 
and  measures  degrading  in  their  tendency;  to 
suspend  pupils  from  school  for  ten  days  for  gross 
immorality,  misconduct,  or  persistent  violation 
of  the  school  regulations ;  and  to  hold  a  public 
examination  each  term.  The  leading  of  the 
Bible  and  short  devotional  exercises  of  a  non- 
seetarian  character,  at  the  opening  of  the  school, 
are  not  to  be  prohibited;  but  no  pupil  is  to  be 
required  to  engage  in  them  against  his  conscience, 
or  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  parents  or 
guardian. 

A  school  day  is  defined  to  consist  of  six  hours 
exclusive  of  recesses;  a  school  month,  of  twenty- 
two  days,  exclusive  of  the  first  and  last  day  of 
each  week:  a  school  term,  of  three  months ;  and 
a  school  year,  of  three  terms. 

School  Finn  I. — The  school  fund  consists  of  the 
Kith  section  of  the  various  townships  set  apart 
by  act  of  Congress  for  common-school  purposes, 
the  original  amount  of  which,  in  Florida,  was 
704,692  acres,  of  which  115,184  have  been  sold 
1 1  875)  :  state  bonds  amounting  to  $205,252,63  ; 
and  various  donations  by  individuals  for  educa- 
tional purposes.  Besides  the  income  from  these 
sources,  there  are  appropriations  by  the  state ; 
the  proceeds  of  all  property  granted  to  the  state, 
when  the  purpose  of  the  grant  is  not  specified  ; 
all  moneys  which  may  be  paid  for  exemption 
from  military  duty  ;  all  fines  collected  under  the 
penal  laws  of  the  state  ;  such  portion  of  the  per 
capita  tax  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law  for  ed- 
ucational purposes;  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  sales  of  public  lands  which  are 
now  or  may  hereafter  be  owned  by  the  state  :  a 

m ial  tax   of  not   less   than   one    mill   on    the 

dollar  upon  all  taxable  property  in  the  state,  to 
be  levied  and  apportioned  annually  for  the 
suppun  of  common  schools  :  a  comity  tax  to  be 
raised  by  each  county,  annually  producing  a  sum 
not  less  than  one-half  of  the  amount  apportioned 
to  each  county  from  the  income  of  the  common 
school  fund. 

The  seminary  lands  were  granted  by  ( longress 
for  the  support  of  two  seminaries,  one  to  be 
located  east,  and  the  other  west  of  the  Suwanee 
River,  and  amounted  originally  to  85,714  acres. 
Of  these  about  38,000  acres  remain  unsold.  The 
sum  realized  by  the  sale  of  these  lands  has 
amounted  to  aboul  $100,000;  and  the  estimated 
value  of  the  remainder  is  about  $75,000.  In 
addition  to  this,  there  are  Florida  6,7, and  8  per 
vent  bonds,  amounting  to  $81,492.45.  There  is 
uo  uniform  course  of  instruction  established  as 


yet  in  the  state.  In  the  high  schools,  the  usual 
higher  English  and   classical  studies  are  pursued; 

also  the  modern  languages.  The  salaries  of 
teachers,  in  the  high  schools,  range  from  $75  to 
$17:")  a  month  :  and.  in  the  common  and  primary 
schools,  from  $20  to  $60  a  month,  according  to 
the  number  of  pupils  and  the  qualifications  of  the 
teachers. 

Educational  Condition. — There  are  three 
grades  of  schools. — high,  common,  and  primary, 
in  tin'  principal  towns:  in  the  country  schools  no 
grading  is  at  present  possible.  The  whole  number 
of  schools,  in  1874,  was  f>.~>7,  all  of  which  were 
common  or  primary  except  H  high  schools,  located 
as  follows:  in  Jacksonville,  2, — Duval  High 
School  and  Staunton  Institute:  in  I'ensacola,  1; 
in  Key  West,  1  ;  in  Monticello,  1  ;  and  at  Fort 
Reid,  1. 

The  following  are  the  principal  items  of  the 
school  statistics  for  1*7  I  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 21,196 

Average  daily  attendance lo.s'.i? 

Number  of  teachers,  male  and  female 650 

Receipts  from  all  sources $103,774.53* 

Total  expenditures $139,870.61 

There  are  no  city -school  systems  proper  in  this 
state,  the  management  of  all  the  schools  in  each 
county  being  in  the  hands  of  the  county  board 
of  public  instruction. 

Seminaries. — The  Middle  Florida  Seminary, 
located  at  Gainesville,  and  the  West  Florida 
Seminary,  at  Tallahassee,  are  supported  by  the 
special  funds  above  mentioned.  They  are  free 
to  all  the  youth  of  the  counties  in  which  they 
are  situated,  and  to  those  of  the  adjoining 
counties.  The  course  of  study  includes  common 
and  higher  English  branches,  with  the  classics 
and  the  modern  languages.  There  are  also  several 
private  and  denominational  schools  in  various 
parts  of  the  state. 

Superior  Instruction. — There  is  no  institution 
for  superior  instruction  in  Florida  ;  but  a  state 
agricultural  college  has  been  planned  and  provided 
for  by  law,  and  was  to  have  been  inaugurated 
some  time  ago ;  but  this  has  been  delayed  by  pend- 
ing litigation  in  regard  to  the  constitutionality 
of  the  state  bonds  in  which  the  college  funds 
had  been  invested.  Of  this  college  when  estab- 
lished the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion will  be  ex  officio  the  president. 

Educational  Literature.  —  The  Femandina 
Observer  is  the  official  organ  of  the  state  educa- 
tional department. 

FOREIGN  EDUCATION.  By  this  is 
meant  the  education  of  children  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. Parents  in  the  I'nited  Stales  sometimes 
send  their  children  to  France  or  Germany  to  be 

educated,  in  preference  to  having  them  instructed 

in  i  he  scl Is  of  their  native  country.  The  custom 

also  exists  to  some  extent  in  Great  Britain.  The 
motive  which  prompts  this  course  is  the  desire 
that  their  children  shall  have  the  best  means  of 
instruction,  and  the  impression  thai  this  is  af- 
forded   by  the  teachers   and   schools  of  Europe. 

*  Including  $8,000  from  the  Peabody  fund. 


312 


FOREIGN  EDUCATION 


FORM 


Very  frequently,  liowevcr.it  arises  from  the  wish 
on  the  part  of  parents  to  accomplish  their  children 
in  foreign  languages,  particularly  French  and 
German.  "Some  parents."  says  Von  Raumer. 
■  who  think  no  attainment  valuable  in  compar- 
ison with  a  facility  in  speaking  French,  send  their 
daughters  to  French  or  Swiss  schools,  where 
they  can  hear  and  speak  nothing  but  French.  In 
such  a  foreign  atmosphere  they  too  often  become 
estranged  from  their  native  home  and  country.'' 
"For  our  youth,"  says  B.  G.  Northrop,  "Ameri- 
can schools  are  better  than  European.  To  send 
our  boys  and  girls  away  to  a  foreign  boarding- 
school  is  a  great  mistake,  or  rather  one  of  the 
fashionable  follies  which  is  just  now  having  its 
day."  Parents  who  adopt  this  course,  seem  t<> 
lose  sight  of  the  important  fact  that  the  school  is 
not  the  only  educator,  nay,  is  not  generally  the 
most  effective  means  of  education.  The  influences 
that  cluster  around  the  home-circle,  and  that 
emanate  from  the  peculiar  laws,  customs,  man- 
ners, and  institutions  of  the  country  in  which  the 
child  lives,  leave  their  indelible  impress  upon  the 
plastic  character  of  youth;  ami  these  influences 
shoidd  be  such  as  to  form  a  character  in  har- 
mony with  the  life  of  the  nation  of  which  the 
child  when  grown  up  is  to  form  a  part.  Lin- 
guistic ami  esthetic  training  cannot  he  a  satisfac- 
tory substitute  fortius  national  culture.  It  is  of 
little  use  that  young  men  or  women  know  howto 
speak  fluently  and  correctly  French,  German, 
Italian,  or  any  other  foreign  language,  or  excel 
in  either  judging  or  executing  works  of  art.  if 
they  are  ignorant  of,  or  indifferent  to,  the  lan- 
guage and  institutions  of  their  own  country. 
(  hildren  gro\i  ing  up  in  a  foreign  land  must  nee 
essarily  imbibe  a  predilection  for  foreign  man- 
ners, customs,  and  sentiments,  because  these  are 
inseparably  associated  with  the  most  delightful 
part  of  their  existence.  Every  one  reverts  with 
pleasure  to  the  scenes  of  childhood,  consecrated 
in  the  mind,  as  they  are,  by  the  memory  of  the 
enjoyments  peculiar  to  that  age.  It  is  this  that 
renders  the  foreign  education  of  children  so  dan- 
gerous, as  tending  to  unlit  them  for  the  duties  of 
Special  citizenship.      I  low  often  do   we    hear   the 

most  unfavorable  criticism  pronounced  upon  the 
institutions  and  customs  of  the  native  country 
by  those  whose  notions,  associations,  and  mo 
of  thought  have  been  formed  by  a,  foreign  educa- 
tion! "  The  experience  of  American  colleges." 
says  B.  G.  Northrop,  "is  believed  to  be  nearly 
uniform,  a  to  the  superiority  in  the  qualifica- 
tion of  candidates  trained  at  home  o\er  our 
youth  prepare  I  for  college  abroa  I.  The  number 
<>f  the  latter  class  is  relatively  small ;  but  the 
instances  of  eminent  success,  cither  in  col' 
studies  or  practical  life  on  the  pari  of  American 
boys  chiefly  educated  abroad,  are  rare  and  excep- 
tional." 

These  objections,  of  course,  do  not  apply  to 
the  practice  of  sending  abroad  young  men  and 
women  of  more  mature  age,  either  t<>  finish  their 
education  in  foreign  Bchools  or  universities,  or  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  some  special  arts  in  tech- 
nical schools,  because  the  national  character  hav- 


ing been  once  fully  formed,  is  not  easily  affected 
by  later  influences  and  conversations.  Young 
men.  among  the  Romans,  particularly  in  the  later 
periods  of  the  republic,  were  often  sent  to  Greece 
and  other  countries  to  finish  their  scholastic  or 
literary  education.  Thus  Cicero  addresses  his 
De  officii*  to  his  son  Marcus,  then  a  young  man 
of  2\,  who  had  been  for  some  time  pursuing 
his  studies  in  the  schools  of  Athens.  In  the  same 
manner  and  with  equal  propriety,  a  young  man 
may  be  sent  from  the  United  States  to  any  of 
the  great  European  universities,  either  in  (Jreat 
Britain  or  on  the  continent,  to  pursue  linguistic, 
scientific,  technical,  artistic,  or  other  studies,  for 
which  those  institutions  are  able  to  afford  greater 
facilities  than  are  offered  at  home. 

Foreign  travel  constitutes  an  important  part 
of  a  complete  education,  and  is  not  at  all  subject 
to  the  objections  which  are  urged  against  a 
foreign  elementary  education.  Nothing  more 
enlarges  the  mind  than  the  observation  of  the 
manners,  institutions,  etc.,  of  foreign  countries. 
New  and  vivid  ideas  are  impressed  upon  it; 
narrow  prejudices  are  removed;  and  a  founda- 
tion is  la  ill  for  just  and  liberal  thought.  This, 
however,  should  occur  at  a  comparatively  mature 
age.  and  should  be  preceded  by  sufficient  educa- 
tion to  fit  for  the  observation  of  things  abroad. 
..  Foreign  travel."  says  Bishop  Watson  (cited  in 
Knox  on  lAbernl  Eiluaitioii),  "is  of  great  use 
when  it  is  undertaken  by  men  who  have  learned 
to  bring  their  passions  under  the  control  of 
reason  and  religion  ;  who  have  had  some  experi- 
ence in  life,  acquired  some  knowledge  of  the 
manufactures,  policy,  revenues,  and  resources  of 
their  own  country." — See  Northbop,  Education 
of  Americans  abroad  (New  York). 

FORM,  one  of  the  most  important  branches 
of  object  teaching,  since,  from  the  lirst  dawn  of 
intellect,  the  endless  variety  of  forms  presented 
to  the  child's  sight  constitutes  perhaps  the  most 
effective  means  of  awakening  and  exercising  its 
perceptive  faculties.  The  first  comparison  which 
the  young  child  makes  between  the  objects  of  its 
perception  must  be  based  upon  their  resemblam 
the  conscious  perception  of  differences  occurring 

somewhat  later.  'I  his  arises  from  its  need  of 
forming  general  ideas  as  preliminary  to  the  exer- 
cise of  its  thinking  powers.  (See  Int.  Ed'n.)  The 
diversity  of  forms,  like  that  of  color,  as  seen  by 
the  child,  very  greatly  interests  it  and  attracts 
its  attention  ;  and,  hence,  when  formal  education 
begins,  the  child  has  already  accumulated  in  its 
mind,  in  a  rude  and  indefinite  way.  many 
materials  which  the  expert  teacher  will  use,  in 
guiding  his  pupil  to  more  exact  knowledge. 
The  untaught  child's  vocabulary  of  terms  to 
denote  the  various  forms  which  it  has  seen  is 
Very  meager;  and,  hence,  its  conceptions  are  too 
indefinite   to   form    the    materials    for    conscious 

thought.  They  are,  as  it  were,  only  embryotic 
thoughts,  to  lie    developed  by    the    power  of 

language.  Hence,  an  important  office  ^>^  the  in- 
structor is  to  teach  the  proper  term,  or  word,  by 
which  each  particular  object  of  the  child's  atten- 
tion is  to  be  designated,  and  in  this  way  clearly 


FORM 


FOUNDLING    ASYLUMS 


313 


individualized.  For  example,  a  young  child 
intuitively  perceives  the  difference  between  the 
form  of  a  round  object  and  a  square  cue:  bul 
before  the  terms  round  and  square  have  been 
learned  as  the  names  of  these  forms,  tbey  cannot 
be  used  by  the  mind  in  any  process  of  thought. 
Besides,  the  young  mind,  in  the  exercise  of  its 
unaided  powers,  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the 
observation  of  resemblances  and  analogies,  and 
only  after  the  guidance  of  the  teacher,  comes  to 
recognize  clearly  points  of  difference, the  sense  of 
analogy,  as  it  has  been  called,  taking  the  lead  in 
the  firsl  stages  of  mental  development. 

In  making  use  ui/hrm  as  a  basis  for  training 
the  observing  faculties  the  teacher  should  be 
guided  by  the  following  principles:  (1)  Resem- 
blances are  perceived  before  differences;  (2)  The 
concrete  precedes  the  abstract;  (.'5)  Every  object 
is  perceived  as  a  whole  before  its  component 
parts  are  noticed  :  (4)  Every  idea  must  have  its 
pro[>er  verbal  designation  to  be  clearly  and 
permanently  fixed  in  the  mind.  The  teacher 
should,  therefore,  begin  with  simple  regular  forms, 
such  as  the  cube,  prism,  parallelopiped,  pyramid, 
sphere,  cone,  and  cylinder.  These,  at  first,  should 
be  all  alike  in  material  ami  color,  and  about 
the  same  in  size,  so  that  the  teacher  may  clearly 
develop  the  idea  of  form,  as  the  rudimental  step 
in  the  instruction.  At  first  the  process  should 
be  very  slow.  Tims  the  teacher  holds  up  to  the 
view  of  the  pupils  a  cubical  block  of  wood  [one 
fof  the  box:  of  solids  usually  employed  in  such 
lessons],  and  asks.  ••  What  is  this."  And  the 
children  probably  reply,  "A  piece  of  wood." 
Then  the  teacher  presents  successively  the  sphere, 
cone,  cylinder,  etc.,  asking  the  same  question  and 
obtaining  the  same  answer.  The  teacher  then 
says.  "Each  of  these  is  a  piece  of  wood;  are 
they  all  alike  ?  "  To  which  the  children  answer. 
"No."  "Do  they  differ  in  color?"  -No. " 
"In  size?"  "No."  This  leads  the  teacher  to 
show,  in  a  very  general  way,  not  by  giving  names 
at  first,  but  by  directing  the  pupils'  attention, 
that  the  objects  differ  inform  ;  that  is,  each  has 
its  own  peculiar  form.  The  teacher  may  then 
go  back  to  the  cube,  and  ask  the  pupils  to  men- 
tion any  other  things  they  have  seen  which  have 
the  same  form  as  the  block  of  wood  ;  and  so  on 
with  the  other  forms.  This  exercise  being  a 
perfectly  natural  one  will  awaken  interest, 
besides  familiarizing  the  children  with  the  par- 
ticular forms  presented.  The  next  step  will  be 
to  lead  the  children  to  observe  the  points  of 
difference  between  these  forms:  and.  in  order  to 
do  this,  the  analytic  process  must  begin.  Thus, 
the  teacher  develops  the  idea,  of  side  ox  face,  and 
the  pupils  perceive  that  the  <■,,]„■  lias  six  faces; 
the  edges,  <  orners,  and  equality  of  faces  and 
edges  may  then  be  observed.  When  the  pupil 
hits  perceived  the  distinctive  characteristics  of 
the  form,  its  name,  as  cube,  prism,  etc.,  may  be 
taught.  This  method  requires  the  teacher  to 
begin  with  solids  (as  the  concrete)  and  to  deduce 
from  the  observation  of  them  the  ideas  of  sur- 
face, line,  and  point  (as  the  abstract),  in  accord- 
ance with  the  principle  (2).     After  these  ideas 


have    been    thus    developed,  and    the   method  of 

representing  lines  and  figures  on  the  blackboard 

shown    to   the   pupil,   he    is   prepared    for   varied 

slate  and  blackboard  exercises  on  the  positions 
and  combinations  of  lines  both  straight  ami 
curved,  to  lie  followed  by  similar  exercises  on 
plane  figures.  '1  he  study  of  form  thus  pat 
into  that  of  drawing,  in  connection  with  which 
inventive  exercises  of  a  simple  character  may  be 

employed,  the  children  being  shown  how  to 
combine  lines  and  figures  into  simple  patterns  or 
designs.  Of  a  similar  but  more  elementary 
character  are  Mock  combinations,  which  will 
serve  to  interest  and  instruct  very  young  children. 
Boxes  of  blocks  made  tor  this  purpose,  with  de- 
signs for  construction,  can  be  readily  obtained. 
<  harts  containing  diagrams  of  plane  figures  will 
also  be  found  very  useful  in  giving  lessons  on 
form.  These  lessons  should  be  systematic.  U01 
desultory,  but  regularly  arranged,  with  the  under- 
lying principle  kepi  steadily  in  view.  Especially 
should  the  teacher  guard  against  requiring 
pupils  to  commit  to  memory  formal  geometrical 
definitions,  the  chief  point  to  be  attained  being 
the  discipline  of  the  observing  faculties. — See 
(  !urrie,  Principle  s  and  Practice  of  Early  School 
Education  (Edin.  and  Lond.) ;  Hailman,  Out- 
lines  of  Object -Teaching  (N.  Y.,  1867);  Calkins, 
Primary  Object  Lessons  (X.  T.,  lttTJj  ;  How  to 
Teach  (N.  T.,  1874). 

FORT  WAYNE  COLLEGE,  at  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  founded  in  1846,  is  under  the 
patronage  of  the  North  and  North- West  Indiana 
Conferences  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
It  is  situated  in  the  most  pleasant  part  of  the 
city,  and  occupies  a  large  and  commodious  edi- 
fice. It  comprises  six  departments  :  the  college 
(with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course),  the 
normal,  commercial,  and  academic  departments, 
and  those  of  music  and  art.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees,  and  both  sexes  are  admitted.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  11  instructors  and  132 
students.  The  Rev.  Reuben  D.  Robinson,  D.,  D., 
is  the  president  of  the  college  (18TG). 

FOUNDLING  ASYLUMS  are  institutions 
in  which  children  are  received  who  have  been 
abandoned  by  their  parents.  The  Christian 
Church,  in  the  earliest  period  of  its  history,  pro- 
vided for  foundlings;  and,  as  early  as  the  sixth 
century,  a  foundling  asylum  is  said  to  have  ex- 
isted in  Treves.  Hut  the  first  institution  of  this 
kind  of  which  we  have  any  authentic  informa- 
tion is  that  of  .Milan,  founded  in  T>7.  Others 
followed    in    course    of    time,    and    they   spread 

rapidly.  Later,  they  disappear  from  the  Ger- 
manic countries,  and  principally  from  those  in 
which    the    Protestant     faith    prevailed:     while 

they  continued  to  spread  in  the  Catholic  and 
Romanic  countries.  Particularly  have  they  in- 
creased in  France, and  wherever  French  influence 
has  predominated.  Thus  in  France  the  number 
of  foundlings  received  in  asylums  increased 
from  40,000,  in  L784,  to  129,700  in  L834.  In 
Austria  proper,  there  were,  in  1872,  15 foundling 

asylums,   taking   care   of   13,725   children  in  the 

institutions,  and  12,460  outside.  The  number  of 


314 


FOURIER 


FRANCE 


foundlings  annually  received  in  Rome  is  esti- 1 
mated  at  3,000;  in  Naples,  at  2,000;  and  in  Tus- ' 
cany,  at  about  12,000.  Spain  had,  in  lsfiO,  149 
asylums,  with  53,464  foundlings.  Portugal  had, 
in  tin  same  year,  21  asylums,  with  33,500  found-  ' 
lings.  L 6,000  being  received  annually.  England 
has  foundling  asylums  in  London  and  Wanstead. 
The  institution  in  London,  in  1870,  maintained 
504  children.  The  only  asylum  in  Dublin  was 
closed  in  L835.  Norway  lias  several  institutions 
of  this  kind,  and  the  number  of  foundlings  has,  for 
some  years,  been  more  than  9  per  cent  of  the  total 
number  of  births.  Sweden  has  also  an  asylum  at 
Stockholm.  There  are  but  few  foundling  asylums 
in  the  I  'nited  States, the  children  being  generally 
brought  to  the  alms-houses.  In  New  York,  a 
Catholic  asylum  was  founded  in  1869,  which  re- 
ceived considerable  aid,  in  money  and  grants  of 

land,  from  the  state.  Resides  this  institution, 
there  are  several  others  in  the  same  city,  all.  how- 
ever, established  and  controlled  by  private  char- 
ity. The  Nursery  and  Child's  Hospital,  founded 
in  185 1,  has,  however,  a  school,  which  is  partly  sup- 
ported from  the  state  sehoul  fund.  This  asylum 
has  a  country  branch  on  the  north  shore  of  Staten 
Island.  Nowhere,  in  the  United  States, has  the 
government  taken  any  further  part  in  the  erec- 
tion of  foundling  asylums,  than  to  aid  them  with 

money  ami  giants  of  land.  Considerable  differ- 
ence of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  utility  of  found- 
ling asylums.  One  of  the  chief  objections  raised 
a  ga  i  list  them  is  the  excessive  mortality  of  the  chil- 
dren :  hut  this  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  Bend- 
ing the  children  into  the  country,  and  boarding 
them  out  in  private  families.     Very  little  has 

I ii    done    for  the  education  of   foundlings,  at 

least  in  the  asylums,  as  they  are  sent  to  other  in- 
stitutions for  instruction,  and  continued  there 
Up  to  their  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  year,  after 
which  they  are  provided  with  places  of  employ- 
ment, generally  as  apprentices  to  fanners  and 
others.  In  Koine,  a  large  number  of  the  chil- 
dren are  educated  in  families.  The  hoys  that 
return  to  the   asylum,   are  sent   to  the  foundling 

asylum  in  Viterbo,  where  they  learn  trades  up 
to  their  twenty-first  year,  when  they  are  dismis- 
sed with  a  present  of  1(1  SClldi.  If  they  remain 
in   the  families,    they    are    educated    ill    the    same 

manner,  and.  when  of  age,  receive  a  similar 
present.  The  girls  are  kept  in  the  families  or  in 
the  asylum  until  they  marry,  when  they  receive 
a  dowry  of  loo  scudi.  In  Russia,  foundlings 
are  e  Lucated  for  a  trade  or  profession  ;  and  those 
who  show  particular  talents  are  sent  to  the  uni- 
versity. Mere  also  the  children  are  hoarded  in 
private  families  as  much  as  possible.  In  Russia 
and  Prance,  agricultural  colonies  have  also  Keen 
established,  where  the  hoys  are  brought  upas 
farmers.  See  Hueqel,  Die  Findelh&user  »«</ 
das  Findelwesen  Europa'a  (1863). 

FOURIER,  Pierre,  the  founder  of  an  edu- 
cational order  of  the  Catholic  <  !hurch,  was  born  at 
Mirecourt,  Lorraine,  in  1565,  and  died  in  Gray, 

I    l.lllclie-1  'omte,  ill    I  6  10.      |  |e  studied,   for  ,1    time. 

in  tin'  university  of  Pont-a-Mousson,  where 
lie  led  a  rery  Btrid  life.     At  the  age  of  seven 


teen  years,  he  began  to  teach  in  the  highest 
families,  and  conceived  the  plan  of  devoting  his 
entire  life  to  the  education  of  youth.  He  entered 
the  order  of  Premontre;  and  when  the  dissolute 
monks  compelled  him  to  leave  the  order,  he  be- 
came the  parish  priest  of  Mataincourt,  where  he 
gained  a  great  reputation  as  an  educator.  In  lf>98, 
with  Alice  I.e  (leie  and  other  nuns,  he  formed 
an  educational  institution  for  girls.  In  1603,  he 
obtained  a  papal  bull  for  the  organization  of  the 
society  of  Ifbtre  Dame  de  Lorraine,  of  which 
Alice  Le  Clerc  was  the  first  abbess:  and  this 
society  was  confirmed  by  Raul  V..  in  1616.  The 
order  spread  rapidly  and  has.  at  present,  flourish- 
ing establishments  in  France,  Hungary.  Canada, 
the  New  England  States,  and  (  hili.  with  its 
ri  ntral  house  for  America  in  Montreal.  He  also 
reformed  the  canons  of  the  order  of  Prhnoniri, 
who  bound  themselves  to  the  education  of 
christian  youths.  In  1632,  he  was  elected  superior 
general  of  the  new  society,  which  called  itself 
St.  Sauveur  ill'  Lorraine.  He  was  beatified  -Ian. 
'_".»..  1*730,  ami  is  generally  styled  the  Blessed 
Peter  Fourier.—  bee  Ritter,  Der  selige  P. 
Fourier  (Lin/..  1855). 

FRACTIONS.       See  ARITHMETIC. 

FRANCE,  one  of  the  principal  countries  of 
Europe,  having  an  area  of  204,090  sq.  m.,  and 

a  population,  according  to  the  census  of   l>>7'2,of 

36,102,921.  Formerly  France  had  immense  pos- 
sessions in  America,  far  exceeding  those  of  ( Ireat 
Britain;  but  of  these  she.  at  present,  retains  but 
a  very  small  part.  During  the  present  century, 
however.  French  rule  has  been  extended  over 
considerable  territories  in  northern  Africa.  Far- 
ther India,  and  the  insular  world  in  the  Pacific. 
The  total  area  of  the  French  colonies  and  de- 
pendencies, inclusive  of  Algeria,  was  estimated, 
in  1875,  at  about  373,000  sq.  m., having  a  popu- 
lation of  about  6,600,000.  Including  its  colonies 
and  dependencies,  France  occupied,  in  1876,  the 
fifth  rank  among  the  nations  of  the  earth  in 
regard  to  population,  and  the  twelfth  in  point  of 
territorial  extent.    The  people  of  France  proper 

are   remarkably    homogeneous   in    language    and 

religion,  Almost  the  entire  population  speak 
the  French  language, and  more  than  98  per  cent 

are    actually    or    nominally   connected    with    the 

Catholic  Church.  'I  lms  France  is  the  chief  re- 
presentative, among  the  countries  of  the  earth, 
of   what     is    sometimes    called    the    latin    race: 

and  its  language  is  foremost  among  Romanic  lan- 
guages, as  it-  people  are  chief  among  the  supporters 

of  the  Catholic  Church.  —  'I  he  present  territory 

ol  France,  in  the  earliest  historic  times,  was  in- 
habited by  the  Cauls,  a  Celtic  tribe.  The  country 

became  a  Roman  province  58  51  B.C.  During 
the  5th  century  A.  D.,  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Franks, a  German  tribe,  who  built  up  an  empire. 
which,  under  Charlemagne,  reached  its  greatest 

territorial  extent,  embracing,  besides  modern 
France,  a  large  portion  of  Germany  and  Italy. 

With  the  division    of   this  empire,  in  843,  by  the 

treat]  of  Verdun,  begins  the  separate  bistorj  w 
France  and  Germany.  The  kingdom  of  Prance. 
slowly  consolidating  itself  by  the  absorption  of 


FRAMT. 


315 


the  territories  of  numerous  petty  princes,  at- 
tained  the  summit  iof  its  glory  under  l>mis  XIV. 
(1643 — 171"));  but.  tired  at  last  of  the  long-con- 
tinued oppression  of  the  kings  and  the  priv- 
ileged classes,  the  people,  in  1789,  rose  in  a 
mighty  insurrection,  proclaimed  the  republic  in 
L792,  and  executed  King  Louis  XVI.  in  17915. 
The  republic  was  overthrown  by  Napoleon  I.. 
who  made  himself  emperor  of  France,  in  1 804, 
and  established  the  greatest  empire  of  modern 
times,  subjecting  to  his  direct  or  indirect  rule 
all  Europe  except  England  and  Russia.  With 
his  final  dethronement,  in  L815,  this  empire 
came  to  an  end  ;  and  the  re-instated  Bourbons 
only  ruled  within  the  former  limits  of  the  king- 
dom of  France.  In  1848.  a  second  republic  was 
proclaimed,  and  Louis  Napoleon  was  elected 
president,  who.  in  1852,  proclaimed  himself  em- 
peror under  the  title  of  Napoleon  III.  His  de- 
feat, in  1870,  by  the  united  German  states  led  to 
the  deposition  of  bis  dynasty  and  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  third  French  republic. 

Educational  History. — Little  is  known  of  the 
state  of  education  among  the  Celts  of  ancient 
Gaul;  but  <  !sesar  says  of  the  Druids  that  they 
'held  a  great  many  discourses  about  the  stars 
and  their  motions,  about  the  extent  of  the 
universe'  and  of  various  countries,  about  the 
nature  of  things,  and  the  power  of  the  immortal 
gods,"  and  "transmitted  their  opinions  and 
knowledge  to  the  young."  In  the  flourishing 
Greek  colony  at  Marseilles,  a  school  was  estab- 
lished long  before  the  time  of  Caesar,  which  at- 
tracted a  large  number  of  pupils.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  Romans,  the  cause  of  education  made 
considerable  progress.  Lyons,  Narbonne,  Bor- 
deaux, Toulouse,  Aries,  Besancon,  Treves,  and 
other  centers  of  population,  had  both  public  and 
private  schools,  in  which  the  Greek  and  Roman 
classics  were  read.  The  teachers  of  these  schools 
enjoyed  many  privileges.  They  drew  their  salaries 
from  the  imperial  treasury,  and,  before  entering 
upon  their  office,  had  to  undergo  a  public  com- 
petitive examination.  The  scholars  were  divided 
into  three  classes:  externi,  living  outside  the 
institution,  convictores,  boarders,  and  alimen- 
tarii,  those  supported  in  the  institution  by  pub- 
lic or  private  stipends.  When,  in  the  course 
of  the-  5th  century,  the  education  and  civilization 
of  pagan  Rome  gradually  decayed,  and  finally 
disappeared  before  the  advance  of  Christianity. 
Christian  schools  sprung  up  in  connection  with 
many  monasteries,  and  France  soon  t  <  ><  >k:  aprom- 
inent  part  in  the  establishment  of  cathedral, 
collegiate,  and  convent  schools.  Among  the 
cathedral  schools,  those  at  Aries,  Bourges, 
Clermont,  Le  Mans,  Paris,  Poitiers,  and  Vienne, 
and  among  the  convent  schools,  those  of  Luxence, 
and  of  St.  Vaudville.  in  Normandy,  were  espe- 
cially famous.  During  the  7th  century,  dense  igno- 
rance prevailed ;  but  Charlemagne  infused  new- 
life  into  the  existing  schools,  and  founded  many 
new  ones.  Through  the  efforts  of  Alcuin,  the 
court  school  (schola  palaHna),  in  which  the  sons 
of  nobles  were  educated,  became  a  model  school 
for  all  ecclesiastical  institutions.     The  reign  of 


Louis  le  Debonnaire  was  not  favorable  to  this 
school,  but  its  prosperity  revived  under  Charles 
the  Bald,  when  it  counted  John  Scotua  Erigena 
among  its  teachers.     After  the  death  of  I  harles 

the  Laid,  the  efficiency  of  the  school  departed 
lor  ever,  and  theological  seminaries  and  convent 
schools  were  the  only  institutions  in  which  an 
education  could  be  obtained.  The  feudal  wars 
which  followed  entirely  prostrated  all  educational 
institutions.  In  the  llth  and  L2th  centuries, 
the  reformatory  movements  among  the  clergy 
favorably  reacted  upon  education,  and  many  of 
the  clerical  schools  regained  new  luster.  Fan's 
became  the  great  center  of  learning,  and  many 
were  the  distinguished  teachers  who  added  to 
the  reputation  of  the  Parisian  schools.  The 
most  illustrious  among  all  the  French  teachers 
of  this  period  was  A  belaid  (q.  v.).  Besides  the 
episcopal  schools  of  Notre  Dame  and  Genevieve, 
in  Paris,  those  of  Reims  and  Chartres.  and  the 
convent  school  of  Bee,  in  Normandy,  were 
especially  famous.  In  1200,  a  royal  decree  which 
exempted  the  teachers  of  Paris,  the  students  and 
their  servants,  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  city. 
prepared  the  way  for  a  corporate  organization 
of  teachers  and  students,  and.  consequently,  for 
the  establishment  of  the  Paris  university,  which, 
after  animated  controversies  with  the  chancellor 
of  the  chapter  of  Notre  Dame,  in  1203,  had 
its  independence  recognized  and  permanently 
secured  by  Papal  privileges.  The  reputation 
and  influence  of  the  new  university  increased 
with  marvelous  ra j iklity,  and  attracted  thousands 
of  students  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  In  1233, 
another  university  was  established  at  Toulouse, 
which  received  from  Gregory  IX.  privileges 
equal  to  those  of  Paris.  A  third  university  was 
founded  at  Montpelher,  where,  probably,  the 
scholarship  of  the  Arabian  schools  in  the  neigh- 
boring Spain  were  exerting  a  favorable  influence. 
In  the  natural  course  of  development,  these  in- 
stitutions became  the  only  seats  of  the  higher 
studies,  while  cathedral  and  convent  schools  re- 
mained almost  exclusively  training  schools  of 
candidates  for  the  priesthood.  The  controversy 
of  the  university  of  Paris  with  the  powerful 
orders  of  the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  led 
to  the  organization  of  the  theological  faculty, 
which  was  gradually  succeeded  by  the  division 
of  the  entire  university  into  four  faculties.  As 
the  example  of  Paris  was  followed  in  most 
countries  of  Europe,  the  establishment  of  distinct 
faculties  marks  a  new  departure  in  the  history 
of  the  European  universities.  (See University.) 

Another  educational  movement  of  great  impor- 
tance was  begun  in  I'aris  by  the  establishment  of 

colleges  in  connection  with  the  university.  These 

institutions  were,  at  first,  intended  1o  give  to 
students  from  the  French  provinces,  and  from 
foreign  countries,  lodging  and  hoard,    and    s c 

of  them  were  founded  even  before  the  establish- 
ment of  the  university.  But  their  character  as 
preparatory  and  auxiliary  schools  was  only  de- 
veloped in  connection  with  the  universii 
Among  the  oldest  and  most  renowned  Parisian 
colleges,  were  those  of  St.    Thomas,   the  Danish 


316 


FRANCE 


College,  the  College  of  the  Dix-huil,  the  Greek 
( lollege  ( 1206),  and  the  Sorbonne  (1253).  Besides 
these  colleges,  which,  however,  were  numerous 
only  in  Paris,  the  universities  conducted  also 
independent  middle  schools  to  meet  the  growing 
demand  of  large  classes  of  the  population  for  in- 
struction. Pans,  at  this  time,  had  even  a  system 
of  parochial  or  elementary  schools,  under  the 
Grand  Chanter,  or  master  of  singing.  In  L380, 
the  male  and  female  teachers  oi  Paris  held  a 
general  meeting,  from  the  proceedings  of  which 
it  appears  that  there  were,  at  that  time,  in  Paris 

at  least  41  male,  and  -'2  female  teachers.  Of  the 
former,  many  had  the  degree  of  bachelier  or 
mailre-es-arts.  In  the  course  of  the  L4th  and 
1  5th  centuries,  the  desire  for  knowledge  and  edu- 
cation became  quite  general  among  the  nobility 
and  the  population  of  the  towns.  The  number 
of  students  rapidly  increased  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  New  universities  arose  at  Orleans, 
Cahors,  Perpignan,  Angers,  .\i\.  Caen, Poitiers, 
Valence,  Nantes,  Bourges,  and  Bordeaux.  The 
kings  recognized  their  importance,  conferred 
upon  them  many  favors,  and  by  gradually  with- 
drawing them  from  papal  and  placing  them 
unil.T  royal  jurisdiction,  substantially  changed 
their  character.  Strict,  conformity  with  the 
teaching  of  the  church  was  no  longer,  to  the 
same  degree  as  before,  the  highest  aim  kept  in 
view,  and  amor  1   position  was  accorded 

to   i lie  foremost   representatives  of    the    high 

schools  in  both  church  and  state.  Among  the 
grandest  triumphs  of  the  university  was  the 
leading  part  which  it  was  called  upon  to  take  in 
the  termination  of  the  papal  si  hism.  The  trans- 
fer of  the  lectures  from  the  hails  of  the  univer- 
sity to  the  colleges  was  an  innovation  which 
has  not  proved  conducive  to  the  progress  of  edu- 
cation. By  making  the  colleges  the  centers  of 
university  instruction,  instead  oi  pn  paral 
and  auxiliary  schools,  ii  retarded  the  sharp  dis- 
tinction between  secondary  and  superior  instruc- 
tion, w  bich  has  greatly  promoted  the  educational 
development  of  other  European  countries.    The 

ecclesiastical     seminaries    and     convent     schools 

greatly  suffered,  toward  the  close  of  the  middle 

ages,  from  t  he  disorders  prevailing  in  the  church; 
but  the  pelites  icoles,  or  small  Latin  schools, 
which  were  conducted  by  clergymen  in  all  the 
larger  towns,  attained  a  high  degree  of  prosper- 
dnder  Louis  XI.  (I  id  -]  1.-:;,,  the  sub- 
ion    of    all     the    non clerical   schools    to     the 

supreme  jurisdiction  of  the  stale  government 
was  completed.    In  L529,  Francis  1.  founded  the 

i  School    tor  the  study  of  the 

humanities,  which  were  too  muchm  glected  by  the 
university.  The  new  school  flourished  in  spite  of 
all  opposition,  and  attained  a  very  honorable 
position  among  the  high  schools  of  trance.  The 
university  .  on  the  other  hand,  lost,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, ii^  i  irmer  influence  and  prestige,  while  im- 
morality made  alarming  progress  among  the 
students,  especially  between  L548  and  1"  18. 
The  governmenl  took  occasion,  from  the  deplor- 
able condition  of  the  university,  to  curtail  its 
privil  I        ■  ctor,    instead  of    being   the 


head  of  an  independent  organization,  became  an 
officer  of  the  king.  After  the  conversion  of  the 
universities  into  state  institutions  had  been  com- 
pleted, the  government  deemed  it  expedient  to 
extend  their  educational  influence,  and.  to  that 
end,  conferred  upon  them  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  preparing  students  for  the  academic  degrees 
and  for  the  state  examinations.  The  powerful 
competition  which  existed  between  the  schools 
of  the  Jesuits  and  the  universities,  was  an  effi- 
cient spur  for  the  latter,  but,  when  Louis  XIV. 
took  the  Jesuits  under  his  special  protection, 
their  influence  upon  the  educational  institutions 
of  the  country  became,  for  a  time,  all-powerful. 
Another  religious  order,  the  Oratorians,  were 
active  and  zealous  in  the  management  of  town 
schools,  while  primary  education,  in  the  rural 
districts,  appears  to  have  been,  on  the  whole,  in 
a  very  unsatisfactory  condition.  After  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Jesuits  and  Oratorians,  a  number 

of  other   religious   orders  devoted   their  chief  or 

even  exclusive  attention  to  teaching  schools  of 
different  grades;  and  no  other  country  of  the 
World  showed  itself  SO  prolific  in  the  formation 
of  new  congregations  of  school  brothers  and 
school  sisters  as  fiance.      (See  KOMAN  CATHOLKJ 

Church.)  The  philosophy  of  Descartes  emanci- 
pated the  French  high  schools  to  a  considerable 
extent  from  the  rule  of  scholasticism,  w  hich  until 
then  had  been  generally  prevalent,  and  through 
the  petL  i  of    Port   Loyal,  its   influence 

Sied  even  the  primary  schools.  The  petiies 
ecoles  oi  Port  Loyal  wen;  not  of  lone,- duration, 
but  their  school  books  were  continued  in  use  for 
along  time.  Rollin,  the  celebrated  Lector  of 
the    Paris    University,   followed  closely  in  the 

steps  of  Port  Royal,  and  France  is  indebted 
to  him  for  several  important  reforms,  'i  he  rigid 
centralization  which,  under  Louis  XTV.,  began 

to  be  established  in  all  departments  of  public 
life,  was  also  applied  to  the  educational  institu- 
tions. A  closer  connection  was  established 
anion--  the  colleges,  a  general  course  of  studies 

was  draw  n  up,  new  studies  were  introduced,  and 
the  training  of  teachers  was  improved.  Many 
distinguished  educators  found,  however,  in    the 

educational  methods  of  the  French  schools  too 

much  of  a  mechanical  formalism  :  and  Rousseau 

violently  attacked  the  pedagogy  of  his  time  as 

lifeless  and  weak,  perverse  and   inefficient.-      1  he 

influence  of  the  great  revolution  of  L789  showed 
itself  first  iu  an  attempt  to  introduce  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  revolution  into  all  the  schools  of 
the  country.  Several  plans  were  tried,  but  with- 
out   satisfactory  results.     Talleyrand,    in     L791, 

submitted  an  elaborate  and  c prehensive  plan 

of  national  education,  but.  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly confined  itself  to  sanctioning  two  prin- 
ciples: I  public  instruction  shall  he  estab- 
lished common  to  every  citizen,  and  gratuitous 
in  respect  to  those  branches  which  are  necessary 
lo  all,  and  its  establishments  will  be  grad- 
ually arranged  in  accordance  with  the  divisions 
of  the  kingdom;  and  (2)  national  holidays  will 
be  appointed.     In   L792,   the  philosopher  Con- 

dorcet  submitted   another  elaborate    plan  to  the; 


FRANCE 


317 


Legislative  Assembly,  which,  however,  was  like- 
wise prevented,  by  the  gravity  of  political  events, 
from  completing  the  reconstruction  of  public 
education.  In  September  of  the  same  year,  the 
Convention  pronounced  the  abolition  of  all  the 
colleges,  and  of  the  faculties,  turning  instruction 
over  to  private  enterprise.  As  the  consequences 
of  this  measure  proved  to  be  very  injurious,  the 
Convention  founded,  in  L794,  the  Ecole  Centrale, 
subsequently  named  Ecole  Polytechnique ;  and, 
in  1 7!C>,  the  Ecole  Nbrmcde,  which  was  aban- 
doned after  three  months,  and  one  hundred  cen- 
tral schools,  a  kind  of  real  gymnasia,  which 
likewise  did  not  prove  a  success.  A  general  nation- 
al school  law  was  likewise  proclaimed  in  1795, 
but  it  never  took  effect.  Real  progress  in  re- 
construction was  made  by  the  Consulate,  which, 
in  L800,  established  tour  large  colleges  called 
prytaneums,sA  Paris,  Versailles,  Fontainebleau, 
and  St.  Germain,  to  which  were  afterwards 
added  one  at  Brussels,  and  one  at  Compiegue, 
the  latter  for  mechanical  arts  and  navigation. 
A  general  revival  of  education  began  in  1802, 
and  in  L805,  Prance  again  possessed  30  lyceums 
and  250  communal  colleges.  At  the  same  time, 
the  government  restricted  the  absolute  freedom 
of  teaching,  and  subjected  the  entire  educational 
Bystem  to  a  stricl  supervision.  In  1808,  Napo- 
leon abolished  the  old  provincial  institutions, 
and  united  all  the  teaching  forces  of  the  country 
into  one  educational  corporation,  which  he 
called  Universite  de  France.  Be  comprised  in 
this  one  organization  all  the  educational  insti- 
tutions, from  the  primary  school  to  the  uni- 
versity. The  chief  peculiarity  of  this  organ- 
ization was  that  the  university  alone  possessed 
the  right  of  teaching,  and  that  in  this  way  every 
body  was  forced  to  receive  its  teaching.  The 
supreme  direction  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a 
Grand  .Master,  and  a  Council  of  the  University. 
In  1815,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Empire,  this 
grand  master  and  the  council  of  the  university 
were  abolished,  ami  their  powers  wen;  transferred 
to  a  royal  commission  acting  under  the  authority 
of  the  minister  of  the  interior.  The  commission 
was,  in  1820,  changed  into  a  royal  council  of 
public  instruction,  the  president  of  which  again 
received,in  1822,  the  title  of  Grand  .Master  of 
the  University,  and  in  IS'24,  that  of  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  and  Ecclesiastical  Affairs. 
The  Gharte  of  1830  promise  1  a  new  educational 
law,  as  well  as  a  law  on  freedom  of  instruction  ; 
these  provisions  were,  however,  only  carried  out  in 
part.  In  1833,  a  new  law  on  primary  instruction 
appeared,  which  introduced  important  reforms. 
Sir.  Guizot,  the  minister  of  public  instruction, 
addressed,  in  connection  with  this  law,  a  circular 
letter  to  the  primary  teachers,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and 
gained  for  its  author  hosts  of  warm  admirers. 
The  bishops  regarded  the  existing  school  legis- 
lation, and  especially  the  privileges  of  the  uni- 
versity, as  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the 
<  'atholic  Church. and  accordingly  began  a  vigorous 
agitation  for  freedom  of  instruction.  In  1845, 
the   minister  of   public   instruction,    Salvandy, 


consented  to  a  change  in  the  composition  of  the 
Council  of  Studies,  by  appointing,  in  addition 
to  the  life  members  of  which  it  was  formerly 
composed,  some  members  for  a  term  of  years. 
In  April  1847,  Salvandy  drew  up  this  drafl  of  a 
new  law  which  substituted  for  the  I  louncil  of  the 
University  a  Superior  <  louncil  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, which  was  to  contain,  beside  the  members 

Of   the    University,   representatives  of   the    state 

government,  of  the  bishops,  of  the   Protestant 

consistories,  of  the  Jewish  and  of  the  private 
schools.  Only  a  few  provisions  of  this  law  had 
been  carried  into  practice,  when  the  revolution 
of  1848  interrupted  its  further  execution.     In 

1850,  a  new  law  was  passed  which  substantially 

granted  the  demands  of  the  Catholic  party  as  to 

the  composition  of  the  superior  council.  This 
body  was  henceforth  to  be  composed  of  arch- 
bishops, bishops.  Protestant  clergymen,  council- 
ors of  state,  and  members  of  the  Institute  of 
France,  all  elected  by  the  free  suffrage  of  their 
colleagues;  Under  the  second  empire,  this  mode 
of  election  was  abolished;  and  the  government 
claimed  the  right  of  appointing  all  the  members. 
In  making  the  appointments,  the  government 
showed  itself,  however,  anxious  to  give  no  offense 
to  the  church.  Bythe  law  of  L854,  sixteen  acad- 
emies were  established,  to  which  one  was  added 
afterward.  These  academies  were  subdivisions 
of  the  University,  and  comprised  all  the  insti- 
tutions of  a  district,  faculties,  lyceums.  colleges, 
and  primary  schools.  For  each  academy  a  coun- 
cil was  appointed,  composed  of  the  inspectors, 
the  deans  of  the  faculties,  a  bishop,  two  clergy- 
men, two  magistrates,  and  two  other  state  officers 
of  the  academic  district,  the  seven  last  being  ap- 
pointed by  the  ministry.  After  the  overthrow 
of  the  second  empire,  Jules  Simon,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  educational  writers  of  France. 
became  minister  of  public  instruction.  The 
chief  aim  of  the  new  minister  was  to  make 
primary  instruction  as  general  as  possible,  and 
to  raise  the  French  schools  of  all  grades  to  a 
level  with  the  best  in  any  country  of  the  world. 
I?y  a  law  of  1873,  the  council  of  public  instruc- 
tion was  again  made  elective.  As  the  majority 
of  the  legislative  assembly  were  favorable  to  the 
demands  of  the  <  hnrch,  superior  instruction  was. 
in  1875,  so  regulated  as  to  make  it  possible  for 
the  Catholic  Church  to  establish  free  Catholic 
universities.  In  L876,  the  chamber  of  deputies 
passed  a  bill  to  restore  to  the  university  the  sole 
right  of  conferring  degrees,  but  it  was  not  con- 
curred in  by  tin'  senate. 

Primary  Instruction, — The  policy  of  estab- 
lishing public  primary  schools  under  the  control 
of  the  state,  in  which  all  children  might  receive 
instruction,  was  not  incorporated  into  the  legis- 
lation of  France  until  after  the  law  of  dune  28., 
1833,  under  the  administration  of  M.Cui/.ot  as 
minister  of  public  instruction.  The  attempts 
made  during  tin-  revolutionary  period, and  un- 
der the  empire,  to  provide   a   national   system  of 

instruction,  had  lasting  results  only  for  secondary 

and  superior  instruction,  but  not  for  primary 
schools.     One  of  the  great  scholars  of  that  time, 


318 


FRANCE 


M.  Cuvier,  made  an  extensive  tour  through 
Holland,  Germany,  and  Italy,  to  study  the  edu- 
cational systems  of  those  countries:  and  his  re- 
port, published  in  L811,  which  specially  com- 
mended the  elementary  schools  of  Holland  for 
their  sound  practical  organization,  excited  a 
lively  interest,  and  led  to  regretful  comparisons, 
but  not  to  any  real  improvement.  M.  Guizot, 
in  a  brief  review  of  the  educational  history  of 
Prance,  commends  the  heads  of  the  educational 
department  under  the  Restoration  for  their  good 
intentions;  hut  of  the  educational  condition  of 
the  country,  from  L814  to  L830,  he  can  only 
state  :  "  It  cannot  be  said  thai  elementary  in- 
struction did  not  suffer  from  political  attacks ; 
hut  still  it  did  not  completely  perish  in  the  dan- 
gerous contact."  The  government  of  L830 
proved  itself,  from  its  commencement,  highly 
favorable  to  elementary  instruction.  The  exec- 
utive government  and  the  chambers  vied  with 
each  other  in  the  promotion  of  this  object.  In 
Is.'! I.  .M.  Cousin,  one  of  the  ablest  scholars  of 
France,  was  sent  to  Germany  to  study  the  edu- 
cational system  of  that  country;  and.  in  the 
report  published  on  his  return,  he  carefully  dis- 
cussed all  questions  which  the  new  law  on 
primary  education,  then  in  preparation,  was  to 
settle.  M.  (biizot,  who  was  appointed  minister 
of  public  instruction,  in  1832,  was  supported  in 
the  preparation  of  the  new  law.  by  a  number  of 
eminent  men,  among  whom,  besides  M.  Cousin, 
may  1"-  especially  mentioned  .M.  Yillemain,  M. 
Thenard,  and  M.  Rendu,  on  account  of  their 
reputation  as  scholars  or  educational  writers. 
The  conscientious  care  with  which  the  law  of 
L833  had  been  prepared,  is  now  recognized  on 
all  sides,  as  is  also  the  beneficent  influence 
which  it  has  exerted  upon  the  progress  of  pri- 
mary ediicat  ion.  In  L826, there  were  I  1.009 com- 
munities which  had  no  elementary  schools ;  and. 
in  L 832,  there  were  in  Paris  30,000,  among  the 
To.ooo  children  of  school  age,  who  received  no 
instruction.  Pour  years  alter  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  law  of  L837,  as  many  as  29,613, 
of   35,280   communities   in    the    country,   had 

their  own  school  houses.  On  the  basis  of  the 
new    law.    the   primary-school  system  was    iv 

fully  developed  by  the  law  of  March  1.")..  L850, 
the  organic  decree  of  March  '.».,  L852,  and  the 

law  of  .Ian.  II.,  L854.  These  laws  supplement 
each  other,  and  contain  the  chief  principles 
which  arc  still  in  force      The  primary  schools  of 

each  commune  are  under  a  local  board,  consisting 

of  the  mayor,  the  parish  priest, and  a  few  citizens 

elected      by    the    ollicelS    of     the    , / rm,,i I ' is.-i'ii/rii I '. 

This  board  superintends  both  public  and  private 

primary    3chools.      It    cannot    appoint     teachers: 

but.  in  case  of  a  vacancy,  it  can  decide  whether  a 
lay  teacher  or  a  member  of  a  religious  congrega- 
tion shall  be  appointed,  In  urgent  cases,  the 
mayor  has  the  power  to  remove  teachers,  but  he 
must  give  immediate  notice  to  the  inspecteur pri- 
maire.  The  inspectors  are  generally  experienced 
teachers;  and  it  is  their  duty  to  visit  and  ex- 
amine the  Bchools,  and  to  attend  the  examina- 
tions of  candidate.     They  make  annual  reports 


!  to  the  inspector  of  the  academy.  The  highest 
:  school  authorities  in  a  department  are  the  rector 
[  of  the  academy  and  the  prefect.  The  former 
supervises  tin-  instruction,  has  charge  of  the 
normal  schools  and  of  the  examinations  of  teach- 
ers, and  has  all  this  done  through  his  inspectors, 
of  whom  he  has  one  tor  every  department  in 
the  academic  district.  He  makes  an  annual 
report  on  the  condition  of  the  primary  schools 
in  his  district,  both  public  and  private,  to  the 
minister  of  education.  The  prefect  has  charge 
of  the  entire  external   administration   of  the 

schools,  lie  sees  to  the  erection  of  the  school- 
houses,  has  charge  of  the  finances,  can  appoint, 
remove,  or  reprimand  teachers,  and  is  assisted  in 
these  duties  by  the  inspector  of  the  academy  of 
his  department.  Four  inspecteurs  gen&raux  are 
appointed  by  the  supreme  council  of  public  in- 
struction, to  superintend  the  primary  institutions 
of  the  entire  country.  Besides  these,  there  are 
six  inspecteurs  generaux  for  the  lyceums  and 
colleges,  and  eight  for  the  faculties.  Any  French 
citizen,  twenty  years  of  age  or  over,  may  give 
primary  instruction  in  public  or  private  schools, 
provided  he  has  the  necessary  certificate.  The 
salaries  of  the  French  teachers  are  very  .-mall, 
though  they  have  been  raised  seven  times  since 
L833.  The  lowest  class  of  teachers,  in  IS.'!."},  re- 
ceived 200  francs:  250  francs,  in  1844 ;  '2  75.  in 
L847;  454,  in  L849;  and  (loo,  in  1867.  Accord- 
ing to  a  law  of  July  19.,  1875,  the  salaries  of 
the  teachers  are  regulated  as  follows:  .Male 
teachers  are  divided  into  four  classes,  according 
to  their  term  of  service, and  the  size  of  the  cities. 
The  first  class  receive  1,200  francs:  the  second. 
1,100;  the  third.  1.000;  and  the  fourth.  900. 
Female  teachers  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
and  receive  !>oo.  Mid. and  700  francs. respectively. 
Tin'  course  of  studies  comprises  religion,  read- 
ing, writing,  grammar,  arithmetic,    the  elements 

of   French    history,  and  geography.      Teachers 

may  add  to  these  studies  the  elements  of  natural 
history,  natural  philosophy,  agriculture,  hygiene, 
singing,  and  gymnastics.  Only  in  recent  years 
have  reforms  been  introduced  ill  the   methods  of 

teaching.  As  late  as  L843,  there  were  still 6,484 
primal  v  schools  pursuing  the  so-called  individual 
method  [mode  individuel),  each  child  being 
called  to  the  desk,  and  instructed  separately. 
This  method,  as  well   as  the    monitorial  system, 

which  found  many  admirers  in  Prance,  is  now 

abolished.  The  method  most  generally  employed 

at  the  present  time,  is  the  simultaneous  method. 
by  which  the  children  are  divided  into  three 
divisions,  all  the  pupils  of  one  division  receiving 
instruction  at  once  Those  who  are  not  able  to 
take  part  in  anv  of  the  three  divisions,  are  placed 

under  the  charge  of    the  best   pupil   in  the  school. 

The  total  number  of  schools,  in  L875,  was  53,350, 
with  3,477,542  pupils,  of  whom   L ,366,360  wi 

five  scholars.      Of    the'    Schools,    19,044   were   for 

boys,  and  6,399,  tor  girls,  besides  which  there  were 

I  6,570  mixed  schools.  The  number  of  pupils  in 
the  lay  schools  vva-  •_'..'!  10..'!  I  I .  of  whom  704,028 
were  tree  scholars.  ( >f  the  convent  schools.  1.970 
were   for  boys,  8,322,  for  girls,  and   1,099  were 


im:  wii: 


319 


mixed  schools.     The  number  of  pupils   in   tin- 
convent  schools,  was  1 .1:57.1  9S,  of  whom  662,352 

wen-  free  scholars.     Infant  asylums  and  schools 
were  firs!  established  in  L808,  bui  met  with  little 

success.  In  1827.  they  began  to  increase  and 
flourish,  until,  in  I860,  there  were  3,517,  of 
which.  1  .OSS  were  private.  The  public  asylums 
were  attended  by  344,381  children;  the  private, 
by  74,380;  in  all,  118,761.  Of  these.  307,556  pay 
no  fees :  ami  "J. tilts  asylums,  private  and  public. 
with  323,460  children,  were  directed  by  religions 
orders.  The  instruction  given,  consists  of  the 
first  principles  of  religion,  of  reading,  mental 
arithmetic  and  linear  drawing;  manual  occu- 
pations, and  other  exercises  appropriate  to  the 
age  of  the  pupils;  the  singing  of  hymns,  and 
moral  and  physical  training.  The  decree  of 
1864  placed  them  under  the  patronage  of  the 
empress,  and  created,  in  the  ministry  of  educa- 
tion, a  central  committee  of  patronage,  for  the 
increase  and  superintendence  of  these  schools 
In  every  academy,  there  is  an  inspectress,  paid 
by  the  government,  to  inspect  all  the  public  and 
private  asylums.  Besides,  there  are  two  delegates 
connected  with  the  central  committee,  wdio  go 
wherever  they  are  called. — As  soon  as  primary 
instruction  had  made  some  progress  in  France, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  open  schools  for  adults, 
in  order  to  complete  the  instruction  of  some, 
and  to  begin  that  of  others.  The  first  school 
for  adults  was  opened  by  M.  Delakaye  in  Paris, 
in  1 820.  An  evening  school  was  opened  by  the 
Christian  Brothers,  in  1830.  In  1833,  M.  Guizot, 
minister  of  public  instruction,  alluded  to  them 
in  an  order  of  the  department ;  and,  in  1835, 
they  were  formally  recognized  and  aided  by  the 
government,  but  were  not  incorporated  into  the 
public-school  system  of  the  country  until  1867. 
During  the  winter  of  1865 — 6,  there  were  24,686 
courses  for  adults,  in  22,947  communes.  They 
were  attended  by  42,567  women  and  552,939 
men. — The  first  normal  school  in  France  was 
founded  in  1810,  in  Strasbourg.  Under  Napo- 
leon I.  and  the  Restoration,  they  greatly  flour- 
ished; but  soon,  objections  were  raised  against 
them,  and,  after  the  promulgation  of  the  law  of 
1850,  its  authors  considered  normal  schools  not 
only  unnecessary,  but  even  dangerous.  It  was. 
consequently,  proposed  to  abandon  the  normal 
schooLs,  and  to  recruit  the  ranks  of  the  teachers 
from  a  certain  number  of  pupil-teachers,  who 
were  to  receive  their  training  in  the  best  com- 
munal schools.  This  plan,  however,  proved  a 
failure,  and  the  pupil-teacher  schools  were  grad- 
ually abandoned,  and  normal  schools  again  came 
into  favor.  Their  number,  in  1875,  was  81,  of 
which  that  of  Xancy  is  considered  the  best. 
•Recently,  efforts  have  been  made  to  connect  a 
library  with  every  school,  particularly  in  the 
country.  The  system  was  first  organized  by  a 
decree  of  M.  Rouland,  in  1*02.  The  books. 
which  are  of  two  classes, — classics,  reading-books, 
and  arithmetics,  and  books  of  general  reading — 
are  the  property  of  the  commune,  and  are  placed 
under  the  charge  of  the  teachers.  France  (ex- 
clusive of  the  department  of  the  Seine),  in  1875, 


had  15,623  libraries  connected  with  schools,  com- 
prising 1,474,637  vol ni ih's.  The  number  of  books 
loaned,  in  1873,  was  925,35s. 

Secondary  Instruction. — Secondary  instruc- 
tion is  imparted    in    the  lyceums  and  communal 

colleges  [colleges  communaux).  The  lyceums  are 
composed  of  eight  classes,  and  correspond  to  the 
German  gymnasia.  Classes  8  and  7  compose  the 

elementary  division  ;    6,  5,  and  4,   the  grt iar 

division;  and  .'!.  '_',  lb.  and  la,  the  superior 
division,  to  which  is  added,  in  some  lyceums,  a 
mathematical  school.  The  studies  taught  in  the 
elementary  division  are  French,  Latin,  Biblical 

history,    geography,   arithmetic,    linear  drawing, 

and  penmanship.  In  the  grammar  division, 
Greek  is  added  to  the  above  studies.  In  the 
superior  division,  the  system  of  bifurcation  has 
been  introduced,  so  that  it  comprises  two  courses, 
— the  literary  and  the  scientific.  The  studies 
of  the  literary  course  are  Latin,  Greek,  geome- 
try and  stereometry,  natural  philosophy,  chem- 
istry, natural  history,  and  logic.  The  scientific 
course  comprises  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  natural  history,  natural  philos- 
ophy, chemistry,  and  plane  and  linear  drawing. 
Common  to  both  are  the  French  language, 
history,  geography,  and  German  or  English. 
Most  of  the  lyceums  are  also  boarding-schools. 
The  censeur  is  the  head  of  the  boarding-school. 
Corporal  punishment  is  not  allowed,  and  re- 
proofs are  required  to  be  administered  without 
harshness.  The  communal  colleges  were  estab- 
lished in  1802.  They  are  founded  and  sustained 
by  the  towns,  with  the  approbation  of  the  govern- 
ment. Most  of  them  have  a  boarding-school  at- 
tached. Some  of  them  comprise  the  lowest 
classes  of  the  lyceums;  others,  the  lowest  and 
middle  classes;  and  still  others,  besides  these,  one 
or  two  of  the  higher  classes.  In  addition  to  these 
public  schools,  there  are  many  private  secondary 
institutions  [etablissements  Hbres),  partly  of  a 
classical,  and  partly  of  a  realistic,  or  scientific, 
character.  Included  in  this  class  of  institutions 
are  the  so  called  peiits  s&minaires,  or  the  ecoles 
secondaires  ecclesiastiques  (ecclesiastical  insti- 
tutions), which  are  superintended  and  conducted 
by  the  bishops,  and,  in  many  respects,  resemble 
the  lyceums.  The  number  of  secondary  schools 
of  each  class,  with  the  number  of  students  in 
each,  as  given  by  BracheUi  [Die  Staaten  Eu- 
ropa's,  L876),  is  as  follows: 

Schools.    Students. 

Lyceum,  (1872) 80  36,756 

Communal  colleges  (1872)...  .244  32,744 

Private  institutions  (1865) 935  74,585 

Total 1,259        144; 

A  superior  normal  school  for  the  education 
of  teacher-  of  secondary  schools  has  been  estab- 
lished in  Paris.  It  is  composed  of  twodepart- 
mentS,  a  literary  and  a  scientific,  each  compris- 
ing a  three  years'  course. 

Superior  Instruction.     Prance  has.  at  present, 
five  classes  of   faculties;  namely,  for  theoloj 
law.  medicine,  mathematics  and    natural  science 
[facuttes  de    sciences),  and  literature  or  philo- 
sophical,   historical,    and     philological    science 


320 


FRANCE 


\ 


(facutte  des  lettres).  These  faculties,  which  are 
state  institutions,  arc  DOt,  as  in  other  countries, 
united  into  complete  universities,  but  each  is  an 
isolated  and  independent  institution.  Among 
the  schools  of  superior  instruction,  arc  also 
counted  the  high  schools  for  pharmacy,  and  the 
schools  for  medicine  and  pharmacy.  The  organi- 
zation of  medical  faculties  was  begun  in  lT'.U: 
of  law  faculties,  in  1804;  and  the  others,  in 
1808.  There  were,  in  1876,  six  faculties 
of  theology  (Paris,  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  Aix, 
Rouen,  and  Montauban,  the  5  former  being 
Catholic,  the  latter  Reformed);  L2  for  law 
(Paris,  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  Nancy,  Aix,  Caen, 
Dijon,  Grenoble,  Poitiers,  Reniies. Toulouse,  and 
Douai);  U  for  medicine  (Paris,  Bordeaux,  Lyons, 
Nancy,  Montpellier,  and  Lille);  15  for  sci<  nee 
(Paris,  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  Nancy,  Caen,  Dijon, 
Grenoble,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  Toulouse,  Montpel- 
lier, Clermont,  Besangon,  Lille,  and  Marseilles); 
I 5  tor  lettres  (Paris.  Bordeaux,  Lynns.  Nancy, 
Aix.  Caen,  Dijon.  Grenoble,  Poitiers,  Rennes, 
Toulouse,  Montpellier,  Douai,  Clermont,  and 
sancon);  •''■  higher  schools  tor  pharmacy  I  Paris, 
Nancy,  and  Montpellier);  and  2  higher  schools 
for  medicine  and  pharmacy.  The  medical  facul- 
ties a1  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  and  Lille  are  also  in- 
tended lor  pharmacy.  Inclusive  of  preparatory 
scl Is  for  medicine  and  pharmacy,  and  !  pre- 
paratory schools  for  instruction  in  science,  these 
institutions  for  superior  instruction,  were,  in 
L 8 72,  attended  by  I  L572  students:  and  the  ag- 
gregate number  of  professors  and  teachers  was 
121.  -The  law  of  .luly  2ii..  \^~'k  authorized  the 
establishment,  by  private  citizens  or  associations, 
of  iVee  institutions  for  higher  instruction  (free 

faculties),  which,  if  three    of    them   are  united. 

may  assume  the  name  of  free  universities.  At 
the  beginning  of  1876,  the  bishops  of  France 
founded  three  free  Catholic  universities,  at 
Paris,  Angers,  ami  Lyons.  —  The  Cottege  de 
France,  which  provides  for  lectures  on  many  of 
the  university  studies,  and  the  Practical  School 
for  Higher  Studies,  which,  in  five  different 
ctions,  prepares  its  students  for  the  higher 
study  of  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  natural 
history,    the   historical    sciences,   ami    philology. 

are  also  institutions  of  this  grade. 

Special  and  Professional  Instruction.  —  The 

Polytechnic  School,  at    Paris,   is    an   institution 

having  a  military  organization,  and  prepares  its 

pupils  for  the  higher  technical   institutions,  both 

tary  and  civil.  The  latter  class  comprises  the 

ntrale  des  arts  et  manufactures,  for  the 

education  of  civil  engineers,  and  of  directors  of 

-works  and  factories,  the   Ecole   des  ]><>„/*  if 

ckaussees,  for  the  education  of  road  engineers, 
and  the  Conservatoire  des  arts  et  mdtiers,  all 
in  Paris.  The  Polytechnic  School,  in  1st;'.,  had 
19  professors  and  teachers,  20  assistants,  and  426 
pupils.  Roman  Catholic  theology  is  taught  in 
i he  diocesan  seminaries,  which  are  established  in 
i he  principal  town  of  every  French  diocese.  The 
numerous  religious  orders  for  males  have  gen- 
erally theological  schools  of  their  own  for  the  in- 
struction of  their  novices.  The  Lutheran  Church 


has  a  seminary  at  Paris  ;  and.  in  the  same  city, 
there  is  a  Free  Theological  School,  founded  by  the 
Live  Evangelical  Church.  The  Ecole  des  ckartes, 
at  Paris,  educates  paleographists  and  archivists. 
I'm-  technical  instruction,  there  are  12  ecolespro- 
fessionneUes,  3  icoles  des  arts  et  metiers,  at  Aix. 
Angers,  and  Chalons  sur  Maine ;  schools  for 
watch-makers,  at  Pluses,  in  Upper  Savoy,  and  at 
Besancon,  a  school  for  manufacturers  of  tobacco,-' 
and  a  higher  commercial  school,  at  Paris,  many 
lower  commercial  schools,  42  hydrographic  schools 
for  educating  seamen  for  the  mercantile  marine, 
ami  many  other  schools  and  courses  of  study. 
Agriculture  is  taught  in  .1  high  schools,  at 
Grignon,  near  Versailles,  Grandjouan,  in  Loire- 
[nferieure,  and  Montpellier,  and  in  I.'!  fermier- 
s,  or  agricultural  schools  of  a  lower  grade: 
besides  these,  there  is  a  school  of  forestry  at 
Nancy.  The  principal  mining  school  is  the  Na- 
tional School  of  -Mines,  at  Paris,  besides  which 
there  are  mining  schools  at  St.  Etienne  and  Alais. 
For  instruction  in  the  fine  arts,  there  are  .'!  na- 
tional schools  of  fine  arts,— at  Paris.  Lyons,  and 
Dijon,  the  National  Conservatory  of  Music  and 

Declamation,  at  Paris,  and  many  other  institu- 
tions. Military  instruction  is  imparted  in  the 
Staff-school, at  Paris, the  School  or  Artillery  and 
-Military  Engineering,  formerly  at  Met/,  now  at 
Pontainebleau,  the  Special  .Military  School  at 
St.  Cyr,  near  Versailles,  the  schools  of  artillery 
at  Valence  and  Nimes,  the  school  of  infantry 
at  the  Camp  d'Avor,  the  naval  school  at  Brest, 

the  school  of  military  medicine  and  pharmacy  in 
Paris,  the  school  of  cavalry  at  Saumur.  the  Mili- 
tary Pyrotechnic  School,  at  Bourges, the  Normal 
School  for  Gymnastics,  at  Vincennes,  the  Prac- 
tical School  of  .Maritime  Engineering, at  Cher- 
bourg.— There  are  ,'>1  I  orphan  asylums,  in  which 
15,745  orphans  were  educated.  The  salles  cFasi- 
les,  of  which  there  were  2,950  (2,068  public  and 
882  private),  were  attended  by  307,000  children, 
and  bad  an  annual  budget  of  about  2,000,000 
francs.  Moreover.  f'T.'l  ouvroirs  give  almost 
gral  uitously  an  industrial  education  to  1,27 7  hoy  - 
and  L8,695 girls.  See  Si  hmtd,  Ehicyclopadie,art. 
Franhreich  (by  Dr.  Bucheler);  Barnard,  Na- 
tional Edvcation,v6Lii.\  Thebt,  HistoiredeYidu- 
cation  en  "France  l  Paris,  1858,2  vols.);  Jules  Si- 
uon,L'Ecole  (8th  edit.,1874);  Annuaire  deVin- 
struction  publique  (Paris).  Among  the  school 
journals,  the  Revue  de  Yinstruction  publique 
tablished  in  L842)  is  regarded  as  the  most  impor- 
tant for  secondary,  and  the  Manuel  gen&ral  detin- 
struction primaire,  as  the  foremost  for  primary 
instruction.  A  complete  collection  of  all  the 
laws  and  regulations  which  have  been  issued  in 
Prance  relative  to  primary  instruction  from  1 789 
i"  1-7  1  has  been  published  by  Greard,  La  legis- 
lation de  Yinstruction  primaire  <  n  Francedepuis 
L789  jusqu'a  nos  jours  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1874). 
The  history  of  primary-school  inspection  is  given 
in  Broi  \i;i>  and  Defodon,  Inspection  de&  tea 
primaires  I  Paris,  1874).  A  very  full  account  of 
the  primary  schoools  of  Paris  and  of  the  Depar- 
tement  de  la  Seine  is  given  in  Greard,  Yinstruc- 
tion primaire  d  Paris  en  ls7.">  (Paris.  1876). 


FRANCISCAN   COLLI* J K 


FRANCKE 


321 


FRANCISCAN  COLLEGE,  a  Roman 
Catholic  institution  at  Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  was 
founded  in  ISliS.  It  is  conducted  by  the  Fathers 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis.  Iii  1st:!  t,  it  had 
15  instructors,  75  students,  ami  a  library  of 
2,500  volumes.  The  Rev.  J.  J.  O'Keefe,  0.  S. 
P.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

FRANCKE,  August  Hermann,  a  distin- 
guished German  educator  whose  name  is  insepa- 
rably associated  with  a  cluster  of  orphan  houses 
and  schools  at  Halle,  and  with  the  development 
of  pietism  as  an  educational  influence,  was  born  at 
Liibeck,  Match  22.,  L  663,  and  died  June  8.,  L727. 
After  studying,  with  great  success,  theology  and 
the  oriental  languages,  at  the  universities  of  Er- 
furt  and  Kiel,  he  fell  under  the  intluenee  of 
Spener,  then  court-chaplain  at  Dresden,  and  re- 
ceived from  him  impressions  which  largely  affect- 
ed the  motives  and  character  of  his  future  life. 
He  began  his  labors  as  an  educator  in  L687,  by 
opening  an  infant  school  at  Hamburg.  Realizing 
the  importance  and  difficulty  of  teaching  children, 
he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the  improvement 
of  schools  and  methods  of  instruction.  The  results 
of  his  experience  he  afterwards  embodied  in  a 
work  which  he  published  under  the  title.  Upon  the 
ntioii  of  children  to  piety  and  christian  wis- 
dom. In  1  692,  he  became  professor  of  the  Greek 
and  oriental  languages  in  the  university  of  Halle, 
and  pastor  of  the  Glaucha  church.  Here  he  re- 
niaine  1  till  his  death,  July  8.,  1727,  highly 
respected,  but  removed  from  the  sympathy  of  his 
colleagues  on  account  of  his  religious  views.  His 
orphan  and  charity  schools  originated  in  connec- 
tion with  his  pastorate.  The  poor  of  the  parish 
came  to  the  j  >arsonage  on  Thursdays  for  bread.  He 
called  them  in,  taught  thern  religious  doctrines, 
anl  prayed  with  them.  He  formed  the  children 
into  a  class,  and  hung  out  a  poor-box  for  contribu- 
te >ns.  Fiiii  ling  seven  florins  in  the  box  one  morn- 
ing, he  decided  to  found  a  permanent  school.  He 
soon  had  to  enlarge  the  school;  and  circumstances 
led  to  the  further  development  of  his  enterprises, 
and  the  organization  of  other  institutions,  until 
there  grew  up  under  his  charge  the  Orphan  House, 
the  Pcedagogium,  the  Burgher  School,  the  Insti- 
tution tor  Women,  the  Bookstore  and  Printing 
Office,  the  Apothecary's  Shop  (established  with  a 
legacy  left  by  one  Burgstaller),the  Canstein  Bible 
House  (the  fruit  of  a  gift  by  the  Baron  von  Can- 
stein for  the  purpose  of  printing  one  hundred 
thousand  copies  of  the  Bible),  and  the  Mission 
Institute.  At  the  time  of  Francke's  death,  these 
institutions  comprised  the  following  :  The  Pceda- 
gogium,  having 82  scholars  and  7(>  teachers;  the 
Latin  school  of  the  Orphan  House,  .'}  inspectors. 
32  teachers.  LOO  scholars  and  10  servants  ;  the  <  >Vr- 
luan    Burgher  School.  -1    inspectors.    98   teachers. 

8  t. male  teachers,  L728  hoys  and  girls;  the  Or- 
phan House.  100  boys,  34  girls,  ten  overseers; 
the  Free  Table.  255  students.  .'Jlill  poor  scholars; 
the  household  of  the  Apothecary's  Shop  and 
Bookseller's  Shop.  53  persons;  the  Institution 
for  Women  and  <  J  iris,  with  1  5  persons  in  the  girls' 
department,  8  in  the  boarding-house  for  young 
women,  and  6  widows.  In  1876,  they  included 
21 


nine  schools  with  three  boarding-houses  and  an 
orphanage,  and  with  property  valued  at  313,266 

thalers.  Since  their  foundation.  1(1,000  teachers 
and  more  than  200,000  children  have  been  taught 

in  them.  In  the  orphanage  proper,  more  than 
70011  orphans  have  been  cared  for.  These  in- 
stitutions furnished  the  model  after  which  those 

of  a  similar  character  were  founded  in  other 
parts  of  Germany.  They  were  carried  on  after 
Francke's  death  by  his  son.  Gottlieb  August 
Fiancke. 

The  governing  ideas,  in  Francke's  work  and 
teaching,  were  trust  in  God,  and  the  cultivation 
of  the  love  of  God  in  the  heart.  He  built  his 
institutions  upon  trust,  relied  upon  prayer  as  his 
strong  support,  and  regarded  the  help  and  gifts 
which  he  received  as  direct  bounties  from  the 
hand  of  the  Almighty.  He  regarded  piety  as 
the  chief  thing  needful ;  without  it.  till  knowledge, 
wisdom,  and  worldly  culture  were  more  harmful 
than  useful.  He  taught  that,  in  bringing  up 
children,  the  teacher  should  first  look  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  heart  and  the  removal  of  faults. 
While  paying  due  regard  to  the  peculiarities  of 
the  child's  nature,  he  should  seek  to  banish 
whatever  interferes  with  the  higher  development. 
The  inculcation  of  godliness  was  likewise 
Francke's  predominant  object  in  discipline. 
On  this  subject,  he  observed.  (1)  that  system 
must  be  followed  in  discipline,  and  (2)  that 
chastisement  must  be  administered  not  in  anger, 
but  in  love.  The  schools,  in  all  their  departments. 
were  characterized  by  the  prevalence  of  religious 
zeal.  Prayer  was  faithfully  observed  in  what 
was  done  outside  the  school  as  well  its  within  it. 
The  Scriptures  and  religion  received  precedence 
in  arranging  the  courses  of  instruction.  With 
all  this,  the  ordinary  studies  had  their  allotted 
place  in  each  school  according  to  its  grade. 
The  course  of  the  higher  Latin  school  included 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  Greek  (chiefly  of 
the  New  Testament),  Hebrew,  mathematics, 
history,  geography,  music,  physics,  anatomy, 
oratory,  and  logic.  The  Pcedagogium  had  at- 
tached to  it  a  botanical  garden,  a  cabinet  of 
natural  history,  philosophical  apparatus,  a  labo- 
ratory, conveniences  for  anatomical  dissections, 
turning-lathes,  and  ^lass-cutting  machinery.  The 
evidences  of  Christianity,  Latin, Greek,  Hebrew, 
and  French  were  taught  in  it.  The  system  of 
classification  in  the  schools  allowed  the  pupils 
to  be  graded  according  to  their  advancement  in 
particular  studies. so  as  to  occupy  different  ranks 

in  the  several  classes.  The  number  of  regular 
teachers  employed  was  relatively  small ;  because, 

for  the  most  part,  the  teaching  was  done  by  select- 
ed pupils.     The  teachers  lived  with  the   scholars. 

and  Francke  himself  exercised  a  constant  super- 
vision over  all.     Besides  Zinzendorf,  Francke's 

best  known  pupilsweic  the  two  Ficylinghausens  : 
namely.  John    A  nastasius.    Francke's  son-in-law. 

and  his  son,  Gottlieb  Anastashis;  J.  G.  Knapp; 
Joachim  Lange  ;  Jacob  Rambach  ;  II.  Frever  ;  G. 
Sarganeck  ;  Johann  Julius  1  [ecker,  who  founded 

the  famous  Berlin  real  school:  and  Anton  Bu- 
sching.      Francke  is  regarded  by   some    as    ih, 


322 


FRANKLIN  COLLEGE 


FREE  SCHOOLS 


greatest  practical  educator  that  ever  lived,  and 
even  those  who  are  opposed  to  the  religious  basis 
of  his  educational  theories  do  not  hesitate  to  hold 
him  up  as  a  model  for  all  time.  I  lewas  the  author 
of  the  orphan  and  charily  schools  of    I'rotestant 

Germany;  and  his  ideas    on  superintendence, 

inspection,  and  examination  exerted  great  influ- 
ence upon  the  development  of  the  public-school 
system  in  Germany.  The  flourishing  institutions 
of  the  Moravians  (q.  v.),  whose  founder,  Count 
Zinzendorf,  had  been  educated  by  Francke,  were 
for  a  long  time  conducted  in  accordance  with 
Francke's  principles.  About  1770,  the  institu- 
tions began  to  decline;  but  the  entrance  of  A.  II. 
Niemeyer.  a  great-grandson  of  Francke,  into  the 
directory,  ushered  in  a  new  period  of  prosperity, 
which  still  (1876)  continues.  -See  Guericke, 
A.  II.  Francke  (Halle.  L827) ;  Eckstein,  Die 
Gestaltung  <I<t  Volksschvle  durch  <l'i<  Francke- 
schen  Pietismus  (1867).     (See  also  Germany.) 

FRANKLIN  COLLEGE,  at  Franklin.  Ind.. 
is  under  the  control  of  the  Baptists.  In  L834, 
a  number  of  Baptist  ministers  and  laymen  met 

at  Indianapolis  to  form  an  education  society. 
Bids  were  advertised  for  a  site  on  which  to 
plant  a  school.  'The  institution  was  first  called 
the  Baptist  Manual  Labor  Institute.  About  the 
year  1844,  the  name  was  changed  to  Franklin 
'  'ollege,  a  college  charter  was  secure  1.  and  college 
instruction  begun.       This  name  it  has  ever  since 

retained,  although  it  has  had  one  suspension  of 
five  years,  and  another  of  as  many  months.  The 
present  organization  dates  from  1871.  The  col- 
lege has  two  large  brick  edifices,  a  campus  of  1 '_' 
acres,  a  dwelling-house,  and  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus,  the  whole  valued  at  $40,000. 
The  endowment  amounts  to  $85,000.  The  libra- 
ries connected  with  the  institution  contain  about 
.'5,0(10  volumes.  It  has  both  a  preparatory  and  a 
Collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course.  Facilities  are  offered  for  in- 
struction  in    music  ami  painting.      Both  Bexes 

are  admitted.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  college 
i-  $28  per  year:  in  tin-  preparatory  department, 
$23  per  year.  In  1875  -6,  there  were  0  in- 
structors and  '.I!)   students,   of  whom    Is  were  in 

the  collegiate  department.  The  presidents  have 

been  the  Rev.  G.  C.  Chandler.  I  >.  I».. Silas  Bailey, 
l>.  I>.,  and  the  Rev.  W.  T.  Stott,  I  >.  I>..  the 
present  incumbent  ( 1  876  ). 

FRANKLIN  COLLEGE,  at  New    Athens, 

Harrison  Co.,  Ohio,  was  chartered  in   IS'_'.">.      It 

■   out   (if  the   Allna     \eademy.  which  had   been 

conducted    for  some   time   under  the  auspices  of 

the  Rev.  John  Walker,  a  Presbyterian  minister. 
The  college  was  early  involved  in  the  anti-slavery 
controversy, and,  in  I  8  10,  became  distinctively  an 
anti-slavery  institution.  It  comprises  a  prepara- 
tory and  a  collegiate  department,  the  latter  having 
a  classical  and  a  scientific  course.  Both  Bexes  are 
admitted.  The  library  contains  3,000  volumes. 
In  1-7  : — I.  there  were  s  instructors  and  148 
students  (21  collegiate  and  12]  unclassified).  In 
I  B75,  there  were  -il '.'  alumni.  The  presidents  i A 
the  college  have  been  as  follows:  The  Rev.  Dr. 
Wm.  McMillan,  L825     32;    the    Rev.  Richard 


Campbell.  L832— 5;  the  Rev.  Johnson  Welsh 
1835—6;  the  Rev.  Dr.  Joseph  Smith.  L837— 8; 
the  Rev.  Jacob  Coon,  pro  tern.,  L838 — !' ;  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Burnett,  1839 — 10;  the  Rev.  Edwin 
H.  Xevin.  1840 — 5;  the  Rev.  Dr.  Alexander 
I),  dark.  L845  -61  :  the  Rev.  R.  G.  Campbell. 
18fi7 — 71  :  and  A.  F.  Ross,  LL.  !»..  the  present 
incumbent  (1876),  appointed  in  1871.  During 
the  civil  war,  there  was  qo  regular  president. 

FRANKLIN  AND  MARSHALL  COL- 
LEGE, at  Lancaster,  I'a..  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Reformed  (German)  Church.  This  insti- 
tution was  founded  in  1853,  by  the  consolidation 
of  two  older  institutions.  -  Franklin  College, 
established  in  17.s7.at  Lancaster,  mainly  through 
the  exertions  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  also 
contributed  liberally  to  its  endowment,  and 
Marshall  College,  founded  in  L836,  and  trans- 
lated for  the  purpose  of  this  union  from  its  former 
location  at  ^Iercersburg,  Franklin  Co.  It  has 
an  endowment  fund  of  a  little  over  $100,000. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  $39  per  annum,  but  most 
of  the  students  receive  tuition  free  on  Standing 
scholarships.  The  curriculum  is  the  ordinary 
four  years'  classical  course  of  American  colleges. 
There  are  no  optional  courses  of  study,  in  which 
the  Student  is  allowed  to  choose  for  himself  what 
he  shall  learn.  The  college  receives  no  irregular 
students,  as  they  are  called,  and  has  no  provisional 

or  mixed  classes.  The  college  and  society  libra- 
ries contain  about  11,000  volumes.  Connected 
with    the  college  are  the  Franklin  and  Marshall 

Academy  and   the    Theological   Seminary  of  the 

Reformed  Church.    The  academy  is  designed  as 

a  training  school  for  those  who  desire  to  prepare 
for  college,  and  also  to  furnish  a  complete  aca- 
demical course  tor  those  who  do  not  propose  to 
take  a  full  collegiate  course  of  study.  The  full 
course  is  six  years.  The  full  course  in  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  is  three  years.  Tuition  is  tree. 
The  library  comprises  from  7,0(10  to  8,000  vol- 
umes. In  1875 — (i,  there  were  I  "J  instructors 
(college.  7  :  academy.  'J:  seminary.  3),  and  135 
students  (college,  07:  academy,  36;  seminary, 
32).  The  Qumber  of  alumni  of  Marshall  college 
was  182:  of  Franklin  and  Marshall  College  35H  ; 
total  540.  The  tirst  president  of  Franklin  ami 
Marshall    ('ollege    was    the    Rev.    Finnianuel    V. 

Gerhart,  D.  D.,  appointed  in  1855.  lie  continued 
in  office  till  1866,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  the 
Rev.  John  W.  Nevin,  l».  D.,  Id,.  I>..  the  present 
incumbent  ( L876). 

FREDERICK  COLLEGE,  at  Frederick, 
Md.,  was  organized  in  1  7 '. » T .  It  has  a  valuable 
mineralogies!  cabinet,  philosophical  and  chemical 
apparatus,  and  a  library  of  3,000  volumes.  There 
are  three  departments :  The  classical  department,  • 
including  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages,  also 
the  German,  with  related  subjects:  The  math- 
ematical and  higher  English  departments;  and 
the  elementary  department.  The  cost  ol  tuition 
in  these  departments  is.  respectively,  $60,  $40, 
and  $25;  but  there  is  an  extra  charge  of  $20 
per  annum  for  German.    G.  C,   Deaver,  A.  M., 

i-     I  v7ic  the  president. 

FREE  SCHOOLS.    See  Public  Schools. 


FRKEDMEXS  SCHOOLS 


FREEWILL  BAPTISTS 


323 


FREEDMEN'S  SCHOOLS.  A  proclama- 
tion issued  by  Presidenl  Lincoln,  Jan.  L,  L863, 
abolished  slavery  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
colored  people  Bet  tree  by  the  proclamation  re- 
ceived the  name  of  freedmen.  As  nearly  the 
whole  of  this  population    was  illiterate,    various 

charitable  and  religious  organizations  of  the 
North  began  at  once  to  exert  themselves  to  aid 
in  establishing  schools  and  employing  teachers 
for  them.  *  hi  March  3.,  1865,  an  act  of  Congress 
was  passed  establishing  a  special  "Bureau  of  Ref- 
ogees,  Freedmen,  and  Abandoned  Lands."  after- 
wards known  as  the  ••  Freedmen's  Bureau."  It 
remained  in  operation  until  Dec.  31.,  1868,  when 
its  functions  ceased,  with  the  exception  of  the 
educational  department,  which  continued  until 
July  L.  L870.  After  the  organization  of  the  Bu- 
reau, the  schools  already  existing  were  taken  in 
charge  by  it.  and  in  some  stales  were  carried  on 
entirely  by  aid  of  its  fund  and  under  its  provisions. 
A.  number  of  benevolent  and  religious  societies 
continued  to  co-operate  with  the  Bureau  in  the 
establishment  of  schools,  and  most  of  the  Amer- 
ican churches  expressly  included  the  care  of  the 
freedmen's  schools  among  the  objects  of  their 
home  missionary  societies,  or  of  special  Freed- 
men's  Aid  Societies  or  Committees.  A  general 
superintendent,  appointed  by  the  commissioner 
of  the  Bureau,  traveled  through  most  of  the 
Southern  states,  and  provided  for  the  establish- 
ment and  supervision  of  their  schools.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  number  of  day  and  night 
schools  from  which  regular  reports  were  received 
by  the  Bureau  during  the  years  stated ;  besides 
which  there  were  many  Sunday-schools,  industrial 
schools,  and  day  and  night  schools,  that  made 
only  occasional  reports  to  the  Bureau. 


Year 

Day  &  Night 
Schools 

Teachers 

Pupils 

Total  number 
of  pupils 

B66-... 
1867.. .. 

1868.... 
1869.... 
1870.... 

975 
1,839 
1,831 
2,118 
2,039 

1,405 
2,0s? 
2,296 
2,455 
2,563 

90,778 
111,442 

104,327 
114,522 
114,516 

150,000 
238,342 
241,819 
250,000 
247,333 

Of  the  schools  reported  in  1 870, 1 ,324  were  sus- 
tained wholly  or  partly  by  freedmen,  who  owned 
592  school  buildings;  74  schools,  with  8,147 
pupils,  were  high  or  normal  schools.  Of  the 
teachers,  1,251  were  white,  and  1 ,312  colored.  The 
whole  number  of  schools,  of  all  kinds,  was  4,239, 
with  9,307  teachers;  of  these.  l.."i(i'2  were  Sunday- 
schools,  with  O.tlOT  teachers  and  97,752  pupils, 
and  61  industrial  schools,  with  1,750  pupils. 
The  whole  amount  expended  for  educational 
purpose-,  to  Aug.  3] .,  1.^71 ,  was  83,71 1 ,26  I.  the 
iter  portion  of  which  was  for  the  erection 
and  renting  of  school  buildings.  The  Freedmen's 
Bureau  also  aided  in  the  establishment  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  schools  of  a  higher  grade  for 
the  colored  population,  in  some  cases  co-operating 
for  this  [impose  with  one  of  the  religious  denom- 
inations. Among  the  institutions  thus  found- 
ed, were  Howard  University,  Washington,  I».  C. 
(unsectarian) ;  Atlanta  University,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
(unsectarian);    Claflin    University,  Orangeburg, 


S.C.  (Method.  Episc.);  Straighl  University,  New 
Orleans.  La.  (Congregational) ;  Fisk  University 
(Method.  Epis.),  and  Central  Tennessee  College 
(unsectarian), both  at  Nashville, Tenn.;  Wayland 
Seminary  (Baptist  Theological),  Washington,  l>. 
C;  and  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural 
Institute,  at  Hampton,  \  a.  All  these  institu- 
tions still  exisi  (1876).  Since  the  abolition  of 
the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  efforts  for  maintaining 
and  enlarging  these  Bchools  have  chiefly  I 
made  by  the  American  churches,  nearly  all  of 
which  support  churches  as  well  as  schools  for  the 
benefit  of  the  colored  population.  The  impor- 
tance of  a  good  education  tor  a  population  which 
numbers   several   millions,  and  which,  although 

only  just  emerging  from  a  c lition  of  absolute 

illiteracy,  has  been  invested  with  all  the  rights 
and  duties  of  citizenship,  is  now  fully  recognized 
by  all  parties  in  the  country,  though  there  may 
be  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
best  means  to  reach  this  aim.  (See  COLORED 
Schools.)  None  of  the  American  churi  lies  ha.s 
carried  on  operations  in  behalf  of  the  freedmen's 
schools  on  so  large  a  basis,  as  the  .Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.  At  the  anniversary  of  the  Freed- 
men's Aid  Society  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  held  in 
Dec.  1875,  it  was  reported  that  the  total  disburse- 
ments of  that  society,  during  the  eight  years  of 
its  operations,  had  been  $523,000.  The  receipts 
of  the  last  financial  year  (ending  May  31.,  1875) 
were  $86,000.  The  Society  has  aided  in  the 
establishment  and  support  of  fourteen  institutions 
of  a  higher  grade  in  the  Southern  states.  It  has 
also  aided  in  the  support  of  many  common  schools. 
It  is  claimed  that  fifty  thousand  children  have 
been  taught  in  its  day  schools,  and  a  still  larger 
number  in  its  Sunday-schools  ;  that  more  than 
a  hundred  ministers,  and  over  a  thousand  teach- 
ers, have  been  instructed  in  the  institutions  it 
has  established  and  sustained,  and  that  upward 
of  forty  thousand  children  have  been  taught  by 
persons  whom  it  has  trained.  Besides  receiving 
this  aid  from  the  several  American  churches,  the 
schools  for  freedmen  have  had  considerable  sup- 
port from  tin'  Peabody  fund.  (See  Peabody.) 
FREEWILL  BAPTISTS,  a  section  of 
Baptists,  which  commenced  in  North  America 
in  L780.  The  name  was  reproachfully  given  by 
their  calvinistic  brethren  to  Benjamin  Randall 

ami  a,  few  other  Baptist  ministers  who  gave  spe- 
cial prominence  to  the  doctrine  of  the  freedom  of 
the  will  in  the  work  of  salvation.  Randall  and 
those  who  agreed  with  him  accepted  the  distinc- 
tive name,  and  used  it  alter  the  separation  from 
their  brethren  had  taken  place.    At  present,  they 

are  in  opposition  to  the  Regular  Baptists  chiefly 
on  the  Communion  question,  the  Freewill  Bap- 
tists being  Open  Communionists.  (See  Baptists.) 
A  number  of  churches,  conveniently  located.  unit< 
as  an  association,  and  hold  a  meeting  bj  delega- 
tion four  times  a  year,  which  is  called  a  Quarterly 
Meeting.  Several  Quarterly  Meetings,  similarly 
situated,  unite  and  meet  annually;  und  this  as- 
sociation is  called  a  Yearly  Meeting.  All  th( 
Yearly  Meetings  Send  representatives  to  the 
General  Conference,  which  meets  once   in   threi 


32  l 


FRENCH  LANGUAGE 


years.  They  agree  almost  wholly  in  doctrine 
with  the  GeneraJ  Baptists  in  England.  Inlsll. 
oearly  the  whole  body  of  another  Baptist  de- 
aomination,the  Free  <  lommunion  Baptists,  chiefly 
belonging  to  the  state  of  New  York,  united 
with  them;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  their 
congregations  in  North  Carolina  left  them,  and 

rai  thousands  of  Baptists  ill  Kentucky  and 
other  Southern  states,  who  agreed  with  them 
on  doctrinal  points,  were  refused  admission  to 
their  communion  in  consequence  of  the  very  de- 
cided position  which  the  church  assumed  against 
slave-holding.  More  recently.  negotiations  have 
been  begun  to  bring  about  a  union  with  the 
Church  of  God  (q.v.),as  the  two  churches  are 
essentially  one  in  principle:  bul  from  a  report 
made  to  the  Freewill  Baptist  General  Confer- 
ence in  L874,  it  appears  that  the  Church  of  God 
is  unwilling  to  give  up  its  present  name.  The 
Freewill  Baptists  reported,  in  L875,  38  yearly 
meetings,  L,399  churches,  L,185  ordained  preach- 
ers, and  72,128  members.  Of  the  yearly  m 
ings, one  is  in  British  America  and  one  in  India: 
the  others  are  in  the  United  States.  The  Free 
!  -a pt  ists  of  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  are 
in  full  agreement,  though  not  in  organic  union, 
with  the  Freewill  !  aptists;the  former,  in  L875, 
had  L38,  the  latter,  30  churches.  The  Freewill 
Baptists  have  2 1  literary  instit utions  for  second- 
ary or  higher  instruction,  six  of  which  are  col 
leges;     namely,    Hillsdale    College,    at   Hillsdale. 

IVfich.  (organized  in  L855);  Bate  College,  at 
Lewiston,  Me.  (1863);  Ridgeville  College, 
Ridgeville,  Ind.  (1867);  West  Virginia 
College,  at  Flemington,  W.  Va.  (1."" 
Storer  College,  at  Harper's  Ferry,  W.  Va. ; 
and  Wolsey  College,   at    Peach   Grove,  Tenn. 

Theological  schools  are  connected  with  Hills- 
dale and  Bates  colleges.  The  Freewill  Baptist 
Education  Society  has  invested  funds  to  the 
amount  of  $45,000,  the  interest  on  which  is 
chiefly  devoted  to  sustaining  theological  instruc- 
tion in  Hates  and  Hillsdale  colleges,  it  makes 
liberal  provision  in  aid  of  young  men  preparing 

for  the  ministry.     This  denomination,  from   the 

beginning  of  the  anti-slavery  Btruggle,  main- 
tamed  an  unwavering  and  strenuous  opposition 
to  slavery,  and  is  still  doing  good  service  for  the 

tier. linen,  especially  in  the  Shenandoah  and  Mis- 

sissippj  valleys.  Among  the  newspapers  issued 
by  the  denomination,  are   two  Sabbath-school 

papers,  which.  Iiy  alternating  with  each  other, 
furnish  a  weekly  issue,  It.»  Sabbath-school  work 
i-.  pursued  with  much  interest  and  vigor. 

FRENCH    LANGUAGE.       'Hie    French 
language  is  universally   recognized  as  standing, 

w  ith  the  English  and  <  ieriuan.  at   the  head  of  the 

languages  of  the  civilized  world.  Where^ 
knowledge  of  any  other  than  the  native  lan- 
guage is  valued,  French  is  sun'  to  have  its  claims 
considered.  I  fence,  in  the  schools  of  the  English- 
speaking  world.ii  usually  occupies,  with  the  Ger- 
man language,  a  place  in  the  course  of  instruct  ion. 
W  hatever  should  be  said  of  the  study  of  modern 
foreign  languages  ingenerahand  especiallj  of  the 
languages  of  great  nations,  like  those  of  France 


and  Germany,  is  reserved  for  the  .article  Modem 
Languages,  this  article  treating  only  of  what  be- 
longs to  the  French  language  exclusively. 
This  language  is  one  of  the  so-called  Romanic 

languages  (q.  v.!.  which,  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Western  Roman  empire,  sprang  from  the 
development     of    the  provincial   dialects  of    the 

empire,  and  from  the  Latin  colloquial  language 
[lingua  Romuna  rustica),  which  continued  to 
exist  by  the  side  of  the  refined  language  [sermo 
urban us),  and  was  carried  by  the  victorious 
armies  into  south-western  Europe.  In  Gaul,  the 
Latin  colloquial  language,  in  consequence  of  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  the  German  tribes, 
soon  became  the  only  medium  of  conversation 
between  the  people  of  the  various  tongues  ;  and. 

by  the  close  of   the  Tth  century,  displaced  all  the 

other  languages,  except  in  a  small  district  of  the 
north-west,  apart  of  Brittany,  where  a  Celtic  lan- 
:••.  like  that  of  primitive  Gaul,  maintained  it- 
self. Tin-  name  French  language,  which  is  derived 

from  the  Franks,  a  <  Vi-man  tribe,  w  ho  established 

i"  Ives  in  Gaul,  in  the  5th  century,  did  not 
come  into  general  use.  until  the  language  of  the 
Franks  (which,  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 
co-existed  with  the  latin  provincial  dialects  in 

the  northern   and  eastern   parts  of  the  country 
became  extinct.    The  dialects  which  could  lie  dis- 

tiished  in  the  language  thus  formed  grouped 
themselves  into  two  classes,  the  South  French 
[roman  provenpal,  langue  d'oc)  and  the  North 
French  [roman  wallon,  langue  doilor  d'oui). 
Both  d  iveloped  a  literature,  chiefly  poetical ;  but 
gradually  die  South  French,  in  which  the  Latin 
element  had  a  more  thorough  predominance, 
lost  ground,  and  the  North  French,  which  was 
more  largely  mixed  with  German  elements,  be- 
came the  language  of  the  entire  country.  In 
the  L6th  century,  Francis  1.  made  it.  in  place  of 
the  Latin,  the  language  of  public  transactions, 

and  thus  elevated  it  to  the  position  of  a  national 
language.   The  first  work  in  genuine  French  was 

published  in   the  1  Ith  century.       Since   the  With 

century,  the  development  of  the  language  made 
rapid  progress.  Richelieu  etablished  the  acade- 
mie  frangaisi  for  regulating  all  questions  relative 

to  the  national  language;  anil  under  Louis  X  1  V .. 
it  attained  a  high  scholastic  authority.     Even  in 

the  middle  ages,  the  French  language  was  known 
and  spoken  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of  its  native 
country.  It  was  the  court  language  of  England 
and  Scotland,  was  generally  understood  in  south- 
ern Italy  and  by  the  German  uobility,  and  was 
also  the  chief  language  of  the  merchants  in  the 

Last.      At      the    peace    of    Nimemien    (16<8),    it 

was.  f,,r  the  first  time,  used  as  the  language  of 
European  diplomacy;  and  this  position  it  has 
maintained  to  the  present  day.  It  is  the  national 
language  in  all  France, and  in  most  of  the  French 
Colonies,  as  well  as  in  south-western  Switzerland, 
and  also  in  llayti.  In  Belgium, though  spoken  by 
only  about  one  half  of  theentire  population,  it  is 

the  prevailing  language.  It  is  also  spoken  as  a 
native  language  by  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
pio\  ineeoi  Quebec,  and.  other  parts  of  the  I  domin- 
ion   of  Canada;    and  in  a  part  of  Lorraine  which. 


FRENCH   LANGUAGE 


325 


in  1st  I .  was  ceded  tot  lermany.  It  has,  to 
extent,  maintained  itself  in  that  part  of  the 
United  States,  which  formerly  belonged  to  France, 
especially  in  Louisiana  and  Missouri ;  hut  there 
it  has  gradually  receded  before  the  a  Ivance  of  the 
English  language,  and  will  doubtless  soon  be  ex- 
tinct.  The  inhabitants  of  the  English  Channel 
islands  speak  mostly  ;i  Franco-Norman  dialect; 
the  upper  classes,  however,  use  pure  French. 
About  twenty  different  dialects  and  patois  of 
tlu'  French  language  are  still  distinguished. 
Even  at  present,  no  language  is  probably 
studied  to  so  great  an  extent  by  foreigners  as 

the    French  :  ami.    therefore,  travelers    find    the 

knowledge  of  French  more  useful  than  that  of 
any  other  modern  language;  although,  in  this 
respect,  it  is  at  present  far  le.-.s  important,  as  com- 
pared with  the  English  ami  German  languages, 
than  it  \vas  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  instances 
are  also  now  very  rare  in  which  distinguished 
writers  ami  scientists,  like  Leibnitz,  Humboldt, 
Frederick  the  Great,  Gibbon,  Beckford,  and  Sir 
William  .Ions,  write  their  works  in  the  French 
language,  in  preference  to  their  vernacular,  either 
a-  a  niancr  of  taste  or  to  insure  to  their  writings 
a  wider  circulation. 

There  is  a  sufficient  number  of  literary  docu- 
ments extant  of  every  period  of  the  French  lan- 
guage, by  which  its  gradual  growth  may  he  traced 
from  its  first  formation  to  the  present  time.  It 
has  been   a   general  opinion  with   philologists, 

cially  classical  scholars,  that  the  origin  of  the 
French, as  well  as  the  other  Romanic  languages,  is 
to  be  found  in  the  gradual  corruption  of  the  Latin 
language,  which  was  finally  shattered  to  pieces  by 
the  German  conquest :  ami  tint,  when  these  frag- 
ments were  used  for  the  building  of  new  lan- 
guages, the  French  withdrew  farthest  from  the 
Latin  source.  More  recently,  the  researches  of 
comparative  linguistics  have  shown,  in  the  growth 
of  the  French  and  other  Romanic  languages, 
tlie  working  of  the  great  natural  laws  which  reg- 
ulate  the  formation  and  development  of  new 
languages;  and,  in  the  light  of  these  researches, 
much  that  formerly  was  looked  upon  as  a  deteri- 
oration, now  appears  as  a  development  and  an 
improvement.    If  we  see,  for  instance,  that  from 

Latin  word  kora,  the  new  French  language 
formed  a  Ion-'  seriesof  words,  as  or,  tors,  des-lors, 

•s,  lorsque,  incur",  dorenuvant,  desormais, 
heure,keures,  horaire,  each  with  a  different  idea  : 
it  is  obvious  that,  in  the  origin  of  the  French 
language,  there  was  not  only  the  decay  of  the  I«it- 

Ul,  but     the    creative    power    of    new  idea-;.      The 

abundance  of  simple  words  in  French,  where  the 
English  and  Germans  have  to  use  compounds,  is 
orally  couce  led  to  be  an  advantage;  as  French, 
pommier,  vigne;  English,  apple-tree,  vineyard. 
Am  commendable  qu  uities  of  the  French 

language,  are  generally  enumerated  its  logical 
precision,  neat  i  ss,  and  perspicuity  ;  while. on  the 
other  hand,  the  monotony  of  accentuating  the 
final  syllables, and  the  frequent  occurrence  of  the 
nasal  sound  mak  euphonious  and  rhyth- 

mical than  other  Romanic  languages.  Its  excel- 
lencies, therefore,  appear  to  greater  advantage  in 


prose  than  in  poetry.and  it  is  also  admirably 
suite!  for  conversation.  In  common  with  most 
other  Romanic  languages,  it  has  introduced  from 
the  Teutonic  languages  the  use  of  auxiliary  verbs 

with  personal  pronouns  in  the  place  of  the  Latin 
inflections;  asj'aiaime  (German,  ick  h<th>-  ge- 
'.  for  amavi,  I  have  loved;  also  the  use  of  two 
articles. a  definiteand  an  indefinite,  the  material 
•  >f  Loth  being  taken  from  the  Latin  (A  .  /,/  from 
Vie,  iUa;  mi,  une  from  unus,  una);  as  lepere.the 
father,  lamere,  the  mother;  un  pere,a  father.; 
une  mere,  a  mother;  for  (Latin)  patm-,  father.; 
mater,  mother  (German,  der  Voter,  die  Mutterj 
ein  Voter,  eine  Mutter).  Like  its  Romanic  sisters, 
it  appears  less  inllected  than  any  Teutonic  lan- 
guage, l>y  the  entire  loss  of  case-endings  in  nouns, 
as  du  pere,  the  father's  (German,  des  Voters,; 
Latin,  patris). 

The  French  language  is  studied  in  most  of  the 
secondary  and  higher  schools  of  English-speaking 
nations,  besides  being  taught  by  a  host  of  private 
teachers.    In  a  huge  number  of  schools,  it  is  still 
the   only   modern    language   studied;    in   many 
others,  in  which  provision   is  also  made  for  Ger- 
\  man  and  other  modern  languages,  special  promi- 
nence is  assigned  to  French.     Especially  is  this 
the  ease  in  female  colleges,  seminaries,  and  acad- 
emies, both  in  England  and  in  the  United  States ; 
and  in  these  institutions  particular  stress  is  usu- 
ally laid, in  the  prospectus, on  the  opportunity  af- 
forded to  obtain  a  thorough  knowledge  of  French. 
The  German  language   is.   however,   competing 
with  the  French.  a\u\   now    frequently    holds   a 
place  by  the  side  of  it  in  many  institutions  in 
which  formerly,  dining   many  generations,  the 
latter  was  exclusively  pursued.    As  the  secondary 
and  higher  institutions  of  Loth  England  and  the 
United  States  are  not  regulated   by  a  central 
government,  but  are  more  or  less  independent  in 
the  arrangement  of  their  courses  of  instruction, 
the  study  of  French  is  not  pursued,  in  any  large 
class  of  institutions,  according  to  a  uniform  plan  : 
but  its  regulation  has  been,  to  a  very  great  extent, 
influenced  by  habit   and  fashion.     As  French  is 
pre-eminently  looked    upon    as  the  language  of 
a    refined   people,    ami    is  the    favorite  foreign 
language  of  the  upper  classes  in   mosl  civilized 
c  luntries,  principals  of  schools  are  in  luce  I,  more 
than  iii  the  case  of  anj  oth  ir  foreign  language, to 
embody  it  in  the  couise  of  studies  merely  as  a 
means  of  eomnieii  b'ng  their  scho  Is  to  favor  and 
patronage.  In  such  s  bools,  the  time  and  attention 
given  to  this  study  are  generally  insufficient  t" 
cure  any  progress  of  importance,  and,  cona  quently 
in  great  part,  wasted.     Where  the  study  of 
French  is  dictated  bypropi  r  motives,  the  mistak 
frequ<  ntlymadein  providing  for  it  a  course  of  only 
one.  two.  or  i  bree  years,  sometimes  with  only  one 
recitation  a.  week  ;  and  in  discontinuing  it  in  the 
higher  classes.     The  aim  in  all  these  institutions. 

without  doubt,  should  he  to  impart,  besides  the 

correct  foreign  pronunciation. a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  the  language,  with  a  constant  refi  t 
ence  to  the  English,  and  to  furnish  the  key  for 
the  understanding  of  its  truly  magnificent  liter- 
ature.    It  is  desirable  to  use  the  French,  as  far 


326 


FRENCH  LANGUAGE 


as  possible,  in  the  recitations,  in  order  to  famili- 
arize the  ear  of  the  student  with  the  spoken 
language,  and  also  to  afford  him  some  practice  in 
speaking  it.  The  ability  to  speak  the  French 
language,  however,  cannot  be  acquired  in  school 
except  within  very  narrow  limits.  To  discontinue 
the  study  after  a  fair  knowledge  of  grammar  and 
reading  has  been  acquired,  is  a  serious  educational 
error.  Where  the  Study  is  introduceil.it  should  be 
continued  without  interruption  until  the  com- 
pletion of  the  school  course.  When  it  is  intended 
to  teach  pupils. to  Speak  French  fluently,  a  course 
of  instruction  of  at  least  four  years  should  be 
provided,  with  daily  exercise,  and  constant  inter- 
course with  a  French  teacher.  The  French,  in 
this  respect,  does  not  differ  from  any  other  mod- 
ern Iangage.     (See  Modern  Languagi 

Instruction  in  French,  as  in  every  other  foreign 
language,  begins  with  the  acquisition  of  a  correct 
pronunciation.  Next  to  English,  French  is  the 
least  phonetic  of  all  languages;  and.  there- 
fore, a  large  number  of  rules  must  be  learned 
before  the  pupil  is  able  to  pronounce  ordinary 
words.  It  is  important  that  this  pronunciation 
should  be  learned,  partly  at  least,  by  means  of  an 
imitation  of  the  teacher's  pronunciation.  Memoriz- 
ing lessons,  before  the  correct  pronunciation  has 
been  acquired  ispositively  injurious.  The  French 
grammar  offers  mil  few  peculiarities  and  difficul- 
ties. The  absence  of  case-endings  and  of  many 
other  inflections, and  the  paucity  of  simple  tenses 
and  of  changes  in  the  radical  part  of  irregular 
verbs,  facilitate  the  reading  of  a  French  author  at  a 
very  earh  stage  of  instruction.  The  chief  peculiar- 
ities, such  as  the  interrogative  .and  negative  form 
of  sentences,  ought  to  be  frequently  practiced. 
Attention  should  be  called  to  the  relationship 
■which  the  Latin  and  the  Norman  elements  of 
the  English  language  b'ar  to  both  English  and 
French.  Simple  exercises  in  etymology  rnaygreat- 
ly  facilitate  the  early  acquisition  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  words,  to  enable  the  pupil  to  read  easy 
writers  without  a  too  frequeni  use  ot  the  dic- 
tionary. If  French  is  studied  by  pupils  who  pos- 
sesa  some  knowledge  of  Latin,  this  knowledge  can 
be  used  togreaf  advantage  in  etymological  illus- 
tration, and  in  giving  a  clear  view  of  the  peculiar 
character  of  the  Romanic  languages.  The  under- 
standing  of  French  authors  can  be  made  quite 

easy    for    mOSl     pupils,  who   soon    find    that    the 

majority  of  the  wor  Is  have  equivalents  from  th  ■ 
same  roots  in  their  own  language.  The  reading 
should, therefore,  he  rapid  and  not  too  much  inter- 
rupted by  grammatical  or  literary  remarks.  The 
aim.  at  first,  should  lie  to  make  the  langC 
familiar  to  the  pupil  :  as    he   advances,  it  will  lie 

easy,  without  any  sacrifice  of  time,  to  call  at- 
t  ntion   to   the   rhetorical   excellencies    of    the 

I   I   inch    classics.       <  'lassie    prose    should     precede 

poetry,  and  should  be  read  to  a  much  larger  ex- 
tent. The  great  prose  writers  of  the  1 7th  and 
lsih  centuries  have  some  claims  to  the  privilege 

Of  being  lead  firSl   ;  at  all  event-,  they  should  ma 

be  neglected.  French  literature  is  exceedingly  rich 
in  works  suited,  in  every  respeel ,  for  beginners  : 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  modern  writers  should 


deprive  Fenelon's  Telemaque  and  Voltaire's 
Charles  XII  oi  the  deserved  popularity  which 
they  have  so  long  enjoyed.  In  selecting  modern 
writers,  teachers  should  exercise  the  greatest  care 
to  avoid  all  works  the  contents  of  which  are  ob- 
jectionable. In  general,  the  reading  of  foreign 
authors  who  in  a  marked  manner  reflect  the 
national  peculiarities  of  their  country,  is  to 
be  preferred;  but  whenever  there  is  reason 
to  apprehend  that  the  impressions  thus  made 
upon  the  pupil's  mind  may  weaken  his  patri- 
otic sentiments,  there  will  be  need  of  the  ex- 
er  ise  of  caution.  —  There  is.  generally,  too  little 
time  in  English  and  American  institutions  for 
the  study  of  French  literature.  In  most  cases, 
the  time  devoted  to  it  maybe  more  profitably 
spent  in  improving  the  pupil's  technical  knowl- 
edge of  the  language.  Of  course,  advanced 
pupils  should  become  acquainted  with  the  most 
celebrated  authors  as  well  as  a  rudimentary  out- 
line of  the  literary  history  of  France  ;  but  most 
of  this  can  best  be  learned  as  an  introduction  to 
the  reading  of  the  standard  writers.  Good  French 
reading -books,  with  literary  introductions  to  the 
different  authors,  may  he  used  for  this  purpose,  es- 
pecially iii  advanced  classes,  with  great  advantage. 
Tlie  reading  of  selections  which  would  make  the 
pupil  acquainted  with  the  peculiar  style  ami  ex- 
cellencies of  (  orncille.  Racine,  Moliere,  Boileau, 
Fenelon,  etc.  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. :  of  Vol- 
taire. Rousseau,  Montesquieu, Florian, &c, of  the 
philosophical  century;  of  Chateaubriand,  Be- 
ranger,  Lamartine,  V.  Hugo,  6.  Sand,  Guizot, 
Thiers.  Michelet,  Ac,  of  modern  times,  is  prefer- 
able to  the  exclusive  reading  of  one  or  two  entire 
works  of  French  literature. —  When  colloquial  ex- 
ercises constitute  the  chief  part  of  French  instruc- 
tion.and  to  acquire  fluency  of  speech  is  the  chief 
aim.  caiv  should  be  exercised  that  the  command 
of  the  language  thus  obtained  may  give  to  the 
pupil  something  more  than  a  collection  of  trivial 
phrases  and  unmeaning  expressions  of  politeness. 
Eminent  educators  have  often  called  attention 
to  the  dangerous  influence  which  a  knowledge, 
so  exclusively  formal  and  without  substance, may 
exercise  upon  the  pupil's  mind. 

The  first  grammar  of  the  French  language  was 
written  by  an  English  author.  Palsgrave  i/As- 
clai'cissement  de  lalangnejranpoyse,  Loud. ,1530; 
new  edit,  by  ( renin,  Paris,  1 852).  It  was  followed 
by  another  grammar  likew  ise  for  English  persons, 
ly  <dles  dii  Guez   (likewise  edited   by  Genin). 

The  tir.M  -laminar  published    in   France,   by  JaC- 

<|iies  Dubois (Sylvii in linguam  Gallicam  isagoge, 
Paris,  L531), was  written  in  the  Latin  language. 
Great  progress  was  visible  in  the  works  of 
Robert  and  Henry  Stephens  (q.  v.).  Among  the 
later  grammars  published  by  French  scholars  the 
most  highly  valued  are  those  by  the  Port-Royal 

writers.  Lancelot  and  Arnauld  (1660),  de  Wailly 
(1754),  Girault-Duvivier  (1811),  Landais  (1836), 
Bescherelle,  Noeland  <  ihapsal,  Poite>  in.  Boniface, 
I.  t  llier  and  l.aroiissc  Among  the  grammat- 
ical works  on  the  French  language  written  by 
foreigners,  the  works  by  Matzner,  (Syntax  der 
n  ufranzdsischen  Sprache,  2  vols.  Berlin,  L843 — 


FRIENDS 


327 


1845, and  Franz&sische  Grammatik,  Berlin,]  856) 
ate  especially  esteemed  by  French  scholars.  -The 
first  noteworthy  dictionary  of  the  French  language 
was  published  by  Robert  Stephens  |  Dictionnaire 
franpais-latin,  1539).  It  went  through  many 
editions,  and  received  additions  from  several 
authors,  the  most  prominent  of  whom  was  .lean 
Nicot  (1573).  The  dictionary  by  Richelet  (Ge- 
neva, L680)  embraced  etymology  within  its  scope, 
and  gave  quotations  from  French  authors.  'I  be 
Dictionnaire  universel  by  Antoine  Furetiere 
(Hague.  l(i!MI)  was  a  kind  of  general  encyclopae- 
dia. A  revision  of  this  work,  made  by  the  Jesuits, 
became  celebrated  under  the  name  Dictionnaire 
de  Jrevoux  (1704),  but  was  declared  by  the 
French  Academy  a  plagiarism.  The  first  edition 
of  the  Dictionnaire  de  YAcademie  FYancaise 
appeared  in  L698,  and  was  at  once  accepted  by 
the  country  as  the  standard  lexical  authority. 
The  6th  edition  appeared  in  1835;  supplements  to 
this  edition  were  published  by  Raymond  (1836), 
Landais  i  L837),  Barre,  18  L2,  and  others;  a  7th  edi- 
tion, to  be  completed  in  2  vols.,  was  in  progress  in 
l-s7(i.  It  is  edited  by  Patin,  with  whom  de  Sacy, 
Sandeau,  C.  Doucet,  and  Mignet  are  associated. 
On  the  basis  of  the  dictionary  of  the  French 
Academy,  numerous  smaller  works  have  been 
constructed,  the  most  noted  of  which  are  those 
by  Boiste  (1801),  Landais,  Bescherelle  (2  vols., 
1851),  Poitevin  (1854),  Dochez  (1860),  Larousse 
i  L865).  The  new  work  by  Littre  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
L863 — 73)  is  regarded  as  the  best  of  all  diction- 
aries of  the  French  language.  A  historical  die- 
tionary  of  the  French  language,  on  a  grand  scale, 
lias  been  begun  by  the  French  Academy,  The 
first  volume,  published  in  1858,  contains  only  the 
articles  from  A  to  Abu. — -Dictionaries  merely 
etymological  have  been  published  by  Menage, 
Borel,  du  Fresne,  Pongens,  Roquefort  (1829), 
Noel  and  Carpentier  1831),  Charrasin  (1842), 
Mazure  (18(53),  Scheler  (1862).— The  best  works 
en  the  history  of  the  French  language  are  those 
by  Wey  [Histoire  des  revolutions  du  langage 
en  France.  Paris,  1848),  Genin  (Des  variations 
du  langage frangais  depuis  le  \1me  siecle,  Paris, 
Is  l.")).and  Littre  (  Histoire  de  la  languefranpaise 
3  vols..  Paris,  1863). —  The  standard  works  on 
French  synonyms  are  those  by  Girard  (1736), 
Beauzee  il7ti!i).  Roubaud  (1785),  and  Guizot 
(1809 — 22).  —  Complete  histories  of  French 
literature  have  been  published  byNisard  (4  vols. 
L846  —HI  i.  Demogeot  (3vols.,1857),andGeruzez 
('-'  vols..  1852). —  In  connection  with  the  other 
Romanic  languages,  the  French  has  been,  gram- 
matically and  lexically,  treated  in  the  standard 
works  of  Diez  on  these  languages.  [Grammatik 
</•■/■  riimaiiisrlti'ii  Sprarlii'it,  3  vols.,  1836 — 12, 
-1th  edit.,  1876  ;  and  Etymologisches  fV&rterbuch 
tier  roman.  Sprachen,  1853,  3d  edit.  1869,Engl. 
trans,  by  Donkin,  1864). 

FRIENDS,  Society  of,  commonly  called 
</  i  ikers,  a  religious  denomination  which  was 
organized  in  England,  in  the  17th  century,  by 
George  Fox.  lie  began  his  religious  reform  in 
1647,  and  only  a  few  years  later,  in  L 655,  the 
first  of  his  followers  came  to  America.    In  !  827, 


a  schism  took  place  in  the  Philadelphia  Yearly 
Meeting,  which  afterwards  extended  to  most  of 
the  other  yearly  meetings  in  America.  Both 
parties  claim  the  exclusive  right  to  the  denomina- 
tional title  of  the  Religious  Society  of  Friends. 
One  division  is  known  as  Orthodox,  a  title 
which  they  claim  as  being  nearest  the  original 
Friends  in  their  religious  views ;  and  the  other 
division  is  called  llicksite.  from  Elias  I  licks,  a 
leading  member  of  that  branch  ;  but  these  disdain 
that  title,  and  call  themselves  only  Friends,  ac- 
knowledging no  man  as  their  leader.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Hicks  do  not  insist  on  uniformity  of 
belief  in  some  of  the  tenets  which  the  t  hthodox  re- 
gard as  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity, but  desire  that  every  one  should  be  fully  per- 
suaded in  his  own  mind.  They  are,  in  particular, 
charged  by  the  Orthodox  Friends  with  holding 
Socinian  views  in  regard  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
Trinity  and  of  Satisfaction.  The  Friends  recog- 
nize only  a  ministry  of  Divine  appointment, 
and  regard  it  as  unchristian  to  take  an  oath  or 
to  go  to  war.  As  they  do  not  have  clergymen, 
they  can  allowr  no  system  of  theological  training, 
and  are,  therefore,  entirely  without  theological 
schools.  The  Orthodox  Friends  have  twelve 
yearly  meetings,  the  oldest  of  which,  that  of 
London,  is  regarded  by  the  others  with  respectful 
affection  as  the  mother  of  yearly  meetings.  The 
number  of  members  in  England  and  Ireland  is 
about  17,000.  There  are  settlements  of  Friends 
in  France.  Germany,  Norway.  .Madagascar,  and 
in  several  parts  of  Australasia. all  of  which  make 
annual  reports  to  the  London  Yearly  Meeting,  and 
acknowledge  subordination  to  it.  The  member- 
ship in  the  United  States  is  about  60,000;  in 
the  entire  world,  85,000.  The  other  party  (the 
Hicksites)  have  six  yearly  meetings  with  about 
35,000  members.  The  Orthodox  Friends  have, 
in,  the  United  States,  four  colleges ;  namely, 
Haverford  College,  in  Pennsylvania  (organized 
in  1830);  Earlham  College,  at  Richmond,  Ind. 
(1859),  Whittier  College,  at  Salem,  Iowa  (1868), 
and  Penn  College,  at  Oskaloosa,  Iowa.  They  also 
have  large  boarding  schools,  the  most  noted  of 
which  are  those  of  West  Town,  Pa.,  Provi- 
dence, P.  I.,  Union  Springs,  N.  V.,  and  Xew 
Garden,  N".  * '.  in  England  and  Ireland,  there 
are  also  several  educational  institutions  of  merit 
under  the  care  of  the  society.  Considering 
the  small  number  of  Friends  in  Great  Lritain 
and  Ireland,  the  educational  advantages  of  the 
society  are  unequaled  by  any  religious  com- 
munity. The  Flounders  College,  at  Ackworth 
near  Pontyfract.  is  the  only  college  belonging 
to  the  Friends.  It  was  founded  in  L784,  has 
an  endowment  of  £40,000,  and  is  exclusively  de- 
voted to  the  training  of  young  men  for  teachers 
in  the  Friends'  educational  establishments,  or 
in  their  families.  Ackworth  School,  also  at  Ack- 
worth. is  the  chief  public  school  of  the  society. 
and  has  an  endowment  of  £37,000.  All  the 
pupils  (about  I  so  boys  and  120  girls)  are  board- 
ers.    Besides    Ackworth,    the    Friends    posj 

public  scl Is  at  Croydon  (endowment  £30,000), 

Sidcot    (£15,000),   VVigton   (£12,000),   Rawden, 


:52s 


FROEBEL 


FURMAN   UNIVERSITY 


r  Leeds  I  £5,000),  Penketh,  near  Warrington 

(  £4,000),  Sibford     £10,0 Ayton,  near  Dar- 

lington  £14,000),  Newton,  Waterford;  Mount- 
meUick  (£9,000),  Lisburn  (£11,000),  Brookfield 
,000).  First-day  schools  (Sunday-schools)  are 
conducted  in  all  the  yearly  meetings  with  zeal 
and  efficiency,  and  North  Carolina  has  taken  the 
lead  in  the  establishment  of  a  normal  first-day 
school.  The  other  branch  (the  Hieksites)  have, 
in  the  cities  of  New  Fork,  Philadelphia,  Bal- 
timore and  Richmond,  bad.,  extensive  and  well- 
conducted  schools,  adapted  to  a  high  standard 
of  useful  and  practical  education.  There  are  also 
numerous  schools  of  varie  1  character  through- 
oat  the  yearly  meetings.  Swarthmore  College, 
near  Philadelphia,  was  organized  in  L869,  and  is 
intended  for  three  hundred  pupils  of  both  sexes. 
FROEBEL,  Friedrich,  a  celebrated  <  rerman 
educator,  and  the  inventor  of  the  kindergarten 
system  of  school  instruction,  was  born  in  Ober- 
weissbach,  Thuringia,  April  21.,  L782,  and  died 
in  Marienthal,  June  21.,  1852.  Ee  was  the  son 
of  a  Lutheran  clergyman,  but  had  few  oppor- 
tunities for  education,  leaving  homo  at  the  early 
age  of  L 3,  to  become  a  forester's  apprentice.  As 
such  he  learned  the  elements  of  geometry  and 
surveying,  and  acquired  the  means  to  pre] 
himself  for  the  university  of  Jena  ;  but  his  funds 
being  exhausted,  he  was  compelled  to  shift  for 
himself  in  various  stations,  until,  in  L803,  he 
was  employed  as  a  teacher  in  a  model  school  in 
Frankfort  on  the  Main.  To  acquaint  himself 
witli  the  details  of  Pestalozzis  reforms  in  educa- 
tion, he  became  his  associate  iu  the  school  at 
Everdun,  Switzerland,  from  L807  to  L810.  lie 
then  continued    his   studies  at  the  universities  of 

Gottingen  and  Berlin;  hut.  in  L81?,  he  took  pari 
as  a  volunteer  in  Lutzow's  celebrated  campaign 
against  Napoleon  I.  En  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  inspector  of  the  mineralogies] 
museum  in  Berlin;  hut  he  resigned  that  posi- 
tion in  1816  to  found  in  Griesheim,  Thu- 
ringia, a  school,  which  he  soon  after  transferred 

tO  keilhau.  near  Ludolstadt.  His  system  of 
education,  as  practiced  here  for  fifteen  years,  was 

based  on  the  principle  of  cultivating  the  self- 
activity  of  the  pupil,  by  connecting  manual 
labor  with  everystudy.  Not  fully  satisfied,  how- 
ever, with  the  results  of  his  experiments,  he  left 
his  school  to  the  guidance  of  three  devoted  and 
excellent  assistants.   -  Middendorf,    Barop,  and 

Langethal,  and    went    to   Switzerland,    where   he 

hoped  to  find  more  support  in  his  reformatory 
plans.  He  founded  a  school  first  in  Willisau, in 
12,  anil  afterwards  another  in  Burgdorf,  in 
1835,  which  lie  again  left  to  he  carried  on  by 
M  iddendorf  ami  Langethal,  and  returned  to  <  rer- 
mauy  in  order  to  realize  his  plan  of  kindergarten 
.schools,  lie  had  become  entirely  convinced 
that  no  thorough  educational  reform  could  he 
effected,  without  changing  the  methods  of  the 
earliest  instruction.  The  powers  of  the  infant's 
mind,  before  they  become  stunted    by  neglect, 

lie  held,  mUSl  he  harinoli  ioiid  v  developed,  i '  I  .ill  ill- 

rtitut specially  adapted  to  prepare  these  young 

minds  for  i  he  ordinary  processes  of  school  instruc- 


tion. In  this  institution,  teachers  were  also  to  he 
trained  for  the  special  work  of  infant  education. 
Such  a  school  he  calle  1  a  Kindergarten,  that  is, 
a  garden  for  children,  partly  because  it  was  to  he 
located  in  a  hall  within  a  garden, and,  partly,  he- 
cause  the  children  were  to  he  treated  like  plants, 
being  carefully  tended,  and  aided  in  the  natural 
development  of  their  powers.  His  first  attempt 
at  a  practical  realization  of  this  scheme,  was  made 
in  Blankenburg,  Thuringia,  in  1840;  the  second, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  Duchess  of  Meiningen, 
in  Liebenthal,  in  1849,  in  the  latter  of  which 
places  In-  began  the  training  of  young  women  to 
be  kindergarten  teachers.  Other  kindergartens 
were  opened  in  several  of  the  German  cities — 
Dresden,  Hamburg,  etc..  previous  to  Froebel's 
death,  in  L852.  Before  his  death,  he  had  the 
mortification  to  find  the  establishment  of  state 
or  public  kindergartens  forbidden  by  the  Prus- 
sian .Minister  Yon  Pannier,  who  supposed  their 
founder  to  he  Karl  Froebel, his  nephew,  who  was 
charged  with  being  a  democratic  agitator  and  so- 
cialist. Like  all  self-educated  persons.  Froebel  was 
deficient  in  logical  clearness,  especially  in  writ- 
ing, when  a  Hood  of  ideas  overwhelmed  him:  as 
a  practical  teacher,  he  was  wonderfully  impress- 
ive and  clear.  Awkward  in  appearance,  indif- 
ferent to  the  conventionalities  of  life,  and  always 
filled  with  one  interest,  one  range  of  ideas  and 

efforts,  he.  nevertheless,  exerted  on  all  genuine 
educators  who  came  in  contact  with  him.  irre- 
spective of  creed,  station  in  life,  or  party,  an 
almost  magical  influence.  Although  a  devout 
Christian  and  religionist,  lie  was  entirely  un- 
sectarian;  although  a  revolutionary  thinker  in 
most  respects,  lie  kept  free  from  all  attempts  at 
practical  revolution;  although  a  cosmopolitan 
and  lover  of  mankind,  he  was  an  ardent  national 
German;  ami  although  in  theory  he  was  most 
uncritical,  in  speech  incoherent  and  hardly  in- 
telligible, his  system  of  methods  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mind  is  eminently  practical,  syste- 
matic, and  effect  ive.  The  most  complete  biog- 
raphy Of  Froebel  is  that  written  by  A.  I'».  1 1  insch- 
vi.vw  (Eisenach,  1874);  shortei  ones  are  found 
in  W'nn  vim  Lange's  complete  edition  of  Froe- 
bel's  pedagogical  works  (3  vols.  Berlin,  L862),in 
Dibsterwbo's  RJieinische  Blatter  (1860),  in  the 
journal  Wrziehung der  Gegenwart  (1874,sq.)  hy 
the  Baroness  Marenholtz-Buelow.  and  in  A.ua. 
i\(K:u.Ki;'s  Praxis  des  Kindergartens  (3  vols., 
Weimar).  An  excellent  biographical  sketch  has 
also  been  written  by  Matilda  II.  Kriege  (New 
York.  L876).     (See  Kindergarten.) 

FURMAN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Creenville, 
S.  »'..  founded  in  L850,  is  under  Baptist  control. 
It  has  ample  buildings  beautifully  located  on  a 
tract  of  land,  of  some  forty  acres,  its  endow- 
ment was  almost  wholly  lost  by  the  war.  The 
remnant  spared   has  recently  been  augmented  by 

an  addition  of  $200,000  in  1 ds  bearing  7  per 

cent  interest.      Hereafter  tuition  will  be  freefor 

III  years.  The  university  has  an  educational 
fund  of  about  $10,000,  the  interest  of  which  is 
to  aid  young  men  who  are  preparing  for  the 
ministry.     It  comprises  eight   schools:  namely, 


GALES  VILLK   UNIVERSITY 


CAM  ES 


329 


Roman  literature:  Greek  language  and  litera-! 
tur»- :  mathematics  and  mechanical  philosophy; 
natural  philosophy;  chemistry  and  natural 
history;  logic,  rhetoric,  and  the  evidences  of 
Christianity;  metaphysics;  and  English  litera- 
ture.   Students  are  allowed  entire  freedom   in 

the  selection  of   the  schools  which   they  desire  to 

attend.  The  t'nl I  course  tor  a  degree  of  A.  I!. 
extends  through  tour  years.  The  preparatory 
department  was  discontinued  in  L 869,  and  has 
be^n  succeeded  by  the   Greenville  High  School. 


The  theological  departmenl  was  abandoned  some 

years  after  the  organization  of  the  university,  in 
older  to  make  ii  the  germ  of  the  Southern  Bap- 
tist Theological  Institution,  which  holds  its  ses- 
sions ai  Greenville,  and  has  .">  professors.  The 
university,  in  1*71  -5,  had  •">  professors.  .">  I  stu- 
dents, and  Tit  alumni.  The  Rev.  James  < !.  I  'ur- 
man,  D.D.,  has  been  the  presiding  officer  of  the 

institution  since  its  opening. 

FURNITURE,     SCHOOL.       See    School 
Furniture. 


GALESVILLE  UNIVERSITY,  at  Gales- 
ville.  Wis.,  chartered  in  L859,  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  the -Methodist  Episcopal  Church.     Both 

se\es  are  admitted.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  and  an  endowment  of  $15,000.  It  has  a 
library  of  over  4,000  volumes,  a  cabinet  of  natural 
history,  and  apparatus  for  the  illustration  of  nat- 
ural philosophy,  chemistry,  and  astronomy.  It 
has  a  preparatory  anil  a  collegiate  department 
with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course,  and  a  course 
in  modern  languages  and  in  music.  The  cost  of 
tuition  in  the  preparatory  department  is  8-1  per 
year.  and.  in  the  collegiate  department.  827.  In 
1874 — ;"i.  there  were  7  instructors;  and  the  num- 
ber of  students  was  as  follows:  in  the  collegiate 
department.  '!'.>■.  in  the  preparatory,  96;  in  music. 
"J~:  total,  deducting  repetitions,  135.  The  Hon. 
George  (ode.  LL.  1)..  was  the  president  of  the 
university  from  !*.">!»  to  18(14,  when  the  Rev. 
Harrison  Gilliland,  D.D.,  the  present  incumbent 
76),  was  elected. 

GALL,  Franz  Joseph,  a  German  physician 
ami  the  founder  of  phrenology,  was  born  at 
Tiefenbronn,  in  Baden,  March  9.,  1758,  and 
died  at  Montrouge,  near  Paris,  Aug.  22.,  1828. 
The  first  impulse  to  his  phrenological  inves- 
tigations was  given  by  tin'  observation  made  by 
him.  when  a  boy,  that  all  pupils  who  excelled 
in  committing  pieces  to  memory  had  prominent 
eyes.  Gradually  proceeding  in  his  observations, 
he  thought  he  perceived  in  the  human  head 
external  marks  of  other  intellectual  and  moral 
faculties:  and.  after  twenty  years  of  uninterrupt- 
ed study,  he  believed  that  he  hail  discovered 
about  twenty  organs  of  different  faculties,  in 
179(i.  he  began  to  lecture  on  his  peculiar  theory 
in  Vienna  :  but,  in  1*0'.!,  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment interdicted  his  lectures  on  the  ground  that 
they  were  dangerous  to  religion.  This  charge, 
which  has  since  been  often  repeated,  against  the 
phrenologists,  was  stoutly  denied  by  Gall,  who, 
on  the  contrary,  contended  that  training  in 
early  youth  could  overcome  a  vicious  disposi- 
tion, and  that,  therefore,  a  knowledge  of  phre- 
nology, which  revealed  better  than  any  other 
means  of  observation,  the  good  and  bad  disposi- 
tions of  men,  was  of  great  importance  to  every 
educator.  Gall  had  many  followers,  the  most 
noted  of  whom  was  Spurzheim,  the  author  of 
A  View  of  tin'  Elementary  Principles  of  Edu- 
cation I  l-'.din,  1821  ),  and  other  important  works. 


GALLAUDET,  Thomas  Hopkins,  a  noted 
teacher  and  philanthropist,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Dec.  Id.,  17*7,  and  died  in  Hartford, 
Ct.,  Sep.  9.,  1851.  He  graduated  at  rale  College 
in  1805,  entered  the  theological  seminary  at 
Andover,  in  1*11.  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1*14;  bulj, becoming  interested  in  the  instruction 
of  deaf-mutes,  he  turned  his  attention  almost 
entirely  to  that  subject.  Soon  after,  lie  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  an  institution 
founded  for  the  purpose  at  Hartford,  and  in 
L815,  visited  Europe  in  its  behalf.  Finding 
that  the  accomplishment  of  his  purpose  to  enter 
the  London  Asylum  as  a  pupil  would  lie  de- 
layed, and  a  similar  purpose  for  the  institution 
at  Edinburgh  entirely  thwarted,  he  sought  an 
introduction  to  the  abbe  Sicard,  then  in  Lon- 
don, and  was  invited  by  him  to  visit  Paris, 
where  every  facility  was  afforded  him  to  study 
the  system  of  deaf-mute  instruction  there  in 
vogue.  In  July  1816,  he  returned  to  this  country 
with  Mr.  Laurent  Clerc,  one  of  the  ablesi 
pupils  and  assistants  of  the  abbe  Sicard.  ami 
founded,  with  a  class  of  seven  pupils,  the  Amer- 
ican Asylum  at  Hartford — the  first  institution 
of  the  kind  in  this  country.  After  thirteen 
years' superintendence,  he  resigned,  in  1830,  his 
position  as  principal,  on  account  of  failing  health. 
From  that  time  till  his  death,  in  L851,  be  gave 
his  attention  liberally  to  all  educational  ami 
benevolent  pursuits,  speaking  and  writing  more 
particularly  on  female  education,  and  the  treat- 
ment of  the  insane.  His  most  important  works 
are.  Child's  Book  on  the  Soul,  Mother's  Primer, 
Defining  Dictionary,  Practical  Spelling-Book, 
The  Ercrii-Thiji  Christian.  Letters  of  a  Father, 
and  Public  Schools,  Public  Blessings.-  See 
Barnard,  American  Teachers  and Educators ; 
and  Tribute  la  GaUaudet  (Hartford,  L852) ;  H. 
Humphrey,  Life  of  T.  II.  GaUaudet;  North 
American  Review  for  October.  1858. 

GAMES  are  formal  methods  of  sport  or 
diversion,  which  constitute,  in  an  especial  man- 
ner and  degree,  the  peculiar  life  of  childhood. 

Play  may  he  regarded  as  a  pari  of  that  spon- 
taneous  exercise    of    the    bodily    organs    of    an 

animal,  which    pr OteS   its  growth    and  adapts 

it  to  its  surroundings  :  and  games,  as  convention- 
ally established  modes  of  play.  These  games 
may  he  more  or  less  in  harmony  with  the  nat- 
ural wants  of  those  who  engage  in  them  :   but  it 


330 


GAMES 


GAUME 


•will  be  found  that  the  more  nearly  they  agree 
■with  these  natural  wants,  the  more  generally 
they  have  prevailed  in  every  period  of  the  his- 
tory of  mankind.  Thus  modern  research  has 
shown  that  the  best  games,  both  of  children  and 
of  adults,  were  practiced,  with  certain  variations 
occasioned  by  differences  of  climate,  soil,  and 
national  character,  thousands  of  years  ago. 
With  the  progress  of  civilization,  these  games 
Undergo  certain  modifications' so  as  to  be  adapted 
to  the  age  :  and  thus,  like  language,  become  the 
characteristics  or  exponents  of  special  degrees 
anil  kinds  of  national  culture.  Children's  games 
arc,  in  part,  imitations  of  those  of  adults;  and, 
indeed,  sometimes,  in  an  imaginative  way.  of  the 
serious  occupations  of  the  latter.  Thus  the 
child  "plays  school"  with  other  children  as 
scholars,  or  assumes  the  functions  of  the  head  of 
the  household,  or  of  the  lawyer,  the  doctor,  the 
mechanic, etc., this  disposition  resulting  from  the 

activity   of    the    coneeptive    faculty    peculiar  to 

children,  [t  has  been  asserted  that  the  educator 
should  not  meddle  with  the  plays  and  games  of 
children,  at  least  not  in  a  positive  manner ;  be- 
cause to  be  really  interesting  they  should  be 
spontaneous.  This  principle  is  undoubtedly  cor- 
rect in  regard  to  play  in  general,  as  far  as  it  is 
not  prejudicial  to  mental  or  physical  health,  or 

Unsuited  to  the  age  of  those  engaged  in  it  :  but 
parents,   and    other    educators,    can    exert    very 

it  influence  over  their  children  or  pupils  l>\ 

joining  in  their  games:  and.  in  this  way.  they 
may  regulate  the  games  themselves,  and  thus 
make  them  an  instrument  of  training  and  in- 
struction. The  principle  which  should  limit  all 
interference  is  obvious:  the  self-activity  of  the 
child's  powers  should  be  fostered  and  directed,  so 

that  amusement  may  he  not  only  the  means  of 
stimulating  their  growth,  but  aiso  a  result  of 
that  growth.  In  what  way  this  may  be  done. 
from  the  earliest  childhood,  by  means  of  plays 
and  games,  such  as  have  been  employed  forages, 
has  been  demonstrated  by  Froebel,  and  by  thoss 
who  have  practiced  his  method  in  the  household 

or  the  kindergarten.  The  latter,  however,  ap- 
proaches perfection  chiefly  through  the  surpris- 
ing ability  of  the  children,  when  stimulated  by 
that  method,  to  invent  an  endless  variety  of 
beautiful  plays  and  games  for  t  hemselves.  an 
ability    which    not    only    interests    and     amuses 

them  as  children,  but  prepares  them  for  many 
spheres  of  useful  activity  in  afterlife.  Experi- 
ments to  adapt  froebel  s  means  of  occupation, 
and  his  games,  to  pupils  from  the  seventh  Or 
eighth  year  upward,  are  now  being  made  in  a 
number  of  schools  in  Germany  and  the  United 
Mates.     These  comprise   a  great    variety  of   ball 

games,  gardening  occupations,  light  gymnastics, 

and  movement  games;  as  well  as  those  of  a  more 

mental  character,  such  as  charades,  puzzles,  and 
rebuses  ;  an. I  also  construction  games  by  means 

ot  geometrical  solids,  cutting,  weaving,  folding, 
and  twining,  w  ith  paper,  leather,  etc.  The  peculiar 
charm  connected  with  these  amusing  occupations 
tuusl  ten. I  to  keep  children  from  rough. boisterous. 
and  dan  ports,  and  will  also  obviate  the 


need  of  purchasing  costly  and  elaborate  toys,  in 
which  children  take  but  a  transient  interest.  More 
particularly  will  it  dissuade  from  supplying 
children  with  contrivances  for  such  games  of 
chance  as  tend  to  foster  the  spirit  of  gain  and 
gambling.  Children  should  be  led  to  make  their 
own  toys,  and  to  contrive  their  own  games  and 
plays  as  much  as  possible. 

The  importance  of  games  in  the  education  of 
children  was  recognized  by  Plato  and  Aristotle. 
The  former  proposed  that  the  children,  assembled 
in  the  temples,  should  be  trained,  under  female 
direction,  to  imitate  actual  life  in  their  plays, 
and  thus  to  develop  a  taste  or  inclination  tor 
particular  vocations.  Aristotle  praised  games  as 
the  means  of  exercise,  and  as  preventing  or 
counteracting  idleness:  but  he  based  them  too 
exclusively  on  the  principle  of  recreation.  Quin- 
tilian  also  recognized  the  developing  power  of 
certain  games.  In  tin-  middle  ages,  only  the 
knights  appear  to  have  appreciated  the  value  of 
games  for  physical  and  social  culture.  Luther 
was  favorable  to  the  games  of  children:  fait  the 
schools  of  the  Kith  and  17th  centuries  are.  in 
general,  noted  for  their  gloomy  neglect  of  this 
i  beerful  clement  in  the  education  ot  youth.  The 
schools  of  the  Jesuits  were,  in  this  respect, 
conducted    on    more   reasonable   principles   than 

most  others.     Montaigne  advocated  games  for 

children,   and  ComeniuS   likewise    favored    them. 

Locke  commended  them,  bul  particularly  enjoined 

that  children  should  be  required  as  far  as 
possible  to  make  their  own  playthings.  "All 
the  plays  and  diversions  of  children.'"  he  says. 
"should  be  directed  towards  good  and  useful 
habits. or  else  they  will  introduce  ill  ones.  What- 
ever they  do  leaves  some  impression  on  that  ten- 
der age.  and  from  them  they  receive  a  tendency 
to  good  or  evil ;  and  whatever  hath  such  an  in- 
fluence ought  not  to  be  neglected."    Rousseau 

showed  himself  unable  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
children's  games.  In  the  L9th  century,  no  one 
has  done  so  much  to  call  attention  to  their 
importance  as  Froebel  :  and. at  the  present  time. 

no  educational  system  can  be  considered  complete 

which  docs  m it  embrace  a  consideration  of  every 
thing  pertaining  to  the  rational  amusement  of 

children  as  well  as  what  belongs  to  their  formal 
instruction.      A     Large    number  of   books   in    the 

English  language  bave  been  published,  contain- 
ing a  full  description  of  every  variety  of  games 
and  amusements  tor  both  boys  ami  girls,  and 
much  labor  and  ingenuity  have  been  expended 
in  inventing  interesting  and  instructive  in-door 
games  for  children,  and    in  constructing  material 

f..r  them.  For  a  thoroughly  exhaustive  treat- 
ment of  this  subject,  from  an  educational  point 
of  view  see  Sen  \u.ri;.  Das  Spiel  mul  die  Spiele 

|  I  861  I.      (See  I  hvri;sio\s.) 

GAUME,  Jean  Joseph.,  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic and  author,  especially  noted  for  his  earnest 
opposition    to   the    use    of    the    pagan    clashes  in 

education,  was  born  in  L 802,  and  died  in  L869. 

Me  received  holy  orders  at  an  early  age.  and.  in 
I  >'JT.  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  ill  the 
seminary  of  Ne vers,  of  which  institution   he  was 


GEDIKE 


(.'("XIUS 


:;:;i 


afterwards  the  director.  Subsequently,  he  be- 
came  canon  of  the  cathedra]  and  vicar-general. 
In  his  Le  ver  rongeur  des  sncii;f<:.<  modernes 
—  The  Canker-worm  <>f  Modern  Society  (Paris, 
L851),  he  endeavored  to  show  that  all  the  so- 
cial evils  of  the  last  four  centuries  could  be 
traced  to  tin  revival  of  pagan  art  and  literature. 

The  publication  of  this  hook  gave  rise  to  an  ex- 
Citing  controversy  in  which  Bishop  Dupanloup 
strongly  opposed  the  views  of  Gaume.  (See 
Dopanloi  i'.)  In  1852,  Qaume  published  LeUres 
a  .1/'//'.  Dupanloup  sur  le  paganisme  dans 
riducation,  contending  that  only  expurgated 
editions  of  Latin  and  Greek  authors  anterior 
to  the  4th  century  A.  I).  should  be  read  in  the 
schools.  In  order  to  carry  out  this  idea,  he 
issued  Bi/>lio/hi'j</»>'  des  classiques  chre'tiens,  l<<- 
tn<«  et  grecs  (30  vols.,  Paris.  1 852 — 5)  and  Poetes 
ii  prosateurs  profanes  completement  <:r/>>frt/t:s 
(2  vols..  1  S ."> 7 ) .  In  1841,  he  was  made  a  knight 
of  Sylvester  by  Gregory  XV I.,  and,  in  1854,  a 
prothonotary  apostolic  by  Pius  IX.  (See  Clas- 
sics, Christi  in.) 

GEDIKE,  Friedrich,  a  Herman  educator, 
horn  in  1755,  died  in  L803.  lie  studied  at  the 
university  of  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  was 
appointed  sub-rector  of  the  Friedrichswerder 
Gymnasium  in  Berlin,  in  177(>,  and  director  of 
that  institution,  in  1779.  His  success  in  this 
position  was  very  great;  and  the  organization 
which  he  introduced  into  his  gymnasium,  became 
a  model  for  all  similar  institutions  in  Prussia. 
His  principal  reform  is  described  by  himself  as 
follows:  ••  As  it  frequently  happens  that  a  young 
man  does  not  make  equal  progress  in  all  his 
studies,  but  advances  more  rapidly  in  some  than 
in  others,  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  let  him 
attend  to  all  the  studies  in  the  same  class.  Our 
plan  is.  therefore,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that 
a  scholar  can  attend  one  lesson  in  a  higher,  and 
another  in  a  lower  class,  without  missing  a  study 
otherwise  necessary."  In  his  position  as  chief 
school  councilor  (  Oberschn  I  rath) ,  to  which  he  was 
appointed  in  1787,  he  also  showed  great  talents 
as  .in  organizer.  The  creation  of  the  Supreme 
School  Board  (Oberschidcollegium)  and  the  in- 
troduction of  the  examination  of  candidates  for 
luation  in  the  gymnasia  I  Abtturientenexamen  i 
were  chiefly  his  work.  In  1767,  he  established  a 
teacher's  seminary  for  the  instruction  of  teachers 
of  classical  schools,  the  direction  of  which  he 
retained  until  his  death,  lie  published  a  collec- 
tion of  his  Schul&cliriften  (Educational  Work- 
in  two  volumes  (1789-05). 

GENETIC  METHOD,  in  instruction,  is 
hut  another  name  for  what  is  more  frequently 
called  the  developing  method.  The  term  genetic 
implies  that  the  mind  of  the  pupil  is  to  be  guide.  1 
by  the  teacher  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  be  able 
to  perceive  the  genesis  of  the  truths  communi- 
cated, that  is.  their  development  from  fundamen- 
tal principles  ;  or  that  it  will  be  led  to  construct 
for  itself  general  principles  from  observed  facts 
as  antecedents.  This  method  recognizes  the  need 
of  a  genesis,  or  development,  of  actual  concep- 
tions in  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  as  tin-   hasis  for 


every  other  educational  process.  (See  Develop- 
ing Method.) 

GENEVA  COLLEGE,  at  West  Geneva, 
Logan  Co..  Ohio,  under  the  control  of  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church,  was  organized  in 
1 849,  and  chartered  in  1853.  It  includes  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  department.  In  1*7.'5 — 4, 
there  woe  7  instructors  and  170  students  (100 
males  ami  (II  females).  The  cost  of  tuition  for 
preparatory  and  scientific  studies  i>  si'i  per  year; 
tin'  classical  studies,  $30.  The  Rev.  II.  ELGeorge, 
!>.!»..  is  (1876)  the  president,  having  held  this 
position  since  L872. 

GENIUS  (Lat.  genius,  innate  power  or 
capacity,  from  gignexe,  to  produce),  as  used  in 
modern  times,  has  been  variously  defined  by 
many  writers,  who.  though  differing  widely  as  to 
its  essential  quality,  are  agreed  as  to  its  out- 
ward, distinguishing  manifestation  :  namely,  un- 
usual mental  ability  coupled  always  with  great 
intuitional  or  creative  power.  Absolute  creative 
power  cannot,  of  course,  be  claimed  for  it.  since 
it  does  not  create  the  elements  with  which  it 
works  ;  but  that  it  is  creative  in  the  sense  of  re- 
combining  these,  and  discovering  new  and  subtle 
relations  between  them,  which  we  instinctively 
recognize  as  both  real  and  novel,  and  hence  view 
with  admiration  and  delight,  is  generally  ad- 
mitted. Originality  is  its  distinctive  feature. 
In  whatever  held  of  human  inquiry,  therefore,  it 
is  exerted,  its  action  and  results  are  always  the 
same, — it  masters  intuitively,  or  by  a  study  so 
rapid  as  to  seem  intuitive,  all  that  is  known  in 
that  particular  field,  and,  leaving  talent  by  the 
wayside,  reaches  out  into  the  great  unknown 
which  surrounds  us  on  every  side,  rescues  some- 
thing from  that  shadowy  realm,  and  adds  it  to 
the  domain  of  positive  knowledge.  Thus,  with 
Beethoven,  it  listens  as  if  to  celestial  harmonies, 
and  transcribes  them  for  mortal  ears;  with 
Newton,  it  follows  the  falling  apple  till  worlds 
and  atoms  proclaim  the  same  immutable  and 
unerring  law  ;  it  broods  with  Xapoleon  over  the 
camp  fire,  and,  scorning  experience  as  its  guide, 
gathers  sudden  and  overwhelming  victory  from 
the  veiy  held  of  disaster  :  it  paints  the  heroic 
past  with  the  simplicity  and  grandeur  of  nature 
herself,  as  in  Homer,  or  probes,  as  in  Shakespeare. 

the  mysteries  of  the  human  heart  with  a    power 

and  vividness  which  ages  cannot  antiquate.  Tran- 
scending thus  all  contemporaneous  effort,  it  is 

always  a,  lawgiver;  while  talent  deduces  from  its 
works  the  rules  by  which  alone  excellence  may 
be  attained.  Disdaining  all  present  attainment. 
and  living  too  exclusively  in  the  future,  it 
quite  often  happens,  however,  that  the  man  of 
genius  falls  out  of  harmony  with  the  age  in 
which  he  lives.  And  here  the  duty  of  the  educa- 
tor towards  him  must  be  considered.  Our  first 
question,  therefore,  is,  How  far  can  the  teacher 
influence  genius  1  If  genius  he.  as  many  think. 
only  an  abnormal  development  of  one  faculty  at 
the  expense  of  the  others  as  the  ear  becomes 
exquisitely  acute  by  the  loss  of  sight — the 
method  to  he   adopted    by    the    teacher   IS    plain  : 

namely,  a  repression  of  the  abnormal  faculty  and 


332 


GENIUS 


<;i;<h;kapiiy 


a  careful  cultivation  of  the  others.  Whether  this 
process  would  result  in  a  reduction  of  them  all 
to  mediocrity,  or  a  harmonious  and  powerful 
development  of  them  all.  remains  to  be  con- 
sidered, [f,  on  the  other  hand,  genius  be,  as  it 
has  sometimes  seemed,  an  irrepressible  impulse, 
an  apparently  higher  power,  acting  from  with- 
out, and  impelling  its  possessor,  almost  in  spite 
of  himself,  in  a  given  direction,  any  attempt  to 
change  its  course  by  education,  must  bring  only 
injurious  irritation  and  disgust  to  the  pupil  and 
discouragement  to  the  teacher.  History  furnishes 
many  instances  in  which  genius,   thwarted   in  its 

legitimate  aim.  and  not  suspecting  its  own  power, 

has  passed  for  Stupidity,  till  a  fortunate  chance 
lias  disclosed  its  real  nature.  Perhaps,  the  ques- 
tion how  far  genius  can  be  profitably  influenced 
by  education,  must  wait  for  an  answer  till  a 
better  system  of  psychology  than  we  now  possess 

has  laid  down  the    principles   according  to  which 

tin'  experiment  must  lie  conducted. 

Our  second  question  is.  How  far  is  it  desirable 
that  genius  should  be  influenced  by  education? 
Perhaps  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  last 
and  besl  result  of  education  is  to  make  men 
happy,  [f  happiness  he  the  only  consideration, 
mil  ii  happiness,  according  to  an  extensive 
modern  school  of  philosophy,  consists  in  bringing 
man  into  harmony  with  his  surroundings,  and  if 
further  it  be  granted,  that  the  mind  thus  gi 
can  he  harmoniously  developed  and  retain  all  its 
original  power,  the  duty  of  the  educator  is  again 

plain — the  race  would  he  benefited  by  Mich 
development,  and  the  man  of  genius  made  more 
happy  by  eliminating  from  his  mental  constitu- 
tion all  those  jarring  differences  which  arise  from 
inharmonious  development,  and  which  take  the 
form  of  eccentricities.  There  then  arises  the 
broader  consideration,   how    far    tin1    permanent 

welfare  of  the  human  race  is  concerned  in  the 
harmonious  development  we  have  been  discussing. 
This  question,  however,  in  (he  present  state  of 
our  knowledge,  is.  perhaps,  beyond  our  power  to 
solve.  Akin  to  genius  are  those  special  aptitudes 
which  are  manifested,  some  times  at  quite  an  early 

age.  These,  as  constituting  a  part  of  the  char- 
acter, should  he  recognized  by  the  educator ;  and 
while  they  should  not  form  the  basis  of  general 
framing  or  discipline,  should   he  allowed  their 

specific  exercise;  and.  in  the  more  advanced 
steps  of  education,  should  Incline  distinct  objects 

of  culture.  The  existence  of  this  special  talent, 
or  of  genius  itself,  should  not   he  permitted  to 

'■'the  necessity  of  industry  and  applica- 
tion. As  far  as  possible,  the  tad^s  imposed  by 
the  instructor  should  hear  a  proper  relation  to 

the  Special  ability  Of  the  students,    those  who  are 

of  brilliant  parts  being  required  to  accomplish 
more  than  those  who  are  comparatively  dull  and 
slow  to  acquire.  Many  youths  of  great  promise, 
in  La  aie  often  seriously  injured  by 

insufficient  requirements,  lapsing  into  sloth  or 

had  habits  by  the  want  of  full  occupation.      This 

principle  is  of  great  importance;  though  its 
application   in  bcdoo]  and  college  education  is 

nipanied  with   many  difficulties.     The    true 


educator  will,  however,  recognize  it.  and  allow  it 
to  guide  and  regulate  many  of  his  operations. 
The  possession  of  the  brightest  genius  cannot 
supersede  the  necessity  of  industry  and  study. 
''Invention,"  said  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  "is  one  of 
the  great  marks  of  genius;  hut.  if  we  consult 
experience,  we  shall  find,  that  it  is  by  being  con- 
versant with  the  inventions  of  others,  that  we 
Learn  to  invent,  as,  by  reading  the  thoughts  of 
others,  we  learn  to  think". 

GEOGRAPHY  (Gr.  yia,  ;>;.  the  earth,  and 
eiv,  to  write)  has  in  its  own  name  a  concise 
yet  comprehensive  definition.  Strictly  speak' 
ing,  modern  scientific  geography  necessarily  in- 
cludes a  great  part  of  the  results  and  many  of 
the  details  of  the  several  natural  and  physical 
sciences.  We  must  look  to  astronomy  for  an  ex- 
planation of  the  phenomena  of  day  and  night  and 
of  the  seasons:  and  for  the  means  of  determining 
the  true  form  of  the  earth,  its  magnitude,  and 

the  relative  position  of   places   upon   its  surface. 

Geology  must  explain  the  phenomena  of  eleva- 
tion and  contour,  and  their  incessant  though  slow 
mutations.  Physics  only,  can  enable  us  tn  con- 
sider intelligently  the  conditions  of  climate,  the 
origin  of  the  wind  and  ocean  currents,  the  rain- 
fall, the    relations  of   temperature   to   elevation. 

and  the  mysteries  of  terrestrial  magnetism. 
And.  t'u  ally,  biology,  in  its  various  departments, 
must  help  us  to  comprehend  the  geographical 
distribution  of  plants  and  animals,  and  to  un- 
derstand the  nature  and  origin  of  those  impor- 
tant factors  in  modern  civilization,—  petroleum 
and  mineral  coal.  Geography  combines  con- 
ations from  all  these  and  many  other  depart- 
ments of  human  knowledge,  and  subordinates 
them  to  its  own  chief  purpose.-  a  knowledge  of 
mankind,  and  of  their  distribution,  of  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  countries  which  they  inhabit,  and 
he  effects  of  their  physical  environment  up- 
on their  social  development  and  their  condition; 
also  a  knowledge  of  their  resources,  industries, 
and  government  :  and  of  the  commercial  rela- 
tions of  nations.  It  is  evident  that  a  subject 
s.  vasi  and  comprehensive  cannot  he  exhaus- 
tively treated  in  any  ordinary  school  course  of 
-  ady.  As  in  the  science  of  arithmetic  there 
are  very  many  things  which  cannot  possibly  be 
included  in  an  elementary  or  "  practical "  busi- 
ness course,  so  iii  the  study  of  geography,  a  very 
Large  part  of  the  entire  subject  must  oecessarilj 
he  omitted,  partly  because  of  tin'  immaturity  01 
the  pupils  mind,  and  partly  because  <'t  the  pres- 
sure of  other  Subjects  upon  his  time  and  atten- 
tion. The  contents  of  the  modem  daily  news- 
paper furnish,  perhaps,  the  besl  general  indica- 
tion of  what  should  constitute  a  proper  course 
in  geography  tor  ordinary  schools.  \\  ith  most 
persons,   the    newspaper    furnishes     by    tar    the 

h  r  pari  of  their  reading,  and  is  the  chief,  it 
not  the  only,  source  of  their  stock  of  general  in- 
formation. None  can  safely  dispense  with  it; 
and.  in  the  not  distant  future,  with  the  general 
increase  of  the  number  of  intelligent  readers 
through  improved  systems  of  instruction, 
daily  journal    must    become   more  and  more  the 


GEOGRAPHY 


333 


medium  for  spreading  a  knowledge  of  the  things 
which  every  one  should  know."    Its  telegrams, 

editorials,  and  communications,  as  well  as  the  ad- 
vertisements, relate  to  every  great  human  inter- 
est, political  ami  commercial,  social  and  religious. 
They  arc  from  every  part  of  the  world;  ami 
those  of  chief  interest  involve  geographical 
knowledge  which  the  editor  must  necessarily  as- 
sume to  he  already  possessed  by  the  reader.  In 
order  to  be  truly  practical,  a  proper  course  of 
study  in  geography  should  recognize  the  fact 
that,  after  reading,  writing,  and  elementary 
arithmetic,  a  knowledge  of  no  other  subject 
studied  in  school,  perhaps  not  of  all  others  taken 
together,  is  so  frequently  called  into  practical 
as  a  knowledge  of  geography. 

In  view  of  the  limited  time  that  can  usually 
be  given  to  the  subject  in  school,  it  is  obvious 
that,  if  a  text-book  be  used,  it  should  be  clear 
and  concise,  and  should  chiefly  direct  the  atten- 
tion of  the  pupil  to  those  matters  which  will 
afterwards  be  most  needed.  All  unimportant 
details  should  be  omitted.  It  is  a  matter  of  no 
consequence  that  the  pupil  should  know  the  de- 
tails of  Arctic  geography,  or  lie  able  to  describe 
minutely,  and  by  long  formulas,  the  courses  of 
rivers,  the  precise  boundaries  of  countries,  or 
the  exact  location  of  a  large  number  of  towns 
and  cities  of  the  third  and  fourth  orders.  Gen- 
eral but  substantially  correct  ideas  are  all  that 
are  here  necessary  ;  and,  in  nearly  every  case, 
these  will  be  nearly  all  that  will  remain  in  the 
pupil's  mind,  after  all  the  labor  and  time  ex- 
pended upon  details.  A  knowledge  of  local  geog- 
raphy is  indispensable  as  a  basis  for  the  proper 
study  of  the  more  important  descriptive  geog- 
raphy ;  but  great  care  should  be  taken  to  make 
it  no  mere  than  a  well-selected  outline,  such  as 
the  average  mind  is  likely  to  retain.  When 
judiciously  pursued  in  the  school  room,  geography 
becomes  a  lifelong  study,  full  of  pleasure  and 
profit;  badly  taught,  it  is  perhaps  more  than 
any  other  subject,  "stale,  flat,  and  unprofitable." 
Geography,  like  all  other  subjects,  cannot  be 
taught  by  any  one  who  is  not  specially  prepared 
to  teach  it.  The  teacher  should  know  a  great 
deal  more  about  it  than  the  brief  statements  of 
the  t.  xt-book.  lie  should  have  a  fund  of  illustra- 
tion from  books  on  history, travel,  commerce,  and 
other  collateral  subjects,  so  as  to  fill  up  and  en- 
liven the  simple  outline  of  the  book.  There  are 
few  more  common  or  more  distressing  illustra- 
tions of  incompetency  in  the  school  room  than 
that  of  the  misnamed  "teacher,"  with  his  eyes 
fastened  upon  the  book,  now  following  with  his 
finger  the  printed  question,  and  then  doubtfully 
poring  over  the  map,  or  over  the  printed  answer 
in  the  descriptive  text,  to  sec  if  the  pupil  "knows 
his  lesson."  Pupils  arc  ipiick  to  estimate  such  a 
teacher  at  his  proper  value. 

Geography  is.  comparatively  speaking,  a  mod- 
ern science.  The  Phoenicians,  the  Egyptians, 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Carthaginians,  in  the  prog- 

-  of  their  commercial  enterprises,  made  a 
tew  discoveries,  principally  confined  to  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  :    and  the  great  mili- 


tary expeditions  of  Alexander,  in  the  Ith century 
B.  < '..  added  somewhat  to  this  knowledge, which 
Eratosthenes  (aboul  200  B.  C.)  first  reduced  to 
a  scientific  form.  The  treatises  of  Strabo  and 
Ptolemy  contained  nearly  all  the  geographical 
information  possessed  by  mankind  for  centuries. 
\\  hen  Columbus  embarked  on  his  daring  voyage, 
little  addition  had  been  made  to  geographical 
knowledge,  excepl  what  had  been  gamed  during 
the  1 5th  century,by  the  voyages  of  the  I  Portuguese 
alongthecoast  of  Africa,  stimulated  by  that  noble 
prince,  Henry  of  Portugal,  surnamed  the  Navi- 
gator. The  first  attempt  at  a  de&  riptiOD  of  the 
earth,  subsequent  to  this,  was  thai  of  Sebastian 
Franckf  Welibuoch,! 554).  The workB  of  Sebastian 

Minister.  Ortelius.  <  iluver,  Meiian.  and  others  fol- 
lowed. J.Bergmann(died  L787)  was  the  founder  of 
physical.  A.  P.  Busching  1 1  754), of  politico-statis- 
tical geography.  It  was.  however, the  labors  of 
Karl  Bitter,  that  first  gave  geography  a  truly 
scientific  character.  A  new  and  important  era  of 
geographical  discovery  began  just  before  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century,  and  is  still  in  prog- 
ress. The  geographical  society  of  Paris  was 
founded  in  182]  :  that  of  Merlin,  in  1828  :  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London,  in  1830; 
and  the  American  <  ieographical  Society,  in  1852. 
There  are  now  (1876),  at  least  thirty-four  such 
societies,  differing,  of  course,  in  extent,  activity, 
and  importance.  W  ithin  a  1  >rief  period,  and  under 
their  advice,  direction,  or  encouragement,  pro- 
digious results  have  been  accomplished.  A  few 
years  ago,  more  than  one-half  of  the  map  of 
Africa  was  a  blank :  and  of  the  17  millions  of 
sq.  m.  of  Asia,  more  than  12  millions  was  either 
entirely  unknown,  or  wholly  cut  off  from  all 
intercourse  with  mankind.  Twenty-five  years 
ago,  a  geographer  wrote  of  Australia,  "a  corner 
of  this  huge  mass  of  land  is  all  that  is  known." 
Besides  the  newly  opened  empires  of  China  and 
Japan  and  the  recent  vast  conquests  of  the  Rus- 
sians, nearly  every  other  country  of  Asia  has 
been  visited  by  scientific  explorers,  eager  to 
notice  every  fact  relating  to  physical  or  political 
geography,  ethnology,  geology,  botany,  or 
zoology,  and  to  discover  the  various  agricultural, 
mineral,  and  other  physical  resources,  developed 
or  undeveloped,  which  play  so  important  a  part 
in  modern  civilization.  In  the  same  spirit,  the 
limits  of  the  unexplored  regions  of  Africa  and 
Australia  have  been  greatly  reduced  :  the  Arctic 
Ocean  has  been  penetrated  nearly  to  the  83rd, 
and  the  Antarctic  to  the  77th.  degree  of  latitude  : 
and  the  vast  and  almost  unknown  regions  in  the 
heart  of  South  America  have  been  visited, again 
and  again,  by  enthusiastic  observers.  Twenty- 
five  or  thirty  years  ago,  the  greater  part  of  the 
area  of  the  United  States,  more  than  '1  millions 
of  square  miles,  was  inhabited  only  by  savages. 

and  was  almost  unknown:  now,  although  a  great 
part  yet  remains  unexamined,  the  admiration 
of  the  world  is  fixed  upon  "its  great  mountain 
ranges, extraordinary  canons,  wonderful  geysers, 
and  prehistoric  ruins;  upon  its  lakes,  rivers, 
majestic  cataracts,  and  broad  areas  of  culturable 
land  :  its  untold  mineral  treasures  of  even' kind 


334 


GEOGRAPHY 


and  the  rapidity  with  which  its  ancient  solitudes 
are  becoming  the  homes  of  an  advanced  civili- 
zation." (President  Daly's  Annual  Address, 
1876.) 

The  study  of  geography  in  schools  is,  compar- 
atively speaking,  of  recent  introduction.  The 
first  text-books  appear  to  have  been  modeled  in 
part  upon  the  extensive  descriptions  of  Strabo. 
and  in  part  upon  the  briefer  work  of  Ptolemy, 
much  of  which  consists  essentially  of  mere  lists 
of  places.  Until  the  latter  part  of  the  last  cent- 
ury, nothing  had  been  done  in  the  United 
States  to  popularize  the  subject  and  adapt  it  to 
school  instruction.  The  first  text-book  on  the 
subject  published  in  that  country  was  a  small 
18mo  manual  by  Jedidiah  Morse,  issued  in  L784. 
This  work  Avas  of  little  use  beyond  affording  a 
means  of  giving  some  slight  geographical  informa- 
tion to  the  pupils  of  elementary  schools  ;  but.  pre- 
vious to  the  publication  of  the  work  of  William 
0.  Woodbridge  and  Mrs.  Emma  Willard  as  joint- 
authors  (77/''  Woodbridge  and  Willard  Geog- 
raphies and  Atlases,  1822),  it  continued  to  be 
the  chief  text-book  in  use  on  the  subject.  "Up 
to  this  period,"  says  l>r.  Aleott.  in  his  biography 
of  William  * '.  Woodbridge,  "geography  as  a 
science  had  received  but  little  attention  in  the 
public  schools  of  New  England  ;  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  of  the  more  favored  of  the  larger 
schools,  spelling,  reading,  ami  writing  were  nearly 
all  the  branches  that  received  special  attention. 
As  for  geography,  some  few  schools  studied 
Morse ;  a  few  others  used  as  a  sort  of  reading- 
book,  Nathaniel  Dwight's  System  of  Geography, 
which  was  arranged  in  the  form  of  question  and 
answer.  The  vast  majority,  however,  paid  no 
attention  to  the  subject."  Mrs.  Willard  thus  de- 
scribes the  method  of  teaching  geography  in  L814, 
and  for  some  years  subsequently:  "In  geography, 
the  eye  was  not  made  the  sole  or  the  chief  me- 
dium of  teaching  the  signs  of  external  things,  as 
the  forms,  proportions,  and  situation  of  countries, 
rivers,  etc.;  for  though  maps  existed,  yet  they 
were  not  required  to  be  used  ;  but  the  boundary 
was  learned  by  the  words  of  the  book,  and  the 
latitude  by  numbers  there  set  down."  This  pre- 
sents a  very  striking  illustration  of  the  error, 
once  so  prevalent,  of  addressing  the  mere  mem- 
ory (and  generally  the  memory  of  words),  with- 
out any  endeavor  to  develop  the  intelligence. 
The  attempt  to  teach  the  situation  of  places 
(topography)  by  mere  verbal  description  was 
perhaps  the  mosl  absurd  error  which  the  historj 
Lucation  presents.    William  <  !.  Woodbridge, 

who  had  been  fur  some  time  engaged  in  leaching 
•  deaf-mutes,  and    Mrs.    Willard.   of 

the  1 1  ■  >>  Female  Seminary,  appear  to  have  been 
simultaneously  impressed  with  the  absurdity  of 
the  method  in  use,  and  with  the  need  of  reform 
in  teaching  geography;  and  both  proposed  to 
publish  texi  books  on  the  subject,  and  on  plans 
substantially  identical.  This  led  to  the  union  of 
authorship  already  referred  to.  The  application 
of  a  principle  of  scientific  generalization  to  geog- 
raphy, whether  apprehended  by  them  flr  not, 
was  not    introduced   into   their  text -books;   nor 


was  it  in  the  work  published  about  the  same 
time  by  Sidney  E.  Morse  LW/r  System  of  Mod- 
em Geography,  8vo,1823;.  nor  in  the  subsequent 
editions  of  that  work,  which  had  a  wide  and 
Long-continued  circulation.  The  improvements 
of  Woodbridge  and  Willard,  adopted  and  added 
toby  Morse,  Olney,  Smith,  and  many  other  au- 
thors, obliged  the  pupil  to  make  the  maps  the<  hief 
study,  and  to  describe  in  his  own  language, 
though  by  given  formulas,  the  boundaries  of 
countries,  the  courses  of  rivers,  the  situation  of 
towns,  etc.,  lists  of  which  were  furnished  for 
this  purpose.  Although  nearly  all  of  the  text- 
books then,  and  subsequently,  contained  a  de- 
scriptive text  relating  to  matters  not  represented 
on  the  map  :  such  as  the  soil,  climate,  and  pro- 
ductions of  countries:  yet  the  prominence  given 
to  the  map  studies,  and  their  greater  relative 
convenience  for  recitation  and  home  study,  veiy 
generally  led  to  a  practical  neglect  of  the  de- 
scriptive  text.  In  some  works,  as  that  of  Hart, 
which  was  in  extensive  use  in  American  schools 
for  many  years,  all  exercises  but  those  upon  the 
maps,  and  a  few  preliminary  definitions,  were 
omitted  as  not  strictly  belonging  to  the  subject. 
The  evils  of  such  a  method  of  instruction  must 
be  obvious.  When  the  convenient  plan  of  print- 
ing maps  and  text  in  one  volume  was  adopted, 
the  pages  opposite  the  maps  were  largely,  and  in 
some  cases  exclusively,  given  up  to  map  exercises, 
chiefly  consisting  of  lists  of  islands,  capes,  rivers, 
etc.;  this,  though  convenient  for  map  study,  was 
very  apt  to  be  abused.  In  L849,  Arnold  Guyot 
(<[.  v.)  published  a  small  volume  of  lectures,  en- 
titled Earth  and  Man,  which  was  the  first 
presentation  to  the  American  public,  in  a  pop- 
ular form,  of  the  geographical  labors  of  Ritter 
and  Humboldt.  This  work  gave  a  powerful 
stimulus,  in  the  United  States,  to  the  study  of 
geography  as  a  science,  and  led  to  many  changes 
in  school  text  books  on  the  subject,  as  well  as 
more  rational  methods  of  presenting  it  in  the 
class  room.  Geographical  study  in  one  of  its  most 
interesting  departments,  hydrography,  was  stim- 
ulated by  the  researches  of  M.  F.Maury, the  results 
of  which  he  published  in  Physical  Geography  of 
!//-'  Sea.  (N.x.,1  856) ;  also  by  the  famous  wind  and 
current  charts,  constructed  by  him.  The  labors  of 
Hitter  and  Humboldt  have  influenced  the  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  in  European  schools,  partic- 
ularly in  those  of  Germany.  An  outline  of  geog- 
raphy, however  imperfect .  early  formed  a  part  of 
the  studies,  in  some  at  least  of  the  schools  of  that 

country.     In   1590,  we  find  The  Cosmography, 

probably  that  of  Sebastian  M  ii  lister,  recommended 
as  a  useful  reader  in  certain  schools  of  llesse- 
Darmstadt.  The  school  regulations  for  Saxe- 
Gotha,  in  L680,  provide  for  a  simple  geographical 

outline,  in  schools  where    there  were   more    than 

one  teacher.  In  L763,  the  school  regulations  for 
Prussia,  drawn  up  by  Becker,  furnish  a  brief 

outline  of  geography,  and  order  its  ust'.    Similar 

provisions  were  made  in  Silesia  and  some  other 
countries.  The  method  followed  in  all  appears  to 

have  been  that  of  oral  instruction  by  means  of 
a  few  outline  maps,  beginning  with   the  native 


<"N 


CKOtiKAL'lIY 


335 


village  and  province.  Yet  notwithstanding  these 
directions  and  pn>\  isions,  I  >i tics  says  [Sckule  der 
P&dagogik,  Leipsic,  lsT(i).  "As  late  as  the  be- 
ginning of  the  L 9th  century,  there  was  still,  in 
schools,  scarcely  any  geographical  instruct  ion  : 
and  when  it  was  given,   it   was  confined  to  a  tew 

lessons  on  the  continents, the  principal  countries. 

and  their  capitals.      Even    in   the    higher  schools. 

but  little  geography  was  learned. " — Notwith- 
standing all  that  has  been  done  to  facilitate  this 
study,  and  the  costly  geographies,  richly  adorned 
with  maps  and  pictorial  illustrations,  which  are 
supplied  to  the  pupils,  teachers  quite  generally 
complain  that  the  results  of  teaching  it  are  very 
unsatisfactory.  The  vast  multitude  of  tacts  which 
it  embraces,  imperfectly  generalized,  or  not  at 
all.  and  bound  together  by  no  obvious  relations, 
drop  from  the  pupil's  memory  almost  as  soon  as 
Committed  to  it.  Candidates  for  admission  into 
colleges  and  universities,  it  is  said,  stand  much 
lower  in  this  branch  than  in  any  other;  although 
none  receives  so  much  attention  in  the  element- 
ary schools,  except  reading,  spelling,  and  arith- 
metic. To  what  causes  this  is  to  be  attributed 
has  been  already  in  part  considered  and  will  be 
further  noticed  as  we  proceed.  In  treating  of 
geography  as  a  branch  of  elementary  instruction 
(for  such  it  exclusively  is  at  the  present  time), 
we  shall  consider  (I)  what  are  the  faculties  which 
are  specially5  exercised  in  studying  it  ;  (II)  the 
different  stages  into  which  the  instruction  should 
be  divided,  and  what  is  proper  to  each;  (III)  the 
age  at  which  the  study  should  be  commenced ; 
and  (IV)  the  proper  methods  of  teaching  it. 

I.  Geography  seeks  to  present  to  the  mind 
conceptions  of  countries  and  peoples  that  we 
have  never  visited,  analogous  to  those  which  we 
have  acquired  in  relation  to  regions  which  we 
have  actually  seen.  It  further  seeks  to  com- 
bine and  generalize  these  conceptions  into  a 
systematic  view  of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  and  as 
the  abode  of  mankind. — The  fundamental  con- 
ceptions, therefore,  which  are  to  be  thus  ampli- 
fied, combined,  or  otherwise  modified,  must  be 
based  upon  objective  presentation.  A  landscape, 
the  more  varied  the  better,  or  in  default  of  this, 
a  good  pictorial  representation,  as  its  nearest 
equivalent,  must  furnish  most  of  the  basic  ele- 
ments. The  first,  though  limited,  steps  must, 
therefore,  be  made  through  an  appeal  to  the  per- 
ceptive faculties.  The  second  stage  must  consist 
in  an  exercise  of  the  conceplive  faculties  in 
vividly  recalling  and  combining  the  impressions 
which  the  objective  presentation  has  made  upon 
the  mind.  The  pupil  must  be  trained  to  recall 
the  image  of  the  mountain,  the  island,  the  forest, 
the  placid  hike,  the  verdant  plain,  or  the  flowing 
river  ;  to  see  again,  as  it  were,  the  tossing  ocean 
and  to  hear  the  roar  of   its  waves  as    they  break 

upon  the  beach  ;  and  to  picture  to  himself  in 

season  of  the  year  the  aspect  of  nature  in  an- 
other. These  and  other  analogous  impressions, 
already  obtained  from  physical  phenomena, must 
furnish  the  indispensable  basis  for  any  true  prog- 
ress in  geographical  knowledge. —  Hut  all  this 
training  is  not   the  teaching  of  geography,  hut 


only  the  necessary  preparation  for  it.  These  con- 
ceptions are  to  geography  hut    as  the  syllables  to 

language,  or  as  the  gamut  to  melody.  Through- 
out the  teaching  of  geography,  another  menial 
faculty,  the  imagination  of  the  pupil,  must  be 
broughl  into  exercise.  These  conceptions  of 
phenomena  and  of  regions  that  he  has  actually 
seen  must  now  be  modified,  amplified,  and  com 
bined.  to   form   conceptions  of  phenomena  and 

regions  that  he  has  not  seen.  The  conception  of 
the  rivulet  must  be  expanded  to  that  of  the 
mighty  river;  the  little  lake  or  pond  must  had 
the  mind  to  the  broad  ocean;  anil  the  little  hills. 
to  mountain  ranges.  The  low  sun  and  snowy  fields 

of  winter  must  be  modified  into  an  antic-  land- 
scape; ami  the  verdant  meadow,  into  the  bound- 
less prairie.  If  this  is  properly  done,  and  especially 
if  pictorial  representation  is  properly  employed. 
the  name  of  the  Amazon  will  not  recall  to  the 
pupil  the  conception  of  a  long  and  crooked  black 
mark,  widening  towards  the  right-hand  side  of 
his  map;  but  his  imagination  will  at  once  picture 
the  broad  surface  and  turbid  waters  of  that  vast 
river,  its  hot  and  humid  climate,  and  its  limit- 
less forest  solitudes  with  their  tangle  of  giant 
vines,  and  their  troops  of  chattering  monkeys. 
When,  at  the  proper  stage,  the  study  of  maps  is 
introduced,  the  discipline  of  the  memory  is  ad- 
ded to  that  of  the  perceptive,  conceptive,  and 
imaginative  faculties,  as  in  remembering  the 
location  of  mountains,  islands,  rivers,  and  towns, 
and  the  various  facts  associated  with  them ; 
while  an  appeal  is  also  made,  with  increasing 
frequency,  to  tins  judgment,  in  tracing  the  neces- 
sary relation  of  the  location  of  cities  to  rivers 
and  coast-lines,  and  in  connecting  the  general 
course  of  a  river  with  the  elevations  and  slopes 
of  the  country  wdiich  it  drains. 

II.  The  successive  stages  of  geographical  in- 
struction have  been  already,  in  part,  indicated. 
The  conceptions  and  distinctions  of  mainland 
and  island  ;  of  mountain,  hill,  and  table-land  ;  of 
lake,  river,  basin,  valley,  peninsula,  and  cape  ;  of 
climate,  vegetation,  race,  and  other  geographical 
elements,  should  first  be  fixed, and  then  the  terms 
wdiich  embody  them  should  be  described  by  the 
pupil  himself.  Too  much  stress  is  usually  placed 
upon  the  precise  and  formal  definitions  of  these 
terms.  Some  of  them,  such  as  sea.  gulf.  hay.  and 
lake,  as  actually  used,  defy  all  sharp  differentia- 
tion ;  and  Others,  such  as  continent  and  water- 
shed, are  variously  used  by  standard  authorities. 
It  must  he  home  in  mind  that  the  definitions  in 
geography  have  a  totally  distincl   function  from 

those  of  mathematics,  grammar,  and  other  logic- 
al or  deductive  sciences.  In  these,  the  cornet 
conception    OI  a    term,   such  as  parallelogram  or 

adjective,  is  to  he  obtained  from  its  definition; 
whereas,  in  geography,  the  definition,  if  required, 

musl  he  developed  from  a  correct  conception  ot 
the  ohjeet  defined.  The  formal  definitions  ot 
geographical  terms  have,  indeed,  their  place ;  but 

this  is  not  in  the  first  stage  of  the  subject.  The 
geographical  terms  and  their  association  should 
be  followed  by  ideas  of  direction  or  relative 
position,   that    is,  a   knowledge  of    the    cardinal 


336 


GEOGRAPHY 


points;  after  this,  the  construction  and  inter- 
pretation of  a  simple  map  of  limited  and  known 
localities,  beginning  perhaps  with  a  plan  or  map 
of  the  school  room  itself ,  followed  by  a  map  of 

the  immediate  neighbor!) L,  then  by  thai  of  the 

county  as  it  would  appear  if  seen  from  a  balloon. 
When  the  pupil  has  been  thoroughly  trained  to 

understand  the  symbols  of  the  map. and  readily  to 
picture  to  himself  the  things  thai  are  symbolized 
by  the  various  lines,  dots,  and  other  marks,  he  is 
in  possession  of  all  the  elementary  ideas  essential 

to  the  subject. —  Either  of  two  opposite  courses 
may  now  be  pursued  in  giving  the  outline  of 
geography  itself  which  is  usually  included  in  a 
primary  or  elementary  course  for  beginners. One 
of  these  plans,  known  as  the  synthetic,  begins 
with  the  study  of  a  map  of  the  locality  of  the 
pupil's  home  or  neighborhood;  it  takes  next  the 
map  of  the  county,  then  of  the  state  or  district, 

and.  finally,  of   the  whole  country  in   which   the 

pupil  resides.  Alter  this,  follows  the  study  of 
the  simple  outlines  of  the  continent  of  which  the 
country  forms  a  part  :  then    the    outlines  of   the 

other  continents  or  grand  divisions,  in  some  pre- 
ferred order,  and  finally  a  general  review,  which 
completes  and  combines  all  that  has  preceded  it 
into  a  brief  view  of  the  world  as  a  w  hole.  The 
other,  or  analytic  system,  pursues,  at  least  in  its 
early  stages,  an  exactly  reverse  course.  From 
the  consideration  of  certain  common  phenomena 

and  other  well-known  facts,  the  pupil  IS  first    led 

to  form  a  conception  of  the  earth  as  a  gigantic 

globe  Or  ball  ;  then  of  the  primary  divisions  of 
its   surface    into    land    and    water;    and    then   of 

the  leading  subdivisions  of  these  primary  ele- 
ments. After  learning  the  climatic  division  of 
the  earth  into  zones,  the  pupil  studies  the  conti- 
nents, each  in  its  turn,  as  in  the  other  system. 
Both  of  these  systems  have  their  strong  points, 

both  have  been  successfully  followed,  and  both 
have  earnest  advocates.  Excepting  in  their  in- 
itial and  terminal  stages  they  have  much  in  com- 
mon. One  great  advantage  of  the  analytic  system 

is,  that  it  more  readily  admits  the  early  intro- 
duction of  the  terrestrial  globe,  and   requires  its 

frequenl  use  throughout.      In   no  other  way  can 

certain   serious  misconceptions    be    thoroughly 

prevented.  The  use  of  maps  of  different  scales. 
together  with  the  inherent  faults  of  projection, 

leads  to  erroneous  ideas  in  regard  to  the  relative 

size  of  countries,  and  to  wrong  conceptions  of  their 

relative    positions.      These    first    impressions   are 

hard  to  correct,  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
are  never  corrected.  The  globe  should  have 
tin'  leading  place  in  teaching  elementary  geog- 
raphy.     It  should  be  used   to  fix   the  idea  of  the 

Bpherical  shape  of  the  earth,  its  dimensions,  and 
the  division  of  its  surf  ace  into  land  and  water. 
It  should  give  the  fire!  view  of  its  division  into 
continents,  oceans,  islands  etc..  and  just  concep- 
tions of  their  relative  position  and  magnitude. 
By  no  other  means  can  the  astronomic  elemi 
<'f  primary  geography  be  <,,  simply  and  correctly 

Jit  ;  such  as  the  causes  of  day  and  night,  and 

ins,  the  /dues,  the  nature  of  Latitude 
and  longitude  and  the  need  of  these  measurements. 


The  final  statre  of  geography,  as  a  branch  of  ele- 
mentary instruct  ion.  is  much  more  comprehensive 
than  the  preceding  Stages,  and  makes  more  fre- 
quent appeals  to  the  judgment  and  the  memory. 
The  outline  already  given  is  to  be  reviewed  and 
tilled  up.  Political  or  social  geography  is  then  to 
be  more  fully  and  systematically  taught;  and  the 
whole  subject  of  the  peculiarities  and  resources, 
together  with  the  commercial  and  other  relations! 
of  all  the  most  important  countries  of  the  globe,  is 
to  be  more  fully  shown.  <  :eoeraphical  definitions 
are  now  desirable.  These  should  be  followed  by 
a  review  of  the  outlines  of  astronomical  geog- 
raphy, and  then  by  a  thorough  training  in  the 
outlines  of  comparative  physical  geography  as 
furnishing  the  only  scientific  basis,  ami  the  only 
line  principles  of  scientific  generalization,  for  the 
facts  of  political  geography  .This  training  should 
include,  at  first,  well-arranged  exercises  i  »n  simple 
physical  maps  of  the  hemispheres,  great  care 
being  taken, at  this  stage,  to  furnish  only  so  much 
of  topography  as  is  necessary  tor  the  lessons  on 
descriptive  comparative  physical  geography, which 
should   immediately  follow.    These  descriptive 

lessons  should  be  brief  and  clear,  and  should  sub- 
stantially include  the  following  points  in  their 
proper  order:  (1)  a  comparison  of  the  continents 
or  grand  divisions  of  the  land  in  regard  to  posi- 
tion, form,  size,  and  principal  horizontal  projec- 
tions; (2)  the  comparison  and  classification  of 
islands,  the  chief  mountain  systems,  table-lands, 
and  lowland  plains;  (3)  the  oceans  and  ocean 
currents,  and  the  great  rivers  and  lakes;  (4)  cli- 
mate as  affected  by  latitude, by  elevation,  and  by 
winds  and  ocean  currents;  and  (5)  the  genera] 

distribution  of  characteristic  plants  and  animals, 
and  of  the  races  of  mankind.  All.  or  nearly 
all.  of  these  may  be  profitably  taught  simply 
as  physical  \',ir\s  to  lie  known  by  observation. 
The  study  of  tin'  explanatory  theories  belo 
to  a  higher  stage  of  geographical  knowledge. 
Each  of  the  six  grand  divisions  should  now  he 

considered  in  turn  :  first,  in  relation  to  the  lead- 
in-  facts  of  its  physical  geography,  including  its 
surface,  drainage,  climate,  and  characteristic 
plants  and  animals,  indigenous  or  exotic:  and 
secondly,  on  the  basis  of  these  physical  facts,  in 
relation  to  the  separate  political  Subdivisions) 
their  inhabitants,  towns  and  cities,  resources. 
commerce,  industrial  development,  government, 
ami  general  social  condition.  Finally,  a  brief  but 
comprehensive  general  review  should  bring  out, 
in  strong  relief,  the  various  interrelations  of  the 
different  countries  in  regard  to  commerce,  gov- 
ernment, race,  language,  ami  religion. 

111.     As  a  general  rule,  the  pupil  should  not 

begin  the  study  of  geography,  at  least,  not  what 
maybe  called  map  geography,  until  ten  or  eleven 
years  of  age.     There  are,  however,  geographical 

lessons,  of  a  very  simple  character,  which  may 
be  profitably  given  to  younger  children.  Thi 
should,  according  to  the  principles  already 
stated,  be  pictorial  and  di  scriptive.  approximat- 
ing to  object-lessons,  in  being  designed  to  develop 
ideas  rather  than  to  impart  knowledge.  In  rela- 
tion to  this  Btage  of  the  instruction.  <  'urrie  says, 


GEOGRAPHY 


:;:;7 


in  Principles  qf  Early  School  Education,  "  The 
j  igraphy  of  the  infant  school  is  a  scries  of  ob- 
ject-lessons connected  by  a  geographical  link.  It 
but  prepares  materials  tor  the  formal  study  of 
geography.  It  may  he  thought  that  the  use  of 
the  map  would  facilitate  this  instruction;  but  it 
is  quite  immaterial  whether  the  map  be  in  the 
Bchool  or  not.  It  is  the  business  of  the  next 
stage  of  progress  to  localize  all  that  has  been 
learnt:  which  it  does  by  going  regularly  over 
the  map,  and  fixing  down  in  position  the  coun- 
tries, which  as  yet  are  only  names  to  the  children. 
The  utmost  use  of  the  map  that  should  lie  made 

in  the  infant  school  is  to  go  over  with  the  elder 

infants,  if  time  permit, at  the  end  of  their  course. 
on  a  physical  map  of  the  world,  distinctly  out- 
lined so  as  to  show  the  features  of  districts,  the 
general  outline  of  what  they  have  learnt."  If  it 
were  not  for  the  early  period  at  which  most 
children  leave  school,  the  regular  study  of  g 
raphy  might  he  profitably  deferred  considerably 
longer.  The  prevalent  practice  of  thrusting  the 
study  of  maps  upon  the  time  and  attention  of  very 
young  children  has  much  to  do  with  the  general 
disgust  of  both  pupils  and  teachers  with  the  usual 
D  st  results  of  its  study.  The  introductory  course 
should  occupy  from  a  year  to  a  year  and  a  half; 
the  subsequent  course, from  two  and  a  half  to 
three  yen-. 

IV.  The  principles  which  should  guide  in  the 
selection  of  methods  of  teaching  this  subject, 
have  already  been  explained,  and  the  difference 
between  the  synthetic  and  analytic  systems  has 
been  defined.  The  following  suggestive  hints 
will  prove  valuable  to  practical  teachers  :  (1)  the 
memorizing  of  the  details  of  maps  without  suffi- 
cient descriptive  matter,  will  leave  no  permanent 
impression  on  the  mind;  hence,  (2)  let  the  study 
of  the  map  be  subordinated  to  that  of  the  other 
important  facts,  such  as  soil,  climate,  productions, 
etc.,  relating  to  the  separate  countries ;  and 
(3)  let  these  facts  be  presented  and  studied  in  a 
uniform  order,  so  that  the  pupil's  mind  will 
always  have  a  guide,  both  for  investigation  and 
oral  description.  A  special  order  of  topics  for 
this  purpose  has  already  b^en  suggested.  It  must 
always  be  borne  in  mind,  that  in  proportion  as 
the  pupil  becomes  interested  in  the  particular 
country  studied,  he  will  desire  to  know  more  of 
its  geographical  details, and  will  remember  them 
longer.  I  ience,  the  exhaustive  study  of  the  map 
should  not  precede  all  other  lessons.  After  fully 
locating  the  country  to  be  studied,  by  means  of 
its  boundaries,  etc., the  teacher  may  proceed  with 
a  description  of  some  of  its  most  striking 
features,  passing  from  these  to  the  more  minute 
details  of  topography,  as  tiny  are  brought  out 
by  this  description,  until  all  the  topographical 
and  descriptive  details  are  sufficiently  learned. 
In  considering  the  methods  to  be  pursued  in 
the  study  of  geography,  reference  must  also  be 
male  to  the  necessary  appliances.  For  the  first 
stages  of  the  study  a  simple  terrestrial  globe  and 
good  wall-maps  are  indispensable.  Relief  maps 
and  relief  glohes,  as  now  constructed  and  used, 
are  of  great  value  in  giving  correct  ideas  of  the 
22 


superficial  configuration  of  differenl  countries.  If 
a  text-booi  is  used,  it  should  be  chiefly  a  well-illus- 
trated reading-1 k.  using  the  simplest  language 

the  subject  will  allow,  with  very  brief  map  exercises 
designed  to. sum  up  and  locate  the  substance  of  the 

reading  lessons.  As  far  as  possiUe.eaeh  locality 
should  have  some  associated  idea  interesting  to  the 

pupils.  Whateveris  taught  should  he  frequently 
and  systematically  reviewed  by  careful  question- 
ing, so  that  the  impressions  made  may  he  definite 

and  lasting.  In  the  fust  stage  of  geographical 
study,  the  teacher  is  obliged  to  do  a  large  part 

of  the  work:  in  the  later  Stage,  the  pupil  should  he 
trained  to  do  as  much  as  possible  tor  himself. 
This  subject,  when  properly  taught,  furnishes  an 
excellent  and  necessary  discipline  for  the  memory. 
The  illustrations  of  the  text-hook  should  be 
supplemented,  if  necessary,  from  other  sources. 
Hooks  of  travel  may  be  made  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  auxiliaries  in  teaching  geography.  If 
the  school  possesses  a  cyclopaedia  or  gazetteer,  it 
should  be  used  for  illustration  or  additional  facts. 
No  element  in  the  successful  teaching  of  geog- 
raphy  is  of  greater  importance  than  thorough  re- 
views. These  may  take  any  one  or  more  of  a 
variety  of  forms  too  well  known  to  need  de- 
scription. Cartography,  or  the  drawing  of  neat 
and  minutely  accurate  maps,  is  esteemed  by 
many  experienced  teachers  as  a  valuable  adjunct 
in  geographical  teaching ;  yet  it  is  at  least 
questionable  whether  the  large  expenditure  of 
time  required  is  fairly  repaid  by  the  value  of  the 
results.  The  necessary  topography  may  be  much 
more  effectively  memorized  and  reviewed  by 
spirited  exercises  in  drawing,  or  rapidly  sketch- 
ing, outline  maps  from  memory.  Of  systems  of 
map-drawing,  for  this  purpose,  there  is  a  con- 
siderable variety,  all  having  more  or  less  merit ; 
but  the  great  desideratum  in  this  part  of  the  in- 
struction is,  that  the  relative  sizes  of  countries  and 
distances  of  places  should,  by  means  of  it,  be  per- 
manently impressed  upon  the  memory.  This 
constitutes  what  is  sometimes  called  the  con- 
structive metltod  of  teaching  geography  ;  upon 
which  much  dependence  isplaced  in  the  German 
systems  of  instruction.  For  the  aid  of  the  pupil 
various  devices  are  resorted  to,  some  using  the 
square,  others  a  series  of  triangulations.  and  still 
others  a  combination  of  these,  in  connection  w  ith 
arbitrary  measures. — See  Catechism  on  Methods 
of  Teaching,  translated  from  Diesterweo's 
Almanac  for  L855-  6,  in  Barnard's  Journal  qf 
Education]    Gotsmuths,   Versuch  einer  Metho- 

dik  des  geogropliiscl/en  l'nt<  rric/its-  h'sso//  on 
Methodical    Instruction     in    deoi/ro/ih)/    (1845)  ; 

Diesterweg,  Anleitung  m  einem  methodischen 
Vhterricht  in  tin-  Geography —  Introduction  to 
Methodical  Instruction  in  Geography  (1833) ; 
Raumer,  Geschichte  der  P&dagogik;  Dittks. 
Schuleder  P&dagogik  (1876)  :  Hi  isso\.  Rapport 
sur  ^instruction  primaire  a  V exposition  univer- 
selle  ite  Vic  n  nc  en  l.sT.'i  (Paris.  1  *~:V),  containing 
information  both  as  to  methods  ami  appliances 
in  present  use  ;  Currie,  Principles  ana  Practice 
qf  Common-School  Education  (Edin.and  bond.  ; 
WlCEERSHAM,  Methods  of  Instruction  ( Phil.,1865  • 


338 


oeolo<;y 


GEOLOGY  (Or.  yrj,  the  earth,  and  'K&yoq,  a 
discourse),  the  science-  which  treats  of  the  history 
of  the  earth.  Mure  exactly,  it  consists  of  a 
group  of  sciences  which  treat  of  the  materials  of 
which  the  earth  is  composed, and  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  these  materials,  whether  superficial  or 
deep-seated, and  of  their  relations  to  one  another: 
of  the  changes  which  the  earth  is  undergoing  at 
present,  and  of  the  series  of  changes  through 
which  it  has  heretofore  passed.  Nay  more,  the 
inorganic  changes  that  have,  in  the  course  of  time, 
resulted  in  the  present  physical  geography  and  in- 
ternal condition  of  the  globe,  have  been  accom- 
panied, through  the  latter  part  of  the  series,  by  a 
corresp ling  series  of  appearances  and  mollifi- 
cations of  organic  forms  ;  and  these  two  sets  of 
phenomena,  organic  and  inorganic,  have  been  SO 

interdependent,. that  it  is  impossible  to  separate 

thv  history  of  the  earth  from  the  history  of  the 
life  it  supports.  It  will  thus  be  seen,  (1)  that 
geology  is  intimately  connected,  both  by  the  facts 
of  its  own  genesis  as  a  science  and  by  the  light 
it  throws,  in  return,  on  the  origin  of  existing  con- 
ditions, with  physical  geography ;  and,  (2)  that. 
while  in  its  branches,  mineralogy,  Ethology,  and 
pal&ontology,  it  has  its  descriptive  and  classi- 

ficatory  elements,  these  are.  in  fact,  only  subor- 
dinate to  that  element,  which,  by  the  aid  of 
dynamical {/''>?<>:///.  weaves  the  material  facts  in- 
to a  web  of  cause  and  effect, — a  continuous  his- 
torical argument.  It  is  important  to  observe 
here  that  the  part  of  geology  which  treats  only 
of  the  material  conditions,  without  regard  to  the 
reasoning  which  connects  them  into  historical 
sequence,  is  recognized  as  'jrotjnosy,*  term, how- 
ever, that  is  hut  little  used  by  English  or  Amer- 
ican writers.  Palaeontology  is  really  a  natural- 
history  science,  bearing  much  the  same  relation 
to  zoology,  that  geology  does  to  physical  geog- 
raphy, (ieology,  however,  cannot  be  read  with- 
out its  aid:  and  it  might  perhaps  be  well  to  re- 
suscitate the  term  oryctology  for  this  application 
of  palaeontology  to  geological  interpretation 

If  the  highesl  aim  of  man.  in  the  acquisition 
of  material  knowledge,  is  to  obtain  the  fullest 
attainable   insight   into    his    true    position  in  the 

great  scheme  or  existence,  and  into  the  respon- 
sibilities which  that   position  implies,  assuredly, 

geologj  must  be  one  of  the  fields  ill  which  he 
may  hope  to  gain  most  important  information: 
as  the  (ruths  of  this  science,  in  throwing  light 
upon  the  history  of    his  surroundings   and    their 

antecedents,  of  the  earth  which  supports  him. 
ami  of  the  life  of  which  he  is  a  part,  must  in- 
evitably throw  light  upon  the  history  and  rela- 
tionships of  man  himself.  A  science  so  com- 
pletely underlying  all  the  tacts  of  our  existence, 
aev<  loping  ro  multifariously  our  dependence  up- 
on all   put-  of    die  scheme  of   which  We  seem    t   I 

be   the    temporary   culmination,   should   surely 

COn inl  itself  to  the  educator. should  be  beyond 

'  be  its  important  e  a  I  as  an 

tor  in  the  problem  of  universal  edu- 
cation. Fet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  simplest 
teaching  ot  geology,  even  to-day,  is  generally 
looked  up,, ii   a-   supererogatory.     Whether  the 


world  ia  six  thousand  years  old,  or  of  incalcu- 
lable antiquity ;  whether  it  always  has  been  as 

it  is  at  this  moment,  or  whether  it  has  passed 
through  a  vast  series  of  changes:  whether  life 
has  or  has  not  had  its  progress:  whether  the 
facts  that    are   taught    us    by  every  pebble  and 

every  rain-storm  are  not  worth  thinking  upon,  or 

whether  they  lead  to  conclusions  more  wonder-' 
fill  than  the  strangest  dreams  of  the  ancients. 
implying  mote  power  than  the  boldest  myths 
ever  imagined,  and  illustrating  the  rule  of  law  so 
universally  that  even  the  minutest  -rain  of  sand 
proclaims  its  control ; — these  arc  questions  on 
which  most  parents  and  teachers  have  thought  it 

scarcely  worth  while  to  enlighten  the  minds  of  the 

children  placed  in  their  charge.  Since  the  answer 

will  aid  the  purpose  of  this  article,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  ask.  why  this  neglect  of  so  important  a 
science'.''  In  the  first  place,  the  reply  comes, 
geology  is  a  young  science,  begotten  in  the  last 
century. and  brought  forth  in  the  commencement 
of  the  present,  an  offspring  of  the  second  -rear 
Reformation,  the  reformation  not  of  creeds  but 
of  philosophy.  Secondly,  geology  has  had  to 
fight  its  way  a-  an  intruder,  as  a  disturber  ot  old 
received  notions,  of  deeply  ingrained  prejudices: 
its  claims  in  the  realm  of  thought  were  seen  to 
be  stupendous,  and  the  possible  consequences  of 
their  admission  beyond  all  calculation.  Thirdly, 
although,  as  in  all  reform  movements,  it  has 
derived  genuine  strength  from  persecution  by 
its  foes,  its  progress  has  been  all  alone  greatly 
impeded  by  the  too  hasty  zeal  of  many  of  its 
\otaries.  i  For  the  history  of  the  gradual  devel- 
opment of  geology,  until,  by  Playfair's  Illustra- 
tions of  Hutton,  and  the  patient  researches  of 
William  Smith,  the  clues  were  given  by  which 
its  accumulated  facts  could  be  systematized  into 
a  scientific  form,  see  a  concise  account  in  the 
i\vs\  four  chapters  of  I  .yell's  Principles  of  Geol- 
ogy.) Excluding  the  almost  invincible  vis  iner- 
tice  of  ancient  prejudice,  t he  third  cause  has.  per- 
haps, been  the  most  potent  in  retarding  the  ac- 
ceptance of  geological  discoveries;  because  some 

hypotheses,  which  had  been  accepted  by  numer- 
ous and.  perhaps,  influential  geologists,  were 
ultimately  proved  to  be   untenable,  therefore  the 

significance  of  truths  that  wen-  incontrovertible 

was  unfairly  belittled.  It  is.  even  to  this  day.  a 
frequent  argument  against  geology,  that  there  is 

SO  ii  inch  in  connect  ion  with  it  that  is  uncertain  : 
but  those  who  make  t  his  object  ion  are  unwilling 
to  admit  -will  not  allow  themselves  to  realize, 
how  much  of  proven  truth  there  is  in  the  science, 
and  how  thoroughly  it  is  founded  upon  fa 
which  need  only  the  proof  of  observation.  Per- 
haps, the  best  way  in  which,  in  this  brief  article, 
the  fundamental  ideas  upon  which  geology  is 
based  may  be  presented,  will  be  to  put  them  in- 
to   the    form    of    simple    siateiuents.  or   axioms, 

which,  though  incapable  of  proof,  it   would  be 

absurd    to    deny,    because    their    truth    may    h.' 

seen  at  a  -lance:  (I  i  It  is  a  matter  of  observa- 
tion, that  wherever  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 

there  is  moisture,  there,  under  the  influence  of 
changes   of    temperature,    will    be   chemical   and 


GEOLOGY 


839 


mechanical  changes  in  progress,  in  the  rocks  ex- 
posed to  its  action.  In  other  words,  thai  rocks 
exposed  a1  or  ni  ar  the  Burface  arc  forever  under- 
going destruction  by  the  action  of  moisture  in 
the  atmosphere,  of  running  water,  waves,  frost, 
moving  ice,  etc.  (2)  The  results  of  this  destruc- 
tion, in  tin'  form  of  gravel,  sand,  and  finer  part- 
icles, of  day  or  of  calcareous  rocks,  are  continu- 
ally moved  onwards  by  this  same  agent  water 
from  higher  to  lower  levels,  until  they  finally 
sink  to  rest  in  the  quiet  depths  of  the  ocean. 

If  this  process  of  the  degradation  of  the  dry 
land  were  continued  a  sufficienl  Length  of  time, 
it  would  result  in  the  ultimate  destruction  of 
every  island  and  every  continent. and  in  the  fill- 
ing up,  in  part,  of  the  depressions  in  the  bed  of 
the  ocean  ;  unless  some  counteracting  ag  sney  be 
at  work  re-elevating  the  deposits  thus  accumu- 
lating beneath  the  sea  level.  (4)  A  large  part  of 
existing  dry  lands  are  formed  of  conglomerates, 
sandstones,  clays,  and  limestones,  the  very  con- 
stitution of  which  shows  that  they  were  origi- 
nally sediments  deposited  from  water;  a  fact  that 
is  siill  more  clearly  evidenced  by  the  shells  and 
other  organic  remains  which  they  contain  ;  and 
they  thus  show  that  continents  have  either  been 
elevated  out  of  the  water,  or  that  water  has  been 
withdrawn  from  over  them.  (5)  Careful  and 
extended  examination  has  shown  that  altera- 
tions in  the  relative  level  of  sea  and  land  are 
die  rule,  and  not  exceptional  cases,  along  coast- 
lines ;  that  these  movements  are  not  necessarily 
connected,  directly  at  least,  with  volcanic  phe- 
nomena; that  they  are  exceedingly  gradual; 
and,  finally,  the  undoubted  existence  of  move- 
ments of  elevation  and  depression  in  opposite 
directions,  in  adjoining  areas,  at  the  same  time, 
proves  conclusively  that  these  are  movements  of 
the  crust  of  the  earth,  and  not  apparent  oscil- 
lations due  to  the  rising-  and  falling  of  the  sur- 
rounding  waters.  (6)  As,  moreover,  we  meet 
with  many  series  of  sedimentary  rocks,  overlying 
one  another,  in  the  same  continent,  we  see  that 
tln>  same  region  must  have  been  repeatedly  sub- 
merged, and  that  the  dry  land  has  thus  been 
gradually  built  up  by  successive  additions.  We 
have  also  clear  evidence  that  intervals  of  sub- 
aerial  elevation  intervened  between  the  submer- 
gencies — as  the  older  deposits  had  evidently 
been  partially  denuded  before  the  later  sedi- 
ments were  laid  upon  them.  (7)  We  have  thus 
evidence  of  a  force  at  work  within  the  earth, 
capable  of  elevating  the   sediments    resulting 

a  i!i  ■  destruction  of  one  continent,  so  that  a 
new  continent  shall  he  formed  from  them  :  and 
our  existing  lands  are  in  fact  built  up  of  the 
debris  of  older  and  destroyed  continents,  up- 
heaved by  this  subterranean  power.  (8)  Prom  the 
observation  of  volcanoes  and  the  volcanic  phe- 
nomena of  hot  spring3,and  of  the  temperature  of 
mines  and  deep  borings,  we  hive  evidence  of 
the  existence  either  of  a  highly  heated  interior 
of  our  globe,  or  of  local  areas  of  elevated  tem- 
perature at  a  greater  or  less  depth  below  the 
Burface.  (9)  From  the  constant  presence  of 
water  iii  volcanic  phenomena. from  the  character 


of  the  various  phenomena  themselves,  and  from 

the  uature  of  many  volcanic  rocks,  we  are  n 

resist  ililv  I'll    to   inter   that    water    b    an    active 

agent  in  developing  these  phenomena.  (10)  In 
addition  to  rocks  undoubtedly  of  volcanic  origin, 
we  find  others  thai  appear  to  have  resulted  from 
the  metamorphism  of  sedimentary  rocks.  Such 
rocks  <lo  not  appear  to  have  ever  been  in  a  m 
of  incandescence  or  even  of  igneous  fusion;  they 
appear  to  have  been  chemically  acted  on   by 

highly  heated  water,  or  by  Steam  under  pressure 
at    great   depths    beneath   the   surface,   and    me 

chanically  by  the   pressure  itself.     Whatevei 
the  cause  of  the  change,  the  metamorphic  nat- 
ure of  many  of  these  rocks  is  clear,  since  tl 
retain  their  original  sedimentary  stratification, 

and.  in  some  cases,  even  traces  of  fossils.  'II, 
gra  lually  pass  into  rocks  in  which  all  signs  of  a, 
sedimentary  origin  vanish.  in  such  "  nether- 
formed"  or  •Plutonic"  rocks  we  have  every 
grada  i  in  of  change,  from  the  granites  and  gran- 
itoid rocks,  through  the  metamorphic.  to  the 
unaltered  sedimentary  rocks,  on  the  one  hand. 
and  to  the  undoubtedly  volcanic  rocks,  on  the 
other.  (11)  The  relative  age  of  sedimentary 
rocks  is  determined,  in  the  first  place,  by  their 
superposition, — the  lowest  in  the  series,  those  on 
which  the  others  rest,  being  necessarily  the 
oldest;  and,  secondly,  by  the  fossils  they  con- 
tain ;  because,  (12)  We  find  that  each  series  of 
rocks  contains  the  remains  of  certain  character- 
istic forms  of  life,  differing  more  or  less  from 
those  that  preceded,  and  from  those  that  suc- 
ceeded them.  (13)  We  find,  as  a  fact,  that  the 
fossils  of  the  later  rocks  resemble  existing  forms 
more  nearly  than  those  of  the  earlier,  so  that 
the  oldest  deposits  contain  forms  most  unlike 
those  of  to-day.  We  find,  moreover,  that  when 
a  peculiar  type  of  life  has  disappeared,  it  has 
never  again  been  reproduced.  (14)  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  a  sufficient  amount  of  resemblanci 
between  successive  faunas  to  justify  us  in  assert- 
ing, that,  at  no  time  in  geological  history,  has 
there  been  a  complete  and  total  extinction  of 
life,  succeeded  by  a  new  creation,  on  the  earth  ; 
but  that  the  chain  of  vitality  has  been  contin- 
uous,— old  forms  gradually  disappearing,  and 
new  forms  taking  their  place.  (15)  As  nature 
is  forever  destroying  parts  of  the  geological 
record  of  life  that  is  kept  in  the  rocks. -this 
record  for  this,  amongst  other  reasons,  is  in  a 
most  fragmentary  condition.  Imperfect  as  it  is, 
few.  except  the  professional  palaeontologist,  i 
realize  the  enormous  variety  of  fossils  that  have 

already  been  exhumed,  and  upon  which  the  above 

generalizations  have  been  based.  (16)  Where 
aether-formed  rocks  have  been  elevated  and 
subsequently  denuded,  so  as  to  appear  on  the 

surface,  we   can    only  judge    of   the   age  of   their 

formation  by  their  association  with  unaltered 
sedimentary  rocks:  and  in  extensive  regions  oi 
highly  disturbed  and  metainorphosecLrocks,  th 
determination  of  their  age  becomes  one  of  the 
most  difficult  problems  of  the  geologist  ;  bu 
even  here  ciiaracterist  ic  differences  in  the  min- 
eral characters  of  different  series  may   help 


340 


GEOLOGY 


in  the  determination.  (17)  The  oldest  known 
rocks,  or  those  underlying  the  lowest  fossilifer- 
oua  locks,  are,  generally  speaking,  so  highly 
metamorphosed  that  they  may  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  border  period  of  legitimate 
geological  history;  and  the  ingenious  specula- 
tions of  physicists  and  chemists, as  to  the  events 
that  accompanied  and  preceded  the  origin  of 
an  earlier  earth,  apply  to  what  is  really  to  us  a 
mythical  epoch.  (18)  The  evidence  that  has 
been  collected  in  every  field  of  geological  in- 
quiry, conclusively  shows  that  all  terrestrial 
forces  act,  as  judged  from  a  human  stand- 
point, with  extreme  alovraess,  except  in  occa- 
sional and  local  instances:  and  if  such  energetic 
disturbances  of  ordinary  conditions  could  ever 
have  occurred,  more    widely  spread  over    the 

whole  or  even  a  large  part  of  the  earth  at  once, 
it  is  certain  that  they  would  have  let!  us  evi- 
dences, both  organic  and  inorganic,  of  the  fact. 
The  more  careful  and  exhaustive  OUT  researches 
have    become,  the  more    incompatible  with  facts 

are   such    hypothetical    universal   catastrophes 

shown  to  be  ; — until  we  are  impressed  with  the 
conviction,  that,  under  the  conditions  which 
have  obtained  during  the  -  historical  "  period  of 
the  earth,  such  catastrophes  would  involve  the 
suspension  of  the  ordinary  laws  that  govern 
matter;    and     no    case     has,    so    far,    been    met 

with,  apparently  suggesting  such  an  interpreta- 
tion, which  on  examination  cannot  be  shown  to 
be  more  readily  explicable  by  the  application  of 
known  natural  laws,  acting  through  prolonged 
periods  of  time,     ill))  The  existence  of  any  one 

series  of  ecological  monuments  involves,  on  anal- 

ysis,  the  idea  of  indefinite  time,     for  example, 

let  us  take  the  series  of  strata  known  as  the  coal 
measures.  We  know  by  examination  that  coal 
is  formed  from  vegetable  matter;  that,  in  almost 

every    instance,   there   is  satisfactory   proof  that 

this  matter  was  accumulated  by  growth  on  the 

spot  where  the  coal  now    is  found;    that  coal  eon 
tains  by  its  constitution  but  a  portion  of  the  orig 
inal  vegetation;    that    it  contains  that  portion  in 
a  very  compressed  ami  condensed  form,  and  eon 
Sequently  a  Bingle  workable  coal-seam,  a  few  feet 

in  thickness,  represents  an  amount  of  vegetable 

matter,  which,  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances conceivable  for  growth,  and  without 
allowing  for  waste  in  other  ways,  must  have  re- 
quired certainhj  hundreds,  probably  thousands, 
of  years  for  its  accumulation.  In  most  localities, 
when-  the  coal  measures  occur,  we  find  several, 
in  some  cases  many,  such  seams  of  coal  vertically 

overlying    one    another,    and    this     proves    with 

mathematical  certainty,  that  such  periods  were 

as    many    times  successively    repeated.      Finally, 

intercalated  between  these  coal  beds,  are  beds  of 
sandstone,  clay,  limestone,  etc..  in  the  aggregate 
hundreds  or  in  some  cases  thousands,  of  feet  in 

thickness,  s,,  constituted  as  to  show    the  slow  and 

gradual  le  of  their  accumulation,  thus  gh  ing 

evidence  Of  great  lapses  of  time  between  the 
existence  of    the    successive    eoablliaki  lie    forests. 

By  a  process  of  exact  reasoning,  we  thus  arrive 
at  the  conclusion,  that  a  vast  period  of  time  was. 


altogether,  required  for  the  formation  of  the  coal 
measures  alone:  and  these  can  be  shown,  in  a 
similarly  logical  manner,  to  constitute  a  record 
of  only  one.  and  that  a  subordinate,  series  of 
events,  in  an  epoch  of  the  earth's  history  very  re- 
mote from  the  present.  (20)  We  must  here 
insist  on  the  importance  of  the  evidence,  given  in 
geology,  of  vast  caps  of  what  may  be  termed  un- 
represented time  ; — that  is  to  say.  of  time  during 
which  mi  rocks  were  permanently  formed  to 
record  events.     Yet  that  such  gaps  occurred, — 

that  they  were  of  enormous  duration,  can  he  most 
emphatically  proved.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
palaeozoic  age,  after  the  formation  of  the  coal 
measures,  tho  areas  that  had  been  oscillating  for 
seons  between  dry  and  submerged  conditions, 
became,  by  an  extensive  upheaval,  permanent  dry 
land:  the  borders  of  the  growing  continent, 
formed  of  sediments  thousands  of  feet  in  thick- 
ness, were  elevated  far  out  of  the  waters;  water- 
sheds, due  probably,  in  the  first  instance,  to  un- 
equal amounts  of  elevation,  were  formed,  and 

running  streams  carved  out  valleys  hundreds  and 

thousands  of  feet  in  depth,  and  left  standing,  as 

evidences  of   their  patient    industry,  mountains 

and  mountain  ranees  sculptured  in  relief.     The 

materials  eroded,  the  chips  of  the  sculptor,  were 

swept  away,  were  sorted  and  resorted, arranged 
and  re-arranged,  until  at  length,  during  the  next 
-rcat  period  of  submergence,  fchej  found  perma- 
nent rest  as  the  deposits  of  the  mesozoic  age. 
Resting  as  they  do  on  tht  beds  and  sides  of  the 
valleys,  they  attest  the  prior  excavation  of  the 
latter.  Such  was  the  birth-time  and  such  the 
history  of  the  Appalachian  Range;  and,  in  the 
interval  that  subsequently  occurred  between  the 
close  of  the  mesozoic  and  the  commencement  of 
the  cainozoic  periods,  such  a  history   repeated 

elsewhere  gave  rise  to  the  vast  chains  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Andes:— a  third  anil 
Inter  pause  saw  in   Europe   outlines  given  to 

the    Alps    and     Pyrenees;    and.    later    still,   the 

Himalayas  were  carved  out.  the  mightiest  of 
existing  landmarks  of  geological  progress.  We 
thus  see  that  the  history  of  a  continent  is  divis- 
ible into  periods  of  extensive  submergence,  dur- 
ing which  sediments  are  arranged  into  rock 
masses,  and  periods  of  upheaval, during  which 
the  surface  configuration   is  given  to  the  new 

laud.       (21)    Additional   evidence  of   the   length 
of    geological    time    is    afforded    by   the   chat 
in  life  that  have  taki  u  place  on  the  globe.    Thus, 
while  it  can  he  shown   that  comparatively  slight 
changes  in  the  mammalian  fauna  of  Europe  have 

taken  place  since  the  glacial  epoch,  and  that  the 
great  vicissitudes  in  climate,  which  that  epoch 
(humanly  speaking  of  such  immense  duration. 
as  to  Le  measured  at  least  by  tens  or  by  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  years)  implies,  did  not 
produce  any  radical  change  of  types;  yet.  in  the 
cainozoic  period,  we  find  the  whole  class  of 
mammals  modified  from  the  most  generalized  to 

tin'  most  specialized  forms.  And  in  the  interval 
between  the  existence  on  the  elobe  of   the  seas  in 

which  mesozoic  and  cainozoic  deposits  were  re- 
spectively formed,  a  still  more  striking  revolution 


GEOLOGY 


GEOMETRY 


341 


in  animal  life  occurred ;  reptiles  and  amphibi- 
ans gave  way,  as  predominant  forms,  to  mam- 
mals and  Mills:  sii  that,  if  by  the  test  of  the 
amount  of  biological  change,  we  sought  to  com- 
pare tin'  length  of  time  that  elapsed  between  the 
mesozoic  and  cainozoic  ages  with  that  from  the 
commencement  of  the  glacial  period  to  the 
present  day,  we  should  have  to  turn  the  tens  of 
thousands  of  years  of  the  latter  into  millions  in 
the  former. 

In  conclusion,  the  following  brief  summary  of 
the  fundamental  conceptions  of  geology  is  pre- 
sented, as  constituting  the  basis  for  a  series  of 
elementary  lessons  upon  the  subject:  (1)  The 
uniformity  of  action  of  natural  laws.  (2)  The 
universal  unrest  of  matter  under  the  influence 
of  these  laws.  (3)  The  exceeding  slowness  of  the 
great  changes  that  result  from  this  constant  un- 
rest. (4)  The  indefinite  length  of  geological 
time.  (5)  The  definite  order  that  has  prevailed 
in  the  introduction  of  living  forms,  ((i)  The 
certain  order  which  prevails  in  the  arrangement 
of  rocks,  and  thus  enables  us,  as  a  rule,  to  de- 
termine the  relative  geological  age  of  any  partic- 
ular rock.  From  these  fundamental  ideas,  we 
are  led  to  recognize  the  gradual  building  up  of 
our  continents  an  1  the  successive  epochs  of  for- 
mation of  our  great  mountain  ranges,  in  this 
sketch  is  presented  only  the  briefest  outline  of 
the  basis  on  which  geology  is  founded,  space  not 
permitting  a  consideration  of  the  details  of  its 
nthological  or  stratigrapbical  aspects.  Neither  is 
it  possible  to  discuss  certain  geol  igical  questions 
of  profound  educational  interest. — such  as  the 
antiquity  of  the  human  race,  the  arguments  in 
the  support  of  the  former  existence  of  a  glacial 
period,  the  application  of  the  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion  to  geology,  etc. 

The  general  omission  of  geology  from  the 
course  of  instruction  in  high  schools  ami  colleges 
is  much  to  be  regretted ;  since,  whether  for  the 
purpose  of  culture  or  information,  it  lias  many 
claims  to  consideration,  a  few  of  which  are  here 

nested:  (1)  Of  all  sciences  it  most  thoroughly 
cultivates  a  habit  of  inductive  reasoning  :  (2)  It 
s  .  completely  permeates  physical  geography,  that 
a  knowledge  of  its  elements  is  essential  to  the 
intelligent  comprehension  of  the  latter;  (3)  It  is 
obviously  necessary  and  proper,  while  children 
are  taught  that  the  earth  revolves  around  the 
.sun.  and  other  facts  of  the  solar  system,  thai 
they  should  also  learn  that  this  earth  of  to-day 
has  had  a  long  and  eventful  history,  and  that 
the  living  forms  upon  it  were  not  created  at  once 
a- we  tin  I  them  now:  ill  'The  practical  applica- 
tions of  the  truths  of  geology  are  not  only  of 
scientific  interest  ami  importance  but  of  great 
_  meral  utility. 

If  it  is  true  that  difficulty  has  arisen  in  com- 
municating geological  knowledge,  it  has.  probablj . 
been  owing  to  two  causes:  1 1 )  To  a  hesitation  in 
telling  the  whole  truth,  and.  (2)  to  a  misconcep- 
tion, in  teaching,  as  to  what  really  constitutes 
the  essential  part  of  the  science.  It  is  customary 
among  teachers  to  dwell  upon  the  details  of 
strata,  fossils,  etc..  instead  of  upon  general  un- 


derlying principles  The  inculcation  of  the  lat- 
ter, at  an  early  age,  by  reference  to  surround- 
ing causes  and   effects,  and   in   conjunction  with 

the  earliest   lessons  in  physical  l:'( rauhv.  would 

lay  a  sure  basis  tor  the  former,  to  be  studied  if 
desirable  at  a  later  date.      If  you  wish  to  give  a 

child  fundamental  ideas  regarding  valleys  and 

mountains,  make   him  see   that  every  rain-storm 

carves  out.  in  miniature,  such  surface  features  in 

the  sand-heap  and  the  clay-bank:  and  that  it  re- 
quires but  a  sufficient  increase  in  the  number  of 
the  rain-storms  to  increase  indefinitely  the  extent 
of  their  action.  With  a  realization  of  the  powers 
constantly  at  work  producing  such  changes,  the 
student  will  advance  to  an  intelligent  study  of 
the  rocks  and  of  the  fossils,  as  examples  of  some 
of  the  effects  thus  produced. 

The  works  on  geology,  exclusive  of  special 
treatises  on  mineralogy  up  v.)  and  pakeontology 
(q.  v.), needed  by  the  general  reader,  to  aid  him 
in  interpreting  his  out-of-door  readings,  arc  not 
numerous.  A  few  are  here  suggested  :  I.vki.i., 
Principles  of  Geology,  this  should  be  thought- 
fully perused  by  every  one  aspiring  to  he  con- 
sidered educated,  and  especially  by  all  engaged 
in  the  education  of  others;  J.  I'.  Dana,  Man- 
ual of  Geology,  which  should  be  at  hand  for 
general  information,  especially  in  American  ge 
ology  ;  Lvi-:u,.  Elements  of  Geology,  for  especial 
information  on  Euro]  ican  geology.  The  Manuals 
of  Geology,  by  Jukes  and  by  Baughton,  suggest, 
various  views  with  regard  to  the  chemical  and 
physical  nature  of  rocks  and  natural  processes. 
For  local  geology,  and  the  economic  aspects  of 
the  science,  the  Geological  Reports  of  the  vari- 
ous states  of  the  Union,  of  Canada,  and  of 
Great  Britain,  should  be  consulted.  See  also 
D'Arcuiac,  Histoire  </»  Progres  de  In  Geologie, 
which  treats  fully  of  the  general  development 
and  progress  of  the  science.  for  a  graphic  his- 
tory of  coal  and  the  coal  measures  'tis  developed 
in  Nova  Scotiai. see  Dawson,  Acadian  Geology; 
on  the  phenomena  of  the  glacial  period,  Geikie, 
The  (''re///  In-  Age;  and  on  the  geological  his- 
tory of  the  human  race,  Lyell,  Antiquity  of 
Mmi;  Lubbock,  Prehistoric  Man;  and  Pack. 
Handbook  of  Geological  Terms.  Other  ele- 
mentary works  by  tiie  same  author,  on  geol- 
ogy and  physical  geography,  will  he  found  of 
assistance  to  the  teacher.  H  e  hesitate  to  recom- 
mend to  beginners  any  of  the  numerous  works 
which  aim  at  popularizing  geology.  Most  of 
these  either  endeavor  to  throw  a  sensational 
east  over  the  subject,  or  are  controversial  in  their 
character;  and,  in  either  case,  are  generally 
more  or  less  unscientific,  because  inexact  and 
inaccurate.     After  the  student  can  separate  the 

correct  from  the  incorrect,  he  will,  however,  find 
that  such  works,  with  till  their  errors,  arc  often 
rich  in  newly-discovered  facts,  and  in  ingenious 
presentations  of  those  long  known. 

GEOMETRY    (Gr.  yeu/ierpia,   from 
the  earth,  and  fierpelv,  to  measure),  the  sciei 
which  treats  "t   the  properties  and  relations  of 
magnitudes.  We  get  the  elements  of  this  scienc 
as  well  as  the  word  used  to  designate  it  from  the 


342 


GEOMETRY 


ancient  Greeks.  Etymologically,  the  word  is 
lonymous  with  our  term  land  surveying ;  but 
it  does  not  appear  that  it  ever  had  simply  this 
signification.  As  far  back  as  we  can  trace  the 
history  of  the  subject,  there  appears  to  have  been 
a  body  of  theoretical  truths  and  problems  des- 
ignated by  this  term.  Thus,  in  the  time  of  Plato, 
the  word  yeuuerpia  does  not  appear  to  have  had 
any  more  specific  reference  to  land  measuring, 
than  it  has  with  us  :  for.  when  he  spoke  of  <  rod 
(l '  .  i  as  '/<  mix'trizing,  lie  certainly  had  no  refer- 
ence to  land  surveying.  But  it  is  not  the  pur- 
pose of  this  article  to  trace  the  history  of  geom- 
etry, nor  to  give  even  a  resume  of  its  truths 
and  methods.  The  object  is  to  point  out  its  place 
and  function  in  a  scheme  of  general  education, 
and  to  offer  certain  practical  suggestions  in  re- 
gard to  the  methods  of  teaching  it.  These  will 
he  presented  iii  connection  with  the  following 
inquiries  and  consideration.-. 

1.  How  should  this  subject  be  approached,  in 
/'/i'  first  instance,  by  the  learner?  The  proper 
reply  to  this  is,  he  should  first  become  acquainted 
with  the  leading  facts  of  plane  geometry,  with- 
out any  attempt  at  scientific  demonstration; 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  chief  excel- 
lence of  geometry,  as  a  means  of  mental  im- 
provement, lies  in  its  admirable  body  ot  prae- 
!  logic.  It  is.  in  part,  in  consequence  ot'  this 
very  fact  that  the  learner  should  have  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  fundamental  truths  of  the 
science,   as   facts,    before   he   attempts    to    reason 

upon  them.  It  must  lie  remembered  that  the 
logical  faculty  is  not  the  inventive  faculty.  In  gen- 
eral, its  materials  mus1  be  furnishe  I  it.  Kspeeially 
is  this  true  with  reference  to  fundamental  truths. 
The  history  of  the  development  of  science  affords 
abundanl  proof  that  these  truths  are  furnished 
tn  the  logical  faculty  rather  than  by  it.  Thus, 
the  theorems,  Xf  one  straight  line  meet  another 
straight  line,  the  sum  of  the  angles  formed  equals 
tiro  right  (ingles;  The  sum  of  the  angles  of  a 
triangle  is  two  right  angles;  The  square  de- 
scribed on  tin',  /////xi/i'/iusc  of  1 1  right-angled  tri- 
,  ngle  is  equivalent  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  the 
other  two  sides  ;  The  circumference  of  a  circle  is 
a  little  more  than  Hirer  times  its  diameter;  and 
many  others,  were  known   to   men   as    facts,   an  1 

their  practical  significance  was  well  understood, 

long  before  their  logical  connection  with   axioms 

and  definitions  was  traced.   As  it  has  been  with 

the  race,  so  it  should  be  with  the  individual; 
the  tacts  are  needed  as  a  basis  for  logical  inquiry. 

We  cannot  reason  about   that  c jerning  which 

we  know  little  or  nothing.    Indeed, this  principle 

has  Keen  almost   universally  acknowledged  in  the 

construction  of  our  text-books  on  geometry  up- 
on the  analytical  rather  than  upon  the  synthet- 
ical model.    From  the  time  oi  Euclid,  at  least, 

to  the  present  time,  the  CUStOm  has  been  to  stale 
each  truth  in  formal  proposition  before  attempt- 
ing tO  deil strate  it  ;    hut  this   is  not  sullicieiit. 

The  mere  statement  of  such  a  truth  does  not  give 

the  ordinary  mind  a  sufficiently  clear  and   lull 

apprehension  oi  it  to  interesl  the  attention  or  to 

I-  the  though!      Wha1   is  nee  led  by  the  in- 


dividual student  is  exactly  what  was  possessed 
by  the  race,  as  antecedent  to  logical  inquiry  :  he 
needs  to  know  the  fact. and  to  perceive  its  practical 
significance,  before  he  attempts  to  reason  about 
it.  For  example,  if  the  tyro  has  learned  by  trial 
that  he  cannot  take  three  given  rods  and,  by 
placing  their  ends  together,  make  triangles  of 
different  forms,  he  is  prepared  to  understand, 
and  reason  upon  the  fact  that  Mutually  equi- 
lateral triangles  <n-<'  equal.  Again,  if  he  has 
experimented  with  two  sets  of  proportional  rods, 
and  found  that  he  can  combine  them  only  into 
triangles  of  the  same  shape,  he  is  prepared  to  be 
intelligently  interested  in  the  reasoning  which 
proves  that.  If  two  triangles  have  their  homol- 
ogous sides  proportional,  they  are  similar.  And 
so  of  all  the  fundamental  truths  of  plane  geom- 
etry. Much  of  the  superficial  and  merely 
mechanical,  memoriter  work  which  is  done  by 
pupils  in  geometry  is  caused  by  their  having  no 
adequate  conception  of  the  facts  about  which 
they  are  attempting  to  reason.  Once  show  the 
pupil  by  measurement  that  the  circumference  of 
a  given  circle  is  a  little  over  three  times  its  diam- 
eter, and  he  will  be  induced  to  inquire  whether 
it  is  so  in  another,  and  finally  if  this  is  true  in 
all  circles.  Again,  let  him  draw  several  pairs  of 
chords  intersecting  in  a  circle,  and  by  actual 
measurement  find  that  the  segments  are  recipro- 
cally proportional,  and  his  curiosity  naturally 
prompts  him  to  inquire  why  it  is  so.  Finally,  a 
few  illustrations  of  the  mechanical  value  of  the 
truths  with  which  they  are  becoming  familiar  will. 

with  most  pupils,  give  added  /est  to  their  study 

and  acquisition.  To  know  that  the  brace  stiffens 
the  frame  because  the  angles  of  a  triangle  cannot 

be  changed  without  changing  tin  sides,  while  those 
of  a  quadrilateral  can  :  to  sec  how  the  carpenter 

can  square  his  foundation,  calculate  the  length 
of  his  brace  or  rafter,  on  the  principle  that  the 
square  on  the  hypotenuse  is  equivalent  to  the 
Bum  of  the  squares  on  the  two  other  sides  of  a 
right-angled  triangle;  how  inaccessible  heights, 
and  the  distances  between  inaccessible  objects, 

can  be  determined    by    the    property    of  similar 

triangles  these,  and  the  like  applications  of  the 
principles  he  is  about  to  investigate,  give  an  air 
of  practical  reality  to  the  abstract  speculations 
of  the  science,  which  will  be  found  exceedingly 

helpful  and  stimulating  to  the  student. 

II.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  geometry 
is  >i  mechanical  us  well  as  a  logical  scit  nee.  No 
more  mischievous  mistake  can  be  made  than  to 
underrate  the  problems  of  geometry;  nevertheless 

this  is  not  an  Uncommon  practice  With  teacher-. 
While  some  teachers   permit    the    pupil    to   omit 

these  problems  in  construction  altogether, others 

allow  him  the  almost  equally  pernicious  habit 
of  des  ribing  the  construction  without  actually 
performing  the  work  according  to  the  description. 
Thus,  they  allow  him  to  tell  how  an  angle  is 
bisected  without  requiring  him  actually  to  bisect 

a  given  allele:  they  accept  a  Clumsy  descrip- 
tion of  the  process  of  inscribing  a  circle  jn  a 
triangle,  illustrated  bj   a    tree  hand  caricature   of 

the  thing  itself,  instead  of  requiring  a  neat  and 


(JKDMKTHV 


:;i:; 


Accurate  construction  upon  correct  geometrical 
principles.  Now,  this  is  geometry  with  the  ac- 
tual geometry  lift  out.  Nor  is  it  simply  that  the 
mere  mechanical  part  (not  an  inconsiderable  or 
unimportant  part)  is  left  out :  but  any  critical 
examination  of  sttch  pupils  will  usually  show 
that  the  logical  part  is  also  omitted;  in  short,  that 
the  pupil  neither  comprehends  the  nature  of  the 
process  and  the  reasons  for  its  several  steps,  nor 
IS  actually  able  to  execute  it.  While  it  is  possible 
for  a  person  to  have  the  mechanical  faculty  in  a 
high  degree,  and  tolerably  well  cultivated,  and 
yet.  being  deficient  in  the  Logical  faculty,  to  fail  of 
being  a  good  geometrician,  it  is  equally  possible, 
and,  as  the  subject  is  too  commonly  taught  it 
is  quite  common,  to  find  those  who  have  fair 
Logical  power-,  or  who  have  learned  the  for- 
mulas of  logic,  so  destitute  of  mechanical  ability 
or  culture,  that  they  utterly  fail  to  appreciate 
the  real  spirit  of  geometry,  even  though  they 
may  know,  and  be  able  to  demonstrate,  its  chief 
propositions.  Nor  are. the  skill  and  taste  requi- 
site to  effect  neat  and  accurate  geometrical  con- 
structions,  attainments  to  be  despised  in  secur- 
ing an  education.  Shall  we  study  the  science 
of  form,  and  not  cultivate  taste,  eye,  or  hand  in 
rence  to  form?  Shall  wre  call  a  person  pro- 
ficient in  the  science  of  extension  and  form,  who 
cannot  construct  a  parallelogram,  and  whose  taste 
and  eye  are  so  completely  uneducated,  that  he 
cannot  discriminate  between  a  right  angle  and 
an  angle  of  85  or  95  degrees,  and  who  cannot, 
with  any  degree  of  precision,  construct  either? 
.Moreover,  the  zest  which  the  construction  of  neat 
and  accurate  figures  adds  to  the  study,  and  the 
clearness  of  perception  which  is  thus  induced, 
are  most  helpful.  In  the  course  here  recommend- 
ed, a  student  will  never  be  called  upon  to  demoli- 
sh a  e  a  proposition  in  plane  geometry,  the  figure 
for  which  he  cannot  construct  upon  geometrical 
principles;  nor,  in  any  well-conducted  class,  will 
the  pupils  pass  any  proposition,  the  figures  for 
which  they  have  not  so  constructed,  it  is  not 
intended  that  every  figure  used  for  the  purpose 
of  demonstration  should  be  thus  constructed; 
but  it  is  urged  that  th  •  pupil  should  be  able  to 
construct  every  figure  thus,  and  that  he  should 
frequently  be  required  to  do  this  :  and,  moreover, 
it  is  claim  d  that  there  is  a  positive  power  to  in- 
vestigate geometrical  truth  begotten  of  this 
method.  Who  that  has  ever  attained  any  pro- 
ficiency in  geometrical  investigation  does  not 
know  the  value  of  an  accurately  constructed 
figure?  This  is.  generally,  the  very  first  step  in 
an  original  investigation,  the  construction  itself 
often  suggesting  the  entire  line  of  thought. 

HI.     But,  passing  from  preliminaries,  suppose 
the  student  ready  to  commence  the  study  of  the 

body  of  geometrical  propositions   which    make 

up  the  Elements  of  Geometry,  and  to  Learn  how 
to  demonstrate  them.  What  should  he  find 
pr  'sented  to  him  ?  .Most  assuredly,  a  well  clas- 
sified arrangement  of  the  subject  matter  is  a 
prime  requi.-ite  in  a  branch  of  study  which  en- 
joys the  distinction  of  being  the  mosl  perfect  of 
the  s  dences.    It  is.  however,  a  singular  fact,  that 


UO  SUCh  classification  has   been    con inly  found 

in  our  text-books.  The  sole  principle  of  the  ar- 
rangement in  Euclid,  which  has  prevailed  for  so 
many  centuries,  is  to  demonstrate  at  first  such 
propositions  as  arc  elementary,  and  hence  of 
essentia]  use  in  subsequent  demonstrations.  Of 
course,  such  an  order  of  sequence  as  this  is  a  ne- 
cessity :   but    is   there   not    that    in    the  nature  of 

the  subject  matter  which  calls  tor  a  more  scien- 
tific arrangement  ?  We  venture  to  suggest  tin' fol- 
lowing: (I)  The  concepts  of  plane  geometrj  are 
the  straight  line,  the  circumference  of  the  circle, 
and  the  angle;  (2)  The  two  fundamental  inquiries 
are  concerning  magnitude  and  form,  the  latter 
of  which  results  from  position.  Bearing  these 
statements  in  mind  we  shall  commence  with  the 

simplest  concept,  the  straight  Line.  But  shall 
our  first  inquiry  be  concerning  magnitude,  or 
concerning  form  or  position?  There  are  two 
ways  of  measuring  a  straight  line,  (1)  the  direct 
way,  by  applying  one.  line  to  another.and  (2) the 
indirect  way,  as  in  trigonometry,  when,  having 
two  sides  and  an  included  angle  of  a  triangle 
given,  we  determine  the  third  side.  etc.  Now. 
in  the  first,  there  is  little  or  no  science,  and  the 
second  is  not  elementary.  Hence,  we  dismiss 
the  question  of  magnitude,  and  turn  to  the  ques- 
tion of  position,  which  gives  rise  to  form.  1  lere 
we  at  once  find  legitimate  objects  of  inquiry, 
and  the  relative  position  of  two  straight  lines 
will  be  the  first  section.  The  subdivisions  will 
be  of  perpendiculars,  of  oblique  lines,  of  paral- 
lels. As  these  are  all  the  positions  that  straight 
lines  can  occupy  with  reference  to  each  other, 
we  have  exhausted  this  line  of  thought.  Pass- 
ing to  the  circumference,  we  dispose  of  the  ques- 
tion of  magnitude  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as 
we  did  in  the  case  of  the  straight  line.  The  direct 
measurement  by  the  application  of  an  arc  in- 
volves no  science  ;  and  the  indirect,  as  when  we 
determine  the  circumference  from  the  radius,  is 
a  remote  inquiry.  Hence,  the  question  of  posi- 
tion recurs.  Comparing  the  straight  line  and 
the  circumference  as  to  relative  position,  we  find 
the  elementary  properties  of  chords,  secants,  and 
tangents.  Comparing  two  circumferences  ;is  to 
relative  position,  we  have  external  tangency.  in- 
tersection, internal  tangency,  or  one  wholly  in- 
terior to  the  other;  and  thus  we  exhaust  this 
line  of  inquiry.  Reaching  the  angle,  we  find 
that  the  elementary  method  of  measuring  an 
angle  (by  an  arc)  is  the  fundamental  object, 
while  the  relative  position  of  angles  is  an  unim- 
portant inquiry.  Hence,  we  treat  the  measure- 
ment of  an  angle  by  an  arc;  and  have  the 
elementary  propositions  concerning  the  angle  <it 
the  center,  the  angle  between  intersecting  chords, 
the  inscribed  angle,  the  angle  between  two 
secants,  etc.  We  tints  complete  the  fundamental 
inquiries  relating  to  the  simple  concepts,  and 
proceed  to  treat  them  as  combined  in  figures. 
The  first  inquiry  now  concerns  (he  relative  mag- 
nitudes of  the  sides  and  angles  of  a  single  figure; 
the  second,  the  comparison  of  figures.  Now. 
there  are  three  ideas  to  lie  taken  as  liases  .if  com- 
parison; namely,  (1)  equality,  (2)  similarity,  and 


344 


GEOMETRY 


(3)  equivalence;  out  of  the  last  of  which  grows 
the  idea  of  area.  Having  treated  these  topics, 
we  hare  exhausted  the  subject  of  elementary  plane 
geometry.  No  other  elementary  inquiry  ran  arise; 
and  no  subsequenl  inquiries  can  be  carried  for- 
ward except  on  the  basis  of  these.  Thus  we 
have  hastily  sketched  the  outlines  of  a  scientific 
arrangement;  but  our  special  purpose  is  to  in- 
sist, that  some  logical  order  of  sequence  be  im- 
pressed upon  the  mind  of  the  student,  whether 
it  be  this,  or  some  better  one. 

IV.  Hints  concerning  class-room  work. — The 
order  of  arrangement  in  the  treatment  of  a  geo- 
metrical proposition  should  be  early  fixed  in  the 
student's  mind;  namely,  (1)  The  general  state- 
ment of  the  proposition;    i-\  The   illustration  of 

this  statement  by  reference  to  a  particular  dia- 
gram; (H)  Any  additional  construction  which 
maybe  necessary  to  the  demonstration  :  I  I)  The 
demonstration  proper.  The  exact  language  of 
the  text-book  should  always  be  used  in  the  state 
ment  of  propositions,  and  in  quoting  definitions 
and  all  fundamental  principles,  unless  such  lan- 
guage is  changed  by  the  instructor  or  student 
for  a  particular  reason;  but  the  demonstration 
should  not  be  memorized,  although  the  general 
order  of  thought  should  necessarily  be  retained, 
and  the  spirit  and  style  of  the  language  be  pre- 
served. The  diagram  should  always  be  con- 
structed on  the  blackboard  by  the  pupil,  with- 
out prompting  from  air.  When  the  con- 
struction is  complete,  he  should  usuajlj  stand  a1 
the  board,  and  trace  the  line  of  thought  by  point- 
ing to  the  figure,  as  he  proceeds  in  the  demonstra- 
tion. Some  have  thought  it  best  to  use  the  Arabic 
figures  to  designate  points,  lines,  etc.,  instead  of 
the  capital  letters,  as  ordinarily  found  in  our 
text-books,  the  purpose  being  to  prevent  mere 
memorizing;  but  in  reference  to  this,  it  is  to 
be  saiil  that,  besides  its  exceeding  inelegance,  and 
the  fact,  moreover,  that  the  capital  letters  are  a 
part  of  the  language  of  the  science,  the  device  is 
of  little  or  no  use  as  a  preventive  of  memorizing. 
It  Is  quite  as  easy  for  a  pupil  who  is  so  disposed, 
to  memorize  by  the  mere  position  or  appearance 
of  the  parts,  with  figures  to  designate  them,  or 

even  without  any  characters  attached,  as  by  means 

of  letters.  The  pupil  can  make  asperfect  a  par- 
i mi  like  recitation,  by  merely  memorizing  everj 
statement  as  referring  to  certain  parts  of  the 
diagram,  and  by  using  the  barbarous  diction,  "fine 
this,"  "line  that,"  etc.,  which  maybe  heard  in 
some  class  rooms,  as  he  can  in  any  other  way. 
Our  counsel  is,  use  the  language  of  the  science 
(the)  and  depend  on   something  less  su- 

perficial, to  prevent  all  improper  memorizing. 
In  referring  to  antecedenl  proposil  ions  constitut- 
ing the  basis  of  t  be  argumenl .  it  is  far  mure  im- 
portant thai  the  proposil  i  in  be  quoted,  than  that 
its  number  be  given  ;  for  the  latter  is  of  ii"  Borl 
ot  use  excepl  as  a  mere  class-room  convenience, 
while  i  In-  former  method  is  of  essential  service  in 
bringing  oul  the  argument,  and  also  in  keeping 
the  truths  of  the  science  fresh  in  the  mind,  and 
iliar  on  the  tongue.  Such  methods  should 
■     -  irdinary  class-room  drill;  bul  there 


are  others  which  must  not  be  neglected,  nor  be 
unfrequent.  First  among  these  is  the  giving 
of  outlines  of  demonstrations  without  going 
through  the  details,  and  without  reference  to  B 
diagram.  This  is  one  of  the  best  tests  of  pro- 
ficiency which  can  be  applied,  and  the  whole 
I  subject  should  -be  repeatedly  reviewed  in  this 
way.  Again  frequent  reviews  of  groups  of 
theorems,  without  demonstrations,  arc  essential. 
Thus,  the  teacher  may  call  for  the  propositions 
concerning  equality  of  triangles,  the  elementary 
propositions  concerning  the  measurement  of 
angles,  the  propositions  concerning  parallels,  etc. 
When  a  student  is  assigned  such  a  topic,  he 
should  give  all  the  facts  embraced  under  it  (defi- 
nitions, propositions,  corollaries,  and  scholiums), 
without  being  prompted.  These  three  classes  of 
exercises  will  form  the  staple  of  all  class-room 
work. —  For  a  final  review,  students  may  be  set 
to  tracing  certain  lines  of  thought  running 
through  the  whole  subject.  Thus,  given  the  sub- 
ject of  equality,  he  will  define  it.  distinguish  it 
from  nearly  related  notions,  such  as  similarity 
and  equivalence,  show  that  the  two  latter  notions 
make  up  the  former,  classify  all  the  propositions 
of  elementary  geometry  which  relate  to  i  quality. 
and  be  able  to  give  them  with  their  demonstra- 
tions, pointing  out  any  common  principle  which 
may  seem  to  run  through  the  demonstrations. 
In  reference  to  the  latter  lie  will  find  that 
equality  is  always  proved  b\  the  mere  applica- 
tion of  one  figure  to  the  other,  with  the  modifi- 
cation, that  in  case  of  equality  by  symmetry  the 
figures  are  divided  into  parts,  which  parts  are 
then  applied  as  before.  In  like  manner,  he  can 
be  set  in  study  the  subject  of  similarity.  Such 
a  study  will  not  be  merely  a  review  01  the  sec- 
tion on  equality,  or  thai  <>n  similarity,  since  these 

ideas  are  the  basis  of  the  thought  in  many  pro- 
positions where  they  do  not  constitute  the  main 
subject,  or  purpose.  In  fact,  it  will  be  found  that 
nearly  one-half  of  the  propositions  of  geometry 
involve  one  or  the  other  of  these  notions  [equality 
and  similarity)  as  the  basis  of  thought.  Again 
he  may  be  set  to  select  and  study  the  proposi- 
tions relating  to  form,  and  then  those  in  which 
magnitude  is  the  object  of  inquiry;  these  two 
ideas  dividing  between  them  the  whole  domain 
of  geometrical  truth. —  Finally  it  is  of  the  high- 
est  importance,  that,  from  first  to  last,  the  pupil 
be  trained  in  the  practical  application  of  the  ab- 
stract tin!  lis  as  fast  as  they  are  learned.  No  truth 
is  well  learned  until  it  can  be  applied  :  and  it 
would  be  quite    incredible   to   one    who   has   no1 

had  large  observation,  how  fully  one  may  appear 
io  onderstand  a  geometrical  truth,  and  vet  be 
totally  unable  to  apply  it.  The  writer  has  ex- 
amined in  geometry  hundreds  of  Btudents  desir- 
ing to  enter  college  in  '-advanced  standing,"  and 
has  made  this  a  matter  of  careful  observation. 
Forexample,  he  has  usually  asked  such  students. 
••How  do  you  find  the  area  of  a  spherical  tri- 
angle?" General]]  the  answer  has  been  promptly 
given,"  By  multiplying  the  spherical  excess  by  the 
tri  rectangular  triangle;"  and.  quite  generally,  the 

Candidate    has    been    found    able    to  demonstrate 


GEOMETRY 


GEORGETOWN    COLLEGE        345 


the  proposition.  But  in  no  instance  has  the 
examiner  ever  found  a  student,  who  had  oo1  been 
trained  in  the  practical  application  of  the  state- 
ment, able  to  compute  the  area  of  a  triangle  the 
angles  of  which  are.  say  L10°,  9  (  .  and  87  ,  on  a 
sphere, the  radius  of  which  is  2  feet.  In  fact, they 
could  toll  what  a tri-rectangular  triangle  is.  what 
part  of  the  sphere  it  is.  ami  what  the  spherical 
excess  is;  but  not  one  could  actually  find  the 
number  of  square  inches  in  the  area  of  the  tri- 
angle. A  student  may  appear  to  have  thoroughly 
mastered  solid  geometry,  and  yet  bo  totally  unable 
to  solve  such  a  problem  as,  To  find  how  many  bar- 
rels of  water  a  cistern  in  the  form  of  the  frustum 
of  a  cone  will  contain.  It  is  obvious,  therefore, 
that  the  teacher  of  geometry  should  never  allow 
his  pupils  to  omit  the  practical  examples. 

V.  Geometrical  Invention. — This  term  is  used 
to  designate  the  power  to  discover  demonstra- 
tions of  propositions  or  the  solution  of  prob- 
lems. Many  excellent  teachers  quite  overrate  the 
ordinary  student's  power  in  this  direction.  Some 
have  even  thought,  that,  from  the  first,  a  ] >upil  can 
be  led  to  discover  the  demonstrations  of  all  the 
propositions.  New  classes  may. indeed,  make  com- 
mendable progress  in  geometry,  and  have  put 
into  their  hands  only  the  mere  statement  of  prop- 
ositions ;  but  it  will  be  found  that  they  do  no! 
originate  the  demonstrations  which  they  brim'- 
into  the  class;  they  simply  look  them  up  in  other 
text-books,  and  thus  learn  them.  After  a  pupil 
has  acquired  a  considerable  stock  of  geometrical 
knowledge,  any  real  test  will  show  that  original 
demonstrations  are  but  slowly  evolved,  even  of  the 
simplest  propositions.  Many  students  have  little 
or  no  capacity  in  this  direction:  and,  therefore,  t  > 
make  it  the  staple  of  geometrical  teaching  would 
be  supreme  folly.  Some  exercise  of  this  kind  may, 
and  should,  be  given  from  an  early  stage  of  the 
study;  and  students  may  be  stimulated  and  helped 
in  the  work,  so  that  all  the  ability  for  such  exer- 
cise, which  really  exists  in  the  class,  may  be  brought 
out;  but.  after  all,  there  is  no  reasonable  ground 
to  expect  that  any  large  amount  of  such  ability 
can  be  developed  in  the  majority  of  students  of 
elementary  geometry.  Certainly,  this  is  not  the 
purpose  for  which  geometry  holds  its  eminent 
place  in  the  curriculum  of  our  colleges.  It  is, 
that  students  may  learn  what  a  logical  argument 
is  and  how  to  frame  it.  from  the  study  of  such 
arguments,  carefully  elaborated  and  expressed  by 
tlie  ripest  culture.  What  but  the  most  clumsy 
work  can  bo  expected  from  the  tyro  in  framing 
such  arguments,  if  he  has  not  had  much  study  of 
the  besl  models?  To  put  a  demonstration  in 
good  form,  as  well  as  to  evolve  it.  is  the  ripest 
fruit  of  scholarship,  not  the  daily  work  of  begin- 
ners; the  ability  to  do  either  is  to  be  acquired, 
in  the  first  instance,  by  a  protracted  and  careful 
study  of  the  work  of  masters.  It  is  not  the  pur- 
pose of  these  remarks  to  discourage  all  attempts 
to  secure  original  demonstrations,  but  to  guard 
against  a  serious  error  into  which  enthusiastic 
and  ambitious  teachers  are  in  danger  of  falling: 
and  the  conclusion  is,  that,  for  the  most  pail. 
pupils  must  be  furnished  with  the  demonstrations 


of  elementary  geometry,  either  by  a  text-1 k. 

or  by  the  hints  of  a  competent  and  judicious 
teacher  ;  and  that  it  is  best  that  it  should  he  so. 
Bui  let  not  this  topic  of  geometrical  invention 
lie  confounded  with  that  of  practical  exercise  in 
applying  the  truths  learned.  'I  he  latter  is,  as 
has  been  said,  essential  for  all,  hut  especially  im- 
portant for  those  who  are  dull  of  apprehension. 

VI.  Lastly,  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  a  great 
change  has  come  about,  within  the  hist  century, in 
reference  to  the  kind  of  demonstration  which  is 
admissible  in  geometry.  Formerly, geometricians 
were  totally  averse  to  admitting  any  conception 
of  motion  or  time  into  a  geometrical  argument. 
These  were  rigidly  excluded  as  foreign  to  the 
subject  and  as  defiling  its  purity.  Both  are  now 
freely  admitted.  Again,  the  infinitesimal  meth- 
od was  formerly  as  rigidly  excluded,  but  is  now 
coming  to  be  admitted.     These  methods  greatly 

!  facilitate  geometrical  inquiry,  and  arc  now  free- 
ly used  by  the  best  writers  and  teachers.  (See 
Mathematics.) 

GEORGETOWN  COLLEGE,    at   George- 

}  town,  1).  C,  was  founded  in  L789,  but  was  not 
chartered  until  1815.  It  is  a  Roman  Catholic 
institution,  under  the  direction  of  members  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus;  and  is  supported  by  fees 
from  students.      In  the  classical  department,  the 

,  entire  course,  including  the  preparatory  clas 
is  of  seven  years,  the  last  four  of  which  corre- 
spond generally  with  the  classical  course  of  d 
American  colleges.  The  institution  has  a  well- 
equipped  astronomical  observatory,  philosophical 
and  chemical  apparatus.  an<  1  a  cabinet  of  minei 
shells,  etc.  The  college  library  contains  30,000 
volumes,  amongst  which  there  are  many  rare  and 
curious  works.  One  hundred  of  these  volumes 
were  printed  between  the  years  1460  and  1520; 
three  manuscripts  are  anterior  to  the  year  1  100, 
and  many  others  are  of  aknost  as  early  a  date. 
The  society  libraries  contain  about  3,0.00  volumes. 
The  charge  for  tuition,  hoard,  lodging,  etc..  is  S.'!2."> 
a  year ;  the  regular  charge  for  day  scholars  is 
$60  a  year.  In  Washington,  there  is  a  medical 
department,  established  in  1851,  and  also  a  law 
department,  established  in  1*^70.  In  I  sTA  6.  there 
were,  in  the  classical  department,  l'.»  instructors 
and  21.")  students,  of  whom  •">  I  were  of  the  col- 
legiate grade ;  in  the  medical  department,  there 
were  13  instructors  and  80  students;  in  the  law 
department.-!  instructors  and  .'i'.)  students.  At  the 
commencement  in  L876,  the  degree  of  A.  I!,  was 
conferred  on  7  graduates.  The  presidents  of  the 
college  with  the  date  of  appointment,  have  been 
as  follows  :  the  Rev.  Robert  Plunket,  1791-3; 
the  Rev.  Robert  Molyneux,  1793  6;  the  Rev. 
Louis  W.  Dubourg,  1796  '.' :  the  Rev.  Leonard 
Neale,  L799  1806 ;  the  Rev.  Robin  Molyneux, 
L806-8;  the  Rev.  Win.  Matthews,  1808  10; 
the    Rev.    Francis    Neale,    1810    12;     the    Re\ 

John  Grassi,   1812  17;    the   Rev.   Benedict  J. 

Fenwick,  L817    L8j   the  Rev.  Anthony  Kohltnann. 

1818  20;    the  Rev.  Enoch  Fenwick,  1820  22  ; 

the   Rev.Benedict    .1.    Fenwick,    1822-25;   the 

Stephen    Dubuisson,    L825-6 ;     the    Rev. 

William    Feiner,    1826  9;    the    Rev.   John   G. 


346       GEORCKTOWX    COLLEGE 


GEORGIA 


Beschter,  March,  L829  Sep.,29;  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Mulledy,  L829  37;  the  Rev. William  McSherry, 
L837  9;  the  Rev.  Joseph  A.  Lopez,  Jan.  L840 
April  is  Hi:  the  Rev.  James  Ryder,  L840-45;  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Mulledy,  Jan.,  1845-Aug.,  45 ;  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Mulledy,  L845  8;  the  Rev.  .lames 
Ryder,  L848  51;  the  Rev.  Charles  B.  Stonestreet, 
L851  2;  the  Rev.  Bernard  A.  Maguire,  L852  B; 
the  Rev.  John  Early,  1858-66;  the  Rev.Bernard 
A.  Manure,  1S(W;-T0:  tin-  Rev.  John  Early,  L870 
T.'i:  the  Rev.  P.  F.  Healy,  appointed  in  L873 
and  still  ( 1 876)  in  office. 

GEORGETOWN  COLLEGE,  at  George- 
town, Scott  Co.,  Ky..  chartered  in  L829,  is  under 
tli  •  control  of  the  Baptists.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  tees  and  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
nearly  $75,000.  The  veal  estate  of  the  college  is 
valued  at  about  $75,000.  The  library  contains 
between  5,000  and  6,000  volumes.  The  institution 

has  good  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus,  a 
cabinet  01  minerals,  fossils,  and  shells,  and  a  mu- 
ii  of  curiosities.  It  comprises  an  academic 
or  preparatory  course  and  a  collegiate  course.  The 
curriculum  is  distributed  into  the  follow  ing  depart- 
ments of  study:  (1)  English;  (2)  Latin;  (3) 
Greek;  (4)  Modern  languages:  5)  Mathematics; 
(6)  Physical  Sciences ;  (7)  History  and  Political 
Economy;  (8)  Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy.  Any 
student  who  completes  the  course  in  any  one  de- 
partment receives  i he  title  of  Prqficientin  that 
department,  other  degrees  are  Bachelor  of 
Sciences  for  the  full  English  course:  Bachelor  of 
Arts,  if  Latin  and  Greet  be  aide):  Master  of 
Arts  for  the  complete  course.  The  Western  Bap- 
tist Theological  Institute  is  connected  with  the 
college.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  collegiate  course 
is  $50  per  year,  and  in  the  academic  course  $  pi. 
Candidates  for  the  ministry  receive  instruction 
free,  and  nee  ly  students  who  intend  to  teach  are 

given  credit  for  tuition  until  they  are  able  to  pay. 

In  1  876,  t  here  were  8  instructors  and  I  07  students 

(84  collegiate  and  '_'.'!  preparatory).  The  presi- 
dents of  the  college,  with  date  of  appointment, 
have  been  as  follows:  Wm.  Staughton,  D.  D., 
L829;  Joel  S.  Bacon,  D.  !>.,  L830;  B.  F.  Farns- 
worth,  L836;  Rockwood  Giddings,  D.  I»..  L838; 
Howard  Malcom,  l>.  I>.,  L840;  J.  L  Reynolds, 
D.  I>..  L850;  Duncan  R.  Campbell,  1>.  1»..'  L852 ; 
V    M.    Crawford.    I  >.    D.,    1865;     B.  Manly,  dr.. 

1>.  !>.,  \-~i\  (the  present  incumbent,  L876). 

GEORGIA,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  states 

of  the  American  union,  was  first  settled  at 
Savannah,  by  colonists  from  England,  under 
Gen.  Ji is  Oglethorpe,  in   L733.     Its  present 

-area  is  58,000  sip  m.  :  and  its  population,  accord- 
in-  to  the  census  of  L870,  was  1,184,109,  included 

in  wlii.l,  u.iv  545,142  colored  persons.  Ill  In- 
dians, and  1  Chinaman.  According  to  its  entire 
population,  it  ranked  as  the  L2th  among  the 
states  :  and.  as  to  colored  population,  as  the  1st. 
tta  gain  in  population,  during  the  ten  years 
preceding,  was  I  2  per  cent. 

/  lucationnl  History.  The  original  const  it  u 
tiou  of  thi,  -tate.  adopted  in  L777,  contained  a 
provision  requiring scl Is  to  be  "erected  in  each 

county,  and  SUpporte  1  at    the    general  expense  of 


the  state"  :  but  this  was  omitted  in  the  revision 
of  1789,  educational  affairs  being  left  to  the 
regulation  of  the  general  assembly.  In  ITsiJ.  the 
assembly  donated  1,000  acres  of  land  to  each 
county  for  the  support  of  free  schools:  and.  in 
IT- I.  40,000  acres  were  given  for  the  endow- 
ment of  a  state  university,  which  was  chartered 
in  IT^e.  In  L792,an  act  was  passed  appropriat- 
ing 1 .0011  acres  for  the  endowment  of  an  academy 
in  each  county  of  the  state.  In  L 81 7,  the  sum 
of  $250,000  was  appropriated  for  the  support  of 
schools  for  the  poor.     According  to  the  census 

of  1860,  there  were   in  the   state  32  colleges  and 

high  schools,  with  3,302  students;  and  1T">2 
public  schools,  containing  56,087  pupils,  the  total 
income  for  the  support    of  which  was  $449,966. 

Georgia  was  quite  celebrated  for  tin1  number  and 

excellence  of  her  female  seminaries.  There  was. 
however,  no  regularly  organized  system  of  com- 
mon schools,  supported  by  public  taxation,  and 
Open  to  all  classes:  although  efforts  were  made 
in  L  845,  and  again  in  L856,  to  establish  such  a 
system.  In  L849,  a  law  existed  giving  $20,000, 
to  be  divided  among  the  several  counties  of  the 

state  to  support   schools   for   poor  children  :   hut 

such  was  the  general  apathy  in  regard  to  educa- 
tion, that  '■'•'!  counties  failed  to  make  any  return 
so  as  to  obtain  their  portion  of  the  endowment. 
In  1850,  there  were  213,903  native  white  adults 
in  the  state,  of  whom  'JO  per  cent  were  unable  to 
lead  and  write.  In  I860,  the  number  of  illiterates 

had    been    reduced    to  18    per    cent.      The   state 

constitution  of  L868  provided  for  the  establish- 
ment of  "a  thorough  system  of  general  education, 
to  be  foreverfree  to  all  children  of  the  state."  and 
created  the  office  of  state  school  commissioner, to 
be  appointed  by  the  governor,  with  the  consent 

of  the  senate,  and  to  hold  his  otlicc  for  the  same 

term  as  the  governor.    An  act  establishing  such 

a  system  of  public  instruction  was  passed  Oct 
IT,  1870, under  which  many  schools  were  put  in 
operation,  under  the  supervision  of  the  first 
school  commissioner,  J.  It.  Lewis.  His  report, 
made  in  1871,  showed  that  there  were  enrolled 
in  the    Bchools   42,914    white    pupils,   and    6,664 

colored,  making  a  total  of  49,578.  Very  great 
mismanagement  and  imprudence,  however,  char- 
acterized the  operations  of  those  who  had  the 

direction  of  the  school  system  during  thai  year: 
the  school  fund  was  diverted  from  its  legitimate 
object,  a  large  debl   was  contracted,  and  many 

defects    were   found    to    c\i>t     in    the   scl llaw. 

From  these  causes,  the  schools  were  closed  dur- 
ing the  year  I  .ST'_'.    In  that  year.  <  iusta\  us  .1 .  ( >rr 

was  appointed  scl 1  commissioner;  and  under 

his  ach  ice,  a  new  law  was  passed  (Jan.  1 '.'..  1  s~-). 

in  pursuance  of  which  the  system  as   it    exists  at 

present  was  organized.    The  year  L873  opened 

with  brighter  pros] fcs.  The  school  funds  which 

had  been  accumulating  from  the  regular  bout 
had  been  faithfully  kept  :  and  the  law  providing 
for  the  payment  of  the  debt  of  1871  had  yielded 
si  7  l.ooo.  which  sum  was  apportioned  among  the 
counties,  ami  faithfully  disbursed.     The  regular 

school  fond  had   accumulated    to   the  amount    ot 

$250,000,  which  also  was  properly  apportioned. 


GEORGIA 


3  1 7 


Under  these  circumstances,  the  schools  thai  year 
made  considerable  progress.  The  annual  reporl 
of  Commissioner  Orr,  for  1873,  showed  thai 
there  were  in  attendance  .-it  the  schools  83,677 
pupils,  of  whom  63,922  were  white  children, and 
19,755  were  colored.  During  the  nexl  year,  the 
attendance  increased  to  L35.541,    whites,  93,170, 

colored,    T_\.'i71.     The    amount  of  school   funds 

apportioned  in  L874,  was  $265,000.  The  report 
for  the  year  1875  showed  a  still  further  increase, 
the  aggregate  attendance  being  L.56,349, — whites, 
105,990 ;    colored,   50,359.     During   L874,  five 

school    laws    were    enacted;    hut    no    important 

change  was  made  in  the  system,  except  the  re- 
quirement that  the  enumeration  of  the  school 
population  should  he  ma  le  every  four  years  in- 
stead of  every  year,  as  formerly. 

School  System. — The  common-school  system 
of  Georgia  is  under  the  direction  of  the  following 
officers:  ( 1 )  A  state  school  commissioner  appointed 
by  the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate. 
for  four  years,  who  is  charged  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  school  laws  and  the  general  super- 
vision of  all  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  as 
well  as  the  apportionment  of  the,  school  revenue; 
(L'i  A  state  board  of  education,  comprising  the 
governor,  secretary  of  state,  attorney-general, 
comptroller-general,  and  school  commissioner. 
This  is  an  advisory  body,  with  whom  the  school 
commissioner  has  the  right  to  consult  in  regard 
to  any  of  his  official  duties  ;  and  appeals  may  be 
made  to  it  from  his  decisions  touching- the  proper 
construction  or  administration  of  the  school  laws: 
;.;,  (  'ounty  ha  irds  iff  >■  location,  each  consisting 
of  five  freehol  lers,  elected  for  four  years  by  the 
grand  jury,  whose  duties  are  to  form  school  dis- 
tricts, establish  schools,  purchase  grounds,  build 
school-houses,  prescribe  text-books  (all  of  which 
must  be  unsectarian),  grant  licenses  to  teachers, 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  county  school 
commissioners,  ami  have  a  general  supervision  of 
all  the  schools  in  their  respective  counties;  also  to 
determine  local  controversies  referred  to  them  by 
appeal,  subject  to  a  still  further  appeal  to  the 
State  commissioner ;  (4)  County  school  com- 
missioners, elected  by  the  county  boards  of  educa- 
tion, who  examine  applicants  for  licenses  to 
teach,  and  revoke  licenses  for  immorality,  incom- 
petency, or  cruelty  to  pupils,  subject,  however. 
to  an  appeal  to  the  county  boards  of  education. 
The  county  school  commissioner  is  also  required 
to  visit  each  school  in  his  county  at  least  twice  a 
year,  to  make  an  annual  census  of  the  children 
of  school  age  (between  6  and  18),  to  apportion 
the  school  fund  of  the  county  ai  long  the  sub-dis- 
tricts in  proportion  to  the  number  of  such  children 
in  each,  to  make  such  reports  to  the  state  com- 
missioner as  he  may  require,  and  to  act  generally 
as  the  medium  of  communication  between  the 
state  commissioner  and  the  subordinate  school 
officers. 

The  county  boards  of  education    may  establish 

ning  schools  for  youths  over  L 2  years  of  age, 

who  are  unable  to  attend  the  day  schools;  and. 

under  the  direction  of  the  state  hoard,  they  may 

also  establish  ■  taming manualldbor  schools. 


No  county  is  entitled  to  a  participation  in  the 
state  school  fund    unless    its   board    of  education 

has  provided,  by  taxati >r  otherwise,  for  keep- 
ing primary  schools  in  operation  at  least  three 
months  hi  the  year,  or  two  months  in  the  ca.se  of 
ambulatory  schools,  which  may  lie  organized  in 

sparsely  inhabited  districts.  Separate  schools  are 
prescribed  for  colored  children,  but  these  schools 

must  afford   equal   advantages   with   those  for 

whites.     The  law  prohibits  the  exclusion   of  the 

Bible  from  the  public  schools,  but  does  not  per- 
mit any  books  of  a  sectarian  character  to  be 
used.  Public  school  sites  and  buildings,  ami  the 
furniture  of  the  latter,  are  exempt  from  taxation 
and  from  sale  on  execution. 

The  school  revenue  a1  present  consists  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  poll  tax  and  of  special  taxes  on 
shows  and  exhibitions,  and  on  the  sale  of  spiritu- 
ous and  malt  liquors,  endowments,  devises,  gifts, 
and  bequests  made  to  the  state  for  educational 
purposes,  all  educational  funds  and  revenues  due 
the  state  university,  and  one  half  of  the  rental 
of  the  Western  and  Atlantic  railroad.  From 
these  resources  there  were  received  during  the 
year  ending  June30.,  L875  :  poll  tax,  $3,729.83; 
tax  on  shows  and  exhibitions,  $2,069.50;  and  half 
rental  of  W.  and  A.  railroad.  SI  .30,000;  making 
a  total  of  $155,799.33.  This  fund  is  apportioned 
among  the  several  counties  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  children  front  0  to  L8  years  of  age.  and 
of  confederate  soldiers  under  30  years  of  age  res- 
ident in  each.  In  four  counties. — Bibb,  Chatham, 
Glynn, and  Richmond,  and  in  three  cities, — At- 
lanta, Columbia,  and  Griffin,  the  school  systems 
are  organized  under  local  laws. 

Educational  Condition. — According  to  the  re- 
port of  the  state  commissioner  for  187"),  there  wen  ■ 
belonging  to  the  general  common-school  system 
3,6(59  schools,  of  which  2,790  were  for  white  and 
879  for  colored  pupils,  all  the  counties  in  the 
state  having  common  schools,  except  Early. 
Besides  these,  there  were,  in  the  counties  and 
cities  under  special  systems,  128  elementary 
schools  and  9  high  schools.  58  of  the  former  be- 
ing graded  and  70  ungraded  schools.  There  were 
also"  reported  820  private  elementary  schools. 
The  studies  pursued  in  the   COmi schools  are 

reading,  orthography,  writing,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, and  English  grammar. 

The  following  are  the  principal  items  of  the 
common-school  statistics  for  ls7.>: 

Number  of  pupils  admitted,    Whites.  ..114,648 

Colored.  .   55,^08 

Total.  .169,916 

Average   daily  attendance 106,700 

No.  of  children  of  school  age,  Whites.  .218,733 

•■      Colored.  175 ,304 

Total.. :wt,037 
For  the  private  elementary  schools  the  follow- 
ing statistics   were  given  in  the  report  for  the 
same  year  : 

Number  of  Schools 820 

"Teachers 903 

■•  Pupils  taught,  Whites 21,275 

"  Colored 4,170 

Total.  .!!.'.,  I..  1 

Average  moat  lily  cost  of  tuition $1.88. 


:j;s 


GEORGIA 


The  whole  amount  of  money  received  and  ex- 
pended for  the  support  of  public  schools,  in  L875, 
was  $435,319.  Of  this,  $291,319  was  supplied 
by  the  state:  and  $144,000,  raised  by  local  tax- 
ation. The  amount  apportioned  to  the  several 
counties  was  $151,304.  The  Peabody  Fund 
contributed  $6,900  to  the  support  of  schools  in 
Georgia,  during  the  year. 

Normal  Instruciion.^'So  provision  has  been 
made  in  this  state  for  the  special  training  of 
teachers.  In  his  annual  report  for  1875,  State 
<  lommissioner  I  Mr  said.  ■•The  want  of  well-quali- 
fied teachers  for  our  white  schools  has  been  much 
felt.  The  want  of  the  white  schools  in  this 
respect,  however,  is  small  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  colored  schools.  It  has  been  impracti- 
cable to  put  colored  schools  in  operation  at  all.  in 
some  places,  in  consequence  of  the  lack  of  com- 
petent instructors."   I  le,  therefore,  recommended 

that  an  •annual  appropriation  of  SI  I), HOI)  lie 
made  for  establishing  two  normal  schools  for 
whites,  one  to  be  located  in  the  northern, and 

thi'  other  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state; 
and  that  the  law  making  an  appropriation  of 
$8,000  to  the  Atlanta  I  'niversity  he  repealed,  and 
that,  in  lieu  thereof, $10,000  he  annually  appro- 
priated for  establishing  a  normal  school  for  colored 

pupils."  Bowdon  College  has  a  normal  class: 
ami  the  Atlanta  University  (q.  v.),  a  higher  and 
a  lower  normal  department,  the  former  embrac- 
ing a  four  years'  course,  and  the  latter  a  shorter 
one  for  primary  school  teachers.  And.  besides 
these,  there  is  the  Haven  Normal  School,  at 
Waynesboro,  which,  in  L874,  had  L62  students. 
The  s'ate  appropriation  to  the  Atlanta  I  rniversity 
is  designed  to  encourage  the  training  of  colored 

teachers  in  that  institut  ion. 

Secondary  Tnstructi<m.-  The  special  systems 
above  referred  to  comprise  !t  high  schools, —'J  in 
Bibb  County,  2  in  Chatham  County.  '_'  in  At- 
lanta, 1  in  Columbus,  and  2  in  the  city  of 
Griffin.  Macon  also  has  2  high  schools:  and 
Savannah,  8  high-school  classes.     Besides  these, 

there  were  reported  HU  private  high  schools. 
having  171  instructors,  and  .">..'!7'.l  students,  of 
whom  3,087  were  males,  ami  2,292  females.    The 

studies  pursued  in  these  schools  included  the 
usual  English,  classical,  mathematical,  and  scien- 
tific branches;  and  the  average  monthly  cost  of 

tuition  was  $3.13  per  pupil,  ranging   from  $5  to 

$1.15.  There  are  also  several  business  colleges. 
Superior  Instruction.  The  rniversity  of 
Georgia  (q.  v.),  at  Athens,  is  the  principal  in- 
stitution of  this  grade  in  the  state.  Others  are 
contained  in  the  following  table,  according  to 

the  annual  report  of  the  state, imissioner  for 

L875: 


NAME 

1       ition 

denomii 

University   ,>i  i . ■  - . . >  -_r i ; i .... 

Atlanta   i  rniversity 

Mercer  Qnh  ersity 

N.GeorgiaAgr.<S  Mech.Col. 
Emory  <  lollecre 

Athens 

Atlanta 

Macon 

Dahlon 

Oxford 

Jefferson 

M.i.-, ,ii 

ect. 
Nun  Beet. 
Baptisl 
Non-sect. 
M.  B.  South 

Martin  Institute 

Pin  Nono  i  lollege  

R.  C. 

Besides  these,  there  are  several  institutions  for 
the  higher  education  of  women,  that  claim  the 
rank  of  colleges,  having  preparatory  and  collegiate 
courses  of  study.  According  to  the  report  oi  the 
C  S.  Commissioner  for  L874,  there  were  in 
these  institutions  102  instructors  and  1,408  stu- 
dents. The  following  list  contains  those  included 
in  the  report  of  the  state  commissioner  for  L875: 


NAME 

Location 

Rj  ligious 
d<  n  mination 

Cherokee  Baptist  Fein. Col. 
(  iiiivits  Fern.  Col 

I  'altim  Fein.  Ciil 

Rome 

( 'imvers 

Dalton 

Perry 

La  Grange 

Talbotton 

Rome 

La  Grange 

Covington 

Macon 

West  Point 

Thomasville 

Baptist 

Meth.  Epis. 

Baptist 

M.  E.,  South 

Methodist 

Presb. 

Houston  I'Vm.  Oil 

Le  Vert  Fein.  Col 

Rome  Fern.  Col 

Southern  Masonic  Fem.<  !ol. 
West  Point  Fein.  ( 'ol 

X 1 1 1 1  -  - 
Non-sect. 
M.  E.,  South 
Union 

The  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  the 
Mechanic  Arts,  endowed  with  the  congressional 
land  grant  of  270,000  acres,  is  a  department  of 
the  l  niversity  of  Georgia.  The  North  Georgia 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  became 
likewise  a  branch  of  the  University  in  L872. 
Atlanta  I 'niversity  dp  v. I  was  organized,in  1867, 
by  the  Freedmens  Bureau  and  the  American 
Missionary  Association,  and  is  largely  supported 
by  the  latter  body.  It  is  designed  especially  for 
the   education    of   colored  youth.      In  pursuance 

of  an  act  of  the  legislature,  there  is  an  annual 
state  appropriation  of  $8,000  for  its  support. 
Objections  have  been  urged  against  this  institu- 
tion on  the  ground  that  such  a  "movement in 
favor  of  university  education  for  the  colored 
people  is  far  iii  advance  of  the  demands  of  the 
present    condition  of  colored   society':   and  that 

the  money  thus  expended  should  be  exclusively 
devoted    to    instructing  and   training  teachers 

specially    for   the    work    of    elementary    schools. 

( Commissioner  Orr's  Report  for  L875.) 
Special  and  Professional  Instruction. — The 

institutions  for  special  instruction  are  the<  reorgia 

Institution  for  the  Education  of  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb,  at  Cave  Spring,  and  the  Georgia  Academy 
for  the  Blind,  al  Macon.  The  former,  in  L874, 
had  5  teachers  and  51  pupils,  of  whom  25  were 

females:  the  latter  had  7  instructors  and  51 
pupils— 30  females:  its  receipts,  which  were  al- 
most wholly  from  state  appropriations,  amounted 

to  $15,115.37.    There  is  a  law  school  connected 

with    the    I    niversity   of    Georgia,   in    which    the 

course  is  f<>r  one  year,  mcluding  the  whole 
twelve  months.  The  Medical  College  of  Georgia, 
located  at  Augusta,  constitutes  the  medical  de- 
partment   of   the    University   of  Georgia;    the 

value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus  is 
estimated    at    $60,000,   ami    its   lilnaiy    contains 

5,000  volumes.  Besides  this,  there  are  the 
At  Ian  ia  Medical  I  lollege,  founded  in  1854,  which, 
in  1st  I.  had  a  cups  of  II  instructors,  and  11" 
students ;  and  the  Savannah  Medical  Colli 
founded  in  1838.  which,  in  I874,had  I '_' instruct- 
ors, ami  a  graduating  class  of  L6  Btudents. 


GEORGIA,  UNIVERSITY  OF 


GERMAN-AMERICAN  SCHOOLS    :M!> 


GEORGIA,  University  of,  ;it  Athens. 
Georgia,  was  chartered  in  L785,  receiving  40,000 
acres  i>t'  wild  land,  granted  in  I  78 1  l>y  the  legis- 
lature, for  the  endowment  of  a  college,  or  semi- 
nary of  learning.  It  did  not  go  into  operation 
for  some  years,  [n  1801,  the  first  building  was 
nvrted.  and,  in  I  so  I .  the  first  class  graduated. 
The  institution  was  suspended,  from  September 
L863  to  January  L866,  in  consequence  of  the 
civil  war.  The  funds  of  the  university,  in  1  .S7(i, 
amounted  to  8373,170;  the  value  of  its  build- 
ings and  apparatus  at  Athens  was  $183,000. 
The  campus  contains  37  acres,  and  there  is  an  ex- 
perimental farm  of  L6  acres.  The  college  and 
society  libraries  contain  about  20,000  volumes. 
The  medical  department  has  a  library  of  about 
5,000  volumes.  The  university  com) irises  an 
academic  department  (known  as  Franklin  Col- 
lege), the  Georgia  State  College  of  Agriculture 
and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  a  law  department 
(established  in  1860),  a  medical  department  (the 
Medical  College  of  Georgia,  at  Augusta,  estab- 
lished in  L830),  and  the  North  Georgia  Agri- 
cultural College  (at  Dahlonega).  The  State 
College  and  the  North  Georgia  College  were 
established  in  L872,  with  the  proceeds  of  the 
congressional  land  grant  to  Georgia.  The 
Medical  College  became  a  department  of  the 
university  in  L873.  The  following  schools  are 
embraced  in  the  academic  department:  (1)  Latin 
language  and  literature;  (2)  Greek  language 
and  literature:  (3)  modern  languages;  (4)  belles- 
lettres,  including  rhetoric,  criticism,  and  esthet- 
ics ;  (5)  metaphysics  and  ethics ;  (6)  mathe- 
matics ;  (7)  natural  philosophy  and  astronomy; 
(8)  chemistry,  geology,  and  mineralogy;  (9)  his- 
tory and  political  science ;  (10)  English  liter- 
ature. These  separate  schools  are  so  arranged 
as  to  be  combined  into  several  departments, 
which  thus  offer  systematic  courses  of  educa- 
tion of  different  types  of  culture.  Three  degrees 
are  conferred  in  this  department :  Bachelor  of 
Philosophy,  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  Bachelor 
of  Science.  The  State  College  has  three  de- 
partments :  agriculture,  engineering,  and  applied 
chemistry.  Four  degrees  are  conferred  :  Master 
of  Agriculture,  Bachelor  of  Agriculture,  Bachelor 
of  Engineering,  and  Bachelor  of  Science.  There 
are  rive  university  degrees ;  namely,  Master  of 
Arts  (requiring  certificates  of  proficiency  in 
all  the  academic  schools  except  the  last).  Civil 
Engineer,  Civil  and  Mining  Engineer,  Bachelor 
of  Law,  and  Doctor  of  Medicine.  The  cost  of 
tuition  in  the  academic  department  is  $75  a 
year;  in  the  State  College,  $40.  Fifty  young 
men  of  limited  means,  residents  of  Georgia,  arc 
admitted  to  the  academic  department  free  of 
tuition,  in  return  for  which  they  are  expected  to 
teach  school  in  the  state  for  a  term  of  years  equal 
to  the  time  they  have  enjoyed  the  advantages  of 
the  university.  Needy  students  intending  to  en- 
ter the  ministry  also  receive  tuition  free.  In  the 
State  College,  state  scholarships,  exempting  from 
tuition  fees,  are  granted  to  as  many  students, 
residents  of  the  state,  as  there  arc  members  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  and  senators  in 


Number  of 

Nil  ml),  r  oJ 

instructors. 

students. 

12 

mi 

8 

93 

4 

i; 

5 

245 

12 

m 

the  General  Assembly.  The  North  Georgia 
Agricultural  College  occupies  the  former  United 
States  mint,  donated  by  Congress.     It  admits 

both  sexes,  and   has  a  collegiate   and  an  inferior 

department.  Many  of  its  students  have  become 
teachers.  Tuition  is  tree. --In  Ist.'i  (i.  the  num- 
ber of  instructors  and  students  in  the  different 
departments  of  the  university  was  as  follows: 

Departments. 

Academic 

St;iii>  College 

Law 

North  Georgia  College 

Medical 

Total  (deducting  repefitions)  33  672 

At  the  commencement  in  L875,  72  degrees 
were  conferred.  The  whole  number  of  alumni 
of  the  university,  at  that  date,  was  1 ,388  (of 
whom  980  were  hving), including  1,153  bachelors 
of  arts,  141  of  law,  -1 1  doctors  of  medicine,  and 
53  recipients  of  other  degrees.  The  heads  of  the 
university  bore  the  title  of  president  till  L860; 
but  since  that  time  they  have  been  styled  chan- 
cellor. Their  names  are  as  follows:  Josiah  Meigs, 
LL.I).,  1801-11  ;  the  Rev.  John  Brown,  D.  D., 
1811-16;  the  Lev.  Robert  Finley,  1».1>..  L816 
17;  the  Rev.  Moses  Waddell,  D.  D.,  1819-29  ; 
the  Rev.  Alonzo  Church,  D.D.,  1829-59;  the 
Rev.  Andrew  A.  Lipscomb,  D.  D.,  LL.  I).,  1860- 
74;  and  the  Rev.  Henry  H.  Tucker,  D.  !>.. 
appointed  in  1874  and  still  in  office  (1876). 

GERANDO,  Joseph  Marie  de.  Baron,  bom 
in  Lyons,  Feb.  21).,  1772,  died  in  Paris.  Nov.  11.. 
1842.  Educated  originally  for  the  priesthood, 
he  changed  his  purpose,  and  entered  the  army. 
with  which  he  visited  Germany,  Switzerland. 
and  Italy.  While  in  garrison  at  Colmar,  the 
Institute  proposed  the  question,  "What  is  the 
influence  of  signs  on  the  formation  of  ideas?" 
Be  Gerando's  dissertation  on  this  subject  took 
the  prize,  and  caused  his  invitation  by  Lucien 
Bonaparte  to  Paris,  where  he  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  interior.  After  filling  various  civil  and 
military  positions  in  France,  Tuscany,  and  the 
Pa  .pal  States,  and  lecturing  in  Paris  before  tin- 
faculty  of  law,  he  was.  in  1837,  raised  to  the 
peerage.  His  principal  educational  and  philo- 
sophical works  are  : — Des  signes  et  de  Vari  <l< 
penser,  considered  dans  leurs  rapports  mutuels 
(1800);  De  la  generation  des  Uonnaissances 
Humaines  (1802),  Histoire  Compared  des  Sys- 
ti'iucs  <lc  Philosophic  rclntircmciit int.c  Principes 
des  Gonnaissances  Humaines  (1803);  Cours  Nor- 
malcies Fnstituteurs  Primaires  (1832);  Educa- 
tion ilcs  Sourds-Muets  <l<'  Naissance  (1827);  Du 
Perfectionnemeni  Moral  ft  de  VEducation  de 
Soi-m&me  (1824).  This  last  is  the  work  by  which 
he  is  most  favorably  known.  An  Rngliflh  trans- 
lation of  it  [Self- Pj  I  He  it  ion)  was  published  in 
Boston,  in  I *."{(>.  See  Morel,  Essai  sarin  vie 
de  •/.  M.  Baron  de  Gerando  (1846)  ;  North 
Anicriciii  prricir  for  April,  1861. 

GERMAN  -  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS,  a 
large  class  of  schools  in  the  Cnited  States,  in 
which  a  part  or  most  of  the  instruction  is  given 


350 


GERMAN    COLLEGE 


GERMAN   LANGUAGE 


in  the  German  language.  They  consist  of  several 
(I)  The  earliest  and  still  the  most 
numerous  among  these  schools  are  the  denomina- 
tional schools,  connected  with  the  German 
churches.  These  schools  are  chiefly  supported 
from  the  wish  to  establish  the  greatest  harmony 
between  school,  church,  andfamiry,  and  to  induce 
the  children  of  German  church  members  to  con 
nect  themselves  with  the  congregations  to  which 
their  parents  belong.  The  gi  it  st  zeal  for  the 
thlishment  of  den iriational  German-Amer- 
ican sch  ioIs  bas  been  shown  by  the  German 
Catholics  and  the  German  Lutherans.  The 
schools  of  the  former  were,  in  1869,  attended  by 
about  157,000  children.  The  Lutherans  have 
about  3,000  German  congregations,  the  majority 
of  which  support  German- American  schools, 
number  of  private  schools,  in  most 
cases  consist  i ui;- of  only  one  or  two  classes,  are 
patronized  by  parents,  mostly  Germans,  bul  to 
some  extent  also  by  others,  who  regard  the  ability 
to  speak  German  as  ;i  valuable  acquisition  from 
a  business  point  of  view.  (3)  Since  1848,  a 
number  of  German- American  schoolsof  a  higher 
grade  have  been  founded,  partly  by  societies. 
Tlusc  arc  designed  not  only  to  teach  their  pupils 
to  speak  German  fluently,  bul  to  transplant  to 
American  soil  the  developing  method  oi  instruc- 
tion, which  prevails  in  Germany,  and  to  realize 
the  ideal  of  a  German  real  school.  With  a  num- 
berof  these  schools,  kindergartens  are  connected. 
Schoolsof  this  kind  have  been  founded  in  Mil- 
waukee (1853),  New  York  (1854),  Brooklyn, 
Hoboken,   Detroit,   Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  St. 

Louis,  ami  sonic  other  places. 

GERMAN  COLLEGE,  at  Mount  Pleasant, 
Iowa,  under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  incorporated  in  1873.  It  is 
designed  to  be  the  theological  institution  of  tin' 
German  Methodists  in  the  west,  North-west,  and 
South-west.  It  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
Iowa  Wesleyan  University,  though  independent 
in  finances  ami  control.  Ail  German  students 
become  members  of  German  College ;  and  all  nut 
German,  of  the  I  Ihiversity.  The  students  of  the 
liege  are  admitted  free  to  all  the  classes  of  the 
dversity,  in  which  most  of  the  collegiate  instruc- 
tion is  givem  The  college  has  an  endowment  of 
$25,000.  It  includes  a  preparatory  ami  a  theolog- 
ical department.  Instruction  is  given  in  music, 
ami  facilities  are  afforded  for  Americans  to 
learn  German.  In  L875  -6,  there  were  •'*  in- 
structors ami  50  students.  The  Rev.  II.  Lahr- 
maiiii  is  (1876)  the  acting  president. 

GERMAN    LANGUAGE.     The   German 
inks,  \\ [tli  the   English  ami  French, 
in  value  ami  importance,  above  all  the  other  lan- 
if  i be  civilized  world.     It   is  \ ery  ezten 

udied  in  the  literary  institutions  of  every 
'■i\  ilized  country,  ami  as  a  department  of  school 
andcollegi  instruction,  continues  to  assume,  from 
year  to  year,  greater  prominence.  The  height  to 
which  German  literature  ami  science  have  at- 
tained in  every  department,  and  the  great  ami 
rapi  I  pi  :  man  scholarship,  are  univer- 

.  recognized.   Thomas  de  Quincej    in  hie  I 


ters  to  a  Young  Mai,  thus  refers  to  the  compre- 
hensiveness ami  extent  of  German  literature: 
•'Dr.  Johnson  was  accustomed  to  say  of  the 
French  literature,  that  he  valued  it  chiefly  for  this 
reason,  that  it  had  a  hook  upon  every  subject. 
How  far  this  might  be  a  reasonable  opinion  fifty 
years  ago,  ami  understood,  as  Dr.  Johnson  must 
have  meant  it.  of  the  French  literature  as  com- 
pare t  with  the  F.nglish  of  the  same  period,  I  will 

not  preto  nd  to  say.  It  has  certainly  ceased  to 
he  true,  even  under  these  restrictions,  ami  i-  in 
flagrant  opposition  to  the  truth,  if  extended  to 
the  French  in  its  relation  to  the  German.  Un- 
doubtedly, the  French  literature  holds  out  to  the 
student  some  peculiar  advantages,  hut  all  these 
are  advantages  of  the  French  only  in  relation  to 
the  English,  and  not  to  the  German  literature, 
which,  tie-  \asi  compass,  variety,  ami  extent,  far 

exceeds  all  other.-  as  a  depository  for  the  current 
accumulation  o.'  knowledge.  The  mere  numl  i  r 
of  books  published  annually  in  Germany,  com- 
pared with  the  annual  product  of  France  and 
England,  is  alone  a  satisfactory  evidence  of  this 
assertion."  The  authors  of  the  great  educational 

ideas  and  reforms  which,  during  the  last  two 
hundred  years,  have  led  to  the  creation  of  the 
modern  systems  of  education,  were  nearly  all 
Germans;  and.  at  the  proem  time, German  liter- 
ature, in  every  branch  of  educational  science  and 
art,  is  so  much  more  copious  ami  instructive  than 
any  other  literature  of  the  world,  that  the  supe- 
rior advantages  of  German  over  other  foreign 
languages  for  every  one  connected  with  educa- 
tional labors  are.  at  the  present  time,  hardly 
disputed.  The  progress  of  comparative  linguistics 
has  shown  that  a  knowledge  of  the  German 
grammar  ami  of  its  history  otters  greater  advan- 
tages for  the  complete  understanding  I  if  the  struc- 
ture and  laws  of  the  cognate  English  language 
than  the  study  of  any  other  language,  ancient  or 
modern.  The  influence  which  considerations  like 
these  have  had  upon  the  admission  of  German 
into  the  course  oi  instruction  of  many  English 
institutions  from  which  it  was  formerly  excluded, 
has  been  more  recently  strengthened  by  the 
restoration  of  a  powerful  German  empire,  and 
the  steadily  rising  influence  of  this  new  empire 

in  the  commercial    affairs  of   the  world.      In  the 
United  States,  the  presence  of   a  numerous  Cer- 

man-speaking  population,  numbering,  according 

to  the  smallest  estimate,  no  less  than  live  millions. 

has  caused  German  to  be  looked  upon  by  laa 
classes  of  the  population  as  an  acquisition  of 
great  practical  value.  In  the  United  State.-. 
therefore,  German  is  now  studied  to  a  much 
larger  extent  than  French.  In  some  of  the  small- 
er countries,  near  or  adjacent  to  Germany,  and 
inhabited  by  kindred  races,  as  Sweden,  Norway. 
Denmark,  and  Holland,  the  study  "i  German 
begins  early. and  receives  so  much  attention,  that 
the  educated  classes  "t  these  countries  are  gener- 
ally able  to  speak  the  language  with  fluency.  In 
France,  thestudy  of  <  lerman  has  greatly  increased 
during  the  present  century,  ami  has  generally 
been  favoredby  the  men  who  have  dune  most 

t.ir  the  educational  progress  of  the  country.    CoU- 


GERMAN'    LANGUAGE 


85 1 


sin,  Jules  Simon,  and  Waddington,  were  among 
its  warmest  meads.  For  so  much  of  the  study 
of  German  as  it  lias  in  common  with  French  and 
other  modern  languages,  we  refer  to  the  article 
Modern  Languages,  as  we  present  under  this 
head,  exclusively,  what  is  to  be  said  of  German 
ami  its  value  as  a  branch  of  instruction. 

The  language  of  modern  Germany  is  oneof  a 
cluster  of  languages  which,  collectively , are  called 
the  Germanic  or  Teutonic  languages.  Thevem- 
brace,  of  living  languages,  the  modern  German, 
the  Swedish. Danish.  Icelandic.  English,  Dutch  and 
Flemish,  and  the  Friesic;  and.  of  the  languages 
now  extinct,  the  Gothic  and  Anglo-Saxon;  and 
they  constitute  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Cndo- 
Germanic  or  Indo-European  group.  Long  before 
Germany  had  a  literature,  the  divergence  of  the 
original  Teutonic  tongue  into  Low  German  and 
High  German  had  begun.  The  language  of 
modern  Germany  is  the  only  one  that  sprung 
from  the  latter:  all  the  others  were  the  offspring 
of  the  former.  The  following  table  will  fully 
illustrate  the  relation  of  the  Teutonic  languages 
to  each  other : 

Germanic  or  Teutonic  languages 


Low  German 


High  German 


Scandinavian  —  Low  German — Gut.uc 
I 
I 


Icelandic — Swedish — Danish  |  Old  Friesic  —  Saxon 
Modern  Friesic 


.        I  ,  „    ^      ,  Old  High  German 

Anglo-Saxon  —  Middle  Dutch  —  Old  Saxon 

„      I  I  I     Middle  HighGerman 

English         Dutch-Flemish     Plattdeutsch 

Modern  German. 

The  most  educated  among  the  German  tribes 
were  the  Goths.  They  showed  themselves  recep- 
tive of  Greek  and  Roman  art  and  science ;  and,  in 
the  third  century,  adopted  the  ( 'hristian  religion. 
They  had.  at  that  time,  a  number  of  heroic  sono-s 
and  sententious  poems,  but  no  written  alphabet. 
In  the  tth  century,  bishop  Dlfilas  translated  the 
Latin  Bible  into  the  Gothic  language,  adjusting 
with  great  skill  the  Greek  alphabet  to  the  sounds 
of  the  Gothic  words,  and  supplementing  it  with 
Latin  and  Runic  characters.  The  Gothic  Bible 
was  the  beginning  of  an  interesting  Gothic  liter- 
ature, consisting  of  theological,  historical,  and 
geographical  writings.  Unfortunately,  the  larger 
portion  of  this  literature,  in  which  all' the  nations 
of  the  English,  German,  Dutch,  and  Scandinavian 
tongues  are  equally  interested,  has  perished.  All 
that  is  extant,  embracing  considerable  portions 
'ot  the  New  Testament,  some  portions  of  the  old 
Testament,  and  a  fragment  of  a  paraphrased  Gos- 
pel harmony,  are  given  in  the  edition  of  Olfilasby 
Gabelentzand  Lobe  (2  vols.,  1843  -1846),  as  also 
in  those  of  Stamm  (1858)  and  Bernhardt  (1875  ; 
litions  contain  a  grammar  and  a  diction- 
ary; a  Gothic  glossary  has  also  hem  published  by 
Schulze  (1848).  Though  few,  the  fragments  of  the 
Gothic  language  and  literature  suffice  to  give  us  a 


clear  idea  of  their  many  excellencies.  The  language 
appears  endowed  with  the  luxuriant  abundance 
oi  a  primitive  language,  having  a  fullness  of  roots 
and  a  considerable  but  well  regulated  variety  of 
inflections,  derivations,  and  compositions.  The 
short, original  vowelsa,  /.and  u  still  predominate, 
and    the   other    vowel    and.    consonantal     sounds 

have  mostly  been  preserved  in  unalloyed  puri 
Special  case-endings  distinguish  the  nominative, 
accusative,  and  vocative;  there  are  differenl  forms 

for  dual  and  plural,  and  inflections  for  the  pass- 
ive.    Like  all  the  other  Germanic  languages,  the 
Gothic  has  only  two  simple tensesTthe  present 
and  the  preterit,  but,  as  a  kind  of  compensation, 
a  wonderful,  euphonious  and  well  regulated  sys- 
tem of  vowel   modifications,  which  not  only  con- 
trols the  strong  conjugation,  but  pervades  all  the 
inflections  and  derivations.    It  already  has.  like 
the  other  Germanic  languages,  the  weak  inflec- 
tion in  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,   which,  in 
the  High  German,  has  been  extended  to   larg   i 
classes  of  words.    A  pliant  readiness  to  receive 
foreign  words,  a  weakness  common  to  all  Ger- 
manic   languages,  appeal's  also  in  the   Gothic, 
which  admitted  a  number  of  words  from  the 
languages  of  the  Huns,  Slaves,  Greeks,  and  Ro- 
mans, with  whom  they  became  acquainted  during 
their  migrations.  Simultaneously  with  the  Goths, 
others  of  the  principal  German  tribes  invaded  the 
provinces  of  the  decaying  Roman  empire,  which 
finally  succumbed  to  them;  and  on  its  ruins  they 
established  a  number  of  new  kingdoms  in  the 
south-western  part  of  P^urope.     They,  in  turn, 
found  it  necessary  to  recognize  the  superiority  of 
Roman  education;  and  as,  after  their  conversion 
to  <  hristianity.the  Latin  became  the  language  of 
the  churches  and  schools,  their  own  native  tongues 
gradually  gave  way  to  the  Latin,  not,  however, 
without  leaving  conspicuous  marks  in  the  new 
Romanic  languages  (q.  v.),  which  were  gradually 
developed  in  all  these  countries.     The   Anglo- 
Saxons  alone  among  all  the  tribes  which,  at  that 
time,  set  out  from  their  native  land  for  foreign 
conquests.preserved  their  language.  Outside  of  tin's 
newly  conquered  territory,  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  German  language  was  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  countries  which,  at  the  time  when 
the  migration  of  nations  began,  were  inhabited 
by  Germanic  races.   The  languages  of  all  these 
countries  gradually  developed  into  literary  lan- 
guages;   and  all  of  them    are  of   interest    to  the 
English  student,  not  only  because  they  furnish 
the  key  to  valuable  literatures,  but    especially  be- 
cause they  illustrate  the  growth  of  the    English 
as  a  cognate  language,  and   thus   lead   to  a  more 
comprehensive  knowledge  of  it.    By  far  the  most 
important  of  them  is  the  German.    In  Germany 
proper,  the  Low  German  and  the  High  German 

co-existed  side  by  side,  but  as  a  literary  language 

the  HighGerman  soon  secured  an  ascendency 

which  was  generally  recognized.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  this  language,  three  great  periods  are 

distinguished:  (1)  of  the  Old  High  German,  ex- 
tending to  the  l  Ith  century,  in  which  the  inflec- 
tional rullnessof  the  language,  in  comparison  with 
the  Indo  < ;,  rinanic  languages  of  antiquity,  and 


352 


GERMAN    LANGUAGE 


even  with  the  Gothic,  visibly  declined;  the  voca- 
tive case,  the  dual  number,  and  the  inflected  pas- 
sive voice  disappeared;  and  the  variety  of  vowel 
sounds  increased ;  (2)  of  the  Middle  High  Ger- 
man, extending  to  the  beginning  of  the  Kith  cent- 
ury, in  which  the  decline  of  the  inflections  con- 
tinued, the  full  vowel-endings  were  generally 
weakened  into  e,  and  the  auxiliary  verbs,  the 
article,  and    the    umlaut    (modification   of  the 

vowel)  were   introduced:     (3)   of  the    New  High 

German,  in  which  the  predominance  of  the  vowel 
e  in  the  final  syllables  was  completed,  and  the 
quantity  of  words  accordingly  changed.  The 
translation  of  the  Bible  by  Luther  introduced 

this  period,  and  established   the  exclusive  use  of 

the  High  German  as  the  literary  language  of  all 
Germany.    Opitz  (about  L 630),  several  linguistic 

societies,  and  <  rottsched  labout  1  I'M))  contributed 

much  to  the  further  development  of  the  language, 

which,  in  the  writings  of  Leasing  and  Goethe, 
fully  attained  its  present  form. 

By  the  side  of  I  figh  German  as  a  literary  lan- 
guage, the  bow  German  i  Plattdeutsch)  has  main- 
tained itself  as  the  language  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  people  even  to  the  presentday. 
It  is  not  altogether  without  a  literature;  and, 
in    the    L6th    century,    even    translations   of  the 

Bible  into  Low  German  were  deemed  necessary, 
in  order  to  give  to  the  entire  population  access 
in  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  The  last  edition  of 
the  Low  German  Bible  appeared  in  L622,  show- 
ing that  thereafter  the  entire  German  nation 
were  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  High  Ger- 
man to  regard  it  as  the  only  literary  medium  of 
the  country.  In  modern  times,  a  literary  culti- 
vation of  the  bow  German  has  Keen  attempted, 
chiefly  in  poems  and  novels,  in  order  to  reflect, 
by  using  the  people's  own  language,  in  the  most 
natural    and   impressive   way.  the   sentiments  of 

the  Low  German  people. — The  Germans  have.no 
national  academy  of  science,  such  as  exists  in 
France,  possessing  supreme  authority  in  deciding 
questions  relating  to  their  language.  There  is. 
therefore,  in  <  lerman,as  in  English, a  considerable 
difference  in  the  mode  of  writing  a  large  number 

nt'  words  and  classes  of  words;  and  the  authority 
of  standard   grammarians  and    lexicographers  is 

appealed  to  in  doubtful  questions.  As,moreover, 

the  desire   f or  a  thorough    revision    of   the  entire 

German  orthography  has  lone  been  expressed  on 
many  sides,  the  Prussian  government,  in  Jan., 
L876,  assembled  a  conference  of  L5  prominent 
German  philologists  to  propose  general   rules, 

which   are    to    be    introduced,    by    order   of   the 

government,  into  the  schools. 

The  foundation  of  German  philology  was  laid, 

BOOH  after  the  wars  against  Napoleon,  by  Beiieeke. 

the  brothers  Grimm,  and  Liehmann.    Benecke 

established    the    philological     knowledge    of    the 

Middle  High  German;  though  his  chief  work,  the 

[fittelhochdeutsche  Wbrterbuch   (3  \o|s..   Leips., 

L847      L864).     was    only  a    sketch    which    was 

subsequently   filled   up   by  W.  Midler,  jointly 

with    Xarneke.       The    brothers  Jakob  and   Wil- 

hehn  Grimm  comprehended  within  the  scope 
of  their  researches  the  whole  of  German  philol- 


ogv.  Tn  accordance  with  the  principles  of  com- 
parative linguistics,  which  at  the  same  time  were 
applied  by  Bopptothe  Indo-Germanic  languag 
in  general.  -lakob  Grimm  gave,  in  his  German 
grammar  [Deutsche  GrammatUc,  I  vols.,  1810 — 
I  837  i  a  history  of  the  changes  of  <  Jet-man  words 
and  of  the  simple  sentence,  through  every  period. 
in  all  the  Germanic  languages.  The  history  of 
the  German  language  [Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Sprache,  '1  vols..  1848)  supplements  the  above 
work,  and  shows  the  relationship  existing  be- 
tween the  different  Germanic  languages.  The 
German  dictionary  by  the  two  brothers  Grimm 
h  utsches  W&rterbuch)  was  begun  in  L852;  it  has 
been  continued  by  Heyne,  Hildebrand,  and  Wei- 
gand,  but  will  not  be  finished  until  about  1890. 
It  is,  in  point  of  scholarship,  unsurpassed  by 
any  other  work  in  the  entire  literature  of  dic- 
tionaries. Lachmann  applied  the  principles  of 
philological  criticism,  as  they  were  in  use  in  clas- 
sical philology,  to  the  study  of  German,  restored 
the  pure  text  of  the  master  works  of  the  Mid- 
dle High  German,  and  shed  entirely  new  light 
on  the  history  of  German  prosody.  On  the 
foundation  laid  by  l'lcnecke.  the  Grimms,  and 
Lachmann,  numerous  hands  have  reared  the 
edifice  of  German  philology,  which  is  now  the 

admiration  of  the  literary  world,  and  has  served 
as  a  model  for  similar  labors  in  every  other 
literature,  particularly  in  the  English.  (See  En- 
gish,  Study  ok.)     We  can  mention  only  a  few 

of  the  immense  number  of  valuable  works  relat- 
ing to  the  German  language  which  German 
scholarship  has  produced.  A  dictionary  of  the 
Old  High  German  has  been  written  by  Graff 
[Althochdeutscher  Sprachschatz,  6  vols..  ls.'54 — 
L842);  a  dictionary  of  the  Middle  High  German, 
besides  by  Benecke,  Midler,  and  Zarneke.  who 
have  already  been  mentioned,  by  Ziemann 
i  Mittelhochdeutsches  Worterbuch,  L837);  diction- 
aries of  New  High  German  (the present  German 
language))  besides  by  the  Grimms,  by  San- 
ders! W&rterbuch  der  deutschen Sprache,2vd\s.. 
I860-  L865,  besides  several  smaller  works),  and 
by  Weigand  (Deutsches  W&rterbuch,  •'{  vols.. 
L857  —  L865) ;  grammars,  besides  by  the 
Grimms,  by  K-  W.  L.  Heyse  {Aus/uhrliches 
Lehrbuch  der  deutschen  Sprache,  -  vols.,  1838 — 
L849);  Rumpelt,  Deutsche  Grammatik,  I860); 
Heyne  (Kurze  Grammatik  der  altgermanischen 
Sprachstamme);  Becker  (Ausfiihrliche  deutsche 
Grammatik,  3  parts,  1836—1839).  The  latter, 
\  iew  mg  language  as  an  organism  regulated  accor- 
ding to  strictly  logical  laws,  attempted  to  lay  a 
new  foundation  for  grammatical  science,  and 
found  a  number  of  followers,  but  also  a  very  de- 
termined Opposition  to  some  of    his  ideas  by  the 

historical  school.  Periodicals  devoted  to  <  lerman 
philology,  are  Haupt's  Zeitschrift  fur  deutsclies 

AUerthum    (established    in    1841,   continued  by 

M  iillenhoff  and  Steinmyer);  Pfeiffer's  G<  rmania 

established  in  1856,  continued  by  Bartsch);  and 

the  Zeitschrift  fur  Philologie  by    Hopfnerand 

/aches  (established  in  1*70).  Grammars  of  the 
old  High  German  and  the  Middle  High  Ger- 
man    for   the    use    of    schools,    embodying   the 


GERMAN    LANGUAGE 


353 


results    of    the    philological    researches,    have 

been  written  by  Ilalm  [AUhochdeutsche  Gram- 
matik,  4th  edit., 1875;  and  Mittelhochdeutsche 
Grammatik,  'M  edit..  1875).  A  bibliography  of 
German  grammars,  from  the  earliest  times  to 
1836,  is  given  in  Hoffmann's  (von  Fallersleben) 
Die  deutsche  PhUologieim  Grundrisse  (1836). 
Outlines  of  the  history  of  the  entire  German 
literature,  have    been    written  by  Koberstein 

undriss  der  deutschen  IfationaRiteratur, 
L827);  Vilmar  [Vbrlesungen  'vber die Geschichte 
der  deutschen  NationaUiteratur,  1847);  Wacker- 
nagel,  i  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Literatur,  185] ), 
The    history  of   German    Literature   by    Kurz. 

ichichte  der  deutschen  Literatur,  4  vols.. 
L851 — L872)  gives  well-selected  specimens  from 
all  the  prominent  German  writers. 

The  German  language  is  the  mother-tongue 
of  about  92  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the 
German  empire  (in  L871,  37,  800,000),  the  re- 
maining B  per  cent  being  Slaves.  Danes,  and 
French.     In  Switzerland,  1  I  out  of  22  cantons 

exclusively  German ;  in  the  large  canton  of 
Bern,  they  are  in  a  great  majority  (83  per  cent); 
and  of  the  entire  population  of  Switzerland, 
about  69  per  cent  speak  <  ierman  as  their  mother- 
tongue.  In  Austria  proper,  German  is  the  ruling 
Language,  although  it  is  the  m  ol 

only  35  per  cent  of  the  population.  In  tl 
of  the  Hungarian  crown,  German  is  spoken  by 
about  11  percent.  Russia  has  a  German-speak- 
ing population  of  about  700,000;  in  the  three 
Baltic  provinces,  the  entire  aristocracy  are  Ger- 
mans; and  the  ( ierman  1  tnguage,  although  spoken 
by  only  a  small  minority  of  the  population,  also 
prevails  in  the  churches  and  schools,  as  well  as 
in  the  literature.  The  two  small  German  states 
of  Luxemburg  and  Lichtenstein  also  speak  Ger- 
nian.  England  still  owns  the  German  speaking 
island  of  Heligoland.  In  the  United  States  of 
America,  a  population,  estimated  at  from  5  to  6 
millions,  to  a  great  extent  consisting  of  actual 
emigrants  during  the  present  century  and  of 
their  children,  and  the  remainder  the  descen- 
dants of  emigrants  of  the  18th  century,  speak 
(ierman  as  the  family  language,  either  equally 
with. or  in  preference  to,  English;  but  the  use  of 
German  as  the  mother-tongue  is  steadily  reced- 
ing before  the  advance  of  the  English.  The  en- 
tire population  of  the  world  speaking  German 
a-  tlii>  mother-tongue  may  be  estimated  at  about 
li"  millions,  the  (iennan  being,  in  respect  to  the 
number  of  those  who  speak  it,  only  inferior, 
among  the  languages  of  civilized  nations,  to  the 
English. 

The  method  of  studying  German,  in  English 
and  American  universities,  colleges,  seminaries, 
and  academies  is  about  the  same  as  that  pursued 
in  the  study  of  French.  The  statements  made 
in  the  articles  French  Language  and  Modern 
Languages  are.  more  or  Less,  applicable  to  the 
German,  in  regard  to  the  place  which  ii  occu- 
pies in  the  course  of  instruction,  and  to  the 
mistakes  which  in  this  respect,  are  very  fre- 
quently committed.  The  most  important  feature 
which  broadly  distinguishes  the  German  lan- 
23 


guage  from  the  French,  and  which  an  intelligent 

teacher  will   always   keep   in  view  from  the  mi- 

firal  Lesson  he  gives,  is  the  close  resemblance  '" 
tween  German   and    English   words,  especially 
those  used  in  common  life.     English  philologists 
have  calculated    that    the  English  Language,  as 

commonly   spoken    and   written,  consists,   to  the 

extenl   of  five-eighths,  of  Anglo-Saxon  words, 

and  that  among  these  are  found  nearly  all  the 
terms  of  common  life.  Many  of  these  words 
are  spelled  exactly  alike;  large  classes  of  other 
words  show  so  slight  a  modification,  that  the 
pupils  recognize  them  at  once  (as  Voter,  Mutter, 
jBruder,  Buck,  Haws),  and  still  others  present 
changes  made  according  to  certain  laws  which 
are  easily  understood,  even  at  the  earliest  sti 
of  instruction,  and  by  the  most  youthful  be 
ginner  (as  zehn,  ten;  Zinn,  tin;  Tag,  day: 
./.  say).  By  a  skillful  use  of  this  exten- 
sive resemblance  of  the  two  Languages,  the  in- 
telligent teacher  has  it  in  his  power  to  give  to 
the  beginner,  in  a  few  lessons,  the  command  of 
a  very  large  number  of  words.  The  strange 
letters  which  seem  to  surround  the  first  lessons 
in  German  with  considerable  difficulty,  are  quite 
easily  learned  by  the  aid  of  words  which 
are  substantially  the  same  in  German  as  in  En- 
Whole  German  sentences  can.  in  thi 
be  at  once  understood;  and  when  trans- 
lation forms  a  prominent  object  of  the  study, 
the  pupil  should  begin  to  translate  from  German 
into  English,  as  soon  as  he  knows  the  letters. 
For  exercise  in  the  declensions  and  conji 
tions,  the  selection  of  cognate  words  for  the 
paradigms  likewise  facilitates  the  progress  of  the 
pupils.  In  this  part  of  the  grammar,  (iennan 
at  once  seems  to  the  beginner  to  be  more  com- 
plicated than  English,  and  presents  to  him  the 
greatest  difficulties  he  has  to  surmount ;  among 
which  may  be  enumerated  the  following: 
(1)  The  noun  in  German  has  four  cases,  and 
the  plural  is  formed  in  four  different  ways 
as  far  as  its  termination  is  concerned,  besides 
modifying  the  radical  vowel:  (2)  Adjectives 
anil  adjective  pronouns  are  declined  in  three 
different  ways;  (A)  The  past  participle  generally 
adds  the  prefix  ge,  and,  in  compound  verbs,  this 
prefix,  in  many  cases,  is  placed  between  the  verb 
and  the  particle  with  which  it  is  compounded. 
or  the  particle  is  detached  and  placed  at  the 
close  of  even  along  sentence.  In  constructing 
exercises  for  the  study  of  these  differences,  it 
will  again  be  found  a  help  to  choose  for  the  par- 
adigms words  similar  to  English  words,  or  such 
as  are  common  to  both  languages,  so  that  the 
attention  of  the  pupil  may  be  concentrated  upon 
the  Learning  of  tJae  inflectional  peculiarities.     It 

is.  however,  not  only  the  resemblance  of  (iennan 
and  English  words,  but  also  other  points  of 
similarity,  in  the  etymology  of  the  two  languages, 
that  Should  be  made  use  of.  Thus  the  possessive 
ease  of  English  nouns  may  be  made  to  illustrate 
not  only  the  (iennan  genitive,  but  the  entire  de 
clension,  of  which  the  English  possessive  is  a 
remnant.  A  reference  to  the  plural  forms  men, 
women,  feet,  geese,  mice,  will  explain  the  modi- 


n;,i 


GERMAN    LANGUAGE 


fication  of  a  large  number  of  German  nouns  in 
the  plural;  as  will  also  such  foi  is  as  children, 
brethren  and  pence.  The  fad  thai  the  division  of 
verbs  into  Strang  and  weak  is  the  same  in  both 
languages,  thai  the  formation  of  the  principal 
■Dart*  of  both  i  similar  (see,  saw,  seen — seh-en, 
sah,  ge-sehen ;  love,  loved,  loved  lieb-en,  liebte, 
and  that  even,  as  a  general  rule  the 

oe  verbs  belong,  in  b  tli  languages,  to  1 1 1 1 -  one 
or  to  the  other  conjugation,  is  easily  compre- 
hended even  by  beginners,   and  greatly  assists 
them  to  understand  the  structure  of  the 
language. 

The  comparison  of  the  German  language  with 
tlic  English  should  not  be  limited  to  the  points 
just  mentioned;  but  all  the  peculiar  features  of 
German  should  be  noticed.  In  the  study  of  any 
foreign  language,  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
most  conspicuous  characteristics  helps  to  fix  in  the 
mind  a  clear  conception  of  the  language.  Among 
the  features  of  the  German  grammar  to  which 
special  attention  should  be  called,  when  they  are 
nut  with  tor  the  first  time,  are  the  following : 
(1)  The  gender  of  nouns  is  arbitrary,  and  many 
nouns  that  are  neuter  in  Bnglish  are  either  mas- 
culine or  f  iminine  in  <  terman  :  (2)  <  me  or  more 
long  qualifying  adjuncts  may  intervene  between 
the  article  and  its  noun;  i.'!)  The  order  of  se- 
quence of  auxiliary  verbs  is  entirely  reversed  in 
subjunctive  propositions;  (I)  Prepositions  and 
verbs  govern  three  different  cases  of  the  noun  ; 
The  object  precedes  the  verb  more  frequ  snt- 

ly  than  in  English. 

The  correct  pronunciation  of  German,  as  of 
every  foreign  tongue,  must  be  learned  by  imitat- 
ing the  teacher.  Tin's  is  especially  the  ease  with 
tin' sounds  that  have  no  equivalent  in  English, 
as  8,  /'.'•//.  the  guttural  q,  short  o,  r,  and  the  com- 
binations of  sp and  st  Their  number  is  compara- 
tively small  :  and.  if  they  are  steadily  practiced,  it 
will  require  only  a  short  time  to  learn  to  enunciate 
them  correctly.  After  a  rudimentary  knowledge 
of  the  language  has  been  attained,  special  atten- 
tion should  begiven  to  the  laws  according  to  which 
derivatives  and  compounds  are  formed.  The  <  rer- 
man has  greater  freedom  in  forming  compounds 
thanalmosl  any  of  the  other  modern  languages; 

and.  as  this  is  liberallv   used  by  many  writers,  no 

dictionary  is  so  complete  as  to  contain  all  the  com- 
pounds to  be  met  with  in  modern  <  Jen  nan  writers. 
As  the  radical  and  component  parts  of  i  hese  words 
however,  easily  recognized,  and,  as  hut  feu 

of  the  words  in  nn iii  use   are  of    foreign   ori- 

8   v    for  students  of   I  > < - 1 1 1 1 ; 1 1 i  to   under- 
stand all  such  derivatives  and  compounds.     Tin's 

is  still  easier,  when,  as  is  the  case  with  most 
compound  verbs,  each  of  the  component  parts 
has  an  equivalent  in  English;  as  abhalten,  to 
poff;  ausgehen,  to  go  out.  etc.  [f  we  con- 
sider that,  for  a  conversation  on  everyday  Sub- 
jects, a  knowledge  of  Bome  600  or  700  words  is 
generally  found  to  be  sufficient,  the  close  resem- 
blance of  roots,  derivatives,  and  compounds,  in 
German  and  English,  will  be  seen  to  afford  ad- 
vantages for  proficiency  in  German  conversation 
of  which  no  teacher  can  tail  to  make  use.  I  'rogress 


in  reading  the  language  will  also  be  greatly  pro- 
moted, if  the  teacher,  besides  calling  attention  to 
the  large  number  of  common  roots,  derivatives. 
and  compounds,  traces  words  which  appear  to 
the  beginner  as  entirely  strange,  to  English 
words  of  the  same  loot.  Thus,  if  students  learn 
that  j{  /"  /•  is  etymologically  related  to  yon,  Knabe 
to  knave, schon  to  shii<<-.  Blume  to  bloom,  Hvnd 
to  hound,  though  they  translate  them  by  that, 
boy,  beautiful,  flower,  dog,  they  will  remember 
their  meaning  more   easily,  and,  by  means  of 

every  new  word  of  this  class,  get  a  clearer  view 
of  the  near  kinship  between  the  two  languages. 
It  is  sate  to  say,  that  the  importance  of  an  ety- 
mological comparison  of  German  ami  English  is 
not  yet  sufficiently  appreciated  by  teachers  "t 
German,  and  that  greater  attention  should  bi 
paid  to  it  in  German  classes  of  all  grades. 

The  rich  and  charming  juvenile  literature  of 
Germany  affords  an  abundance  of  suitable  read- 
me; lessons,  as  soon  as  the  pupil    has  sufficiently 

advanced  in  the  knowledge  of  words  and  gram- 
matical  forms,  to  take  up  a  First  German 
Reader.  Anecdotes,  fables,  tales,  and  pieces  of 
didactic  poetry  present  the  smallest  difficulties 
to  beginners.  The  readers  published  by  Com- 
fort, Worman,  Schlegel,  Ileum  and  others,  con- 
tain a  large  number  of  selections  adapted  to  tho 
wants  of  beginners.  The  attentive  teacher  will, 
however,  find  it  necessary  to  select,  especially 
during  the  fiist  months,  exercises  with  short  sen- 
tences only  :  since  the  length  of  the  sentences  in 
many,  even  of  the  juvenile  writers  of  Germany, 
presents  difficulties  which. at  an  early  stage  of  the 
instruction,  should  be  avoided.  'I  here  are  scarce- 
ly any  German  books  which,  like  Telemaque 
and  Charles  XII in  French,  can  be  put  into  the 
hands  of  beginners;  bwt  Ft  rxt  Readers, containing 
selections  from  a  number  of  writers,  are  for  this 

purpose  in  general  use.  Advanced  students  should 
either  use  a   fuller  German    reader,  prepared 

for  advanced  classes,  or  take  up  the  work  of  one 
of  the  classic  writers.  In  the  latter  case.  Schil- 
ler and  Goethe  are.  for  good  reasons,  invariably 
preferred.  Annotated  editions  of  some  of  the 
plays  Of    both    these    poetS    have    been    specially 

prepared  for  the  use  of  American  and  English 

schools.      Special    dictionaries   for  one    or  more 

plays  are  nol  only  superfluous ;  but,  when  a  stu- 
dent has  access  to  a  general  dictionary,  the  use 

of  the  latter    is    much    to  be  preferred.      When 

students  are  able  to  read  authors  like  Schiller 
and  Goethe,  the  teacher  may  properly  use  the 

leading  lessons  not  only  to  improve  the  student's 

knowledge  of  the  language,  but  also  as  an  intro- 
duction  to  the  history  of  German  literature. 
The  German  readers  for  advanced  classes  might 
advantageously  be  so  arranged  as  to  afford  to 
the  teacher  an  opportunity  to  acquaint  the  pu- 
pils with  the  foremost  writers  in  the  different 
departments  of  German  literature.  In  this  n 
sped   there  is  room  for  meat   improvement  in 

the  readers  now    published. 

In  the  United  States,  G<  rman  is  not  only  gen- 
erally taught  in  universities,  colleges, seminaries, 

and  academies,  but  more  recently  the   study  I 


GERMAN    LANGUAGE 


been  introduced  to  a  great  extent  into  the  pub- 
lic schools,  in  some  extending  to  the  lowest 
primary  class.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  thai  a 
large  pari  of  the  population  consists  of  Germans 
who  are  generally  desirous  that  their  children 
should  be  taught  the  German  as  well  as  the 
RngHsh  language,  besides  to  the  desire  of 
man]  school  boards,  to  draw  this  class  of  chil- 
dren, as  largely  as  possible,  from  private  into 
public  schools.  This  practice  has  been  gradu- 
ally extended  until,  in  L876,  a  majority  of  the 
large  cities  of  the  Union,  among  them  New 
Vnrk,  Rochester,  Jersey  City,  Pittsburgh,  Cin- 
cinnati, Cleveland,  Chicago,  Milwaukee.  St. 
Louis,  Louisville,  and  a  uumber  of  smaller  ones, 
had  made  provision  for  it.  In  thai  year,  the 
mayor  of  Brooklyn,  in  his  message  to  the  city 
council.  strongb  recommended  the  introduction 
of  German  ;us  a  branch  of  instruction  in  the 
public  schools  of  that  city.  The  greatest  variety 
thus  far  exists  in  the  courses  of  instruction  that 
have  been  adopted  for  this  study.  In  sonic 
places,  especially  in  the  smaller  towns  where  the 

German-speaking  people  constitute  a  majority  of 

the  entire  population,  it  has  been  made  a  part  of 
the  regular  course,  in  which  all  children  must 
take  part.  Inmost  places.it  is  optional  with  the 
children  to  pursue  this  study  or  not.  In  some 
cities  (Cleveland,  Cincinnati.  St.  Louis,  and 
others),  the  school  boards  have  arranged  different 
courses  for  children  who  come  to  the  public 
school  with  a  speaking  knowledge  of  the  German 
language,  and  for  those  who  have  not  this  knowl- 
edge. The  instruction  of  the  former  begins  in 
the  lowest  class  of  the  primary  department,  the 
time  in  the  primary  classes  being  equally  divided 
between  the  two  languages.  Very  many  Amer- 
ican educators  advocate  the  study  of  <  Serman  by 
Anglo- American  children  of  the  common  schools, 
on  the  ground  that  the  elements  of  English 
grammar  will  in  this  way  be  learned  more  easily 
and  more  thoroughly.  That,  from  practical 
considerations,  many  parents  desire  an  opportu- 
nity for  their  children  to  learn  this  language, 
seems  to  be  proved  by  the  large  proportion  of 
children  who  pursue  the  study,  even  when  it  is 
entirely  optional  The  testimony  of  some  of 
the  superintendents  of  schools  in  which  this  in- 
struction has  beeu  given  for  years  is  quite  em- 
phatic in  its  favor.  Thus,  in  his  Annual  Report, 
for  L874,  the  city  superintendent  of  New  York 
said:  "  No  other  consideration  than  its  useful- 
ness as  a  branch  of  American  education  should 
have,  in  my  judgment,  any  weight  in  continuing 
or  extending  German  instruction;  and,  within 
tins  limit,  I  believe  sufficient  reasons  exist,  not 
only  to  justify,  but  to  recommend  it  strongly  as 
a  part  of  our  course.  In  the  schools  in  which  it 
has  received  the  most    earnest    attention,  and   in 

which,  consequently,  the  besl  progress  has  been 
made,  no  indication  has  been  presented  that  this 
branch  of  study  ill  retarded  the  progress 

of  the  pupils  in  their  English  studies,  hut  that 
it  has  rather  facilitated  intelligent  advancement 
in  English  grammar  and  composition,  increasing 
the  pupils*  fluency  of  expression  by  giving  them 


a  more  precise  kn  >wledge  of  the  meaning  of  thi 
words  (it  then-,,,  language,  and  aiding,  in an 
important  manner,  in  weir  mental  training  and 
development."  A  coii  "t  the  board  of  edu- 

cation of  the  city  of   New  York,  in  Dec,  1^71 
remarked,  in  their  report  of  that  daw- :  "The 
more  effective  this  department  of  instruction  is 

made,  the  more  successful  will  OUT  System  be  ill 
this  respect,  and  the  more  nearly  shall  we  ap- 
proach to  that  desirable  consummation  oi  bring 
ing  under  the  influence  of  our  common  schools 
the  children  of  all  classes  of  our  people,  as  will 
as  of  every  nationality  and  creed.  The  impor- 
tance of  this  consideration  will  he  obvious  in 
view  of  the  fact   that  at   Least  L1,000  German 

pupils  are  in  daily  attendance  at  the  ( 'atholic  I'a 

rochial,  Lutheran. and  German  private  schools." 
The  superintendent  of  the  public  schools  in 
Cleveland,  in  a  special  report,  dated  Feb.  22., 
1875,  said :  -The  study  of  German  was  intro- 
duced into  (lie  grammar  and  primary  s<  hools  of 
Cleveland  in  the.  spring  of  L870,  since  which 
time  the  number  of  pupils  pursuing  the  study 
has  increased  from  600  to  5,000.  Nor  has  this 
rapid  increase  in  the  study  of  German  had  any 
effect  to  '  retard  the  general  course  of  study.'  or. 
in  other  words,  the  progress  of  the  pupils  in 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  the 
other  English  branches,  as  they  arc  sometimes 
called."  And  he  further  remarked,  that  "  the 
chances  for  promotion"  were  found  to  be  equal 
among  the  pupils  pursuing  exclusively  English 
studies  and  those  who  studied  German  as  well, 
and  added,  ••  If  now  we  take  into  account  the 
fact  that  the  latter  goes  from  the  school  pos- 
sessed of  a  good  knowledge  of  a  language  that 
opens  to  him  the  literature  and  scientific  re2- 
ords  of  a  great  people,  who  can  doubt  but  thi; 
the  advantage  lies  on  the  side  of  the  study  of 
German?"  In  St.  Louis,  the  study  of  the 
German  language  was  introduced  in  1864,  on 
the  report  oi'  a  committee  of  the  board  of  edu- 
cation, who  recommended  its  introduction  on  the 
following  grounds:  (I)  "That  by  such  intro- 
duction a  homogeneousness  of  feeling  would  be 
created  between  the  native  and  foreign  born;'' 

(2)  "  That  the  study  of  <  'erinan  would  naturally 
assist   the    study  of    the    English    language;" 

(3)  -That  the  knowledge  of  the  German  lan- 
guage pecuniarily  benefits  those  who  speak  it.' 

During  the  ten  years  preceding  the  last  report 
of  the  schools  of  that  city  (1874-  5),  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  pursuing  the  study  of  German  had 
increased  from  bid  to  1.7,197,  of  whom  5,670 
were  Anglo-Americans.    This  was  7.'!  per  cent 

of  all    the    pupils  attending    the   public  schools. 

In  regard  to  this,  the  superintendent  of  schools, 
in  his  report  tor  L873  1.  stated,  "A  perfect 
mingling  of  the  different  classes  of  population 

in  OUT  schools  has  In  en  the  result,  and  the 
fact  that  one-third  of  the  entire  number  who 
have  taken  up  the  study  of  German  are  Anglo- 
American  children  [i. e.,  children  of  Irish  or  na- 
tive American  parents),  shows  how  completely 
this  feeling  of  caste  has  been  broken  down.    The 


population   has.   in    fact, 


homogeiu B 


356     GERMAN   WALLACE  COLLEGE 


GERMANY 


during  ili  ■  pasl  eighl  years  by  means  of  the  in- 
troduction of  German  into  our  public  schools." 

On  the  other  band,  the  admission  of  German 
into  the  public  schools  has  been  opposed  on  the 
ground  that  the  public  school  should  exclusively 
teach  the  national  language,  and  that  the  exclusion 
of  all  others  will  tend  t<>  promote  the  consolidation 
of  all  the  people  of  the  United  States  into  one 
compact  American  nationality.  In  some  of  the 
large  cities,  the  difference  of  opinion  on  this  sub- 
ject, on  the  part  of  school  officers,  has  led  to 
vehement  and  protracted  di.-cu-sions,  as  well  as 
to  considerable  vacillation  in  the  school  legisla- 
tion regarding  it.  In  some  of  the  western  stafc  s, 
as  i  )hio  and  Indiana,  the  state  law  provides  that, 
when  in  a  school  district  a  certain  number  of 
parents  desire  the  introduction  of  German  into 
the  course  of  study,  it  must  he  introduced.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  German-speaking 
population  still  prefer  to  send  their  children  to 

tools  in  which  the  German   language  is  eh 
the  exclusive  medium  of  instruction,  or  shi 
this  position  with  the  English.     (See  German- 
American  Schools.) 

GERMAN    WALLACE    COLLEGE,  at 
Berea,  Ohio,  under  the  control  of  the  Metho 
Episcopal  Chinch,  was  founded  in   L863.     The 
pro'.  iv  all  n  ins,  i  ducated  at 

i  si  ruction  is  given 
in  German,  't  is  patronized  by  many  Americans 
for  instruction  in  German.  By  agreement,  the 
students  have  free  access  to  all  the  classes  of 
Baldwin  University.  The  college  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  partly  by  the  interest  of  an 
endowment  fund  of  $38,982.  'The  scholarship 
funds  amount  to  $19,455.  The  tuition  fees  vary 
from  $13.50  to  $27  per  year,  [t  has  a  pre] 
a  lory  and  a  collegiate  department,  with  a  cla 
sical  and  a  scientific  course,  a  theological  course, 
and  special  courses  in  English  for  Germans,  and 
in  German  for  Americans.     In  L875     6,  there 

were   1  professors  and    117    Students   (103    males 

and  1  I  females),  of  whom  17  were  in  the  pre- 
paratory department.  The  Rev.  William  Nast, 
D.  D.,  has  been  the  president  from  the  opening 
of  the  college. 

GERMANY.      Anterior  to  843  A.  D.,  Ger- 
many was  a  part   of  the  great    Prankish  empire 

of  Charlemagne  and  his  immediate  successor; 
but  in  that  year,  by  virtue  of  the  treaty  of 
Verdun,  it  was  separated  from  the  remain- 
der of  the  greal  Prankish  dominions,  and  was 
given  to  Jjudwig  (Louis),  surnamed  the  German, 
a  grandson  of  Charlemagne.  Until  L806,  Ger- 
many was  an  elective  monarchy  with  the  official 
title  of  the  "I  Inly  IJomaii  Empire  of  the  <  rerman 
Nation"  [das  Heilige  Romi&che Reich  deuischer 
Nation).  The  French  subjugation  of  the  greater 
pan  of  Germany  put  an  end  to  the  first  Ger- 
man empire  After  the  dethronement  of  Napo- 
leon 1 1 81 5), the  <  longress  of  Vienna  re  established 
Germany  a- a  loose  conglomeration  of  sovereign 
states  [Deutscher  Buna), under  the  permanent 

presidency  of    Austria  in  the  federal    diet.      This 

feeble  urn if  the  German  states  was  dissolved 

by  the  war,  in  I866,between  Prussia  and  Austria 


and  their  allies,  which  ended  with  the  complete 
discomfiture  of  Austria  and  her  withdrawal  from 
the  Germanic  confederation.  Prussia  then  united 
all  the  states  north  of  the  .Main  river  into  a 
close  political  union,  the  North  German  Union, 
and  formed  treaties  of  alliance  with  the  three 
state- of  southern  Germany,  by  virtue  of  which 
the  kin-- of  Prussia  had  supreme  command  of 
the  united  armies  of  all  Germany  in  case  of  war. 
lie,-i. lis  the  permanent  presidency  in  tin-  federal 
councils  of  the  North  German  Union.  The 
successful  war  against   France,  in  L870 — 71.  led 

to  the  formation  of  the  present  German  empire. 
The  south  German  states  joined  the  North 
German  Union,  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  as  per- 
manent and  hereditary  president  of  the  whole 
( rerman  confederation  in  all  federal  affairs  and  as 
supreme  commander  in  cbi<  E  of  all  the  state  con- 
tingents in  time  of  war.  at  the  request  of  all 
the  German  princes  and  free  towns,  assumed  the 
title  of  German  Emperor.  The  official  name  of 
the  confederation  is  the  German  Empire.  The 
several  states  composing  the  confederation  retain 
their  autonomy  in  all  internal  civil  affairs  not 
regulated  by  federal  legislation.  Federal  affair- 
are:  Army  and  navy,  foreign  diplomacy  and 
political  representation,  the  tarif,  the  postal 
ice,  the  mint,  weights  and  measures,  and  the 
supreme  commercial  court  (at  Leipsic).  Rail- 
Is,  telegraphs,  legal  proceedings,  and  edu- 
cational interests,  it  i<  contemplated,  will  also 
brought  under  the  federal  government,  the 
measure  being  now  under  consideration  (1876  . 
Bavaria,  however,  has  retained  certain  prei 
tives  in  regard  to  her  army,  her  postal  service, 
and  her  internal  taxation.  The  federal  parliament 
Consists  of    two    houses,-     the    upper   house:    the 

ral  council  [Bundesrath),  consisting  of  the 
federal  commissioners  appointed  by  the  several 
state  governments  :  and  the  lower  house  (  Reichu- 
tag),  consisting  of  Ms:;  members,  elected  by  the 

direct    Suffrage    of    the    people.       In     the     federal 

council  Prussia  caste  17  votes,  Bavaria  f>.  Saxony 
1,  Wurtemberg  -I.  Baden  3,  Hesse  3,  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin  2.  Brunswick  2,  and  each  of  the 

lesser  states!  vote:  58,  in  ;dl.    The  chancellor 

of  the  empire  is  the  chief  executive  and  re- 
sponsible officer  of  the  confederation.  The  em- 
peror is  required  to  convene  the  parliament  at 
least  once  every  year.  The  German  empire 
comprises  '-'<;  states;  namely,  1  kingdoms, 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wurtemberg; 
C>  grand  duchies.  Baden,  Oldenburg,  Mecklen- 
burg -Schwerin,  Mecklenburg- Strehtz,  I  [esse- 
Darmstadt,  and  Saxe-Weimar;  5  duchies, 
Brunswick,  Anhalt,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe-Co- 
burg-t  lotha,  ami  Saxe-Meinineen-Hildbuighau- 
scn:  7  principalities.  Lippe,  Schaumburg-Lippe, 
Waldeck,  2  Schwarzburgs,  and  2  Reusses;  3 free 
towns,     Hamburg,   Bremen,  and  Lubeck ;  and 

I  federal  district,-  Alsace  Lorraine.  The  empire 
has  an  aggregate  area  of  208,745  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  12,757,812,  according  to  the 
census  of  Dec.  l .,  L875. 

Educational    History. — Germany,  which  for 
several  ecu,  rations  has  held  a  very  high,  if  i 


GERMA  w 


357 


the  leading,  rank  among  all  the  civilized  nations 
of  the  world  in  regard  to  public  education  ha 
risen  to  its  present  high  standard  from  an  ex- 
ceedingly rude  condition,  and  can  refer  to  a 
long  and  intricate  history  of  the  developmenl  of 
its  educational  institutions,  extending  over  a 
period  of  more  than  a  thousand  years  before  the 
present  time.  The  German  tribes  dwelling 
within  the  limits  of  the  present  German  empire 
were  successively  converted  to  Christianity,  from 
the  6th  to  the  9th  century,  irrespective  of  spo- 
radic conversions  anterior  to  the  beginning  of 
that  epoch,  the  Franks  being  the  first,  the  Ale- 
mannians  and  Bavarians  the  next,  followed  bythe 

Frisians.  Hessians.  Thuringians,  and  the  Saxons, 
who  were  the  last  to  adopt  the  Christian  faith. 
Beyond  the  Elbe  river,  in  a  region  inhabited  at 

that  time  by  Slavic  tribes,  now  thoroughly  tier- 
man.  Christianity  did  not  gain  a  foot  hold  pre- 
vious to  the  9th  and  1  Oth  centuries,  and  in  some 
districts  I  Lithuania,  for  example),  not  until  a 
still  later  period, — from  the  11th  and  12th  to 
the  end  of  the  14th  and  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century.  Charlemagne,  the  mighty  Frank- 
ish  king,  who  had  converted  the  sturdy  Sax 
ons  to  Christianity,  by  the  aid  of  tire  and  sword, 
was  the  first  to  sow  the  seeds  of  education  in 
<  Jermany;  and  although  without  early  instruction, 
manifested  the  greatest  interest  and  energy  in 
the  establishment  and  furtherance  of  educational 
institutions  within  the  limits  of  his  empire,  re- 
maining faithful  to  his  purpose  until  his  death,  in 
814.  With  the  assistance  of  Alcuin,whom  he  had 
invited  from  England,  he  established  the  first 
school  in  his  empire,  the  Schola  Palatina,  or 
court  school,  chiefly  intended  for  the  education 
of  tin-  royal  children, of  whom  Charlemagne  had 
fourteen:  and  the  great  monarch  himself  was  not 
ashamed  to  acquire,  in  his  ripe  years,  what  had 
been  neglected  in  his  earlier  education.  The 
great  monarch  spoke  Latin,  understood  some 
Greek,  and  preferred  social  intercourse  with 
the  circle  of  learned  men  whom  he  had  assem- 
ble I  at  his  court.to  every  other.  lie  also  evinced 
much  interest  in  the  introduction  of  the  arts  of 
architect  are  and  music,  and  invited  talented  men, 
especially  from  Italy  to  take  up  their  residence  in 
Germany  near  the  imperial  court.  Other  schools 
were  established  after  the  plan  of  the  Schola  Pa- 
laiina;  and  the  artes  liberates,  divided  into  a 
trivium  (grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectics),  and 
a  quadrivium  (geometry,  arithmetic,  music,  and 
astronomy),    constituted  the  principal  subjects 

taught.  Besi  les  these,  there  were  schools  of  a 
lower  rank,  in  which  the  curriculum  of  study 
comprised  only  reading,  writing  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, and  music.  Very  soon  a -distinction  between 
ecclesiastical  and  secular  schools  was  established, 
although  Charlemagne  endeavored  to  obliterate 
all  difference;  of  rank  in  educational  matters. 
Those  pupils  who  wished  to  study  for  the  priest- 
hood, studied  (hefrivium  and  the  quadrivium,  in 
scholis  inirariis,  seu  claustris  (convent  schools), 
while  the  same  studies  were  pursued  by  all  othei 
in  scholis  eocterioribus,seu  canonicis.  'I  he  driest 
formalism  was  a  characteristic  feature  of  all  these 


Mils.  The  convents  and  the  cities,  as  they 
sprung  into  existence  all  over  the  empire,  be 
(  ame  the  originators  of  educational  insl  itutions  ; 
the  former  being  the  bunders  of  convent  and 

cathedral   schools:   the   latter. of    latin  and   city 

schools.  [See  Cathedral  Schools, and  Convent 
Schools.)  Prominent  among  the  convent  schools. 

was  the  one  founded  by  the  famous  Abbol  Rhfl 
banns  Maurus  at  Fulda,  813,  which  is  still  i,i 
existence  as  a  gymnasium.  Its  founder  was  called 
primus  pr&ceptor  Germanio?.  lie  was  a  pro 
found  scholar,  and  his  name  is  handed  down  to 
posterity  as  one  of  the  greatesl  educators  of  his 
age.  His  successor  was  the  equally  renowned 
Walafried  Strabus.  These  si  hools,  however,  did 
not  maintain  their  high  standard  (f  excellence  for 

along  time,  partly  because  their  prosperity  de- 
pended in  too  great  a,  measure  upon  the  imme- 
diate influence  and  energy  of  their  founders, 
and  partly  because  the  pure  and  apostolic  ardor 
of  the  earlier  Christian  church,  from  which  they 
had  received  their  life-breath,  gradually  relaxed 
and  declined.  Deprived  of  the  strict  ami  imme- 
diate supervision  of  the  bishops,  monastic  learn- 
ing and  discipline  soon  deteriorated;  and,  although 
ilk'  mendicant  orders  of  the  Franciscans  ami 
Dominicans  largely  increased  the  number  of 
convent  schools,  their  educational  work  did  not, 
compare  favorably  with  the  standard  previously 
maintained.  Secular  Latin  schools  were  estab- 
lished by  the  municipal  authorities  in  cities  at  a 
somewhat  later  period;  but.  at  first,  they  had  to 
encounter  many  difficulties,  arising  from  the  op- 
position of  the  clergy,  who  claimed  the  sole  right 
of  establishing  and  conducting  schools  of  a  higher 
order, — those  in  which  more  than  the  mere  rudi- 
ments of  education  was  taught.  Still,  by  pi  rsever- 
ance,  a  number  of  cities  succeeded  in  founding 
their  own  schools  of  a  higher  order,  independent, 
of  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  church. 
Among  the  oldest  of  these  city  I  atin  schools,  may 
be  enumerated  those  at  Breslau  (Silesia),  which 
were  founded  in  1267  and  1293,  and  which  still 
flourish  as  Gymnasia.  As  a  matter  of  course. 
the  teachers  could  only  be  taken  from  the  ranks 
of  the  clergy:  and  the  convent  schools  furnished, 
in  general,  the  models  for  their  course  of  studies 
and  general  government.  These  city  schools 
were  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  scholasticus, 
usually  a  clergyman,  whose  appointment  was  gen- 
erally for  the  term  of  one  year,  hut  could  be  re 
newed.  The  scholasticus  was  assisted  by  a 
number  of  baccalaurei  of  his  own  appoint- 
ment. The  course  of  studies  consisted  chiefly  of 
Latin  grammar,  music,  and.  to  a  limited  i  stent, 
rhetoric,  dialectics,  and  scholastic  philosophy.  It 
is  obvious  that  these  city  schools,  as  well  as  the 
convent   and   cathedral    schools,  wii  e    under   the 

direct  influence  of  the  clergy,  and  thai  the  stud- 
ies therein  pursued  had  the  closest  relation  to 
the  im hate  purposesof  the  church.   Although 

Latin,  ami  in   some  schools  <  rreek  also,  was  stud- 
ied with    the   greatest    zeal,  these  studies  did  not 
disclose   to   the   .scholars   the  ever   fresh    and  hu- 
manizing spirit  of  the  Roman  and  Grecian  clas 
Bics;  but.  under  the  driest   conceivable  formalism 


358 


GERMANY 


of  instruction. merely  served, especially  the  Ijitin, 
as  the  aid  and  support  of  a  scholasticism,  which, 
notwithstanding  its  depth  and  speculative  in- 
genuity, was  of  little  value,  being  unproductive 
of  the  best  results  of  education,  according  to  its 
true  meaning. 

School  education  in  Germany  was  so  firmly 

held    in   subjection   to   church   interests   that   its 

working  was  confined  to  a  blending  of  dry  scho- 
lasticism and  religious  mysticism,  and  devoid  of 
all  practical  philosophy  and  true  pedagogical 
principles.  The  conquest  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire by  the  Turks,  the  subsequent  exodus  of 
many  Greek  scholars  from  the  centers  of  learn- 
ing in  the  Orient  to  the  west,  their  infusion 
of  new  views  and  ideas  into  the  decaying 
system  of  European  scholasticism,  revived  the 
study  of  the  ancient  classics,  and  a  just  appreci- 
ation of  their  ever  true  and  youthful  spirit. 
Italy,  first  of  all,  received  these  fresh  germs  for 
the  development  of  free  and  humanistic  concep- 
tions, tin- further  advance  of  which  to  western 
and  northern  Europe  laid  the  first  foundation 
for  the  subsequent  reformation  of  the  Church. 
This  is  especially  true  of  Germany.  The 
Netherlands,  at  that  time  a  part  of  the  bodj 
politic  of  the  German  empire,  by  means  of  the 
greater  activity  in  political  lite,  which  brought 
the  best  minds  of  the  people  in  conflict  with  one 
another,  partly  on  political,  partly  on  church 
questions,  became  the  nursery,  so  to  say.  of  a  new 
era  in  education.  Gerard  Groot  (1340  L384) 
became  the  founderof  a  new  school.  Having 
studied  scholastic  philosophy  for  several  years  at 
Paris,  and  become  deeply  imbued  with  the  ad 
vanced  ideas  in  matters  of  education,  he  gathered 
around  himself  a  number  of  spirited  men,  whose 
aim  was  to  combine  with  correct  religious  prin- 
ciples a  practical  and  scientific  activity.  Of 
Groot's  followers  the  most  noted  were  Florence 
Radewin,  the  celebrated  Thomas  a  ELempis,  and 
Johann  Wessel.  They  were  the  founders  of  the 
so-called  Bruder-Hau&er  (brothers'  houses),  in 
which  tlry  taught,  besides  the  traditional  religious 
scholastic  subjects, sciences  and  languages accor  I 

ing   to   the    new     Italian    plan.      The   new  sel 1 

spread  its  principles  over  the  Netherlands  and 
northern  Germany  generally.  Rudolph  Lange, 
more  especially,  became  a  reformer  of  the  pre- 
vail] aiional  system.  He  established  orre- 
modeled  existing  schools,  after  the  plan  of  those 
of  I  teventerand  Amsterdam,  throughout  northern 
and  north-western  Germany.  Other  reformers 
in  the  same  work  were  Count  Moritz  Spiegel- 
i.  Rudolph  Agricola,  Ludwig  Dringenberg, 
Ludwig  Wimpfeling,  Conrad  Celtes,  Johann  von 
Dalber  bul  above  all  Johann  Reuchlin  1 1  15 
1522)  and  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam(l  1  *  -  T  1536). 
The  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  was  particular 
ly  a  I  by  Reuchlin,  while  that  of  Latin 
founds  Btanch  supporter  in  Erasmus ;  and  their 
efforts  prepare  1  the  educated  classes  of  <  Germany 
ive  an  I  ripen  the  germs  of  the  great 
reformation  of  the  Church  which  was  inau- 
gurated at  thai  time.  The  Reformation  im- 
parted   a   new   and   vigorous  spirit    to    educa- 


tion. The  great  reformers  advocated  strongly 
the  study  of  classic  antiquity,  not  only  for 
the  development  of  rhetoric  and  a  taste  for 
scientific  subjects  generally,  but  also,  and  princi- 
pally, as  important  aids  in  the  establishment  of 
true  evangelical  faith.  The  necessity  of  founding 
Schools  for  the  maintenance  and  propagation 
of  the  new  faith  was  strongly  pressed  by  Luther 
in  several  of  his  writings.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion followed  in  these  Latin  schools  comprised, 
mainly:  reading,  writing,  vocal  music.  Latin, 
dialectics,  rhetoric,  and  religion.  These  schools 
were  generally  divided  into  three  classes,  in 
which  the  gradation  of  studies  was  as  follows  : 
reading,  learning  of  Latin  vocaibles,  and  reading 
of  Donatus  and  Cato's  Senlentice,  in  the  lowest 
class;  religion,  grammar,  prosody,  music,  and 
selections  from  ^LVop.  Mosellan's  Pcedohyiu. 
Erasmus's  Colloquia,  Terence.  Plautus,  and  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  in  the  second  class;  Virgil, 
<  hid.  Cicero's  De  Officiis  and  Episiola  adfami- 
liares,  metrics,  dialectics,  and  rhetoric,  in  the 
highest  class.  J  atin  composition  and  colloquial 
exercises  formed  an  essential  pari  of  the  curricu- 
lum of  the  higher  grades.  The  school  hours  were. 
on  every  week-day.  from  5  orfi  o'clock  to  9  o'clock 
in  the  forenoon,  and  from  noon  to  3  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon.  Christian  catechism  was  taught 
twice  a  wei'k  during  week-days,  and  every  Sun- 
day. The  maxim  Repeiitio  mater  studiorum 
was  exacted  Avith  great  rigidity.  The  singing 
classes  of  these  schools  were  obliged  to  sing, 
under  the  direction  of  the  music-teacher,  before 

the  houses  of  wealthy  citizens  on  high  church 
days,  for  the  purpose  oi  collecting  alms.  The 
city  schools. at  the  timeof  the  Reformation, were 

either  of  a  lower  or  a  higher  order;  the  latter 
were,  however,  almost  exclusively  in  the  more 
important  cities  of  the  country.  Reading,  writ- 
ing, Latin,  and  religion  formed  the  principal 
subjects  of  instruction  in  the  former,  to  which 
were    added    Greek,    Ilelirew.  mathematics,  and 

philosophy  in  the  latter,  or  higher  order  of  city 
schools.  Loth  orders  of  schools  commenced  on 
die  same  basis,  the  principal  difference  between 
them  consisting  in  extra  courses  for  special 
studies,  introduced  in  the  higher  order  of  tb 

ools,  which  besides  the  studies  enumerated 
above,  also  taught  rhetoric,  logic,  and,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  music.  In  some  schools,  Hebrew,  and 
mathematics  were  omitted  in  the  course  of 
studies.  These  higher  city  schools,  and  a  con- 
siderable number  of  convent  and  cathedral 
schools,  the  latter  especially  during  the  period  of 
the  Reformation,  were  transformed  into  mm  ailed 
Gymnasia.  The  Gymnasium  consisted  origi- 
nally of  tour  classes,  which  number  was  subse- 
quently increased  t<>  five,  and  in  some  instances 
even   to  eighl   classes.    The  number  of  school 

houi  -    varied    from    20  to  22    DOT 

week.  Some  of  these  institutions,  in  course  of 
time,  rose  to  the  dignity  of  universities. 

We  find,  throughout  the  middle  ages,  in  most 

Of  the  city  Schools,  four  hours  of  daily  instruc- 
tion. However,  there  were  some  schools  with 
five,   some  with   three   (Spires,   1  1th  century) 


GERMANY 


359 


one  with   only  two  (Halle,  1526)  ;  while,  on 

lli  ■  other  hand,  we  find  as  many  as  eight  hours 
per  <li'  m  for  the  upper  classes  of  the  Latin 
school  at  Easlingen  (1548).  The  recitations 
•were  generallydivided  equally  between  the  fore- 
noon and  the  afternoon.  The  number  of  classes 
in  the  schools  varied  from  two  to  four  and.  up- 
ward, with  proper  subdivisions.  The  school  year 
commenced,  in  a  number  of  cities,  regularly  on 
March  12.,  the  day  of  St.  Gregory,  the  patron- 
saint  of  schools.  In  other  cities,  admissions  wore 
allowed  twice  a  year. — at  Easter  and  Michael- 
mas. The  schools  were  not  free  schools;  pupils, 
except  the  children  of  paupers,  were  required 
to  pay  a  certain  fee  per  quarter,  varying  in 
amount  according  to  time  and  locality.  In  some 
places,  the  school  money  was  fixed  according  to 
an  agreement  between  teacher  and  parents. 
Teachers  received,  most  generally,  a  salary  from 
the  municipality,  besides  the  pupils'  fees,  and 
enjoyed  other  emoluments,  for  assisting  at  divine 
service,  funeral  processions,  kc.  1 'resents  to 
teachers  from  pupils  were  very  customary,  and 
in  some  cities  were  even  prescribed  and  regulated 
by  the  authorities.  Of  school  examinations,  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  there  is  no  trace, 
although  we  read  of  occasional  visits  to  the 
schools  by  prelates  :  nor  is  there  any  trace  of  va- 
cations. The  earliest  ordinance  instituting  va- 
cations is  found  at  Freiburg  (1558), wMch  limits 
the  fall  vacation  to  two  weeks.  School  wras  kept 
throughout  the  year,  in  some  cities  not  even  ex- 
cepting holidays.  <>.<j.  in  Nuremberg,  Landau, etc.; 
but  teachers  and  pupils  coidd  agree  upon  one  or 
more  holidays,  mostly  in  consideration  of  a  lee 
to  be  paid  to  the  former.  School  festivals  were 
not  frequent.  The  day  of  St.  Cregory  was 
very  generally  observed  as  a  holiday.  A  peculiar 
festival  was  the  Virgatum-gehen,  the  gathering 
of  birches  in  the  wooils  by  the  pupils,  for  their 
own  corporal  punishment  at  school,  amid  general 
frolic,  including  procession,  singing  and  in- 
strumental music.  The  application  of  the  rod 
was  the  principal  means  of  maintaining  dis- 
cipline in  the  schools,  the  more  oecessary,  as 
large  numbers  of  vagrant  scholars  {fahrende 
Schvler),  who  went,  sometimes  begging,  from 
place  to  place  to  attend  school,  and  who  were 
addicted  to  all  manner  of  vices  and  irregular 
habits,  infested  the  whole  of  Germany  through- 
out the  middle  ages,  and  rendered  strict  school 
discipline  a  very  difficult  task.  Corporal  pun- 
ishment with  the  rod  was  not  only  officially  re- 
cognized but  minutely  regulated  by  municipal 
legislation,  even  designating  upon  which  part  of 
the  body,  excluding  head,  back,  and  hands,  the 
chastisement  should  be  administered.  We  find 
that,  in  Heidelberg,  the  teacher  of  a  Latin  school 
was  dismissed,  in  1  567,  because  he  refused  to  flog 
his  pupils  on  the  ground  that  some  of  them  were 
19  years  of  age.  and.  therefore,  in  his  opinion, 
too  old  for  such  punishment.  Another  peculiar 
mole  of  punishment  was  that  of  the  asinus,  a 
Wooden  frame  in  the  shape  of  a  donkey,  which 
the  culprit  was  obliged  to  mount  in  face  of  the 
class,  as  a  punishment  for  minor  offenses.  There 


were  several  kinds  of  aaini,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  offence  :  an  asinus  morum,  gar- 
ruliiaiis,  et  strepitus,  for  disorderly  conduct ;  an 
asinus  Germanismi,  for  pupils  who  spoke  Ger- 
man instead  of  Latin  ;  and  an  <isi,/us  sokecismi, 
for  offenders  against  good  Latin  grammar. 
There  are  perceptible, at  this  period,  many  serious 
delects  in  the  system  of  instruction,  more  espe- 
cially a  great  want  of  uniformity,  of  harmony 
in  the  intellectual  and  moral  training, of  rational 
methods,  suitable  text  books,  and  of  competent 
instructors.  Many  of  the  school-men  of  that 
time  rose  to  great  distinction.  Neander.  Fried- 
land  (Trotzendorf),  Bugenhagen,  Spalatin,  Lin- 
demann,  Wolf,  Fabri^ius,  Rhodomann,  Boetius, 
Caselius,  Calixtus,  Camerarius,  Hessus,  Heyden, 
Helwig,  Nigidius,  GocJenius,  Jungmann,  and 
others,  but  especially  Johann  Sturm,  are  noted 
as  prominent  educators  in  their  time.  Sturm  not 
only  gained  wide-spread  renown  as  an  author  of 
many  Latin  works  on  pedagogics,  but  also  as  a 
practical  educator.  His  famous  school  at 
Strasburg  (1578)  contained  several  thousand 
scholars,  including  the  best  elements  of  society, 
many  being  scions  of  the  high  nobility,  and  even 
princes.  This  school  had  not  only  a  German 
national  fame,  for  representatives  of  all  the 
European  nations  flocked  thither  to  sit  at  the 
feet  of  the  celebrated  educator.  Besides  the 
school  at  Strasburg,  Sturm  established  many 
others,  either  personally  or  by  means  of  his 
scholars.  Christianity,  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
sciences,  and  eloquence,  were  the  principal  aims 
of  his  education.  He  laid  down  a  system  of  edu- 
cation for  youths  from  the  seventh  to  the  twenty- 
first  year  of  age.  From  the  seventh  to  the 
sixteenth  year,  he  ordained  a  strict  school  educa- 
tion, after  which  he  permitted  a  somewhat 
freer  course  of  instruction  by  lectures.  His 
established  curriculum  of  studies  was  very 
carefully  carried  out,  from  the  very  foundation 
to  the  perfect  mastery  of  pure  Latin  speech.  Still, 
every  thing  considered. his  system  was  only  aone- 
sided  formalism,  devoid  of  that  harmony  of  intel- 
lect and  heart,  which  is  the  aim  of  true  education. 
The  academy,  connected  with  the  gymnasium),} 
after  Sturm's  plan,  approached,  but  did  not  en- 
tirely reach, the  standard  of  a  university.  While 
the  Reformation  planted  and  developed  many 
educational  institutions  of  a  superior  character, 
the  .le<uits.  aiming  to  keep  the  schools  sub- 
servient to  the  interests  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
<  hutch,  did  not  relax  in  their  endeavors  to  build 
up  rival  institutions.  In  this  special  branch 
of  their  general  purpose  to  encounter  and  combat 
Protestantism,  they  have  been  successful  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  The  founder  of  the  Jesuitic 
system  of  school  education  was  (  jaudio  de  Ac- 
(|iia\i\a  (died  in  liilel.  Occupying  the  high  posi- 
tion of  g  sneral  of  his  order. he  exerted  the  greatest 
influence  in  the  erection  of  Jesuit  schools,  which. 
through  the  energetic  activity  of  the  order 
spread  rapidly  over  the  whole  European  conti- 
nent, but  were  solely  guided  by  hierarchical 
interests.  Their  educational  aims  were  chiefly 
confined  to  the  pursuit  of  .scientific  and  human- 


360 


GERMANY 


ame  time,  an  almost 
absolute  waul  of  individual  freedom  of  thought, 
and  a  blind  subserviency  to  established  authority . 
were  their  must  prominent  general  characteris- 
tics. These  institutions  were  divided  into  two 
classes,  a  higher  and  a  lower  order.  The 
latter  were  divided  into  five  subdivisions,  and 
principally  taught  reading  and  writing,  in  Latin. 
Other  studies,  commonly  comprised  in  a,  gym- 
nasium course,  were  greatly  oeglected,  although 
mentioned  in  the  plan  of  studies:  such  as 
mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  •  •.co-raphy, 
and  history.  Rhetoric  and  logic  were  taughl 
in  the  driest  possible  manner;  and  even  the 
favorite  Latin  was  wanting  in  thoroughness  of 
grammatical  instruction,  and  in  a  historical  or 
critical  explanation  of  the  classic  authors.  The 
memorizing  of  disjointed  phrases  from  Cicero's 
writings,  and  of  Virgil's  and  other  poets'  works, 
formed  a  prominent  pari  of  the  scholar's  pensum. 
Implicit  obedience  to  superiors,  the  fear  of  God, 
and  \  irtue,  were  the  chief  aims  of  Jesuitic  edu- 
cation. The  speaking  of  German  was  prohibited, 
the  denunciation  of  offenses  against  the  estab- 
lished rules  was  invited  and  encouraged,  the  love' 
of  country  and  of  family  was  gradually  extin- 
guished in  the  hearts  of  the  scholars, and  nothing 
remained  but  the  love  of  the  established  church, 
and  th  -i  obedience  to  the  superiors  of 

the  order.  The  maxims  of  Sturm  and  other 
prominent  educators  of  the  Protestant  school 
remained  the  acknowledged  models  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  secular  schools,  for  a  long  period  of 
time,  especially  in  Wurtemberg,  Saxony,  and 
Hesse.  Bebel  (died  L516)  in  Tubingen,  and 
Reuehlin  (died  L522),  devoted  great  attention 
to  the  promotion  of  the  study  of  the  ancient 
languages;  the  former  especially  iii  regard 
to  Latin,  the  latter  in  regard  to  Hebrew  and 
Greek.  The  Btudy  of  the  mother- tongue  was 
officially  ignored,  if  doI  suppressed.  The  ordi- 
nances of  Duke  Christopher  of  Wtirtemb 
(1559)  encouraged  the  establishment  of  Latin 
schools  w  ithin  his  dominions.  With  the  except  ion 
of  the  positive  neglecl  of  the  German  language, 
the  genera]  course  of  instruction  was  excellent  ; 
and.  iii  iis  general  characteristics,  has  been  main- 
tained until  quite  recent  times.  The  prescribed 
curriculum  of  studies  pursued,  is  si  ill  extant 
iu  every  detail,  commencing  with  the  rudi- 
ments of  Latin  instruction,  and  terminal 
with  Cicero's  orations, Sallust,  Livy, and  Virgil's 
JEneid;  dialectics  and  rhetoric  according  to 
Melanchthon's  plan ;  Greek  grammar  and  \en- 
ophon's  Cyropcedia.  Music  was,  and  remained, 
a  favorite  study  in  all  the  grades.    W  ith  slightly 

varied  I  idea  (ions,  this  general  plan  of  studi<  s, 

as  established  in  Wurtemberg  for  secondary 
institutions  of  learning,  was  adopted,  toward 
the  cl  the  I  < U 1 1  century, as  the  standard  in 

Saxony,  with  the  only  exception  that  more  at- 
tention was  given  to  arithmetic.   The  celebrated 

princes'   bc! I-    (Furstenscknlen)    at    Meissen, 

Grimma,  and  Schulpforta,  were  of  a  somewhat 

higher  order.     They  each  had  three  classes  w  ith  a 

two  year-  t i ■-■■  iii  each,  and  prepared  scholars 


for  all  the  academic  studies.  The  highest  class 
comprised  the  following  studies:  Melanchthons 
Latin  grammar;  Cicero's  De  Officiis,De  Seneo- 
t«te,  and  De  Amicitia  ;  Tusculance  Qucestiones ; 
Virgil 'sGeorgics  SLodjEneid;  Horaces  Odes;  Isoc- 
rates;  Pythagoras's  Aurea  Carmina;  Plutarch's 
De  Liberorum  Educatixme;  the  Iliad;  the  rudi- 
ments of  Hebrew;  dialectics  and  rhetoric ;  the 
rudimentsof  astronomy,  etc.  Terence 'sand  I  'lau- 
tus's  comedies  were  acted  annually  to  accustom 
pupils  to  Latin  speaking.  'I  his  course  of  studies 
was  also  introduced  in  several  other  German 
states.  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam  and  Melanch- 
thon  had,  both, strongly  advocated  a  certain  at- 
tention to  realistic  Studies, — mat  hematics,  astron- 
omy, and  the  natural  sciences  in  general.  Luther 
also  favored  this  view .  Still,  these  studies  re- 
mained much  neglected,  and  did  not  receive  due 
attention  until  the  following  century,  when  the 
climax  of  one-sided  formalism  had  been  reached, 
and  a  counter-current  made  itself  felt  in  the 
educational  world.  Francis  Bacon  (q.  v.)  was 
the  originator  of  the  realistic  principle  in  edu- 
cation; and  he  found  enthusiastic  disciples  in 
Wolfgang  Ratich  (1571  —  1631^  and  John 
Amos  Comenius  (1592  L671),  who  became  the 
founders  of  a,  new  realistic  method  fo  edu- 
i  ion  in  Germany.  They  principally  aimed  at 
a  development  of  the  reasoning  power  of  the 
mind  :  hut.  in  their  zeal,  tin  y  carried  their  aim 
too  far,  bj  almosl  entirely  ignoring  fancy  and  (lie 
appreciation  of  the  beautiful.  'I  hey  faded  to  find 
the  proper  blending  of  mere  instruction  and  gen- 
eral culture:  but,  notwithstanding  their  want  of 
appreciation  of  classic  antiquity  and  historic 
study,  they  are  entitled  to  a  grateful  recogni- 
tion as  the  founders  of   a    realistic  Sch(  ol  wliii  h 

exercised  a  very  beneficial  influence  upon  die 
educational  principles  of  their  country.  Sen 
afterward,  the  whole  German  nation  was  shaken 
to  its  very  foundation  by  the  great  denomina- 
tional feuds  between  the  Protestants  and  the 
Catholics, in  which  the  schools  also  participated. 
Theological  disputations  were  the  order  of  the 
:  and  the  Latin  schools.  everj  where  in  Ger- 
many, were  diverted  from  their  original  pursuits, 
which  were  merely  educational,  to  become  (fil- 
ters of  public  disputations  and  declamations  for 
or  against  I  Lome  and  the  papacy.  'I  he  r»  ligious 
dissensions  finally  culminated  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  which  rent  the  German  nation 
into  two  bitterly  hostile  parties,  and  with  tire 
and  sword,  during  an  entire  generation,  devas- 
tated and  depopulated  the  country, and  almost 
entirely  destroyed  what  civilization  and  mental. 

moral,    and   material    culture,    had    1  milt    Up   in 

centuries.  Germany,  which,  before  the  war, 
had  been  in  a  most  prosperous  condition,  with  a 
population  of  about  twentj  million  inhabitants, 

WaS    reduced  to  a   VSSl   desert    with    scarcely  o\el 

five    million    people.     The  w  ;ir  had  swept   away 

the  \ery  flower  of  the  nation,  leaving,  at  its 
termination,  the  once  mighty  empire  in  mi  im- 
poverished, helpless  condition,  an  easy  prr.v  to 
the  schemes  and  aggressions  of  foreign  powers. 

hi  the  general  state  of  exhaustion  and  demoral- 


GERMANY 


:;t;i 


ization,  during,  and  at  the  close  of,  the  war. 
the  educational  institutions  of  the  countrj 
were  almost  entirely  annihilated.  A  great 
Dumber  of  the  schools  were  closed  for  want 
of  teachers  ami  pupils,  very  many  of  them 
were  destroyed,  teachers  ami  pupils  were  scat- 
tered, and  an  enormous  increase  of  immorality 
was  perceptible  among  the  students  of  tin'  irw 
schools  which  survived.  'Hie  peace  ft'  West- 
phalia (1648)  found  the  educational  institutions 
of  Germany  in  a  mosl  forlorn  ami  demoralized 
condition.  Gradually,  however,  they  regained 
their  former  standard  :  but  the  course  of  studies 
formerly  prevailing  had.  in  the  mean  time,  un- 
dergone very  material  changes.  Latin,  which 
had  almost  become  the  ruling  speech  in  the 
higher  schools,  began  to  lose  its  pre-eminence. 
It  was  still  studied. with  great  attention  ;  hut  the 
national  language  began  to  assert  its  importance, 
and  even  at  the  universities,  the  German  tongue 
was  gradually  permitted  to  become  the  medium 
of  scientific  instruction.  This  reaction  from 
the  former  principles  of  education  continued 
throughout  the  following  epoch.  The  study 
of  Greek,  at  some  noted  schools,  became  en- 
tirely neglected.  At  this  period,  a  marked 
difference  was  manifested  in  regard  t:>  the  edu- 
cation of  scholars  of  noble  birth  and  others.  The 
so-called  knights'  academies  {Ritterakademien) 
were  established,  in  which  pupils  were  instructed 
in  history , genealogy , and  heraldry,  and  in  which 
dancing  and  courtly  maimers  were  special 
.branches  of  instruction.  Other  studies,  such  as 
'  military  and  civil  engineering,  astronomy,  botany, 
and  theoretical  and  practical  philosophy,  found 
their  way  into  the  regular  curriculum.  Generally 
Speaking,  there  was.  however,  no  true  advance- 
ment in  the  educational  standard;  on  the  con- 
trary, the  selection  of  studies  manifested  great 
arbitrariness  on  the  part  of  the  patrons  and 
directors  of  schools  of  an  advanced  order.  In 
some  of  the  <  rerman  states,  the  special  interest 
of  highly  cultured  princes  in  matters  of  educa- 
tion tended  to  elevate  the  standard  by  not  only 
groundimj.-  the  scholars  well  in  the  mechanism 
of  tiie  classic  languages,  according  to  the  old 
maxim  of  dry  scholasticism,  but  also  by  making 
them  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  spirit  of 
classic  authors.  The  study  of  the  Greek  classics 
was  rehabilitated,  together  with  Hebrew-,  and 
other  more  liberal  kinds  of  culture.  I  hike  Ernes! 
of  Got  ha  1 1  675)  took  a  leading  part  in  this  refor- 
mation of  the  higher  schools,  and  his  example 
found  many  imitators  in  other  German  states. 
Still, there  prevailed  a  greal  diversity  in  educa- 
tional principles  throughout  the  country.  Hu- 
manism, rigid  formalism,  and  rationalism  con- 
tended with  each  other,  and  were   each  fostered, 

and  advocated,  according  to  local  and  personal 

influences.        At     this    time.    Locke's    ideas     on 

education  commenced  to  exert  a.  greal  influ- 
ence on  educational  principles  in  Germany. 
Mis   maxim    of    imparting    knowledge    mainlj 

through  the  senses,  in  opposition  to  idealism. 
although  not  always  carried  out  consistently. 
Opened  a   new  view  of  the  principles  of   ration- 


al education.   (See  Locke.)    Another  system  wa 
founded  bj    An-nst   Hermann   Francke  (q. 

I  lis  principal  aim  was  to  implant  true  piety  in 
the  hearts  of  the  \oiing.     K  ramie  is  the  founder 

of  the  renowned  institutions  at  Halle, in  which 
a  most  decided  realistic  tendency  became  appar- 
ent,  from    the    very    beginning,  in   opposition 

to  one-sided     formalism.       Anion--    the    studies 

pursued  at  Halle  were  chronology,  astronomy, 
music,  painting,  anatomy,  botany,  and   even  the 

rudiments  of  medicine,  together  with    other   3C1 

ences  properly  belonging  to  technical  schools. 
Greek  ami  French  were  much  neglected.  Real- 
ism was  the  foundation  of  the  whole  educational 

structure.  The  so-called  Pcedagogium  al  Halle 
became  a  model  school  for  the  whole  of  Germany. 
It  possessed  a  botanic  garden,  a  museum  of  nat- 
ural history,  philosophical  apparatus,  a  chemical 
laboratory,  and  a  dissecting  room.  It  was  con 
sidered  a,  normal  school  for  the  education  of 
teachers:  and  its  pupils  subsequently  became  the 
propagators  of  realistic  principles  throughout  the 
country.     Francke's  system  laid  the  foundation 

to    the    so-called     real    schools.       .1.  S.  Sender,  ill 

Halle,  was  the  first  who  used  this  term  in  an- 
nouncing his  establishment  of  "a  mechanical 
and  mathematical  real  school"  in  1706,  which, 
however,  was  of  short  existence.  John  Julius 
Hecker,  also  a,  disciple  of  the  Halle  school, 
established  a  real  school  in  Berlin  (1747),  which, 
properly  speaking,  consisted -of  three  different 
departments;  namely,  a  German,  a  Latin,  and  a. 
real  school,  but  with  arrangements  to  allow 
pupils  of  the  two  former  to  participate  in  the 
studies  of  the  hitter  department.  In  many 
respects  this  real  school  carried  its  aims  too  far 
by  taking  up  purely  technical  studies  :  however, 
it  became  the  model  for  many  similar  insti- 
tutions. The  Pcedagogium,  or  Latin  school, 
was  afterwards  completely  separated  from  the 
real  school,  and  still  exists  under  the  name  of 
Friedrich  WUhelm's  Gymnasium.  The  demor- 
alizing effects  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  upon 
the  national  spirit  of  the  German  people  were 
not  effaced  for  a  Ion-  period  of  time.  'I  he 
higher  classes  of  society  had,  to  a  remarkable  de- 
gree, lost  all  national  individuality.  They  imi- 
tated foreign,  mostly  French,  models,  aiming  at 
outward  polish  ami  elegance,  but  losing  ali  ap- 
preciation of  thoroughness,  breadth,  and  har- 
inoii\  of  culture,  while  the  lower  < -lasses  devoted 
their  attention  almost  exclusive!}  to  the  prac 
tical  affairs  of  life  and  to  useful  knowl- 
edge. Pedantry  on  the  part  of  the  teachers, 
and  immorality  on  the  part  of  the  students; 
Superficiality  On  the  one  hand,  and  one-sided 
utilitarianism  on  the  other,  in  educational  prill 
ciples,  were  the  characteristics  of  the  time.  New 
pedagogical  principles  were  propagated  bj  Bi 
dow-  i  1  7'-'-'!  90)  and  his  followers,  of  whom 
Salzmann  and  Campe  are  the  most  noted,  who 
are  known  io  the  educational  world  as 
school  of  the  i  Philanthropists.  Their  principal  aim 
was  to  educate  a  youth  to  become  a  man  in  the 
besl  sense  of  the  word.--  to  guide  the  natural  im 
md  the  will  by  reason.  Some  of  the  sch  i 


36-2 


GEE MA XV 


established  by  the  Philanthropists  attained  con- 
siderable  renown,  more  especially  the  one 
founded  by  Salzmann  at  Schnepfenthal,  near 
Gotha,  which  is  still  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
The  method  of  the  Philanthropists,  however, 
soon  fell  into  disuse,  owing  principally  to  their  dis- 
regard for  the  classic  authors,  whose  educational 
value  they  underrated,  and  in  the  study  of 
whom  they  were  completely  outstripped  by 
rival  schools.  Although  the  general  current  of 
the  time  favored  utilitarianism,  a  tendency 
encouraged  by  Frederick  the  Great,  still  there 
remained  in  the  German  nation  ton  much  la- 
tent love  for  the  ideal  to  allow  the  realistic 
school  to  become  all-absorbing.  Just  then,  the 
first  dawn  of  the  great  golden  eraof  German 
classic  literature  broke  upon  the  nation,  and  re- 
vived the  love  for  ancient  classic  beauty. 
Winckelmann  and  Leasing  revealed  the  splendor 
of  ancient  art  ami  the  eternal  laws  of  the  beau- 
tiful. They  were  followed  by  hosts  of  others. 
The  love  of  the  ancient  classics,  which  was 
awakened  even  in  the  masses  of  the  people  by 
excellent    translations    of    ancient    authors    into 

German,  inaugurated  by  •'.  1 1.  Voss's  admi- 
rable translation  of  Homer's  works,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  German  language,  which  had 
been  greatly  neglected  for  ages,  during  the  fol- 
lowing classic  period  of  national  literature,  were 
brought  into  happy  barmony,  and  their  union 
became  fruitful  of  the  best  results  in  the  whole 
Intellectual,  moral,  and  esthetical  life  of  the 
nation.  As  a  matter  of  course,  the  cans 
education  also  participated  in  the  general  ad- 
vancement of  tic  mental  and  moral  culture  of 
tic  nation;  its  aims  became  broader  and  loftier. 
'The  new  philosophical  school  of  modern  human- 
ists, in  the  sphere  of  education,  comprehended 
many  names  thankfully  remembered  bj  subse- 
quent generations.  J.  M.  Gesner  (lti'.tl  —1761 1, 
rector  of  the  Thomas  School  in  Leipsic,  and  sub- 
sequently professor  of  ancient  literature  and 
founder   of   the  philological  seminary  at  Gottin- 

-  became  a  stanch  supporter  and  propagator 
of  the  new  humanistic  school.    .).  A.  Ernesti 

I  |,  at   Leipsic,   and    <  !.   G.    Ileyne    (1812),  at 

<  lottingen,  were  also  enthusiastic  a  Ivocatesof  the 

study  of   the   ancient  cla  They,  and  many 

others,  intro  luce  1  their  students  to  the  beauties 
of  the  classics  without  wearving  them  with  dry 
grammatical  study,  as  had  been  the  custom  be- 
The  chief  representatives  of  the  human- 
istic school  arc  Friedrich  A.ugus1  Wolf.  A.ugust 
Bockh,  Gottfried  Hermann,  Karl  Reissig,  and 
Karl  Otfried  MuMler.     At   first,  a  close  connec- 

■  between  tic  study  of  the  ancient  classics  and 

of  German  literature  was  strictly  observed;  hut. 
subsequently,  when  the  latter  had  gained  suffi- 
ci  lit  strength  and  classic  character,  this  connec- 
tion was  gradually  loosened.  Uthougb  one- 
sided Latinisin  repeatedly  asserted  its  opposi- 
tion to  the  studv  of  the  German  language  and 
literal  me.  ii  could  never  regain  its  former 
undisputed  prerogative;  while,  on  the  other 
hand.  Greek  had  recovered  all  the  territorj  for 
merly  lost.     Wolf,  Hermann,  and   Bockh  form 


I  a  triumvirate  of  educators  who  knew  how  to 
awaken  a  deep  interest  in  the  study  of  the  an- 
cients,— to  introduce  their  scholars  to  the  beau- 
ties  of   classic   philosophy   and    literature,   each 

according  to  his  own  individual  predilections] 
without  losing  sight  of  the  special  requirements 

of  their  own  time,  or  of  the  general  harmony  in 
the  purposes  of  a  really  Liberal  education.  In 
elementary  education,  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi1 
(1746—1827),  commenced  to  he  more  widely 
known  and  appreciated  in  Germany,  where  the 
peat  educator's  aim  to  elevate  the   lower  classes 

of  the  people  through  a  well-adapted  domestic 
education,  and  his  invention  of  a  rational  system 
of  primary  instruction,  founded  upon  teaching 
from  the  object,  and  upon  a  gradual  progres- 
sion  from  the  simple  to  the  complicated,  were 
rapidly  adopted,  and  whence  great  numbers  of 
teachers  Mocked  to  IVstaloz/i's  home  to  acquaint 
themselves  more  thoroughly  with  his  methods. 
The  downfall  of  the  <  hrmaii  nation  before  the 
notorious  arms  of  the  French  emperor,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  far  from  curb- 
in-'  the  national  ambition,  gave  a  new  impetus 
to  national  life,  which,  in  its  turn,  awakened  the 
Spirit  of  the  nation  to  new  exertions  in  the 
cause  of  education.  New  universities, gymnasia, 
and  Innumerable  elementary  schools  were  estab- 
lished. Though  under  the  sway  of  a  foreign  op- 
pressor. Germany  doubled  her  efforts  to  elevate 
her  educational  institutions.  The  philosopher 
I'ichte  (1807—8),  in  his  Addresses  to  the  < 
man  Nation  i  Reden  mi  die  deutsche  Nation) 
demanded  a  thorough  reconstruction  of  the 
schools,  and  a  universal  public  education  of  the 
nation.  A  fresh  breath  of  life  was  inspired  in- 
to the  whole  intellectual  and  moral  being  of  the 

nation:  and,  in  the  darkest  hours  of  her  misfor- 
tunes and  humiliation.  Germany  sowed  tic  seed 
of  future  greatness,  mainly  by  elevating  the  na- 
tional spirit  through  her  institutions  of  educa- 
tion, by  the  reformation  of  the  old,  and  by  the 

establishment  of  new  schools,  in  which  earnest- 
ness of  purpose,  thoroughness,  morality,  and 
harmony  in  the  general  development  of  mind 
and  heart  became,  and  are  to  this  day,  charac- 
teristic traits.  During  the  first  half  oi  the  pres- 
ent century,  a  constant  extension,!  ombined  with 
greater  depth,  in  the  treatment  of  all  the  sciences, 
became  every-where  perceptible.  In  former 
centuries,  the  schools  of  a  higher  order  had 
almost  exclusively  served  the  interests  of  the 
church.     The  Bible  and  the  ancient   languages, 

as  far  as  they   could    be    used   as   handmaids  in 

the  service  of  the  church,  had  formed  the  most 
important  elements  of  education.     Everj  thins 

was  brought   into  close  relation  to    theology  and 

its   auxiliaries.      When,  in    the    course   of  time, 

tin'  development  of  intellectual  freedom  gained 
ground  and  strength,  and  when  pur.  In  religious 
instruction  lost   its  supremacy  and  was  limited 

to  its  proper  sphere,  Other  sciences    could    raise 

their  ( [aims  to  lie  admitted  as  important  educa- 
tional elements.     The  proper   classification  od 

studies  to  attain  a  complete  humanistic,  and.  at 
the  same  time,  scientific,  education  of  the  rising 


GERMAN? 


3G3 


is  a  difficult  problem,  which  still  awaits  a  satis- 
factory solution.  Of  noted  representatives  of 
more  modern  German  pedagogy,  mention  should 
.be  made  of  Johann  M.  Sailer,  who  gained  con- 
siderable influence  in  the  Catholic  districts  of 
<  rermany,  of  F.  A.  W.  1  tiesterweg  (q.  v.),  and  of 
Friedrich  Froebel  (q.  v.). 

Primary  Instruction. — The  development  of 
purely  elementary  instruction  by  means  of  pub- 
lic schools,  in  Germany,  is.  comparatively,  of 
recent  date.  Elementary  schools  in  cities  [Deut- 
sche SchtUen)  are  traceable  to  a  very  remote 
period,  their  foundation  being  contemporaneous 
wiih  the  establishment  of  the  earliest  city 
Latin  schools.  These  schools  were  quite  nu- 
merous. In  Hesse  alone,  there  were,  in  the  13th 
century,  14  cities,  which  supported  their  own  ele- 
mentary schools.  All  official  documents  relating 
to  elementary  education,  which  have  come  down 
to  our  time,  make  reference  to  city  schools  only. 
In  the  country,  in  villages  or  hamlets,  schools  for 
elementary  e  Lucation,  worthy  of  the  name,  were 
almost  unknown. The  sextons  of  country  churches 
were  required,  in  a  general  way,  to  instruct  the 
children  in  the  catechism;  and  it  is  from  this 
primitive  foundation  that  public  elementary  edu- 
cation has  been  built  up  to  its  present  condition. 
in  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg, the  first  regular 
country  schools,  for  children  of  both  sexes,  were 
established  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  in  the 
17th  century,  under  the  reign  of  the  Great 
Elector.  Frederick  William:  but  we  know  very 
little  of  the  condition  of  these  schools.  With  the 
aggrandizement  of  the  electorate,  denominational 
differences  commenced  to  manifest  themselves. 
Thus  we  find,  at  an  early  period,  a  recognize  1 
distinction  between  Lutheran  and  Reforme  I 
schools.  At  Wesel,  we  find,  as  early  as  L687,  a 
s  'miliary  for  the  education  of  school-masters. — 
An  ordinance,  emanating  from  the  church 
authorities  in  Pomerania,  in  1563,  relating  to 
elementary  instruction,  makes  no  mention-at  all 
of  village  schools,  but  has  reference  to  city 
schools  only,  subordinating  them  in  every  respect 
to  the  authority  of  the  Church,  and  prescribing 
especially  the  study  of  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic,  besides  the  catechism  and  choral 
singing. — The  general  condition  of  elementary 
i i i-t ruction  throughout  the  majority  of  the 
German  states  was  about  the  same. — Even  in 
the  electorate  of  Brandenburg,  a  school  ordi- 
nance of  1658  plainly  shows  that  village  schools, 
although  their  establishment  was  strongly  urged, 
had  not  as  yet  become  a  living  reality.  When, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  the  elect- 
orate of  Brandenburg  and  the  duchy  of  Prussia 
became  a  kingdom,  feeble  attempts  were  again 
made  to  establish  public  elementary  schools 
throughout   the   royal    dominions:    but,  as    there 

was  no  supply  of  trained  teachers,  and  the  efforts 

where  neither  persistent,  nor  well  directed,  the 
iral  condition  of  elementary  education  in  the 
rural  districts  remained  pretty  nearly  unchanged. 
I'h''  elementary  teachers,  in  those  times,  were 
generally  forlorn  and  discarded  students  of  the 
higher    schools;   and   in   villages,   mostly    me- 


chanics, dismissed  servants  of  noble  families,  or 
invalid  and  discharged  soldiers.  King  Frederick 
William  I.,  the  second  king  of  Prussia,  paid 
especial  attention  to  elementary  schools  for  the 

mass  of  his  people,  with  the  design  of  educat- 
ing them  to  a  strict  obedience  to  secular  and 
church  authority,  and  to  habits  of  industry  and 
frugality.      He    is    reported   to    have   established 

within  his  states  about  1,800  elementary  schools. 
Frederick  William  I.  was  the  protector  of  the 

pietistic  school  of  educators,  at  Halle;  and. 
through  the  exertions  of  Francke  and  his  fol- 
lowers, Prussia,  received  the  first  trained  pro- 
fessional instructors.  Teaching,  for  the  first  time. 
became  a  recognized  science:  and  the  theory  of 
pedagogy,  and  practical  methods  of  instruction, 
were  made  indispensable  requirements  for  the 
office  of  a  public  teacher.  A  royal  decree,  regu- 
lating educational  affairs  in  the  monarchy,  and 
relating  to  institutions  of  all  grades  -in  fact, the 
first  general  school  law  for  the  Prussian  mon- 
archy— was  issued  October,  171.*!.  A  fewyears 
afterward,  in  a  number  of  royal  decrees,  the 
first  initiatory  steps  were  taken  toward  obli- 
gatory education  throughout  the  kingdom.  The 
directing  and  supervising  power  was  placed  en- 
tirely in  the  hands  of  the  church  authorities. 
The  founding  of  teachers'  seminaries  by  the 
state  was  not  then  thought  of.  By  private  enter- 
prise, a  teachers'  seminary  was  established  in 
Stettin,  Pomerania.  in  1735;  and.  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  another  was  founded,  by  order  of 
the  king,  at  the  convent  of  Bergen,  near  Magde- 
burg.— Although  the  number  of  schools  increased 
very  considerably  during  the  reign  of  the  ener- 
getic second  king  of  Prussia,  still,  the  qualifica- 
tions of  the  teachers  and  the  general  condition 
of  the  elementary  schools  remained  in  quite  a 
primitive  state;  and  the  only  important  progress 
made  was  the  gradual  development  of  the  idea. 
among  all  classes  of  the  people,  that  education, 
to  some  extent,  had  become  an  absolute  neces- 
sity.— Frederick  II.  (the  Great),  although  him- 
self a  highly  cultured  monarch,  had  very  little 
time  to  devote  to  the  advancement  of  elementary 
education,  until  after  the  close  of  the  Seven 
fears'  War,  when  he  promulgated  a  code  of 
•general  school  regulations",  which  contained 
all  the  leading  features  of  the  later  Prus- 
sian school  laws,  prescribing  the  general  obliga- 
tion to  attend  school,  fixing  the  obligator} 
school  age  of  the  pupils,  the  payment  of  school 
money,  and  tines  for  non-attendance,  anil  char- 
ging the  church  authorities  with  the  duty  of 
supervising  public  schools.  This  code  of  schuo! 
regtdaiions  emanated  from  the  pen  of  Johann 
Julius  Meeker  (q.  v.);  and  the  king,  after  mam 
consultations  with  other  recognized  authorities, 
gave  it  his  sanction.  The  execution  of  these  laws, 

however,   met    with    many  serious  difficulties  in 

several  parts  of  the  monarchy,  partly  on  account 

of  religious   differences    between    Catholics   and 
Protestants,  in  regard  to  the  supervisory  author- 
ity intrusted  to  the  church:  partly  on  account 
the  obstinacy  of  the  peasantry  in  refusing  the  pay- 
ment of  school  money:  partly  from  various  other 


m 


GERMANY 


causes  arising  from  local  differences,  which,  in 
the  end,  necessitated  many  modifications  of  the 
original  general  plan,  for  certain  districts  of  the 
kingdom.  Soon  afterward,  the  necessity  was 
fell  of  regulating  the  system  of  city  school  edu- 
cation in  a  manner  similar  to  that  prescribed  for 
the  country  schools.  The  exceedingly  meager 
remuneration  of  teachers  throughout  the  country 
was  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  securing 
of  well-qualified  instructors,  and  led  to  the 
establishment  of  a  state-aid  fund,  from  the 
interest  of  which  a  small  subsidy  was  grante  1 
to  meritorious  teachers.  The  king  never  re- 
laxed his  interest  in  common-school  education. 
The  newly  acquired  province  of  Silesia,  with 
its  majority  of  Catholic  inhabitants,  enjoyed  his 

special  care.  A  Catholic  teachers'  seminary  was 
founded  at  Breslau,  in  1765 ;  where,  two  years 
afterward,  a  Protestant  teachers'  seminary  was 
also  founded,  the  latter  dependent   mainly  upon 

private  support.  Under  the  reign  of  Frederick 
William  1 1.,  the  successor  of  Frederick  the  Great, 

the  care  of  the  government  for  popular  educa- 
tion was  undiminished.  —In  17*7. an  Ober-Schul- 

'legium  (High  School  Commission), consisting 
of  professional  members  only,  was  establishe  1 

at  Berlin,  for  the  examinati E  teachers,  with 

the  design  of  appointing  only  well-qualified 
persons  as  teachers,  without,  on  the  other  hand, 
interfering  with  the  established  rights  of  school 
patrons  to  till  vacancies.  In  the  Prussian  ('nm- 
mon  Law  of  L794,  all  educational  institutions, 
including  universities,  were  declared  state  insti- 
tution- ;  and  a  foundation  was  laid  for  a  legally- 
recognized  educational  system  for  the  entire  mon- 
archy, which,  in  its  fundamental  principles,  has 
remained  intact  t<>  the  present  day.  During  the 
first  years  of  the  reign  of  Frederick  William  III., 
no  material  changes  were  made  in  the  elementary 
school  system  of  the  kingdom.  Great  difficulties, 
however,  impeded  the  general  progress  of  ele- 
mentary  school  education  throughout  the  kins- 
dom;  and  the  education  of  females  was  even 
more  backward  than  that  of  males.  Ernestine 
von  Krosiek  was  the  lirst  who  had  sufficient 
courage  t"  establish  a  seminar;  lor  female  teach- 
ers, in  Berlin,  in  1804.  The  great  national  ca- 
lamity which  befell  I  'russia,  and  <  lermany  in  gen- 
eral, shortly  afterward,  brought  all  the  various 
efforts  for  the  advancement  of  public  education 
to  a  stand-still  for  some  time.  King  Frederick 
William  III.,  however,  declared,  "although  we 
have  lost  territory,  power,  and  prestige,  still  we 
must  strive  to  regain  what  we  have  lost  by  ac- 
quiring intellectual  and  moral  power:  and.  there- 
fore, ii  is  my  earnest  desire  and  will,  to  rehabil- 
itate th  ■  1 1 . i '  ion  by  de> ost  earnest  at- 
tention to  the  education  of  the  masses  of  my 
people.''  National  education,  which  had,  hither- 
to, been  in  I  to  1  be  care  of  a  subordinate 
committee,  under  the  state  ministrj  of  justice, 
became  a  distinct   and  important  branch  of  the 

ite  administration,  as  a  separate  department 
<>f  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  and  bo  remained 
until  the  close  of  1811,  under  the  immediate 
charge  of  the  celebrated  VVilhelra  von  Humboldt; 


afterward,  until  1S17,  under  Von  Schuckmann, 
who  was  very  efficiently  assisted  by  Nicolovius 

and  Siivern.  The  law.-  regulating  national  and 
popular  education,  hitherto  a  dead  letter  in  many 
respects,  became,  for  the  first  time,  a  reality, 
and  commenced  to  show  their  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  advancement  of  national  culture.  Re- 
newed and  energetic  efforts  were  made  to  edu- 
cate teachers  in  accordance  with  the  most  ap- 
proved system  of  the  time.  Many  instructors 
were  invited  from  other  states  to  accept  engag 
incuts  in  Prussia:  others  were  trained  under 
the  immediate  supervision  of  Pestalozzi.  A  new 
spirit  commenced  to  pervade  all  classes  of  the 
people,  now  a  homogeneous  nation.  In  1818, 
Von  Alteiistein  was  appointed  to  the  newly 
established  ministry  of  educational  affairs,  be- 
ing still  assisted  by  Nicolovius  and  Siivern. 
National  education  soon   attained  a   high  degree 

of  development,  considering  the  scanty  appropria- 
tions, both  state  and  municipal,  for  the  support 
of  educational  institutions  of  all  grades.  At  the 
time  of  Altenstein's  death,  there  were. in  Prussia 
(including  then  only  the  eight  old.  provinces),  6 
universities,  1 20  colleges,  and  a  .-till  larger  number 

of  realsel Is.  .'is  teachers' seminaries, and  about 

30,000  public  schools,  in  a  tolerably  flourishing 
condition.  Every  sixth  inhabitant  of  the  king- 
dom was  attending  school.  In  1840,  Minister 
Eichhorn  was  appointed  to  the  department  of 
educational  affair,-.  Two  decrees  of  this  minister 
especially  stigmatize  his  administration,  the 
closing  of  the  I'rote.-tant  seminary  at  Breslau, 
and  the  discharge  of  Diesterweg  (q.v.);  hut  the 
revolutionary  year  1848  swept  away  Eichhorn 
and    his    system.     It    is  the    merit    of    Priedrieh 

Stiehl,  a  i lified  Pestalozzian,  who  entered  the 

state  ministry  of  educational  affairs  as  a  col- 
laborator, not  only  to  have  maintained  the  Olig; 
inal  greal  principles  of  national  education,  but 
to  have  developed  the  same  under  the  adminis- 
trations of  all  the  successors  of  Eichhorn,  down 
to  Vim    Miihler.      At    the   close  of    L861,   there 

were,  in  the  eight  old  Prussian  provinces,  with 
a  population  oi  I8,47fr,500  (of  whom  3,090,294 
Mere  within  the  obligatory  school  age,  from  6  to 
I  I  years),  2,875,836  children  actually  attending 
school.  'I  he  number  of  schools  was  •_'  1,763  (2,! 
in  cities.  21,828  in  villages, etc.).  with  36,783 
classes  (10,290  in  city  schools.  26,493  in  coun- 
try schools),  and  •'!•">. '•'•>'-  teachers  (33,615  males 
and  L,755  females).  Two-thirds  ol  these  schools 
L6.540)  were  Protestant; about  one  third  8,082  . 
Catholic,  and  141,  Jewish,  of  licensed  private 
schools,  there  were,  in  1861,  L.434,  with  *_! . t •  1 1 
classes  and  84,021  pupils.  Thus  the  aggregate 
of  registered  elementary-school  children,  in  L861, 
amounted  to  2,959,857,  leaving   130,437,   who. 

either  received  no  education  at  all.  or  were  com- 
prised   in     the    number    of    pupils    attending 

higher  educational  inst itul  ions.     ( If  the  children 

attending  public  schools,  there  were,   in  1861 
Protestants,   1,775,888;     Catholics.    1,063,805; 
.lew's.  30,053  :   miscellaneous,  6,090.     The  sum 
total  of  public  elementary-school  teachers' salaries, 
in  1861,  amounted  to  7,449,224   thalers  [Ithaler, 


GERMANY 


=  $0,714)  (excluding  the  principality  of  EJohen- 
zollern.    which     had    an     independent    school 

budget),  wliuh  sum  was  raised  as  follows: 
2,320,968  thalers,  school  money  paid  by  pupils; 
1,799,958  ikalers,  raised  by  the  communities; 
328,298  thalers,  state  appropriation.  Other  re- 
quirements of  public  elementary  school  education 
demanded  a  further  disbursement  of  2,453,472 
thalers,  swelling  the  aggregate  of  expenditures  for 
the  eight  old  provinces  of  Prussia,  in  1861,  to 
9,902,696  thalers.  The  little  principality  of  Eohen- 
zollern  had  a  separate  budget  of  66,462  llorins 
(1  florin  $0,385).  Thus,  of  the  total  expenditure 
for  public  elementary  education,  in  Prussia, 
31.16  percent  was  raised  from  the  pupils  :  64,44 
per  cent,  by  the  taxation  of  communities,  and 
only  I.  lo  per  cent,  by  appropriations  on  the  pari 
of  the  state.  The  prevailing  principle,  at  pres- 
ent, in  Prussia,  for  the  support  of  public  schools. 
is.  that  all  the  schools  must  lie  made,  as  far  as 
possible,  self  sustaining, by  the  payment  of  school 
money,  and  by  local  taxation,  the  state  granting 
aid  only  in  cases  of  the  inability  of  communities 
to  maintain  the  schools  in  the  legally-prescribed 
manner.  The  city  of  Berlin,  with  a  free-school 
■in.  in  L874,  supported  77  common  element- 
ary schools,    with   an    aggregate  of   950   <■! 

!8  for  hoys,  with  !M  male  and 4 female  teach- 
ers ;  and  462  classes  for  girls,  with  284  male  ami 
L78  female  teachers).  The  whole  force  of  teach- 
ers, including  assistant  and  special  teachers, 
amounted  to  1.27'.).  The  average  number  of 
classes  to  eachschool  was  1 1;  the  average  number 
of  pupils  to  each  class,  51 ;  to  a  school,  640.  The 
average  number  of  pupils  in  free  schools  was 
18,420  :  besides  10,500  children  in  corporate  or 
private  institutions  aided  by  the  city;  making-  a 
grand  total  of  59,000  children  enjoying  free  ele- 
mentary education  at  the  expense  of  the  city. 
The  cost  of  elementary  free  schools  supported  by 
the  city  amounted  to  860,000  thalers;  whereas 
the  aid  granted  to  higher  city  schools,  besides 
the  school  money  paid  by  pupils,  required  an 
extra  expense  of  2.")  thalers  per  pupil.  The  aver- 
age yearly  salary  of  a  principal  of  a  common  ele- 
mentary school,  in  Berlin,  is  1,180  thalers  :  of  a 
cl a ss  teacher,  74.">  thalers;  of  a  female  teacher, 
4.S7  that<jrs  ;  of  female  teachers  of  needle-work, 
ID!)  thalers. — In  Prussia,  a  fund  has  been  es- 
tablished for  the  pensioning  of  teachers'  widows 
and  orphans,  which,  in  1861,  amounted  to 
1,682,158  thalers,  with  a  yearly  revenue  of 
139,331  thalers,  from  which  6,017  teachers,  or 
their  widows  and  orphans, were  pensioned.  Sim- 
ilar pensioning  funds  for  teachers  and  their 
willows  and  orphans  are  founded  in  all  the  Ger- 
man states. — The  following  are  the  principal 
items  of  school  statistics  for  the  other  German 
states:  Bavaria,in  1874, supported 7,016  public 
elementary  schools  (4,893  Catholic,  1,938  Prot- 
estant, I 'J  I  Jewish,  61  miscellaneous),  with  9,431 
male  and  SOU  female  teachers.  Total  number  of 
pupils,  632,599  (310,713  male.  321, H80  female; 
138,945  Catholic,  187,387  Protestant,  5*883 
•Jewish,  384  miscellaneous).  I  »f  the  7,016  public 
elementary  schools,  5,7'<4  levied  school  money  on 


their  pupils, amounting  to  1,025,443  Qorinsa  year. 
Baaen,  in  L874,  had  1 .7r>.">  elementary  public 
schools,  with  an  attendance  of  213,278  pupils 
(109,860  malesaud  103,418  females).  The  min 
imum  salary  of  teachers  ranged  from  920  to  1 ,380 
marks  {I  mark-  $0,238),  with  dwelling-house, or 
extra,  compensation  instead.  Hesse  Darmstadt 
employed  6, 160  public  elementary  teachers.  Saxe 
Weimar  employed  7o|  teachers,  who  instructed 
46,683  pupils.  The  kingdom  of  Saxtmy,  in  1871, 
supported  '-'.1  13  elementary  schools,  with  1  067 

teachers  and  429,679  pupils.  The  Saxon  schools 
are  reckoned  among  the  very  besl  inGermany. 
The  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg  maintained  2,240 
common  elementary  schools,  with  about  285,000 
pi  i  pi  Is, of  whom  one-third  were  Roman  <  latholic— 
for  the  entire*  lerman  Empire.we  find  the  follow- 
ing ics  (1872):  Total  number  of  public 
oentary  schools  (estimated)  about  60,000; 
teachers, about  110,000;  pupils, about  6,500,000, 
or,  more  than  1  o  per  cent  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion. The  proportion  of  pupils  to  the  entire  pop- 
ulation, in  the  several  German  states,  varies  as 
follows:  of  every  1000  of  the  population,  there 
are  school  attendants,  in  Saxony.  184,  in  Prus- 
sia, 155,  in  Wurtemberg,  132,  in  Bavaria,  L26, 
in  Mecklenburg,  L20 ;  while  in  Brunswick,  An- 
halt,  Oldenburg,  and  the  Thuringian  principal- 
ities, the  proportion  varies  from  160  to  184. 

School  Administration.—  Prussia. — All  edu- 
cational institutions  of  the  monarchy  are  govern- 
ed, primarily,  by  the  state  ministry  of  ecclesias- 
tical, educational,  and  medical  affairs,  in  Berlin. 
Every  province  has  its  own  provincial  school 
commission  for  the  general  administration  of 
schools,  and  a  scientific  commission,  with  proper 
subdivisions,  for  the  examination  of  teachers. 
The  provincial  state  school  authorities  are  as- 
sisted, in  the  larger  cities,  by  committees  elected 
for  this  purpose  by  the  administrative  bodies  of 
the  municipalities  [SchulrDepulationen);  and  in 
villages,  by  other  ollicials.  The  law  of  March  1  1., 
1  s7'2,  confers  the  right  of  supervising  all  educa- 
tional institutions,  public  and  private,  upon  the 
state.  Consequently,  all  supervisory  power  is 
derived  from  the  state,  and  exercised  under  its 
authority.  The  co-operation  of  local  authorities, 
as  established  by  law.  is  recognized  by  the  state. 
In  Bavaria,  educational  institutions  are  subordi- 
nate to  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  through  the 
del  tartment  of  church  and  school  affairs  (  Oberster 
Schul-Bath)  and  a.  committee  for  examinations, 
appointed  annually.  Saxony,  Wurtemberg,  and 
the  minor  German  states,  administer  their  school 
affairs  in  a  similar  manner.  A  federal  school 
commission  has  lately  been  established  in  Berlin. 

Secondary  Instruction.  Secondary  school  in- 
struction, in  Germany,aims  to  give  a  sound  basis 
for  general  scientific  and  literary  education. 
This  grade  of  education  is  directed  to  two  clearly 
distinct  ends,  that  of  a  general  philosophical 
and  liberal  education,  as  represented  in  the 
gymnasium  or  pro-gymnasium  ;  and  that  of  a 
more  practical  education,  as  represented  in  the 
real  schools,  of  the  first  orsecond  order,  and  the 
higher  burgher  schools.    A  complete  gymnasium 


3G6 


GERMANY 


has  at  least  six  grades  [sexta  being  the  lowest,  ' 
prima,  the  highest).  The  upper  grades,  from 
the  third  to  ill  ■  first, are  mostly  subdivided  into 
two  divisions  a  lower  ami  a  higher.  The  course 
of  instruction  comprises  9  years,  of  which  the 
low  aeraily  require  one  year  each;  the 

higher,  one  year  for  each  division.  A  pro-gym- 
nasium comprises  the  gymnasium  classes  from 
the   lowest    to    the    third   or  second   grade  of  a 

full  gymnasium,  with  a  course  of  five  or  six 
years.  A  complete  real  school  of  the  first  order 
has  six  grades  and  a  nine  years' course ;  one  of 
the  second  order,  six  grades  and  a  seven  years' 
cnurse.  The  higher  burgher  schools  have  only 
the  five  lower  classes  of  a  real  school.  With 
most  of  these  secondary  schools,  preparatory  de- 
partments, comprising  one.  two,  or  more  grades, 
are  connected.  Candidates  for  the  lowest  class 
of  secondary  institutions  are  generally  required 
to  have  completed  their  9th  year  of  age,  and  to 
pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  elementary 
branches  of  a  common-school  education. —  In 
Bavaria,  there  are  Strulien-Anstalten,  or  clas- 
sical gymnasia,  with  '.'  grades  and  a  course  of  !) 

years,  the  5  lower  of  which   constitute  the  Latin 

school,  and  the  1  higher,  the  gymnasium  proper. 
The  so-called  Latin  schools  are  frequently  sepa- 
rated from  the  higher  grades,  and  form  distinct 
institutions.  Real  gymnasia,  which,  in  Bavaria, 
consist  of  a  real  school  and  a  gymnasium,  have  a 
six  years'  course  of  instruction.  In  Wurtemberg, 
there  are  full  gymnasia,  founded  upon  nearly  the 

same  oasis  as  those  in  Prussia;  or  lyceums,  anal- 
ogous to  the   Prussian  pro-gymnasia;  or  Latin 

schools,  as  preparatory  schools  for  institutions  of 
a  higher  order.  iaSaxany,  Baden,  and  the  other 
( lerman  states,  secondary  institutions  of  learning 
are  generally  established  upon  the  same  basis  as  in 
Prussia.  'The  following  schedule  presents,  in  a 
general  way,  the  course  of  study  followed  in  a 
Prussian  gymnasium  (I.  designating  the  highest 
grade  ;  VX,  the  lowest) : 
Number  of  Weekly  Recitations  in  each  Grade. 


Studies.  VI, 

[on 3 

German 9 

Latin 10 

Greet — 

French — 

History    and    Geog- 
raphy.    3 

Georn  trj  and   Arith- 

I  Lo i 

Lea — 

ral    history 2 

ing 2 

Penmanship 3 


V. 

:j 

■i 

10 
3 
2 
3 


IV. 

2 
•j 

10 
6 

■> 

:i 
3 


III. 

2 

2 

10 

6 

2 

3 

3 

2 


II. 
o 
2 

10 
G 
2 


.1...  28       ;;o       ait       :id       :in       30 

This  does  not  include  Hebrew,  singing,  or  gym- 
nastics !  Tumen),  these  being  taught  out  of  the 
regular  school-hours. 

In  L874,  there  were  in  Germany,  547  gym- 
i.   pro-gymnasia,  and    real-gymnasia,    with 
6,75]  instructors  and  t08,212  pupils;  and  426 
real  and  higher  burgher  schools,  with   1,422  in- 
structors   and    79,828    pupils.      In    the    (ierinan 

Empire,  one  pupil  in  every  377  of  the  aggregate 
population  receives  a  classical,  and  one  in  every 
I 68,  a  Qon-classical,  secondary  education.     For 


the  higher  education  of  females,  there  were  in 
Germany  (in  L873)  278  schools  of  the  secondary 
order.— in  Prussia  and  Al-aee-l.orrainc.  207; 
Bavaria.  T:  Saxony,  <i:  Baden,  1":  Hesse,  !»;  An- 
halt.  5;  the  Mecklenburgs,  4.— There  are  also 
many  private  institutions  of  carat  excellence  not 
included  in  this  enumeration. 

Th.:  salaries  of  instructors  vary  greatly,  the 
lowest  salary  of  an  assistant  teat  her  being  about 
1,500  marks,  that  of  an  ordinary  teacher  from 
:;.<!ll(l  to  6,000  marks,  and  that  of  a  director  sel- 
dom exceeding 9,000  marks,  in  October,  l^T.'i.a 
conference  was  held  in  Berlin,  convened  by  the 
Prussian  minister  of  public  instruction,  to  cbsi  uss 
questions  of  secondary  instruction.  The  old 
dualism  in  this  grade  of  education  formed  an  im- 
portant subject  of  debate,  and  both  the  classical 
and  the  realistic  courses  \v<  re  fully  discussed.  'I  he 
unanimous  opinion  of  the  conference  was.  that 
neither  gymnasia  nor  real  schools  should  be  con- 
sidered special  schools,  but  that  their  common 

object  should  be  the  advancement  of  general 
education.  The  majority  of  the  meeting  seemed 
to  think  that  the  gymnasium  and  the  real  school 
should  each  pursue  its  own  way.  without  inter- 
fering with  the  other.  On  the  question  of  bi- 
furcation, opinions  were  much  divided,  but  the 
opinion    generally    prevailed    that    none   of    the 

existing  secondary  schools  could  be  considered 
superfluous.  -  In  regard  to  the  question  whether 
real-school  graduates  should  be  admitted  to  the 
universities,  the  prevailing  opinion  was.  that 
such  graduates  should  be  admitted  according 
to  the  existing  regulations,  but  only  to  those 
state  examinations  [Staats-JExamina)  which  were 
required  tor  obtaining  the  position  of  teacher 
of  mathematics,  natural  sciences,  or  modern  lan- 
guages. Many  other  points  of  importance  re- 
lating to  secondary  education  were  exhaustively 
discussed;  and  Minister  Fafk,  in  closing  the  con- 
ference, said  that  the  discussions  of  the  meeting 
would  be  taken  into  careful  consideration  by  the 
ministry  of  public  instruction. 

Teachers'  Seminaries.—  No  class  of  the  edu- 
cational institutions  of  Germany  has  won  more 
general  admiration  than  the  teachers' seminaries. 
Gradually  developed  in  Prussia,  through  the 
efforts  of  1'iancke.  Becker,  and  their  successors, 

they  have    now  become   the   training  schools  in 

which  nearly  all  the  teachers  of  the  elementary 
schools  receive  their  education.  All  political 
and  even  all  religious  parties,  in  Germany,agree 
in  attributing  the  highest  importance  to  the 
professional  training  of  elementary  teachers  in 
these  seminaries  :  and  the  appreciation  in  which 

they  arc  held  abroad,  is  best  attested  by  the 
fact  that  the  system  has  spread  from  Prussia 
over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  the  civil- 
ized world.  (See  Teachers' Seminaries.)  The 
age  required  for  admission  to  these  schools  now 

varies  from  the  I  It li  to  the  lliih  year.  Admis- 
sion is  every-where  made  contingent  upon  the 
result  of  a  rigid  examination,  at  which,  in  many 

eases,  a    school    councilor  |  N<//»/Vo/// '  is   present. 

The  candidates  receive  the  preparation  needed 
for   the  examination   cither   by  private  instruc- 


GERMANY 


36' 


tinii.  or  in  special  preparatory  schools,  called 
Proseminarien  or Praparandien.  In  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony,  these  preparatory  schools  were, 
in   L874,  organically  united  with  the  seminaries, 

which  dow  have  six  classes.  In  Prussia,  the 
course  of  instinct  ion.  as  well  as  the  examination 
of  candidates, has  been  re-organized  by  theGen- 
eral  Regulations  |  Attgerm  ine  Bestimmungi  n 
Oct.  1"'..  L872.  According  to  these  regulations, 
the  royal  seminaries  have  three  classes. each  with 
an  annual  course  of  instruction.  The  two  lower 
classes  are  instructed  in  pedagogics  (2  hours  a 
week),  religion  (1  h.).  German  language  (5  b.), 
arithmetic  (•">  lu.  geometry  (2  h.),  natural  sci- 
ence (4  h.),  geography  (2  h.i,  history  (2  h.i.  mu- 
sic (5  h.),  drawing  (2  h.i.  penmanship  (2  h.  in 
the  lowest.  1  h.  in  the  middle  class),  gymnastic 
exereises  (2  h.),  either  French  or  Latin,  accord- 
ing to  the  option  of  the  pupils  (3  h.).  The 
course  of  studies  in  the  highest  class  drops  pen- 
manship, and  devotes  the  same  amount  of  time  to 
pedagogics,  history,  music,  and  gymnastic  ex- 
ercises, but  reduces  the  time  allowed  for  other 
subjects  (religion,  2  h. ;  mother-tongue,  2  h. ; 
arithmetic  and  geometry,  1  h.:  natural  science. 
2  h.:  geography,  I  h.;  drawing,  1  h.;  French  or 
Latin,  2  h.).  In  some  of  these  subjects,  the 
course  of  studies  is  now  more  comprehensive 
than  formerly.  Thus,  the  instruction  required  in 
pedagogics,  is  henceforth,  to  embrace  the  most 
important  points  of  psychology.  Instruction  in 
German  must  illustrate  the  divisions  of  lyric, 
epic,  didactic,  and  dramatic  poetry.  The  pri- 
vate reading  of  the  pupils  must  especially  be 
devoted  to  the  classic  writers  of  the  last  three 
centuries.  In  addition  to  the  history  of  Ger- 
many and  Prussia,  the  pupils  receive  a  course  of 
Greek  and  Roman  history. — The  course  of  in- 
struction in  the  seminaries,  in  the  other  German 
states  (also  in  Austria),  is,  substantially,  the 
same.  In  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  a  new  course 
of  studies  was  introduced  in  1874,  which  makes 
the  stu  ly  of  Latin  a  part  of  the  regular  course. 
The  other  German  states  provide  for  no  in- 
struction in  a  foreign  language;  and  Austria 
provides  for  French  only.  —  The  number  of 
teachers'  seminaries,  iii  L875,  was  (according  to 
Brachelli,  Die  Staaien  Europa's,  1875),  in 
Prussia,  101,  and  in  the  other  states,  73.  The 
total  number  of  pupils  in  the  Prussian  semi- 
naries, in  May,  1875,  was  6,456,  being  1,670  more 
than  in  1*74. 

The  Universities.  —  The  following  list  gives 
the  namesof  all  the  universities  of  ( rermany,  and 
of  the  German  part  of  Austria,  arranged  ac- 
cording  to  the  chronological  order  of  their  foun- 
dation: Prague  (1348),  Vienna  (1365),  Eeidel- 
_  (1386),  Cologne  (1388,  discontinued  in 
1798),  Erfurt  (1392  -1816),  Leipsic  (1  t09),  Ro- 
le 1 1  U9),Greifswald(l  156),  Freiburg  (1  157), 
[ngolstadl  (1472,  transferred  to  Landshut,  in 
L802,  and  to  .Munich,  in  1826),  Treves  (1472 
—1798),  Tubingen  .1177:.  Mayence  (1477— 
1790),  Wittenberg  L 502,  transferred  to  Halle,  in 
1817),  Frankfort  on  the  Oder  (1506,  transferred 
to  Breslau,  in  L81  1  I,  Marburg  |  L527),  Konigal 


(1544),    Dillingen   1 15-19— 1804),  Jena    (15J 
EJehnstadt  (1576 — L809),  Altorf,  near   Nurem 
berg  L809),Olmute(1581      L85!   A\  iirtz- 

burgl  L582  ,Herboru(1584     L817),Gratz(1586), 
Giessen  (1601  .  Paderborn    L615     L803),  Stadt- 
hagen  (1619     21),  Rinteln  (1621      L810),  Salz- 
burg   (1622     L811),    Osnabriick    (1630     L63 
Miinsto  r  i  L631 .  in   L818   transferred   to   Bon 
Bamberg  (1648—1804),    Duisburg  (1655—1802 
Kiel  (1665),  fnnspruck  (1672),  Lingen  (1685 
L819),  Halle  (1694),  Breslau  (1702),  Fulda  (1734 
—1805),   Gbttingen    (1737),    Erlangen    (1743  . 
Biitzow    (1760-  Berlin    (1809),     Bonn 

L818),  Munich  (1826),  Strasbourg  (1872).   The 
early  history  of  the  German  universities 

in  its  essential  features,  with  that  of  the  uni- 
versities of  other  nations.  (See  I  'm\m.  lty.)  At 
first,  a  papal  decree  was  regarded  as  indispen- 
sable for  their  establishment;  but,  later,  they 
were  established  upon  imperial  authority,  with 
or  without  papal  sanction;  and.  in  1495,  the 
emperor  Maximilian  granted  to  every  elector 
the  right  to  establish  one  in  his  dominions. 
The  original  classification  of  the  students  was 
according  to  nationalities,  each  of  which  elected 
a  procurator;  but.  simultaneously,  there  existed 
an  organization  according  to  the  four  facul- 
ties. The  rector  of  the  university  was.  at  first, 
elected  from  the  philosophical  faculty,  but. 
soon   after,    in     turn   from    each    of    the    four 

faculties.     Every  faculty  elected  a   dean   fr 

the  lecturing  magistri,  who,  in  their  turn, 
formed  the  faculty  council. — The  students  of 
Germany,  like  those  of  other  countries,  for- 
merly gave  a  great  deal  of  trouble  by  their  riot- 
ous and  immoral  conduct,  as  well  as  by  some 
abuses  to  which  the  younger  students  wen 
subjected  by  the  older.  The  student  was  intro- 
duced to  university  life  by  a  singula]  i  eremony, 
called  the  beania,  or  deposition,  which  con- 
sisted of  a  series  of  painful  castigations.  This 
habit  gave  way  to  the  still  more  absurd  penned- 
ism,  which  kept  the  freshman  in  a  state  of  hu- 
miliating servitude  to  the  senior  students.  The 
final  suppression  of  pennolism  and  of  the  large 
students'  associations,  by  the  united  action  of 
the  universities  and  governments,  was  attended 
with  considerable  public  disturbances,  and  led  to 
the  formation  of  secret  orders  or  associations 
[Landsmannschaften  or  Corps),  which  tried  to 
perpetuate  pennalism,  or  the  dependence  ol  the 

younger  upon  the  older  students  in  a  modified 
form.  Each  association  elected,  for  the  term  of 
one  year,  a  senior,  and  the  convention  of  seniors 
[Seniorenconvent)  represented  the  common  in- 
terests of  these  associations.  A  strong  esprit 
corps   was.    in    this    way.    created    and    fostered 

among  the  students,  and  many  habits  peculiar 
to  these  German  institutions  were  developed. 

Among   the  worst   of   these  habits   was  dueling, 

which,  in  spiie  of  all  the  laws  against  it. has  main- 
tained itself,  though  not  to  the  same  extern 
formerly,  to  the  present  day.  The  awakening  of  the 
German  people,  which  attended  and  followed  the 
national  war  against  Napoleon.  led.  in  1815,  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Ilnrschenschqft,  an  as- 


GERMANY 


sociation  of  students,  for  promoting  the  moral 
and  intellectual  condition  of  their  country. 

The  modem  German  universities  have  main- 
tained many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  earlier 
limes,  at  least  iii  their  general  organization  and 
administration,  while,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the 
number  and  quality  of  the  studies  pursued 
widely  differ  from  the  original  .standard.  The 
leading  characteristics  of  a  larger  German  uni- 
versity an>  represented  in  the  following  account. 

A  university  consists  of  the  corporation  of  ordi- 
nary and  extraordinary  professors,  licensed  pri- 
vate lecturers  [PrivalrDocenten),  and  the  im- 
matriculated  students,  besides  the  necessary 
officials  and  their  adjuncts.  The  studies  pur- 
sued are  generally  classified  into  four  grand  sub- 
divisions, or  faculties:  the  theological,  the  juris- 
tical, the  medical,  and  the  philosophical :  the  last 
embracing,  besides  mental  philosophy,  mathemat- 
ics, the  natural  sciences,  philology,  history,  and 
cameralistics,  or  political  and  international  econ- 
omy. Bach  faculty  forms  an  independent  sub- 
division of  the  university.  The  general  adminis- 
tration of  a  university  is  intrusted  to  a  select 
body  of  professors,  called  the  Senate,  presided 
over  by  the  rector.  The  relative  rank  of  the 
professors  is  determined  according  to  seniority 
in  office,  like  that  of  an  ordinary  professor  at  any 

university.      The   several    faculties   are   officially 

repres  snte  I  by  the  body  of  ordinary  professors  of 
each  discipline.     In  a  wid  •.  the  extra- 

ordinary pi  and  prlvatim  docentes  are 

also  considered  members  of  their  respective 
faculties.  The  faculties  are  obliged  to  exercise 
a  certain  supervision  over  the  attendance  and 
conduct  of  the  students  inscribed  upon  their 
respective  faculty  rolls.  Each  faculty  is  respon- 
sible for  the  completeness  of  the  instruction 
offered    to   students,    within    the    limits   of    the 

faculty  studies,  inasmuch  as  three  (for students 

of  medicine,  four)  years  must  comprise  a  full 
curriculum  of  the  main  studies  pertaining  to 
each  discipline. — -Each  faculty  annually  elects 
a  dean  for  the  administration  of  LtS  special 
affairs.  The  dean  is  the  president  and  chief 
executive  officer  of  his  faculty.  The  rector  and 
the  senate  are  elected  annually  by  a  plenum 
(full  meeting)    of    the  ordinary  professors.     The 

senate  usually  consists  of  the  rector,  his  im- 
mediate predecessor  in  office,  the  faculty  dean.-, 
and  five  members  elected  from  the  number  of 
ordinary  professors.    This  body,  under  the  pres 

idency  of  the  rector,  exercises  supreme  author- 
ity in  all  matters  concerning  the  university  as  a 

whole,  and  the  highest  disciplinary  powerrel- 
ative  to  students.  The  rector  is  the  highesl 
functionary,  and    the    foremosl    representative, 

of  a  university  in  all  its  external  relations. 
In  the  discharge  of  academic  jurisdiction,  a 
syndic  is  added  to  the  senate,  who   has  the  rank 

of  an  ordinary  professor.  The  syndic  is  the 
professional  adviser  to  rector  and  senate  in  all 

questions  relating  to  statute  law  or    tO    the  state 

constitution.     Academic  jurisdiction   is  vested 
in   the   rector,    the  Byndic,  or   the  full   meet 
ing  of  the  Benate,  according  to  the  character  of 


the  offense.  Students  are  admitted  to  the  uni- 
versity and  academic  rights  by  the  act  of  matric- 
ulation. If  a  native,  the  student  must  produce 
a  certificate  of  graduation  from  a  gymnasium; 
if  he  is  a  foreigner,  a  certificate  is  required  tes- 
tifying to  his  good  moral  character.  By  the  act 
of  matriculation,  the  student  acquires  all  the 
academic  rights  and  privileges  granted  to  stu- 
dents by  statute  law.  Disciplinary  measures  and 
punishments,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
offense,  are  a  private  reprimand  by  the  rector, 
a  public  reprimand  before  the  senate,  incarcera- 
tion, warning  of  the  consilium  abeundi  (advice 
to  leave),  the  consilium  abeundi  proper  (tem- 
porary removal,  mostly  for  one  term,  or  six 
months),  and,  lastly,  the  relegatio  (expulsion),  or 
the  relegatio  cum  infamia  (dishonorable  expul- 
sion). Students  expelled  cum  infamia  cannot  be 
admitted  to  any  other  university.  The  right  to 
lecture  is  granted  only  to  the  appointed  pro! 
ors,  ordinary  or  extraordinary,  and  authorized 
private  lecturers  (Privat-Docenten),  who  must 
have  attained  the  degree  of  Doctor;  or,  in  the 
theological  faculty,  the  degree  of  Licentiate.  All 
are  carefully  excluded  from  the  privilege. of 
hearing  lectures,  who  have  not  attained  the 
necessary  degree  of  mental  or  moral  maturity, 
more  especially  under-graduates  of  gymnasia,  and 
all  who  have  forfeited  their  matriculation.  1  i 

ures  for  the  succeeding  semes!  publicly 

announced  before  the  termination  of  the  current 
semester.  The  first  cours  ares  commei 

in  the  fall  of  the  year,  at  about  the  middle  of 
<  tctober.  and  terminates  towards  the  latter  part 
of  .March:  the  second  course  commences  in 
beginning  of  April,  and  terminates  in  the  latter 
part  of  August.  At  the  beginning  of  IsTT.  the 
German  Empire  had  20  compute  universities, of 
which  9  were  in  Prussia,  3,  in  Bavaria,  '2  in 
Baden,  1  each  in  Saxony.  Wurtemberg,  lb 
Mecklenburg, Saxe  Weimar. and  Alsace- Lorraine. 
The  number  of  professors  and  students  at  each 

of  these  universities,  in  L876,  was  as  follows: 


NAME 


Berlin    Prussia] , 

Bonn         •■         

rii  slau     "        

Erlangen   Bavaria  

Freiburg    Baden  

<  liessen    I  [esse , 

Ingen    Prussia 

( .  ri  Ifswald       ■•        

HaUe  ••        

i  [eidelberg    Baden  

sa\,-  Weimar 

Prussia  

I  I  migsberg   (Prussia) 

i  .eipsic    Saxonj  i 

Marburg    Prussia) 

M  unich    Bavaria) 

Rostock    Mecklenburg 

Strasbourg    Usace-Lorralne). 

WUrtemberg 

Wurtzburg   Bavaria  


Prod 


Students 

incl.  of  nou- 

matrii  ulated 

hearers) 


107 

4,106 

100 

107 

1.111 

64 

428 

:,:; 

294 

54 

359 

116 

1.006 

57 

469 

96 

888 

488 

7:t 

Gl 

215 

83 

C15 

166 

3.032 

66 

411 

in; 

1 .232 

89 

153 

90 

707 

84 

07 

1,019 

Each  of  these  universities  has  the  four  time- 
honored  faculties.    Bonn,  Breslau,  and  Tubingen 

have  each  two  theological  faculties,  one  Catholic 
and  one   Protestant.     Munich,  "Wurtzburg,  and 


GERMANY 


369 


Freiburg  have  only  a  faculty  of  Catholic  theol 
ogy;  and  each  of  the  others,  one  of  Protestant 
theology.  In  addition  to  the  four  usual  faculties, 
thciv  is.  in  Munich,  Wurtzburg,  and  Tubingen, 
one  of  political  economy;  and  in  Tubingen,  one 
of  natural  sciences.  The  academy  of  Minister, 
which  lias  only  two  faculties  (Catholic  theology 
and  philosophy)  is  also  classed  among  the  uni- 
versities. At  the  Swiss  universities  of  Bern, 
Basel,  and  Zurich,  at  the  Russian  university  of 
Dorpat,  and  at  the  Austrian  universities  of 
Czernowitz,  Grata,  Innspruck,  Prague,  and 
Vienna.  the  German  language  is  exclusively  or 
predominantly  in  use. 

Professional  and  Technical  Instruction. — In 
18".*),  there  were,  in  Germany,  10  technical,  or 
polytechnic, high  schools;  namely,  (1)  Berlin,  the 
Bau-Akademie  (high  school  for  architecture); 
(2)  Berlin,  the  Gewerbe-Akademie  (departments 
of  machines  and  engineering,  chemistry,  mining, 
and  naval  construction)  ;  (3)  Hanover,  prepara- 
tory and  polytechnic  school,  with  24  ordinary.  .'! 
extraordinary  instructors,  6  assistants,  and  633 
students);  (4)  Aix-kt-Chapelle,  general  prepara- 
tory school  and  special  departments  of  architect- 
ure, engineering,  machines  and  mechanical  tech- 
nics, chemical  technics,  and  mining,  with  20  or- 
dinary, 2  extraordinary,  15  assistant  instructors, 
and  467  students;  (5)  Munich,  general  introduc- 
tory school,  and  departments  for  engineering, 
architecture,  mechanical  technics,  chemical  tech- 
nics, and  agriculture,  with  21  ordinary,  5  extra- 
ordinary, 32  assistant  instructors,  9  private  lect- 
urers, and  1053  students;  (6)  Dresden,  general  in- 
troductory school;  departments  of  engineering, 
mechanics,  architecture;  chemical  technics,  math- 
ematics, and  natural  sciences,  with  20  ordinary, 
5  extraordinary,  9  assistant  instructors,  3  private 
lecturers,  and  3GG  students  ;  (7)  Stuttgart,  de- 
partments of  architecture,  engineering,  machine 
building,  chemical  technics,  mathematics,  natural 
sciences,  with  23  ordinary,  25  assistant,  11  private 
instructors,  and  537  students;  (8)  Carter uhe,  de- 
partments of  mathematics,  engineering,  machine 
building  mechanical  technics,  architecture, chem- 
istry and  chemical  technics,  and  forestry,  with 
35  ordinary,  1  extraordinary,  10  assistant  in- 
structors, L  private  lecturer,  and  G10  students: 
(!))  Darmstadt,  a  general  preparatory  school  and 
departments  of  architecture,  engineering,  ma- 
chine building,  chemical  technics,  mathematics, 
and  natural  sciences,  with  28  ordinary  and  4  as- 
sistant instructors,  and  L79  students;  (10)  Bruns- 
wick, a  general  preparatory  school  of  arts  and  sci- 
ences; departments  of  architecture,  engineering, 
machine  building,  chemical  technics,  pharmacy, 
and  forestry,  with  2  1  ordinary  and  5  assistant 
instructors. and  1  53  st  udents.  There  are  also  tech- 
nical academies  at  Cassel,  Nienburg,  and  other 
places.  ( >f  technical  schools,  there  were,  in  1 875, in 
Prussia,  32 provincial  technical  schools  (Gewerbe- 
Schulen)  ;  in  Bavaria,  36  (including  commercial 
and  agricultural  schools);  in  Saxony,  9j  and  in 
Saxe  Coburg-Gotha,  3. 

Scientific  Instruction. —  Military  Academies. — 
There  are  schools  of  military  science,  especially 
21 


for  the  education  of  general-staff  officers,  at  Ber- 
lin and  Munich;  the  imperial  naval  academy  and 
school  at  Kiel;  and,  for  the  education  of  army 
officers,  the  combined  artillery  and  military  en 
gineering  schools  at  Berlin  and  Munich,  the  war 
schools  at  Potsdam,  Erfurt,  Neisse,  Engers,<  lassel, 

Hanover.  Anclani,  Met/.,  and  Munich,  and  tin' 
several  cadet  corps  in  different  states:  also  the 
military  surgical  institute,  and  veterinary  school 
at  Berlin.  There  are  numerous  military  schools  for 
non-commissioned  officers  throughout  the  Ger- 
man states.  —  Veterinary  academies  are  estab- 
lished at  Berlin,  Munich,  and  Hanover;  acad- 
emies of  forestry,  at  Neustadt-Eberswalde,  Mu- 
nich, Tharandt,  Hohenheim,  and  Aschaffenburg; 
mining  academies, at  Freibergand  Clausthal 
sides  departments  for  mining  engineering  at  the 
polytechnic  schools  at  Berlin  and  Aix-la-(  Ihapelle; 
agricultural  academies,  at  Berlin,  Bofgeisberg, 
Gottingen,  Eldena  (near  Greifswald),  Proskau 
(near  Oppeln),  Poppelsdorf  (near  Bonn),  Tha- 
randt, Hohenheim  (near  Stuttgart), and  Weiben- 
stephan ;  and  pomological  institute*  at  Proskau 
and  Geisenheim.  Schools  of  navigation  exist  at 
Memel,  Pillau,  Dantaic,  Grabow  (Stettin),  Barth, 
I  Stralsund,  Altona,  Flensburg,  Apenrade,  Geeste- 
nxiind,  Leer,  Papenburg,  Emden,  and  Timmel; 
also  7  preparatory  nautical  schools.  There  are  con- 
servatories of  music,  at  Berlin.  Munich,  and  nu- 
merous other  cities;  and  commercial  colleges  ( 1  5 
at  Dantzic,  Berlin,  Breslau,  Dresden,  Leipsic  (2), 
I  hemnitz,  Zwickau,  Gera,  Liibcck,  Osnabriick, 
Hildeshcim,  Hanover,  Munich,  and  Nuremberg. 
— The  institutions  for  special  instruction  arc  the 
following:  (1)  for  the  deaf  and  dumb;  in  Prus- 
sia, 37;  Bavaria,  12;  Saxony,  3:  Wurtemberg,  1: 
Baden,  2 ;  Hesse,  2;  Mecklenburg,  Oldenburg. 
Saxe  Weimar,  Anhalt,  Brunswick,  Saxe  <  loburg- 
Gotha,  Saxe  Meiningen,  Reuss,  and  Hamburg, 
each  1;  (2)  for  the  blind:  in  Prussia.  1 5;  Bavaria, 
3;  Saxony,  2 ;  Wurtemberg,  2;  Baden,  Hesse, 
Mecklenburg,  each  1;  other  states,  G;  in  all,  31. 

Educational  J' uhlicatic.-is. — In  1873,  there 
were  published  in  the  German  empire  84  papers 
devoted  to  education  (Prussia.  41 ;  other  German 
states,  43). — See  Sciimih.  Encyclopddie,  articles 
Preussen,  Baueru,  Sachscu,  Wurtemberg,  Han- 
nover, Baden,  etc.;  Rauher,  Geschichie  der 
Pddagogik  (Engl,  trans,  by  Barnard);  Schmidt, 
Geschicnte  der  Pddagogik]  Barnard,  National 

Education,  vol.  I.;    Circulars  of  Information  of 

the  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  2  (Washington. 
L874);  Wdsse,  Verordnungen  una  Gesetzefur 
die  hd'hern  Schulen  in  Preussen.  The  Pada- 
gogischer  Jahresbericht,  edited  by  Dittes  (vol. 
xxviii..  Leipsic.  1876,  embracing  the  year  1875  . 
and  the  Ghronik  des  Volksschulwesens, edited  by 
Seypfarth  (vol.  xi.,  Gotha,  1876,  embracing  the 
year  1875),  give,  from  year  to  year,  a  very  full 
account  of  the  progress  of  education  in  all  the 
German  states.  The  fullest  statistical  account 
of  secondary  instruction  is  given  in  MusHACKE, 
Deutscher  Schul-Kalender  (vol.  sxv.,  Leipsic, 
1  376;  edited  by  .Icnnei:  and  the  fullest  account 
of  the  German  universities,  in  Deutsches  akade- 
misches  Jala-buck  (vol.  in,  Leips.,  lb7G). 


370 


GESNER 


GIFTS 


GESNER,  Johann  Matthias,  a  German 
educator,  born  April  !•..  L691  ;  died  A.ug.  3., 
1761.  Ilf  studied  at  Jena,  and  after  holding 
several  minor  positions,  became,  in  L730,  rector 
of  the  celebrated  Thomas  School,  in  Leipsie. 
This  lie  found  in  a  very  low  condition,  both  in 
respect  to  studies  and  discipline;  but,  in  a  few- 
years,  he  succeeded  in  restoring  its  former  repu- 
tation. In  L734,  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  new 
university  of  Gottingen,  where,  in  the  position  of 

professor  of  ancient  literature,  lie  exerted  great 
influence  upon  the  progress  of  philosophy  in 
Germany,  and  contributed  to  a  thorough  reform 
of  tlie  literary  institutions  of  a  higher  grade,  lie 
was  intrusted  with  the  establishment  of  the  first 
philological  seminary,  and  was  appointed  in- 
spector of  all  the  Hanoverian  schools.-  two 
offices  for  which  his  former  labors  eminently  fitted 
him.  In  1  7")".  he  drew  up  the  new  school  - 
illations,  in  which  he  embodied  the  experience-,  ol 
his  life  as  a  teacher,  and  the  results  of  a  mature 
study  of  the  proper  organization  of  classical 
schools.  He  favored  the  views  of  Ratich  (4.  v.), 
Comenius  (q.  v.),  and  Locke  (q.v.),  as  to  the 
best  method  of  facilitating  the  study  of  languages 
and  making  it  attractive.  Notwithstanding  his 
great  official  industry,  he  wrote  a  large  number 
of  important  works  on  pedagogy  and  philology, 
besides  publishing  valuable  editions  of  the  clas- 
sics.— See  J.  .M.  Gesner,  Educational  Views  in 
Barnard's  Journal  of  Educ  iii<>n. 

GIFTS,  Kindergarten,  the  term  used  by 
I'Yoehel  to  designate  the  apparatus  devised  by 
him  for  kindergarten  instruction,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  not  used  by  the  teacher  but  given  to  the 
children,  as  the  material  for  interesting  and  in- 
structive occupation,  by  the  manipulation  of 
which  their  faculties  are  unfolded  in  accordance 
with  the  developing  method  (q.v.).  These  gifts 
are  grouped  in  sets, numbered  from  1  to  20, and 
include  the  following,  of  which,  however,  Nos.  8 
to  20  did  not  originate  with  Froebel  directly: 
il  1  Six  soft  balls  of  various  colors,  the  object  of 

the  use  of  which  is  to  teach  color  'primary  and 
secondary  Land  direction  |  foiw  -inland  backward. 
right  and  left,  up  and  down):  also  to  train  the 
eye.  and  to  exercise  the  hands,  arms,  and  feel  in 
various  plays.  (2)  SpJiere,  cube,  and  cylinder, 
designed  to  teach  form,  by  directing  the  atten- 
tion of  the  child  to  resemblances  and  differ- 
ences in  objects.  This  is  done  by  pointing  out. 
explaining,  and  counting  the  sides,  edges,  and 
corners  of  the  cube,  and  by  showing  how  it  dif- 
fers, in  these  respects,  from  the  sphere  and  cylin- 
der.   The  manipulation  by  the  child  should  of 

COUr3e.  precede  this  demonstration  by  the  teacher. 
The  child's  self-activity  will  prompl  it  to  place 
1I1  -c  forms  in  various  positions  and  combina- 
tions, so  as  to  realize  in  its  conceptions  every  thing 
that  is  analogous  or  dissimilar  in  them.  (3)  \ 
large  cube  dn  ided  into  eighl  equal  cubes, the  ob- 
ject being  to  teach  both  form  and  number, also 
ivea  rudimental  idea  of  fractions.  (4)  A  large 
cube  divided  into  eight  oblong  blocks,  designed 
to  teach  number  and  a  simple  variety  of  form 
(cube  and   parallelopipi  >)     \   large  cube 


divided  into  27  equal  cubes,  three  of  the  latter 
being  subdivided  into  half  cubes,  and  three  others 
into  quarter  cubes  (forming  triangular  prisms). 
This  is  a  further  continuation  and  complement 
of  (3),  but  affording  much  ampler  means  of 
combination    both   as   to  form   and    number. 

(6)  A.  large  cube  so  divided  as  to  consist  of  IS 
w  hole  oblong  blocks,  three  similar  blocks  divided 
lengthwise,  and  six  divided  breadthwise. — a  still 
further  continuation  of  the  ideas  involved  in  (3). 

(7)  Triangular  and  quadrangular  tablets  of 
polished  wood,  affording  the  means  of  further 
exercise  in  reversing  the  position  of  tonus  and 
combining  them  ;  and  presenting,  in  addition. 
illustrations  of  plane  surfaces,  instead  of  solids, 
as  in  the  previous  gifts.  'I  his  arrangement, 
placing  the  surfaces  after  the  solids,  recognizes 

an  important    principle   of   education,     that   we 

should  pass  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract 
-  Form),  the  square  being  a  side  of  the  cube, 

and  a  triangle  deduced  from  the  prism.  (8)  Sticks 
forlaying, — wooden  sticks  about  13  inches  long, 
to  be  (ait  into  various  lengths  by  the  teacher  or 
pupil,  as  occasion  may  require.  These  sticks. 
like  most  of  the  previous  gifts,  are  designed  to 
teach  numerical  proportions.  The  multiplication 
table  may  be  practically  learned  by  means  of 
this  gift.  The  forms  of  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, and  the  Roman  and  Arabic  numerals,  may 
also  be  learned.  (9)  Rings  fur  ring-laying, 
consisting  of  whole  ami  half  rings  of  various 
sizes,  in  wire,  for  forming  figures;  designed  to 

develop   further   ideas    of    form,  also  to  afford   a 

means  for  developing  the  constructiveness  of  the 
pupils,  and  practice  in  composing  simple  de- 
signs. (10)  Drawing  slates  and  paper,  consist- 
ing of  slates  ruled  in  squares,  and  paper  ruled 
in  squares,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the 
pupil  to  draw  or  copy  simple  figures,  in  a 
methodical  manner,  the  ruling  aiding  them  in 
the  adjustment  of  proportions.  (Ill  Perforat- 
ing paper,  ruled  in  squares  on  one  side  only, 
with  perforating  needles,  affording  more  ad- 
vanced practice  in  producing  forms,  and  execut- 
ing simple  designs.  |  L2  Embroidering  material, 
io  lie  used  for  transferring  the  designs  executed 
on  the  perforating  paper,  by  embroidering  them 
with  colored  worsted  or  silk  on  card  board. 
(13)  Paper  for  cutting:  squares  of  paper  arc 
folded,  «ut  according  to  certain  rules. and  formed 

into  6gUres.  The  child's  inclination  for  using 
the  scissors  is  thus  ingeniously  turned  to  account. 

and  made  to  produce  very  gratifying  results. 
II  Weaving  paper:  strips  of  colored  paper 
are,  by  means  of  a  steel  or  wooden  needle  of 
peculiar  construction,  woven  into  a  differently 
colore. I  sheet  of  paper,  w  hich  is  cut  into  Strips 
throughout  its  entire  surface. except  a  margin  at 
each  end  to  keep  the  strips  in  their  places.  A 
very  great  variety  of  figures  is  thus  produced. 
and  the  inventive  powers  of  the  child  are  con- 
stantly broughl  into  requisition.  (15)  Plaiting 
material,  including  sets  of  Bats  for  interlacing 
so  as  1.1  form  geometrical  and  fancy  figures. 
(16)  Jointed  slats  (gonigraphs),  for  forming 
angles  and  geometrical  figures.  (See  Com.,!,  vph). 


(JIUARD 


GLOIJK 


37] 


(17)  Paper  for  intertwining:  paper  strips  of 
various  colors,  eight  or  i>'ii  inches  long,  folded 
lengthwise,  used  to  represent  a  variety  of  geo- 
metrical and  fancy  figures,  by  plaiting  them  ac- 
cording to  certain  rules.  (18)  Paper  for  fold- 
ing, consisting  of  Bquare,  rectangular,  and  tri- 
angular pieces,  with  which  variously  shaped  ob- 
jects may  be  formed.  (19)  Material  for  peas 
work,  consisting  of  wires  of  various  lengths 
pointed  at  the  ends,  which  are  passed  through 
peas,  that  have  been  soaked  in  water  for  six  or 
eight  hours;  these  are  then  used  to  imitate 
various  objects  and  geometrical  figures.  Cork 
cubes  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  peas,  as 
being  more  convenient.  (20)  Material  for 
modeling:  modeling  knives,  of  wood,  and  model- 
ing boards,  by  means  of  which  various  forms  are 
modeled  in  bees-wax,  clay,  putty,  or  some  other 
soft  substance.  -These  gifts  thus  represent  every 
kind  of  technical  activity,  from  the  mere  collec- 
tion of  the  raw  material  to  the  delicate  processes 
of  design  as  well  as  plastic  art.  They  are  designed 
to  develop  not  only  the  constructive  ability  of 
the  pupil,  through  his  natural  impulse  to  activ- 
ity, and  by  the  exercise  of  the  faculty  of  con- 
ception, so  characteristic  of  childhood,  but  by 
their  countless  combinations  of  color  and  form 
to  lay  the  foundation  for  a  complete  develop- 
ment of  the  esthetic  nature.  They  address,  at 
once,  his  intellect,  his  emotions,  and  his  physical 
activities  ;  while,  as  the  child  works  out  the  re- 
sults himself,  he  gains  confidence  in  his  own 
ability  to  surmount  obstacles,  and  thus  learns  an 
enduring  lesson  of  self-reliance.  Kindergarten 
gifts  and  occupation  material  suitable  for  schools 
or  families,  are  put  up  in  sets  and  sold  in 
boxes,  convenient,  for  use. —  See  A.  Dor.vi,  Tlie 
Kindergarten  (Xew  York);  E.  P.  Peabody, 
Kindergarten  Guide  (New  York,  1869)  ;  H. 
Hoffmann.  Kindergarten  Toys,  and  how  to  use 
them  (New  York)  ;  Arc;.  Kceuler,  Der  Kinder- 
garten in  seinem  Wesen  dargesteUt  (X.  Y.);  and 
Die  Praxis  des  Kindergartens  (Weimar)  :  M. 
II.  Kriege,  Friedrich  Froebel  (X.  Y.,  1876). 

GIRARD,  Gregoire,  a  Swiss  educator, 
born  Dec.  17.,  1763; died  March  6.,  1850.  lie 
entered  the  Franciscan  order  in  his  .sixteenth 
year,  studied  theology  in  Wurtzburg,  and  after 
b  iug  ordained  as  priest,  held  several  positions  as 
a  teacher.  He  paid  special  attention  to  the 
common-school  system,  which  in  his  native  canton 
of  Fribourg  was  in  a  poor  condition;  and  he 
drew  up  a  plan  for  the  re-organization  of  the 
pnlilic-school  system  of  all  Switzerland,  which, 
however,  was  not  adopted  by  the  federal  authori- 
ties. In  1804,  he  returned  to  Fribourg  to  take 
Hiarge  of  the  schools  of  that  city.  He  remained 
in  that  position  up  to  I  su:5,  when  he  resigned 
in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  the  church 
authorities.  From  1827  to  L834,  he  was  pro- 
ior  of  philosophy  in  Lucerne;  but,  after  the 
jatterdate,he  lived  in  retirement  in  his  monastery 
in  Fribourg.  His  administration  of  the  schools 
of  Fribourg  attracted  the  attention  of  many  of 
die  friends  of  education  throughout  Europe,  lie 
paid  particular  attention  to  the  teaching  of  re- 


ligion and  language.  In  the  former,  he  ignored 
the  docti  particular  denominations,  and 

favored  general  instruction  in  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  <  bxistian  religion.  I!i  views 
on  this  subject  are  laid  down  in  the  Premieres 
notions  de  religion,  which  be  declared  was  not 
a  catechism,  but  an  introduction  to  a  catechism. 
He  also  embraced    Pestalozzi's   views   on    the 

teaching  of  languages,  making   the  study   of  the 

mother  tongue  the  basis  of  all  instruction.  Father 
Girard  favored  very  much  the  system  of  mutual 
instruction  as  practiced  by  Dr.  Bell  (q.  v.)  and 
Joseph  Lancaster  (q.  v.)  ;  indeed,  he  is  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  that  system  in  Switzerland. 
As  an  illustration  of  its  efficacy,  be  said  that 
••when  he  met  with  difficulty  in  explaining  anj 
word  or  subject  to  a  child,  he  often  called  in  a 
boy  more  advanced  to  aid  him,  and  usually  found 
him  to  succeed  entirely,  even  when  all  his  own 
efforts  had  failed."  Set-  Xavii.i.k.  Notice  biogra- 
phique  surle  I'.  Girard  (<  Seneva,  1850);  <  Iir  \i;i>. 
The  Mother  Tongue,  Engl,  trans,  i  Lond.,  1847). 
GIRLS,  Education  of.     See  Female  Em  - 

CATION. 

GLOBE,  Artificial  (Latin,  globus),  a  hol- 
low sphere,  made  of  metal,  plaster,  or  pasteboard, 
used  as  a  model  of  the  earth,  and  having  deline- 
ated upon  it  all  the  various  natural  and  political 
divisions  of  the  terrestrial  surface,  together  with 
the  circles,  etc.,  used  in  mathematical  geography. 
Through  its  center,  runs  an  iron  axis  the  two 
ends  of  which  project,  and  are  fastened  to  a  circle. 
or  ring,  of  brass,  within  which  the  globe  can  be 
turned  around.  This  ring,  called  the  bra 
meridian,  is  graduated  so  as  to  indicate  degrees 
of  latitude,  and  by  rotating  the  globe  can  be 
made  to  represent  the  meridian  of  any  place. 
The  artificial  globe  is  also  usually  surrounded 
with  a  broad  horizontal  ring  of  wood,  called  the 
wooden  horizon,  which  has  two  slots  in  which 
the  meridian. and  with  it  the  globe  move,  so  that 
either  pole  may  be  elevated  or  depressed,  and  the 
horizon  adapted  to  any  place.  The  upp<  r  surface 
of  the  wooden  horizon  is  divided  into  several 
concentric  circles,  representing  degrees  of  .ampli- 
tude and  azimuth,  signs  of  the  zodiac,  the  points 
of  the  compass,  the  divisions  of  the  year  into 
months  and  days,  etc.  Such  a  globe  is  called  a 
terrestrial  globe.  A  celestial  globe  differs  from  it 
in  representing  the  appearance  of  the  starry 
heavens,  constellations,  etc.,  as  if  seen  from  the 
center  of  the  globe.  Globes  of  much  simpler 
construction  are  made  tor  elementary  instruction. 

The  artificial  globe  is  supposed  to  have  been 
invented  by  Anaximander,  about  580  I!.  C. 
Rules  for  the  use  of  the  terrestrial  globe  were 
first  given  by  Ptolemy,  L50  A.  I).  'I  he  two  old- 
est globes  now  extant    (both   celestial  globes]  are 

of  Arabic  construction.  One  made  in  L225,  is 
preserved  in  the  museum  of  Cardinal  Borgia  at 
Velletri;  the  other,  made  in  L289, is  preserved  in 
die  mathematical  hall  of  Dresden.    In  die  L5tb 

century,  the  use  of  globes  in  schools  rapidly  in- 
creased,   and    among    those     who    distinguished 

themselves  in  their  construction,  are  mentioned 
Martin  Belicius,  Gerhard  Mercator,  and  Tj 


372 


GLOBE 


GOETHE 


Brahe.  The  most  celebrated  globe  is  the  so-called 
Go ttorp  globe,  which  was  constructed,  by  order 
of  the  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  by  Olearius  and 
Busch,  in  1664.  ;t  was  11  feel  in  diameter,  and 
was  at  first  set  up  in  Gottorp,  near  Schleswig, 
whence  it  was,  in  L713,  transferred  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. The  national  library  in  Paris  has  two 
globes  over  II  feel  in  diameter;  and  the  Mazann 
library  and  the  museum  of  the  Louvre  have  each 
<i  magnificent  copper  globe.  The  georama  is  a 
peculiar  and  colossal  kind  of  globe  which  bears 
the  delineation  of  places,  etc.,  on  the  inner  sur- 
face. A  globe  of  this  kind,  51  feet  in  diameter, 
was  constructed  in  1851  by  Mr.  Wyld,  in  Lon- 
don. An  attempt  to  combine  the  terrestrial  and 
the  celestial  globe  was  made  by  Lohse,  in  Ham- 
burg, in  1829,  the  terrestrial  globe  being  inclosed 
in  a  glass  sphere  bearing  on  its  surface  deli  neat  ions 
of  the  constellations.  A  similar  globe  was  con- 
structed and  patented  in  New  York  in  1867. 
Globes  have  also  been  made  of  india  rubber,  to 
be  inflated  for  use:  others  of  thin  card-paper, 
made  in  sections,  so  as  to  be  folded  up  and  laid 
away  when  not  needed.  Embossed  globes  show, 
in  exaggerated  relief,  the  elevations  and  depres- 
sions of  the  earth's  surface.  The  Jtand hemi- 
spJiereglobe  is  very  useful  for  elementary  instruc- 
tion; it  consists  of  two  half-globes,  or  hemi- 
spheres, connected  by  a  hinge,  each  ilat  surface 
containing  a  planisphere  map  of  the  correspond- 
ing convex  surface.  This  arrangement  shows  the 
learner  at  once  the  relation  of  map  to  globe,  also 
why  the  lines  on  the  map  which  represent  the 
circles  must  be  curved.  It  is  usually  made  so 
.small  that  it  can  be  passed  from  hand  to  hand 
while  the  teacher  is  explaining  the  lesson.  The 
wall  hemisphere  globe  is  designed  to  afford  a 
similar  illustration.  It  is  so  constructed  that  the 
two  hemispheres  can  be  hung  u|>  side  by  side. 
against  a  wall,  an  I  contrasted  with  hemisphere 
maps,  suspended  above.  Globes  without  any 
auxiliary  appendages, such  as  stand,  meridian, etc. 
arc  often  constructed  so  as  to  rest  on  brackets, 
and  thus  form  pari  of  the  esthetic  decoration  of 
the  school  room,  when  not  in  use.  Globes  having 
a  black   slate  surface    -  slated  globes  —  are    \er\ 

useful  formany  kinds  of  instruction.    In  using 
these  globes,  the  pupil  draws  the  circles      merit] 

ians,   equator,   and    parallels,    and   delineates    the 

countries,  etc,  with  chalk,  either   from  a  map  or 

from  memory.  The  knowledge  of  gebgraphj 
thus  acquired  is  more  practical,  and  is  more  per- 
manently based  on  the  intelligent  conceptions  of 
the  pupil.  These  globes  are  of  greal  use  in  the 
study  of  advanced  geography,  as  well  as  in  that 
ot  spherical  geometry,  trigonometry,  navigation, 
etc.  Excellent  globes,  of  every  pattern  and  de 
Bcription,  are  made  bj  Schedler,  of  New  Fork, 
who  has  invented  a  method  of  manufacture, 
which  renders  them  quite  cheap  and  exceedingly 
durable.  Thej  arc  also  remarkable  for  the  scien- 
tific accuracy  of  their  delineations. 

The  globe  has  many  advantages  over  the  map. 
as  an  apparatus  for  teaching  geography,  because 

(1)  it    represents    the  earth    in    its   natural  form, 
an  1     how     clear!}    the  relation  of  each  and    e\cry 


part  of  its  surface  to  the  whole  :  hence,  its  use 
should  always  precede  that  of  the  map;  (2)  it 
affords  a  1  letter  means  of  explaining  those  points 
and  mathematical  lines  a  clear  conception  of  the 
use  of  which  forms  the  very  groundwork  of  geo- 
graphical science  ;  (•'!)  by  means  of  it  the  teacher 

can  illustrate  the  earth's    motions,  the  causes  of 

the  seasons,  day  and  night,  etc. ;  and  (4)  many 
useful  problems  may  be  solved  by  means  of  it. 
as  finding  the    longitude  and    latitude  of  places. 

the  difference  of  time,  the  time  of  sunrise  and 
sunset,  and  the  length  of  the  day  at  particular 
places, etc.  Pupils  in  geography  and  astronomy 
should  be  thoroughly  practiced  in  the  working 
out  of  these  problems  on  the  globe,  sii.ee  they 
not  only  gain  thereby  much  useful  information, 
but  acquire  clear  and  durable  conceptions  of  the 
elementary  principles  involved. 

GOETHE,  Johann  Wolfgang-  von,  an 
illustrious  German  poet, critic, and  thinker,  horn 
in  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  Aug.  28.,  L749;  died 
in  Weimar.  March  22.,   1832.      lie  was  educated 

at  the  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Strasburg,  and, 
in  I  77"),  at  the  solicitation  of  the  <  Jrand  Duke  of 
Saxe-Weimar,  whose  interest  in  him  had  been 
aroused  by  his  novel.  The  Sorrows  qfWerther,  he 

visited   Weimar,   which   he  afterwards  made   his 

permanent  residence.  Philosophy,  history,  sci- 
ence, art,  almost  every  subject  of  inquiry, in  fact, 
claimed  his  attention,  and  led  to  frequent  publica- 
tions in  the  shape  of  novels,  histories,  plays,  and 
poems.  It  is  to  ( Joethe  that  botany  owes  one  of  its 
fundamental  conceptions,  now  generally  admitted, 
that  the  various  parts  of  a  flower  are  modified 
leaves.  With  regard  toeducation,  Goethe's  idea 
was.  that  its  great.aim  should  be  the  development 
and  preservation  of  individuality.  Every  child  is 
different  fromeverj  other,  and  has  special  powers 

of  its  own:  and  the  value  of  education  consists  in 

maintaining    and    developing    these  individual 

differences,  and  not  in  producing  a  dead  level  of 

character.  The  necessity  of  education  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  child  is  undeveloped;  and  educa- 
tional efforts  must  all  be  based  on  the  principle 
that  the  germs  of  knowledge  are  in  tin'  soul. 
I  bin  e.  all  true  development  must  lie  from  within 

outward.  Education  is  not  a  pouring  of  knowl- 
edge into  the  mind,  as  into  an  empty  vessel, 
hut  the  development  of  faculties  which  are 
already  there,  as  the  growth  of  a  plant  from  the 
seed.  'I  his  development,  too,  must  be  general,  in 
all  directions.  To  cultivate  any  one  faculty  at 
the  expense  of  others,  produces  monsters,  not 

men.  Nothing  was  more  repulsive  to  Goethe 
than  the  mechanical,  atheist  ie   conception   of   the 

world.  He  insisted  upon  finding  an  ever-present 
Divinity  in  both  nature  and  life.  The  recogni- 
tion of  this  constitutes  religion,  and  should  be  the 

aim  of  all  education.     This   feeling  should  be  SO 

cultivated,  that  no  circumstances  can  disturb  in 
us  a  conscious  sense  of  the  Divine.  Religious  tea<  h- 
ing  should  begin  in  the  earliest  childhood:  not, 
however,  by  means  of  the  catechism, or  anj  other 
form  of  dogmatic  instruction:  but  the  child's 
imagination  must  be  made  familiar  with  the 
conception  of   a  Divine   Spirit   underlying  and 


GONHM!  MM  I 


GOVERNMENT 


373 


interfusing  every  form  of  life.  Ethics  refer  to 
moral  conduct;  hence,  ethical  culture  must  chiefly 
consist  in  practicing  the  good.  Merely  forbidding 
tlic  bad  ts  useless.  Activity  is  a  condition  of 
moral  as  well  asof  physical  health.  Of  all  schools 
of  morals  and  religion,  the  family  is  the  most 
important.  A  low  groveling  home  life  will 
render  all  other  teaching  worthless.  Next  to  the 
Bible,  familiarity  with  the  history  of  the  great 
and  good  is  tho  must  important  moans  of  moral 
ami  religious  culture.  Instruction  in  the  narrower 
sense  <>f  imparting  knowledge  must  be  rather 
synthetic  than  analytic  Building  tip  teaches 
more  than  tearing  down.  Classical  study  is 
practically  worthless  so  long  as  it  is  conducted 
solely  by  grammar  and  dictionary.  We  must 
work  ourselves  into  the  life  of  classical  times  in 
order  to  understand  them.  The  study  of  Greek 
literature  he  regarded  as  far  superior,  for 
purposes  of  culture,  to  Latin  literature  ;  beeaus  ■ 
the  Greeks  were  far  broader  men.  They  saw 
nature  and  life  in  all  their  aspects;  while  the 
Romans  saw  only  man  ;  and  him  they  regarded 
only  as  a  warrior  or  a  slave.  Goethe  did  nothing 
for  the  systematic  development  of  pedagogy. 
His  views  in  regard  to  teaching  are  scattered 
through  his  works,  ami  consist  of  hints  rather 
than  formulated  rules.  The  great  endeavor  of 
his  philosophy  is  to  mediate  between  individual- 
ism and  the  stern  necessities  of  society.  —  See 
Schmidt,  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik. 

GONIGRAPH  (Gr.  yuvia,  an  angle,  and 
iv,  to  write),  an  instrument  used  in  kinder- 
garten exercises  and  in  object-teaching,  to  illus- 
trate the  nature  and  formation  of  angles  and 
polygons.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  narrow 
jointed  slats  of  equal  length,  by  the  different 
combinations  of  which,  figures  of  various  shapes 
may  be  formed.  The  number  of  slats,  or  links, 
varies  from  .'5  to  as  many  as  1(>,  or  even  more. 
As  a  piece  of  kindergarten  apparatus  {gift),  the 
gonigraph  may  be  made  the  means  of  much 
instructive  entertainment  to  a  young  child,  who 
from  its  manipulation  will  acquire  ideas  of  a 
great  variety  of  figures.  In  the  more  advanced 
object-teaching,  in  connection  with  the  subject 
oiform,  it  will  be  found  very  useful,  as  well  as 
attractive.  Gonigraphs  are  usually  sold  in  sets 
as  a  part  of  the  apparatus  necessary  for  kinder- 
garten work.     (See  (  rIFTS.) 

GONZAGA  COLLEGE,  at  Washington, 
D.  ('..  was  incorporated  in  1858.  It  was  for- 
merly known  as  the  Washington  Seminary.  It 
is  conducted  by  the  Fath  rs  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  The  college  is  intended  for  day  scholars 
only,  irrespective  of  creed  or  religious  profession. 
The  entire  course  covers  seven  years,  comprising 
a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department,  with 
"a  classical  and  a  non-classical  course  of  study. 
In  1ST") — (i.  there  were  5  instructors  and  L07 
students.  'Hi.  library  contains  10,000  volumes. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  $10  per  quarter  in  either 
course.  The  Rev.  Charles  1\.  Jenkins,  S.  J.,  is 
I  B76)  the  president. 
GOODRICH,  Samuel  Griswold,  better 
known  as  /'</•■/■  Parley,  was  born  in  Etidgefield, 


<'t..  Aug.  1!)..  L793,  and  died  in  New  York. 
May!*..  L860.  lie  was  a  voluminous  writer, 
more  especially  of  juvenile  books,  comprising  his- 
tories, books  of  travel,  geographies,  and  illustra- 
tive works  on   the  arts   and   sciences.      Some  of 

his  books,  especially  the  histories,  an-  still  used 
as  text-books  in  schools,  and  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese translations  of  some  of  them  have  found 

their  way  into  South  American  institutions.  In 
1841,  he  established  Merry's  Museum  <n,<l  Par- 
ley's Magazine,  a  periodical  for  youth,  which  he 
conducted  for  thirteen  years.  Ili>  principal  edu- 
cational works  are  Fireside  Education  (1841  land 
Illustrated  Natural  History  of  the  Animal  King- 
dom (Isj!)).  in  1 85J,  he  was  appointed  United 
States  ( 'onsul  at  Paris. 

GOVERNESS,  or  Governante  (I'r.  Gour 
vernante),  a  woman  employed  as  a  resident 
tutoress  in  a  family,  to  conduct  the  education  of 
children  or  young  women.  The  employment  of 
governesses  began  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th 
century,  when  the  French  language  and  manners 
came  into  use  among  the  upper  classes  of  sot  ietj 
throughout  Europe.  When  a  young  lady  who 
was  not  able  to  speak  French  fluently,  and  was 
not  fully  conversant  with  Paris  fashions,  came  to 
be  looked  upon  as  lacking  in  refinement,  it  was 
natural  that  mothers  should  he  anxious  to  secure 
the  services  of  French  teachers,  especially  Paris- 
ians, to  ejve  to  their  daughters  the  requisite 
training.  The  practice  of  employing  governesses 
became,  in  a  short  time,  equally  common  in 
England,  Germany,  and  Russia.  When  this 
mode  of  educating  young  girls  became  popular, 
governesses  were  no  longer  exclusively  taken 
from  France,  especially  after  the  social  ascend- 
ency of  the  French,  in  consequence  of  the  revolu- 
tion, had  begun  to  decline.  Then  native  gover- 
nesses  came  into  demand:  and  Germany  and 
Switzerland  began  to  compete  with  France  in 
the  sending  of  young  women  of  education  to 
England  and  Russia  to  seek  a  livelihood  in  this 
manner.  The  development  which  female  educa- 
tion has  since  reached,  has  very  considerably 
diminished  the  number  and  influence  of  gover- 
nesses in  Germany,  and  to  some  extent,  also  in 
Russia,  since  in  both  countries  a  steadily  increasing 
number  of  girls  and  young  women  receive  their 
education  in  seminaries  and  high  schools  estab- 
lished for  the  purpose.  In  France  itself,  where  a 
governess  is  usually  called  instilulrice,  the  cum- 
ber of  governesses  has  always  been  comparatively 
smaller  than  in  England,  Germany, or  Russia.  In 
the  United  States,  a  larger  proportion  of  young 
women  than  in  any  European  country,  finish  their 
education  in  female  academies  and  high  schools, 
and  move  recently  in  colleges  to  which  both  sexes 
are  admitted.  ( >nly  iii  England  has  the  employ- 
ment of  governesses,  to  any  considerable  extent. 
been  maintained.  Governesses  are  generally  pro- 
fessional teachers  who  have  received  their  educa- 
tion in  burning  schools ;  ami  in  French  Switzer- 
land, there  are  special  schools  for  the  instruction 
of  governesses, 

GOVERNMENT,  School,  like  the  govern- 
ment of  a  state,  must  be  based  upon  the  est 


:;71 


GOVERNMENT 


Jiahment  of  authority  (q.  v.),  which  includes  not 
only  the  right  to  make  laws,  but  the  power,  as 
well  as  the  right,  to  execute  them.  These  powerSj 
in  every  civilized  state  and  community,  are  dis- 
tributed among  different  persons,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent centralized  authority  leading  to  despotism  ; 
but,  in  the  little  community  of  the  school  room, 
i  hey  must,  td  a  greater  or  less  extent,  be  possessed 
by  one  person.  General  rules  for  the  manage- 
ment of  a  school,  it  is  true,  may  be  prescribed  by 
the  school  officers  to  whom  the  teacher  is  ame- 
nable :  hut  the  actual  government  of  the  school, 
that  which  converts  it  from  a  chaotic,  disorder- 
ly crowd  of  children  into  a  regular  organization, 
under  control  and  discipline,  must  be  exclusively 
the  work  of  the  teacher,  hence  called  the  school- 
master. Formerly,  the  powers  of  a  .school-master 
were  much  less  limited  than  they  are  at  present  : 
i  tdeed,  they  were  almost  absolute,  the  law,  as  in 
the  case  of  parental  government,  only  stepping 
in  to  protect  the  child  from  injury  to  lire  or 
limb.  At  the  present  time,  the  teacher's  author- 
it]  is  carefully  hedged  around  not  only  by  the 
law.  hut  by  the  rides  of  school  boards  and  super 
intendents,  so  that  the  complaint  is  sometimes 
made  by  the  teacher  that  he  has  scarcely  enough 
authority  let;  to  enable  him  to  govern  his  school. 
The  policy  of  circumscribing  the  authority 

teacher  to  so  great  an  extent  is  an  unwise 
one,  and  endangers  not  only  the  efficiency  of  the 
school  as  an  organization,  bu1  destroys  its  effi- 
cacy as  an  instrument  of  education.     Besides, 

it  implies    that    the   teacher    is   unlit    to  exercise 

authority,  either  by  lack   of  competency  or  of 

i'  Hiscjeiitiousness,  which   is  equivalent    to  pro- 

n  Mincing  him  unfit  to  he  a  teacher  at  all. 

The  character  of  the  school  government  de- 

p  ■nds  upon  the  manner  a-  well  as  the  degree  in 
which  the  teacher's  authority  is  established  :  and 
til/  influence  of  the  school   upon  the  intellectual 

.  I  moral  character  of  its  pupils  will  depend 
upon  the  kind  of  government  maintained.  No 
School  can  be  efficient  without  order  (q.  v.),  and 
order  can  only  result  from  judicious  and  effect  ive 

»ver ent.  The  latter  must,  in  all  cases. depend 

Mir   the  rules  or  requirements  laid  down, 
(2)  the  manner  in  which  they  are  enforced. 
Government  is  often   impaired  by  unwise  l< 
I  it  ion     unwise  in  the  kind  of  laws  enacted,  or  in 

ir  number.    The  rules  made  for  the  govern- 

iit  of  a  school  should  lie  as  tew  and  as  simple 

possible.     A  multiplicity  of  set    regulations 

-     the     pupils,     and     tends     to    multiply 

offenses.     Besides,  the  children,  bj  the  habit  of 

aplying  with  a  kind  of  written  law.  arc  apt 
to  think  every  thing  right  that  is  not  Bpecificallj 
forbidden,  and  thus  fail  to  exercise  their  con 
science;  that  is.  in  their  attention  to  the  mala 
prohibits,  they  lose  sighl  of  the  mala  per  se. 
■  If  a  school,"  says  D.  P.  Page,  "is  to  be  governed 
by  a  code  of  laws,  the  pupils  will  act  upon  the 
principle  that  whatever  is  not  proscribed  i> 
admissible.  Consequently,  without  inquiring 
whether  an  acl  is  right,  their  only  inquiry  will 
be,  is  il  forbidden?  Now,  no  teacher  was  ever 
ye1  is  to  make  la  everj  case  ;  the 


consequence  is,  he  is  daily  perplexed  with  un- 
foreseen troubles,or  with  some  ingenious  evasions 
of  his  inflexible  code.  In  all  this  matter,  the 
,  worst  feature  is  the  fact  that  the  child  judges 
I  of  his  acts  by  the  law  of  the  teacher  rather  than 
by  the  law  of  his  conscience,  and  is  thus  in 
danger  of  perverting  and  blunting  the  moral 
sense."  Government  by  positive  enactments  is, 
therefore,  to  he  dispensed  with  as  much  as 
possilile  :  hut  such  rules  as  are  made  should  be 
strictly  and  uniformly  enforced.  These  rules  con- 
stitute what  may  lie  called  school  legislation, 
and  arc  not  to  lie  confounded  with  requirements 
of  a  less  formal  character,  which  the  pupil's  own 
intelligence  and  sense  of  right  are  to  be  trained 
to  recognize  without  particular  enunciation,  nor 
with   those   moral    precepts  which  arc  addressed 

rather  to  the  pupil  as  an  individual,  and  there- 
fore do  not  directly  concern  the  organization  of 
the  school.  We  here  treat  of  school  govern- 
ment in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term.  In  the 
enforcement  of  school  legislation,  however,  we- 
ar.- to  keep  in  view  the  good  of  the  pupil  as 
well   as   the  good  of  the  school,  hut  primarily 

the  latter.  The  principle  is  this:  The  school 
is  an  organization  designed  to  he  the  means 
of  affording  an   education   to  a  large    numbe 

of  pupils,  and  the  school  laws  are  made  t.> 
protect  that  organization,  and  render  it  effective 
in  the  carrying  out  of  its  proper  object  :  hence. 

the  Welfare  of  the  school  must  he  paiailloUllt 
to  that  of  any  individual  pupil.  The  violation 
of  a  rule  may,  indeed,  be  sometimes  overlooked 
without  injury  to  the  offender,  perhaps  to  his 
beuefit;  but,  as  such  a  course  tends  to  weaken 
or  destroy  the  school  government,  the  law  must 
he  uniformly  enforced.  Xo  enforcement  of  law- 
can  he  accomplished  without  the  punishment  of 
the  offender;  hence,  the  kind  of  school  punish- 
ments that  are  suitable  under  the  various  cir- 
cumstances that  arise  becomes  a  matter  for  the 
careful  consideration  of    the    teacher.      Whether 

in  enforcing  obedience  to  wholesome  regulations, 

corporal  punishment  should  In-  resorted  to.  and. 

if  so.  to  what  extent  and  in  what  manner,  forms 

an  important  part  of  the  general  discussion 
ol  school  government.  (See  Corporal  Pi  msh- 
mext.)  hut  there  must  he  prevention  as  well  as 
correction     rewards,  as  incentives  to  obedience 

and  good  conduct,  as  well  as  punishments  to 
chastise  the  wrong-doer,  and  deter  others  from 
wrong-doing.  A  system  of  rewards  has  a  very 
important  bearing  upon  school  government  when 
they  are  dispensed  with  uniformity  and  equity. 

Under  this  head  are  included  merit  marks. certif- 
icates and  diplomas  of  proficiency  and  good  con- 
duct,and  prizes.  Many  questions  arise  in  connec- 
tion with  the  ad  mit  list  rati »f  school  government 

in  this  respect.  (See  Prizes.)  The  general  efficacy 

and    propriety   of    rewards    cannot    he   doubted. 

They  appeal  to  a  principle  of  human  nature  uni- 
versally operative.  "Whatever,"  says  Jewell,  "maj 
be  possible  in  the  mature  man.  iii  the  line  of  that 
sublime  abstraction, 'Virtue  is  its  own  reward. 
the  child  is  neither  equal  to  such  abstractions, 
nor  are  they  demanded  >>f  him."  (See  Rewarj 


GOVERNMENT 


GRADED  schools 


375 


The  efficacy  of  school  government  must  depend 
very  much  on  the  manner  in  which  the  teacher 
exercises  the  authority  conferred  upon  him  in 
virtue  of  his  office.  U  he  bases  it  upon  force,  it' 
the  language  he  addresses  to  his  pupils  be  uni- 
formly that  'if  command,  threatening,  or  angry 
rebuke,  there  will  be  engendered  in  their  minds  a 
feeling  of  antagonism,  from  which  will  result 
disobedience,  and  occasionally  open  rebellion.  <  hi 
the  other  hand,  it'  he  IS  kind  and  considerate, 
but  at  the  same  time  firm  and  resolute,  he  will 
gain  first  the  respect  of  his  pupils  and  then 
their  affection.      When  that  is  accomplished,  the 

government  of  his  school  will  be  quite  easy.  (See 
Authority.)  The  following  are  wis;  suggestions 
in  regard  to  the  proper  course  ot  the  teacher  in 
[ring  and  preserving  the  control  of  his 
school:  "i  1  i  Endeavor  to  convince  your  scholars 
that  you  are  their  friend. — that  you  aim  at  their 
improvement,  and  desire  their  good.  It  will  not 
take  lou-  to  satisfy  them  of  this,  if  you  are  so  in 
reality.  (2)  Never  give  a  command  which  you 
are  not  resolved  to  see  obeyed.  (3)  Try  to 
create  throughout  the  school  a  popular  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  order  and  virtue.  It  is  next  to 
impossible  to  carry  into  effect,  for  any  length  of 
time,  a  regulation,  however  important,  which  is 
opposed  to  public  opinion."  Felleriberg  strongly 
insists  upon  this  as  the  most  efficient  means  of 
school  government.  "  The  pupil."  he  says.  "  can 
seldom  resist  the  force  of  truth  when  he  finds 
himself  condemned  by  the  common  voice  of 
his  companions,  and  is  often  more  humbled  by 
censure  from  his  equals,  than  by  any  of  the  ad- 
monitions of  his  superiors."  To  the  above  im- 
portant injunctions  for  the  teacher  should  lie 
added  the  following:  Observe  in  your  conduct 
toward  your  pupils  a  strict  impartiality.  Chil- 
dren are  keen  observers,  and  at  once  detect  the 
slightest  indications  of  favoritism;  and  nothing 
more  effectually  than  this  destroys  their  respect 
for  the  teacher,  and  undermines  his  authority. 
Tact  and  self-control  will  enable  the  teacher  to 
dispense,  to  a  very  great  extent,  with  any  decided 
demonstration  of  authority.  "There  is."  says 
Page,  "such  a  thing  as  keeping  a  sehool  too  still 
by  over-government.  A  man  of  firm  nerve  can, 
by  keeping  up  a  constant  constraint  both  in  him- 

and  pupils,  force  a  death-like  .silence  upon  his 
school.  You  can  hear  a  pin  drop  at  anytime, 
and  the  figure  of  every  child  is  as  if  moulded 
in  cast-iron.  But  be  it  remembered,  this  is  the 
stillness  of  constraint,  not  the  stillness  of  activity. 
Tli.re  should  he  silence  in  school,  a  serene 
and  soothing  quiet;  but  it  should,  if  possible, 
be  the  quiet  of  cheerfulness  and  agreeable  devo- 
tion to  study,  rather  than  the  'palsy  of  fear.'" 

•  Fear.)  One  of  the  most  important  means 
of  effective  school  government  is  to  keep  the  pu- 
pils constantly  busy,  to  awaken  in  their  minds 
an  interest  in  their  studies,  to  vary  the  exercises 
so  as  to  prevent  tedious  monotony,  to  have  spe- 
cial methods  of  relief,  after  their  minds  have  be- 
come wearied  by  close  attention.  For  this  pur- 
pose, in  primary  schools,  in  which  \  xyyoung 
children   are   taught,   movement  e-  of  a 


simple  character  may  be  resorted  to  ;  and.  in  all 

sel Is,    VOCal    music,    which    always    exerts  the 

most  pleasing  ami  satisfactory  influence.  Calis- 
thenics and  gymnastics  may  he  employed  with 
good  effect,    in  short,  if  the  school  is  conducted 

in  such  a  way  as  to  recognize  the  peculiar  nature. 

disposition,  and  wants  of  children,  the  school 
government  will  be  found  to  involve  Imt  little 
difficulty.  —See  Jewell,  School  Government 
(New  York.  L866);  Page,  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Teaching  (N.Y.j  1847);  Wickeksham,  School 
Economy  il'hila..  1864);  Dunn,  The  School- 
Teacher's  Manual  (Hartford.  L839) ;  Nortiiknp, 
The  Teacher's  Assistant  (Boston,  L859  ;  Mor- 
rison, Manual  of  School  Management  (I  ondon); 
Le  Vaux,  The  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching 
(Toronto,  L875). 
GRADE   (Lat.  gradus,  a  step),  the  relative 

standing  of  schools,  classes,  or  pupils,  in  a  system 
of  education.  Thus  education,  or  instruction,  is 
designated,  according  to  its  grade,  primary  or 
elementary,  secondary,  and  superior  or  higher. 
A  course  of  study  is  divided  into  grades  for 
convenience  in  classification,  all  the  pupils  in 
each  class  being  supposed  to  be  nearly  of  the 
same  degree  of  proficiency.  The  number  of 
grades  into  which  a  course  of  study  should  be 
divided  is  dictated  by  considerations  of  expedi- 
ency and  convenience.  The  grades,  however, 
should  be  arranged  so  as  to  assign  proper  pro- 
portions of  work  for  the  several  portions  of  time 
into  which  the  school  year,  or  the  period  of  the 
entire  curriculum,  is  divided.  The  arrangement 
of  grades  is  also  beneficial  in  definitely  marking 
the  progress  of  the  pupil,  and  thus  affording  him 
encouragement  to  proceed  by  regular  promotion 
from  grade  to  grade.     (See  <  lass.) 

GRADED  SCHOOLS  are  usually  defined 
as  schools  in  which  the  pupils  are  classified 
according  to  their  progress  in  scholarship  as 
compared  with  a  course  of  study  divided  into 
grades,  pupils  of  the  same  or  a  similar  degree  of 
proficiency  being  placed  in  the  same  class.  An 
ungraded  school,  on  the  other  hand,  is  one  in 
which  the  pupils  are  taught  individually,  each 
one  being  advanced  as  far.  and  as  fast,  as  circum- 
stances permit,  without  regard  to  the  progress  of 
other  pupils.  The  graded  system  is  thus  based 
upon  classification;  and  its  efficacy  as  a  system 
i  depend  very  greatly  upon  the  accuracy 
with    which    the    classification    has    been    made. 

Grades,  however,  are  not  to  be  confounded  with 
classes;  the  former  are  divisions  of  the  course  of 
Study  based  upon  various  considerations,  the 
r  are  dfc  isions  of  thesi  hool  based  upon  uni- 
formity of  attainments.  In  a  small  school,  the 
same  number  of  grades  may  be  needed  as  in  a 
large  school,  the  course  of  study  being  the  same. 
and  the  promotions  being  made  with  equalfrc- 
quency;  hence,  as  the  number  of  classes  must 
be  smaller,  it  will  be  necessary  that  each  class 
should  pursue  two  or  more  grades  simultaneous- 
ly or  in  succession ;  thai  is  to  say.  the  promo- 
tions front  grade  to  grade  will  be  more  frequent 
than  from  class  to  class.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
a  large  school,  the  number  of  cl  bo 


376 


GRADKU    SCHOOLS 


greater  than  that  of  the  grades,  which  will  ne- 
sitate  the  forming  of  two  or  more  classes,  un- 
der separate  teachers,  in  the  same  grade.  In  the 
management  of  a  large  school,  this  will  be  found 
to  be  better  than  a  subdivision  of  the  grades,  re- 
quiring either  an  extension  of  the  time  for  com- 
pleting the  course,  or  greater  frequency  in  the 
promotions.  In  the  small  district  schoolsof  the 
United  States,  the  ungraded  system  prevails, be- 
cause each  school  is  taught  by  a  single  teacher, 
and  sometimes  there  is  a  want  of  uniformity  in 
text-books:  but  in  the  cities  the  graded  system 
prevails.  The  advantages  of  the  graded  system 
have  been  thus  enumerated  :  (1)  They  economize 
the  labor  of  instruction  ;  (2)  They  reduce  the 
cost  of  instruction,  since  a  smaller  number  of 
teachers  are  required  for  effective  work  in  a  clas- 
sified or  graded  school ;  (.'{)  They  make  the  in- 
struction more  effective, inasmuch  as  the  teacher 
can  more  readily  hear  the  lessons  of  an  entire 
class  than  of  the  pupils  separately,  and  thus  there 
will  be  better  opportunity  for  actual  teaching, 
explanation,  drill,  etc.;  (4)  They  facilitate  good 
government  and  discipline,  because  all  the  pu- 
pils are  kept  constantly  under  the  direct  con- 
trol and  instruction  of  the  teacher,  and,  besides, 
are  kept  constantly  busy  ;  (5)  They  afford  a 
better  means  of  inciting  pupils  to  industry,  by 
promoting  their  ambition  to  excel,  inasmuch  as 
there  is  a  constant  competition  ; ug  the  pu- 
pils of  a  class,  which  cannot  exist  when  the  pu- 
pils are  instructed  separately.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  objections  have  been  urged  against 
the  system  of  graded  schools,  chief  among  which 

is,  that  the  interests  of   the  individual  pupil   are 

often  sacrificed  to  those  of  the  many,  the  indi- 
vidual being  merged  in  the  mass.  ••  As  a  mech- 
anism," says  I'l.  E.  White,  in  Problems  in  Graded 
School  Management,  a  paper  read  before  the 
National  Educational  Association,  A.ug.  4.,  1874, 
" it  [the  graded  system]  demands  that  pupils  ol 
tin-  same  grade  attend  school  with  regularity, 

and  that  they  possess  equal  attainments,  equal 
mental  capacity,  equal  vigor,  equal  home  assist- 
ance and  opportunity, and  that  they  be  instructed 
by  teachers  possessing  equal  ability  and  skill. 
Bui  this  uniformity  does  not  exist.  Teachers 
possess  unequal  skill  and  power.  Pupils  do  noi 
enter  school  at   the  same   age;    some   attend  onl\ 

a  portion  of  each  year:  others  attend  irregularly; 
ami  the  members  of  the  same  class  possess  un- 
equal ability,  and  have  unequal  assistance  and 
opportunity.  This  want  of  uniformity  in  con- 
ditions makes  the  mechanical  operation  <>)  the 
system  imperfect,  and  hence,  its  tendency  is  to 
force  uniformity,  thus  sacrificing  its  true  function 

as  a  means  of  education  to  its  perfect  action  as  a 

mechanism."  There  is  no  doubt  thai  this  diffi- 
culty is  inherent  in  the  system,  and  thai  DO  ad- 
ministration, however  excellent, can  whollj  dim 
inate  it.  Various  methods  of  procedure  bave, 
however,  been  suggested  to  diminish  its  injurious 
effects.    Thai    proposed  by  Superintendent  W. 

T.  Harris,  oi    St.   bonis,  and    carried    out    in    the 

public  schools  of  that  citj  is  frequent  discrimi- 
native promotions.   'I 'he  following  are  the  points 


on  which  the  system  is  based  :  (1)  The  different 
rate  of  progress  in  study  on  the  pari  of  pupils 

of  the  same  class,  due  to  a  difference  ill  age, 
capacity,  regularity  of  attendance,  and  op- 
portunity: and  (2)  The  continual  diminution 
of  the  size  of  classes,  particularly  of  the  higher 
grades.  "Provision,"  he  says.  ••  must  be  made 
for  this  difference  in  rates  of  progress  by  fre- 
quenl  reclassification  ;  otherwise  the  school  will 
become  a  lifeless  machine."  This  arrangement, 
however,  was  a  reaction  against  the  system  of 
annual  promotions,  which  necessarily  require 
wide  grades  and  unfreqiteiit  changes  in  clas- 
sification. The  other  extreme,  according  to  the 
views  of  many  educators  experienced  in  school 
management  and  supervision,  was  approached 
in  the  recommendation  by  Superintendent  Har- 
ris to  require  promotions  as  often  as  every  ten 
weeks,  and,  besides  that,  to  permit  pupils  "  to 
move  forward  as  fast  as  their  abilities  might 
permit."  The  objections  to  incidental  discrim- 
inative promotion  are  the  following  :  (1)  It  en- 
courages precocity  in  the  pupils;  (2)  It  pro- 
duces a  tendency  in  the  teacher  to  give  an 
exclusive  attention  to  the  bright,  intelligent 
pupils  to  the  ueglect  of  the  dull  ones,  because 
in  this  way  promotions  arc  secured,  which  re- 
dound to  (he  teachers  credit;  (3)  It  deprives  the 
pupils  thus  promoted  out  of  theregular  course, 
of  the  means  of  properly  pursuing  certain  grades 
or  parts  of  grades,  inasmuch  as.  if  placed  from  a 
lower  grade  into  a  class  of  pupils  already  ad- 
vanced in  the  next  higher  one.  they  must  take 
up  the  studies  of  that  grade  at  the  advanced 
point,  without  acquaintance  with  the  preceding 
pari  of  the  grade,  thus  confusing  the  classification 
and  embarrassing  the  teacher.  Semi-annual  pro- 
motions seem  to  be  approved  by  the  majority  of 
educators,  with  such  an  adjustment  of  the  Dum- 
ber of  the  grades  of  the  course  of  study  and  the 
requirements  of  each,  as  will  enable  pupils  of  an 
average  capacity  to  complete  the  amount  of 
Study  prescribed  in  the  half  year.  There  is  an- 
other danger  connected  with  the  graded-school 
system,  as  sometimes  administered,  to  which  al- 
lusion  is   often    made.      It   prescribes  too  much, 

leaving  to  the  tea  ber  too  little  scope  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  individual  skill,  judgment,  and  intel- 
ligence.    "  It  is  not  important,"  says  Mr.  White, 

"that  the  several  teachers  accomplish  the  same 
result  day  by  day.  or  week  by  week.  Nothing 
is  more  ridiculous  than  the  attempt  to  parcel 
out  primary  instruction,  and  tie  it  up  in  daily 
or  weekly  prescriptions,  like  a  doctor's  doses. 
This  week  the   class    is    to    take   certain    facts  in 

geography  ;  to  count   by  twos  to  fifty  (to  sixtj 

would  be  a  fearful  sin.):  to  draw  the  vertical 
lines  of  a  cube  :  to  learn  to  respect  the  aged, 
tic.!'  This,  however,  with  many  other  objections 

which  are  urged  againsl  the  system  of  graded 

schools,    is    only    a    fault    in   administration.      A 

system  of  this  kind  requires  intelligent,  earnest, 
and  judicious  direction  and   supervision;  with 

this,   ably   sec led    by    well  trained    and    expe 

rienced  teaehers.it  will  approximate  to  individ- 
ual   teaching,  and,  in    the    powerful    and    whole- 


GRADUATE 


okamm  \i: 


1 1 


some  stimulus  which  it  constantly  applies  to  the 
pupil,  prove  much  more  effective. 

Graded  schools  are  far  more  numerous  in  the 
United  States  than  in  England,  or  in  mosl  of 
the  countries  of  continental  Europe.  The  system 
is.  however,  beginning  to  be  introduced.  "The  plan 
of  teaching  classes  or  grades  in  separate  school- 
rooms lias  been  adopted,"  says  Adams  [Free 
School  System  of  the  United  States,  L875),"in 
some  of  the  Birmingham  Board  schools,  and  also 
in  London,  1  believe,  and  has  given  great  satis- 
faction." So  essentia]  has  it  been  considered  in 
the  United  States  to  the  efficiency  of  a  school 
that  it  should  he  graded,  that  no  aid  is  given 
from  the  Pcabody  Fund  except  to  graded 
schools. — See  Wki.i.s.  The  Graded  School  (New 
York.  L862) ;  Wickersham,  School  Economy 
I  Phil.,  L868);  Kiddu:.  etc.,  How  to  Teach  (X.Y.. 
L87  1 1.     (See  also  Class,  and  Grade.) 

GRADUATE  (Lat.  graduare,  from  gradus, 
a  step  or  degree),  to  confer  an  academic  degree, 
thus  advancing  to  a  higher  rank  in  scholarship  ; 
also,  to  receive  a  degree  from  a  college  or  uni- 
versity.  A  person  is  said  to  graduate  when  he 
takes  a  degree,  and  the  college  or  university  is 
said  to  graduate  a  student  when  it  admits  him 
to  an  honorable  standing  as  a,  scholar  by  con- 
ferring a  degree.  The  person  who  thus  takes  a 
degree,  is  called  a  graduate.     (See  Degrees.) 

GRAEFE,  Heinrich,  a  German  educa- 
tor, born  .March  3.,  1802  ;  die  I  July  22.,  1860. 
lie  was  successively  rector  of  the  real  school 
and  professor  at  the  university  of  Jena,  rector 
of  the  burgher  school  in  Cassel,  principal  of  an 
educational  institution  at  Geneva,  and  director 
of  the  industrial  school  at  Bremen.  He  was 
also  an  influential  writer  upon  educational  topics. 
1  lis  discussions  of  the  methods  of  ( rerman  public- 
school  instruction  are  his  most  important  pro- 
ductions. His  general  theory  of  education  is 
similar  to  that  of  Graser.  Like  him,  he  was 
strongly  opposed  to  merely  general  culture,  he- 
cause  the  idea  of  education  is  not  only  to  develop 
the  faculties,  but  to  fit  one  for  the  duties  of 
life.  The  true  end  of  man,  according  to  Graefe, 
is  self-surrender  to  the  Divine  will  ;  and  the  aim 
of  education  is  to  bring  the  individual  into  active 
and  conscious  self-abnegation.  Not  to  develop 
ourselves,  hut  to  do  the  will  of  God  by  filling 
the  place  in  society  which  belongs  to  us.  this  is 
the  end  of  our  being.  Graefe  made  very 
valuable  suggestions  for  the  modification  of 
public-school  instruction  in  the  direction  of 
securing  a  more  natural  arrangement  of  study. 
and  better  physical  culture.  See  Schmidt,  (!<>- 
Bchichte  </■  /■  Padagogik,  vol.  n  . 

GRAHAM,  Isabella,  celebrated  for  her  ef- 
forts for  the  relief  and  education  of  the  poor,  and 
in  behalf  of  other  philanthropic  objects,  was  born 
in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  L742,  and  died  in 
>Tew  York,  in  Isl  1.  She  was  the  wife  of  Dr. 
John  Graham,  an  army  surgeon,  after  whose 
death,  in  the  Wesi  Indies,  in  1 77  I.  she  taught 
school  in  Paisley  and  in  Edinburgh.  In  1  789,  she 
came  to  New  York,  and  opened  a  seminary  for 
young  ladies.    Jler  active,  benevolent  disposition 


liinl  shown  itself  in  her  native  country  in  the 
formal  ion  of  the  Penny  Society,  now  the  Socil  I  \ 

for  the  Relief  of  Destitute  Sick.     In  New  York 
mainly   through    her    efforts,   woe  established 

the  Society  tor  the  Relief  of  Tour  Widows,  the 
Orphan  Asylum  Society,  the  Society  for  Pro- 
moting industry  among  the  Poor,and  a  Sunday 
School  tor  [gnoranl  Adults,-  the  first  of  its 
kind  in  the  United  States.  Her  benevolent 
labors  in  almost    every   field  of  philanthropic 

enterprise  were  very  extensive.  I  lei-  memoirs 
were   published    by    Dr.    Mason    (1816),  ami    her 

correspondence,  by  her  daughter,  Mrs.  Bethune, 
mother  of  G.  W.  Bethune,  D.  D.  (1838). 

GRAMMAR  (Gr.  ypdfifia,  that  which  is 
craven  or  written,  a  written  character,  a  letter) 
means, in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  the  science 
of  language  in  general,  and  specially  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  organism  of  language  and  the  laws 
of  its  structure.  'I  he  first  scientific  investigations 
in  language  are  met  with  in  the  writings  of  the 
(■'reek  philosophers;  they  are.  however,  not  of  a 
strictly  grammatical  nature,  hut  discuss  the  rela- 
tion of  thinking  to  speaking,  and  the  origin  of 
language.  Such  speculations  are  found  in  Plato, 
Aristotle,  and  the  Stoics.  'The  first  attempt  to 
construct  a  grammar,  in  the  present  sense  of  the 
word,  was  made  in  the  second  century,  !'».  < '..  at 
Alexandria.  The  Greek  grammarians,  at  that 
time,  explained  the  works  of  the  classic  authors, 
and  such  explanations  embraced  the  definition 
and  analysis  of  words.  Dionysius  Thrax  divided 
grammar  into  six  parts  :  delivery,  explanation  of 
the  contents  of  the  classics,  definitions,  etymology, 
analogy,  and  criticism.  The  Roman  grammarians 
explained  the  works  both  of  Latin  and  Greek 
authors,  paying  special  attention  to  the  expla- 
nation of  archaic  and  obscure  expressions:  but 
they  made  no  real  progress  in  the  development 
of  grammatical  science.  Nothing  at  all  was 
done  during  the  middle-ages,  the  schools  content- 
ing themselves  with  teaching  Latin  from  the 
works  of  the  later  Roman  grammarians.  The 
revival  of  classical  studies  and  the  Reformation, 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  led  to  a  more  thorough 
study  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages,  and  en- 
larged the  views  of  grammarians  by  adding  the 
knowledge  of  Hebrew  to  their  stock  of  linguistic 
attainments,  which  wen-  formerly  limited  to 
Latin  and  Greek.  Several  latin.  Greek,  and  He- 
brew grammars  were  published,  ami  a  beginning 
was  made  in  the  preparation  of  grammatical 
works  on  some  of  the  modern  languages.  The 
tirst  attempts  at  general  and  comparative  gram- 
mars were  made  in  the  17th  century.  A  Dew 
impulse  was  given  to  grammatical  studies,  after 
the  Sanskrit  language  and  literature  had  become 
more  generally  known  among  philologists.  A 
solid    basis   tor  comparative    grammar  was    laid 

by  Bopp,  who.  in  his  tirst  comparative  work 
(1816)  on  the  [ndo- European  languages,  com- 
pared the  inflections  of  Sanskrit  words  with 
those  of  the  <  Sreek,  Latin.  Persian,  and  <  !erman ic 
languages;  ami.  in  the  great  work  of  his  life,  tin" 
( 'on  i  pa  rati  vet  J  ram  mar  of  Sanskrit,  Zend.  <  deck. 
Latin.  Lithuanian.  Old  Slavic  Gothic,  and  tier- 


378 


GRAMMAR 


man  (Vergleichende  Grammatik,  5  vols.,  1833 
— 52;  3d  ed.,  1868 — 71;  translated  into  English 
and  French)  traced  back  the  Indo-European  lan- 
guages to  their  origin,  and  pointed  out  their  pres- 
ent relations  to  each  other.  The  idea  of  a  historical 
grammar  was  fully  developed  by  Grimm  in  his 
German  Grammar  (Di'utxi-ln'  (frummatik,4  vols., 
1819 — 37),  which  traces  the  history  of  all  gram- 
matical forms  in  the  Germanic  dialects  through 
the  different  periods  of  the  language.  Other  mas- 
ter-works in  the  literature  of  comparative  gram- 
mars are  those  by  Diez  on  the  Romanic  languages 
(Vergleichende    Grammatik    der   romanischen 

'achen,  ,'i  vols.,  1836 — 12),  by  Miklosich  on 
the  Slavic  languages  |  Vergleichende  Grammatik 
der  slavischen  Sprachen,  L852  —71),  and  by 
Schleicher,  on  the  Indo-Germanic  languages 
ndium  der  vergleichenden  Grammatik, 
3d  ed.,  1871).  Comparative  grammars  on  Indo- 
European  Languages  by  English  authors  are: 
Clark,  Students  Handbook  of  Comparative 
Grammar,  applied  to  the  Sanskrit,  Zend,  Gi 
Latin,  Gothic,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  English  Lan- 
f/iini/es  (London,  1N(>2) ;  Ferrae,  Grammar  of 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Latin  (vol.  i..  Lond.,  I  - 
Helfenstein,  .1  Comparative  Grammar  of  me 
Teutonic  Languages  (London,  1870);  Beames, 
Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Modern  Aryan 
Languages  of  India;  March,  .1   C  ttive 

Grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Language   N.Y.. 
L871  i.  Bui  few  comparative  grammarshave  a 
been  written  on  other  than  Indo-European  lan- 
guages. The  more  important  ofthemare:  Bleek, 
I  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  South  African 
I.  !./>/n, i;/rs  (vol.i.,  London,  1869) ;    Caldwell, 
Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Dravidian  Lan- 
guages (London,  L861);    Pimentel,  Cuadro  de- 
•iptivoy  comparativo  de  las  lenguas  indige- 
nas  de  Mexico — Descriptive  and  comparative 
table  of  the  native  languages  of  Mexico  (Mexico, 
L874) ;   and  Epstein,  Cuadro  sinoptico  de  las 
lenguas  indigenas  de   Mexico   (Mexico.   L874). 
The  most   important   work  on   the  philosophy 
of    language     is    still     the    classic    work    by 
WUhelm    von    Humboldt,    Ueber  die    Verschie- 

'■  if  des  menschlichen  Sprachbaues  (1836), 
which  originally  appeared  as  an  introduction 
to  his  work  on  the  Kavi  language.  Among 
other  important  works  for  the  study  of  gen- 
eral grammar,  are:  Heyse,  System  der  Sprach- 
wissenschoft   (Berlin.    1856),     an  I    Steinthal, 

racteristik  der  hauptsdchlichsten  Typen  des 

ichbaues  (2d  edit.,  L860)  ;  also,  for  an  excel- 
lent and  familiar  exposition  of  linguistic  science 
and  history,  M  w  Mueller,  Lectures  on  the 
Language  (2  vols.,  London,  1861  I  .• 
and  Whitney,  The  Life  and  Growth  of  Lan- 
guage i  New  York  1876).  -The  study  of  gram- 
mar now  constitutes,  in  every  civilized  country, 
an  essentia]  pari  of  the  learning  of  languaj 
both  the  vernacular  and  foreign.  Opinions, 
however,  still  widely  differ  as  to  the  place 
which  grammar  should  occupy  in  the  studj  of 
language,   the   method   by  which   it  should   be 

_rht.   the   poinl  Of    time  at  which    it  should  I' 

begun,  and  the   amount  <>f   time  which  Bhould 


be  devoted  to  it.  There  is  at  present  a  more 
general  agreement  aiming  educators  than  at  any 
previous  time,  that  not  only  is  a  grammatical 
knowledge  necessary  for  a  good  command  of  any 
language,bu1  that  thorough  training  in  the  rules  of 
grammar  is  one  of  the  best  means  to  develop  the 
faculties  of  the  mind,  and  is  especially  calculated 
to  promote  correct  and  logical  thinking.  (See 
Grammar,  English  ;  English,  Study  of;  Clas- 
sical Studies  ;  Modern  Languages;  and  the  spe- 
cial articles  on  Greek,  Latin.  Hebrew,  French, 
German,  etc.) 

GRAMMAR.  English,  has  for  its  special 
function,  an  exposition  of  the  specific  organism 
and  the  structural  peculiarities  of  the  English 
language.  There  are  certain  relations  existing 
between  thought  and  language  which  must  un- 
derlie every  form  of  human  speech:  these  consti- 
tute the  basis  of  general  grammar.  Every  lan- 
guage has  its  peculiarities  ol  (1)  literal  represen- 
tation and  combination  Metiers  and  words  — 
orthography),  (2)  inflectional  tonus  (etymology), 
3)  sentential  structure  (syntax),  and  (4)  vocal 
utterance  (prosody).  These  peculiarities  it  is  the 
office  i  >f  specific  grammar  to  explain,  SO  that  they 
may  not  only  1>  i  grasped  by  the  understanding  but 
worked  into  the  habitual  use  of  the  language,  in 
speaking  and  writing.  English  grammar  has 
been  defined  as  "  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing 
the  English  language  correctly;"  and  as  an  art, 
doubtless,  this  states  correctly  its  practical  ob- 
ject, for  it  can  have  no  other.  'This  was  the  view 
taken  by  the  early  grammarians.  ••The  principal 
design  of  a  grammar  of  any  language."  says 
Bishop  l.owtii.  "is  to  teach  usto  express  our 
selves  with  propriety  in  that  language;   and  to 

enable  us  to  judge  of    every   phrase    ami  form  of 

construction,  whether  it  be  nghl  or  not."  Those 
who  teach  grammar,  as  well  as  those  who  com- 
pile grammatical  text-books,  should  constantly 
keep  this  practical  aim  in  view,  eliminating  from 
their  systems  of  instruction  every  thing  that 
does  not  directly  hear  upon  it.  •■  To  explain." 
says  Mulligan  (Grammatical  Structure  of  the 
English  Language,  N.Y..  1852),  "the  laws  of 
artificial  language  is  the  particular  province  of 
him  who  proposes  to  teach  the  sciena  of  gram- 
mar; to  guide  to  the  proper  use  of  the  signs  of 
artificial  language,  and  to  the  correct  interpreta- 
tion of  the  thoughts  of  others  embodied  in  lan- 
guage, so  far  as  this  can  be  effected  by  reference 
bo  the  /•'"•sand  usages  of  language,  is  the  prov- 
ince of  him  who  proposes  to  teach  grammar  as 
an  art."    I  'rocessesof  analysis  and  rules  of  syntax 

are  entirely  useless,  exec)  it  SO  faras  they  contrib- 
ute to  this  end.       Viewed    from  this  stand-point. 

very  much  of  the  machinery  of  English  grammar, 

so  called,  as  taughl  in  scl Is.  is  of  no  practical 

value  to  the  pupil,  but,  on  the  contrary, serves  to 

waste  his  time  and  intellectual  energies.  This 
has  arisen  from  the  application   of   a    traditional 

nomenclature  and  system  of  definitions  and 
rules  to  the  English  language, which  belonged  to 
the  Latin.  "The  manuals,  by  which  grammar 
was  first  taughl  in  English,"  says  Goola  Brown, 

v. ere  not  properly  Kn  imnars.    They  were 


GRAMMAR 


•  >  -  (, 


translations  of  the  Latin  accidence;  and  were 
designed  to  aid  British  youth  in  acquiring  ;i 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  language,  rather  than 
accuracy  in  the  use  of  their  own.  The  two  lan- 
guages were  often  combined  in  one  book,  for  tin- 
purpose  of  teaching  sometimes  both  together, 
and  sometimes  one  through  the  medium  of  the 
other."  Richard  Grant  White,  in  Words  andtheir 
Uses  (N.  Y ..  1870),  also  says,  in  this  connection, 
"It  was  not  until  English  had  east  itself  firmly 
and  sharply  into  its  present  simple  mould  that 
scholars  undertookto  furnish  it  with  a  grammar, 
the  nomenclature  and  the  rules  of  which  they 
took  from  a  language  -the  Latin  —  with  which 
it  had  no  formal  likeness,  and  by  the  laws  of 
which  it  could  not  be  bound,  except  so  far  as 
they  were  the  universal  laws  of  thought."  This 
circumstance,  it  has  been  frequently  asserted, 
has  led  to  a  complexity  in  English  grammar 
which  is  not  found  in  the  language  itself  ;  and 
hence  also  it  has  been  claimed  that  the  practical 
results  of  teaching  English  grammar  can  be 
reached  by  a  much  shorter  and  more  effective 
process.  Without  doubt,  according  to  the  modes 
of  instruction  long  prevalent,  too  much  time  has 
i  given  to  impressing  upon  the  memory  mere 
theory,  —  technical  definitions  and  rules,  without 
a  corresponding  amount  of  practice  in  the  actual 
use  of  language.  This  also  has  been  traditional, 
emanating  from  the  practice  of  teaching  Latin. 
The  more  recent  methods  adopted  by  practical 
teachers,  as  well  as  embodied  in  text-books,  have 
introduced  considerable  reform  in  this  respect. 
English,  the  Study  of.) 
The  first  attempt  at  an  English  grammar  was 
Paul's  Accidence,  an  English  introduction  to 
lily's  Lain  grammar,  written  by  Dr.  John  < 'olet, 
doan  of  St.  Paul's,  for  the  use  of  the  school 
founded  by  him,  and  dedicated  to  William  Lily 
(q.  v.),  the  first  high  master  of  that  school  (1510). 
Lily's  grammar  was  the  exclusive  grammatical 
standard  in  England  for  more  than  300years,  hav- 
ing received  the  sanction  of  royal  authority ;  but 
the  first  book  exclusively  treating  of  English 
grammar  was  that  of  William  Bullokar  (.1  Bref 
Grammar  for  English,  London.  1586).  This 
was  followed  by  John  Stockwood's  TUnglish  Ac- 
cidence (4to,  London,  1590).  During  the  next 
century,  several  works  of  the  kind  appeared, 
anion-'  which  may  be  mentioned,  Ben  Jonson's 
English  Grammar  for  the  benefit  of  all  strangers, 
out  of  his  observation  of  the  English  Language, 
now  spoken  and  in  use  (London,  16i 
Charles  Butler's  English  Grammar  ( lto.  Ox- 
ford. L 633),  which  we  find  quoted  by  In-.  .John- 
son in  the  Introduction  to  his  Dictionary;  and 
the  Rev.  Alex.  Gill's  English  grammar  written 
in  Latin  (Logonomia  Anglica  Grammaticalis, 
London,  L619 — 21);  also  an  English  grammar 
written  in  Latin  for  the  use  of  foreigners, by  Rev. 
John  Wallis,  l».  D.  (London.  1653), from  which, 
it  is  said,  Johnson  and  Lowth  borrowed  most  of 
their  rules.  The  Treatise  of  English  Particles 
(1684),  by  William  Walker,  the  preceptor  of  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  was  a  work  of  great  learning  and 
merit.    This  was  also  written  in  Latin.     Besides 


these,  there    were   several    others  of    lesser    note. 

[hiring  the  18th  century,  many  grammars  ap- 
peared previous  to  the  more  noted  onesof  Lowth 

and    Murray.     The    latter    enumerates,    as    the 

authors  to  whom  he  was  chiefly  indebted  in  the 
compilation  of  his  work.  Barris,  Johnson,  Lowth, 
Priestley,  Beattie,  Sheridan,  Walker,  and  Coote. 
Many  of  these  writers  appreciated  the  grammat- 
ical simplicity  of  the  English  language,  and  to 
someextenl  adapted  their  grammars  to  it.  Bish- 
op Lowth  remarked  in  his  preface,  "the  con- 
struction of  this  language  is  so  easy  and  obvious, 
that  our  grammarians  have  thought  it  hardly 

worth  while  to  give  us  any  thing  like  a  regular 
and  systematic  syntax.  The  English  grammar, 
which  hath  been  late  presented  to  the  public,  and 
by  the  person  [Dr.  Johnson]  best  qualified  to 
have  given  us  a  perfect  one.  comprises  the  whole 
syntax  in  ten  lines,- -tor  this  reason:  'because 
our  language  has  so  little  inflection,  thai  its  con- 
struct ion  neither  requires  nor  admits  many  rules.'" 
Brightland's  Grammar  of  the  English  Ton 
with  the  Arts  of  Logick,  Ehetorick,  Poetry,  etc. 
(London.  I  Til),  was  a  valuable  and  celebrated 
work,  said  to  have  been  composed  by  some  of  the 
most  prominent  literary  men  of  Queen  Anne's 
reign.  !t  was  not,  however,  extensively  adopted. 
Bishop  Lowth's  Short  Introduction  to  English 
Grammar  was  published  in  1758.  "It  was  cal- 
culated," he  states  in  his  preface,  "for  the  use  of 
the  learner,   even  of  the  lov  s";  and  for 

fuller  information  he  refers  to  the  Hermes  (.1 
Philosophical  Inquiry  concerning  Language  and 
Universal  Grammar,  1751)  of  James  Harris, 
which  he  styles  "  the  most  beautiful  and  perfect 
example  of  analysis,  that  has  been  exhibited  since 
the  days  of  Aristotle."  The  learned  Dr.  Priest- 
ley's Rudiments  of  English  Grammar  (London. 
1762)  was  designed  only  as  a  brief  introduction 
to  the  subject;  indeed,  he  considered  that  the 
forms  and  usages  of  the  language  were  not 
sufficiently  settled  and  uniform  to  admit  of  a 
complete  grammar  of  the  language.  Lindley 
Murray  published  his  firsl  Grammar  in  1795 
[English  Grammar,  York),  soon  followed  by 
various  other  auxiliary  works,  all  of  which,  al- 
most immediately,  secured  an  introduction  into 
schools.  Ofthe  Abridgment  (12mo,  L797),  verj 
many  editions  have  been  issued,  Loth  in  England 
and  the  United  States.  The  annual  sale  ol  the 
Look  in  England  has  been  estimated  at  50,000 
copies.  The  most  valuable  pari  of  the  materials 
of  which  this  work  is  composed,  was  taken  from 
Lowth,  as  well  as  its  general  plan.  Dr.  Cheever 
(in  X.  Amer.  Rev.,  xxxi.,  377)  calls  it  "an  en- 
larged copy  of  Lowth."  and  says  of  the  latter. 
'■  Although  Lowth's  treatise  was  written  so  early 

as  the  year  1758,  yet  we  doubt  whether  there  is 

al  the  present  da\  a  single  work  of  equal  excel- 
lence ill  the  same  COmpaS3."     Murray  also  copied 

extensively  from  Priestley;  "with  several  of  the 
English  Grammars  published  previously  to 
his  own."  says  <  foold  Brown,  "he  appears  to  have 
been  totally  unacquainted."  This  laborious  writer 
who.  in  his  Grammar  of  English  Grammars 
,  fork,  1851),  so  mercilessly  reviews  and 


580 


GEAMMAR 


criticises  the  works  of  his  predecessors  and  con- 
temporaries in  grammatical  authorship,  expos  is 
and  condemns  with  unmeasured  severity  the 
plagiarism  and  defects  of  Murray's  grammar. 
"There  is  do  part  of  the  volume,"  he  Bays,  "more 
accurate  than  that  which  he  literally  copied 
from  Lowth.  To  the  Short  Introduction  alone, 
he  was  indebted  tor  more  than  a  hundred  and 
twenty  paragraphs;  and  even  in  these  there  are 
many  things  obviously  erroneous.  Many  of  the 
best  practical  notes  were  taken  from  Priestley, 
etc."  (Gram,  of  Eng.  Gram.,ch.m.)  And.  in 
the  same  critical  invective,  he  pronounces  the 
following  wholesale  condemnation  :  "  It  might 
easily  he  shown  that  almost  every  rule  laid  down 
in  the  book  for  the  observance  of  the  learner. 
was  repeatedly  violated  by  the  hand  of  the  mas- 
ter.     Nor    is    there   among   all    who    have   since 

abridged  or  modified  the  wort  an  abler  gramma- 
rian than  he  who  compiled  it."  But  whatever 
the  merits  or  demerits  of  .Murray's  grammar,  and 

whatever  may  lie  the  source  of  its  materials,  it 
doubtless  owed  its  extraordinary  success  as  a 
school  hook  to  its  practical  adaptation  to  the 
purposes  of  school  instruct  ion.  and  to  the  demand 
which  previous  publications  had  created  for  such 
a  work-.  Since  its  publication,  the  number  of 
English  grammars  published  is  "legion,"  among 
which  those  of  ( loold  Brown  may.  w  ithoul  doubt, 

claim  precedence  for  popularity  and  extensive- 

i icss  of   sale   in  the  United  States.      This  author 

laid  down  a  canon  in  regard  to  grammatical 
authorship  which,  while  it  is  perhaps  alleging  too 
much  to  say  that  he  has  strictly  obeyed  it.  it  is  to 
lie  wished,  might  receive  a  more  general  atten- 
tion :  "lie  who  makes  a  new  grammar  does 
nothing  for  the  advancement  of  learning,  unless 
his  performance  excel  all  earlier  ones  designed 
for  the  same  purpose  :  and  nothing  lor  his  own 
honor,  unless  such  excellence  result  from  the 
exercise  of  his  own  ingenuity  and  taste."  The 
earliest  of  Brown's  grammars  was  TJie  Institutes 
of  English  Grammar  (New  York.  L823,  revised 
ed.,  1854),  which  was  followed,  the  same  year. 
by  The  First  Lines  of  English  Grammar,  an 
abridgment  of  the  former.  These  hooks  have 
had  an  immense  circulation,  and  are  si  ill  (1876) 
very  extensively  used  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  Grammar  of  English  Grammars, 
the  most  comprehensive  work  on  the  subject  jei 
published,  was  completed  in  L851.     Many  other 

1 ksupon  English  grammar,  of  great  merit. 

have  been  published  both  in  England  and  this 
country, for  the  titles  of  which,  see  English, the 

Sri  nv  OP. 

Tli.'  methods  of  instruction  embodied  in  Mui- 
and  Crown's  grammars,  and  in  those  of 
most  of  their  competitors  for  public  favor,  con- 
sisted mainly  in  e nil  I  in-  lo  memory  defini- 
tions and  rules,  in  applying  these,  I'm-  the  pur] 
of  practice,  to  various  styles  of  composition  by 
parsing,  and  in  the  correction  of  false  syntax. 

Most  oi  the  later  gr; ars  vary  or  precede  these 

exercises  with  the  analysis  of  sentences,  afford- 
ing practice  in  the  principles  of  general  grammar, 
as  preliminary  to  special   rules.      -  .     Lnalysis, 


Grammatical.)  Still  more  recently,  a  different 
class  of  elementary  grammatical  text-books  have 
appeared,  under  the  name  of  Language  Lessons, 
the  special  design  of  which  appears  to  he.  to  sup- 
ply considerable  practice  in  the  actual  use  of 
language,  as  a  substitute,  to  some  extent,  for  anal- 
ysis and  parsing.  Probably,  there  is  no  subject 
that  has  been  taught  with  so  great  a  disregard  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  teaching  as  English 
-laminar:  and  there  is  certainly  none  that  has 
so  imperfectly  attained  its  practical  aim  —  cor- 
rectness in  the  use  of  language.  This  lias  arisen 
from  two  errors  of  procedure:  (1)  an  attempt 
to  teach  definitions  without  developing  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  the  ideas  underlying  them, 
and  rules  previous  to  an  illustration  of  their  ne- 
cessity ;  and  (2)  confining  the  instruction  to 
merely  theoretical  and  critical  work,  without 
sufficient  practice  in  the  application  of  principles 
and  rules  to  the  actual  use  of  language.  The  int  re- 
duction of  analysis  was  the  result  of  an  effort  t'> 
reform  the  first  of  theseerrors;  and  the  language- 
lesson  system,  a  reaction  against  the  second. 
Grammar  being,  distinctively,  the  science  of  ///<> 
sciitciirc.  the  preliminary  step  in  all  grammatical 
instruction  must  be.  to  give  to  the  pupil  a  clear 
and  correct  idea  of  what  constitutes  a  sentence. 
I>\  presenting  for  his  examination  ami  analysis 
iiples  of  sentences  of  a  simple  structure,  by 
analyzing  which  he  will  easily  be  made  to 
what  principal  parts  must  enter  into  their  com- 
position, and  how  dlicr  parts  are  used  as  ad- 
juncts, i  See  Analysis,  Grammatical.)  ri  li- - 
outline  of  a  complete  scheme  of  teaching  gram- 
mar in  all  its  stags  is  presented  in  the  following 
points:  (T)  Principles,  definitions,  and  rules 
should  be  progressively  taught  by  requiring  the 
pupil  to  analyze,  and  also  to  construct,  classified 
sentences  commencing  with  those  of  the  simplest. 
construction,  and  passing  gradually  to  such  as 
are  of  the  most  complex  structure ;  (2)  No  defi- 
nition or  rule  should  be  committed  to  memory 
and  formally  recited  until  the  pupil,  by  sufficient 

practice,  has  obtained  a  clear  conception  of  the 

office  of   the  word  defined,  and  the  nature  of  the 

usage  which  the  rule  is  intended  to  guide.     Fof 

example,  it  is  absurd  to  try  to  teach   a   child   the; 

meaning  of  a  participle  or  a  relative  pronoun  at 
an  elementary  stage  of  the  instruction,  because 

the  structures  in  which  alone  they  can  occur  am 
too  complex  to  be  understood  at  that  Stage.    And 

it  is  equally  absurd  to  require  a  child  to  commit 
to  memory  the  rule,  "A  verbmusl  agreewithita 
subject   or  nominative  in  person  and  number," 

until  by  the  comparison  of  a  number  of  sentences 

illustrating  this  usage,  he  is  made  to  understand 
what  is  meant  by  agreement  in  grammar,  and 
how  expressions  may  be  incorrect  by  a  failure  to 
observe  this  rule.    According  to  this  method,  the 

pupil  is  first   made   a.  d  with    the   distinc 

tion  of  subject  and  predicate,  as  being  the  essen- 
tial parts  of  every  sentence.  Thisfornis  the  basis 
for  teaching  him  the  two  parts  of  speech-  the 
verb  and  the  noun.  From  this  point,  the  sentence 
may  be  complicated  by  the  successive  insertion 
<>i'  modifying  words,  phrases,  or  claus  •  to 


GRAMMAR 


38] 


illustrate  not  only  the  nature  and  use  of  eai  h 
of  the  parts  of  speech,  but  every  peculiar  struct- 
ure.   This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following 

example  of  a  sentence  thus  expanded  :  (1)  Boys 
learn.     (2)   The  boys  learn.     (3)  The  studious 

boys  learn.  (4)  'The  studious  buys  learn  rap- 
idly.   (5)  The  studious  boys  learn  their  lessons. 

(6)    'The    BtudioUS    boys     learn     their    lessons    in 

school.     (7)  The  boys  awe?  girls  learn.     (8)  The 
boys  learn,  but  the  girls  do  not  learn.     (9)  The 
boys  who  study   will    Learn.     Of    course,  each 
sentence  here  given  is  only  a  specimen  of  what 
may  be  used  at   each  step  :    and   when   these 
s  ■vera]   steps    have   been  taken,   the   pupil    will 
have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  functions  of 
the  different  parts  of  speech.     Thus,  in  (1),  he 
learns  the  noun  and  the  verb;    in  {'!).  the  article 
is  added;  in  (3),  the  adjective:  in   (4),  the  ad- 
verb ;  in   (5),  the  pronoun ;   in  (<>),  the  preposi- 
tion; in  (7),  the  conjunction,  as  a  connective  of 
words:  in  (8),  the  conjunction,  as  a  connective 
of  sentences;  in  (9),  the  relative  pronoun.  After 
much  preliminary  oral  instruction  of   this  kind. 
the  pupil  may  be  required  to  learn  simple  defi- 
nitions.    Underlying  the  whole  process,  it  will 
hi'  perceived,  is  the  analysis  of    the  sentence, 
parsing  coming  in  at  a  later  stage,  as  the  appli- 
cation  to  particular   sentences,  according  to    a 
given  praa^S.ofthe  definitions  and  rules  learned. 
This  is  the  method  recommended  by  prominent 
educators  of  the  present  day.     "  The  analysis  of 
a  sentence,"  says  Wickersham,  "  consists  in  find- 
ing its  elements,  or  in  reducing  it  to  the  parts  of 
speech,  of  which  it  is  composed.     Parsing  con- 
sists in  finding  out  these  parts  of  speech  and  de- 
termining their  properties  and  relations.     Both 
should  be  combined,  as  is  the  case  in   similar 
operations  in  other  sciences.     The  botanist  ana- 
lyzes a  plant,  and  then  names  ami  describes  its 
several  parts.     The  anatomist  dissects  a  subject, 
and  then  characterizes  the  organs  thus  brought 
to  his  notice      Grammar  can  be  studied  success- 
fully in  no  other  way.      Parsing,  without  a  pre- 
ceding  analysis,  can  lead  but  to  a  very  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  organic  structure  of  sentences." 
To   the    value   of   the   analytical  method,    Prof. 
Whitney  thus  bears  witness:  "Give  me  a  man 
who  can.  with  full  intelligence,  take  to  pieces  an 
English  sentence,  brief  and  not  too  complicated 
even,  and  1  will  welcome  him  as  better  prepared 
for  further  study  in  other  languages  than  if  he 
had  read  both  Ca'sar  and  Virgll.an  1  could  parse 
them  in  the  routine  style  in  which  they  are  often 
parsed."  Parsing  should  not  be  made  a  routine  : 
when  it  becomes  such,  it    is  worse    than    useless. 
The  constant  application  of  complicated  defini- 
tions ami  rules  derived  from  a  language  of  in- 
flections,  to  English  words  and  sentences  having 
scarcely  an  inflection,  is  to  the  pupil  a  senseless 
process,  and  must  only  tend  to  dull,  instead  of 
cultivating  and  sharpening,  his   intellectual   fac- 
ulties.    It  makes  him.  as  has  been  said,  a  "  pars 
ing  machine."     The  definitions  and  rules  of  En- 
ghsh  grammar  should  be  simplified,  recognizing 
tli 'fact  that  English  is  not  an  inflectional  lan- 
guage, except  in  a  very  few  particulars;    and 


hence,  that  the  principles  of  agreement  and  gov- 
ernvu  nt  have  scarcely  any  application.  The  mul- 
tiplying of  rules  that   regulate  nothing  is  idle. 

Thus. of  what  use  is  it  to  cause  a  child  to  repeat, 

in  parsing,  twenty  times  perhaps  in  a  single  les- 
son, the  SO-Called  syntactical  rule.  ••  Adject  ives 
relate  to  nouns  and  pronouns."  when  he  has  al- 
ready learned  as  a  definition  that  "  Adjective- 
are  words  added  to  nouns  and  pronouns ''."  The 
editor  of  the  last  edition  of  Brown's  Institutes  of 
English  Grammar  remarks,  in  an  Observation 
on  the  treatment  of  Syntax  iii  that  work. 
"  Nearly  one  half  of  the  twenty-six  rules  of 
syntax  laid  down  in  this  work  are  rather  a  rep- 
etition of  the  definitions  comprehended  in  ety- 
mology than  separate  rules  necessary  to  guide  us 
in  the  construct  ion  of  sentences":  and  the  same 
may  probably  be  said  of  most  grammars.  All 
such  needless  machinery  should  be  eliminated. 
The  application  of  the  terms  case,  gender, per- 
son, and  all  other  designations  of  inflectional 
variations  of  words,  should  be  kept  within  the 
narrow  limits  prescribed  by  the  simplicity  of  tin 
language.  In  most  systems  of  grammar,  how- 
ever, we  find  these  terms  used  in  so  ambiguous 
a  way  as  almost  hopelessly  to  obscure  the  sub- 
ject and  perplex  the  learner.  Sometimes,  for 
example,  case  is  used  to  indicate  a  form  or  in- 
flection, at  others,  a  mere  relation  without 
change  of  form:  while  the  fact  to  be  taught  is. 
that  where  there  is  no  inflection  there  is  no  case. 
The  rule  that  "a  noun  which  is  the  subject  of  a 
verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case  "  is.  in  En- 
glish, useless  and  absurd.  The  senseless  machin- 
ery of  English  grammar,  as  it  has  been  generally 
taught,  has  brougb.1  thewdiole  subject  under  rep- 
robation, as  being  useless  in  an  elementary  school 
curriculum,  and  as  superseded  in  that  of  the 
high  school  and  college,  by  the  study  of  Latin  : 
while  there  is  no  doubt  that  college  graduates, in 
the  United  States,  are  generally  in  nothing  so 
deficient  as  in  a  practical  and  critical  knowledge 
of  their  own  language.  While  it  is  very  true 
that  the  use  of  every  language  is  a  matter  of 
habit  rather  than  of  rule:  every  writer  and 
speaker  knows,  that  there  are  myriads  of  in- 
stances in  which  the  ear  and  the  memory,  how- 
ever trained  by  habit,  will  not  serve  as  a  guide, 
and  that  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  and 
usages  of  language  in  regard  to  nice  points  of 
construct  ion.  is  indispensable.  "Since  language' 

savs  ( 'unie.  ••  is  the  instrument  of  all  thought,  a 
more  commanding  knowledge  of  it  than  habit 
alone  can  give  must  be  deemed  a  necessity  of 
education,  ami  particularly  of  all  education 
which    pretends    to    cultivate    the    mind." — See 

Currie,  Principles  <>n</  Practice  of  Common- 
School  Education  (Edin.  and  Lond.);  Wells, 
The  Graded  School  (N.  V..  L862);  Wicker- 
spam,  Methods  of  Instruction  (Phila.,  L865| ; 
Kiddle  &c,  How  to  Teach  fN.  V..  1874): 
Brown,  <u-<inini<tr  of  English  Grammars 
(N.  Y..  L851);  White,  Words  <n«l  Their  Uses. 
(N.V..  1870);  Marcel,  The  Study  of  Languages 
(N.  Y..  1876).     'See  also  English,  The  Stud* 

OK 


882 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS,  bo  called,  not  be- 
eause  they  gave  instruction  in  English  grammar, 
1  mt  from  the  fact  of  their  making  the  teaching 
of  Latin  and  Greek-  particularly,  and  some- 
times exclusively,  the  former—  their  especial  aim, 
existed  in  England  from  the  earliest  times.  They 
discharged  the  same  function  as  the  old  cathe- 
dral schools  (q.  v.i.  or  the  cloisfe  r  schools  of  the 
monasteries,  and  were  established  and  supported 
r  by  the  endowm  tnts  of  benevolent  individ- 
uals, or  by  governmental  appropriations.  In  Eng- 
land, the  endowed  grammar  schools  arc  very 
numerous  and  many  of  quite  ancient  foundation. 
Quite  a  numb  srof  Royal  <  Grammar  Schools  were 
Wished  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.. 
Edward  VI.,  and  Elizabeth,  from  funds  obtained 
out  of  the  spoils  of  the  religious  houses  of  the 

Catholics,  broken  up  al  that  time.     To  a  certain 

extent,  they  were  free  schools.  "A  few  of  the 
poor,"  says  Barnard,  "  who  were  unable  to  paj 

for  their  education    were   to    lie   selected  —  some 

according  to  the  parish  in  which  they  were  horn 
or  lived,  some  on  account  of  the  name  they  bore, 

—  and  to  receive  instruction  in  the    learned    lan- 

i  nag  is,  an  I.  under  certain  conditions,  to  be  sup- 
ported through  the  university.  These  Public 
Grammar  Schools  were  thus  the  nurseries  of 
the  scholar.-  of  England,  in  them  the  poor  and 
the  rich,  to  some  extent,  enjoye  I  equal  advantages 
of  learning,  and,  through  them,  the  way  to  the 

highest  honors  in  the  state,  and  the  Largest  use- 
fulness in  the  church  was  opened  to  the  humbles! 
iu  the  land,"     Endowed  grammar  schools  whose 

foundation  dates  hack  to  quite   early   limes  exist 

iu  almost  ;dl  the  principal  towns  of  England. 
Th  'v  are  generally  both  day  and  boarding 
sch  ioIs  Of  these  the  Grammar  School  of  King 
Edward  VI.,  al  Bromsgrove,  is  an  exampl 
which  the  tercentenary  commemoration  of  the 
foundation  was  celebrated  March  ill.,  L853. 
dings,  8vo,  Bromsgrove,  1853.)  As 
a  curious  old  book  on  this  subject  see  Brinslcy's 
Ludus  Literariu8,  or  the  Grammar  Schools 
(London,  1612).  The  course  of  instruction  is 
about  the  same  as  in  the  Public  Schools,  such  as 
Eton,  I  [arrow,  etc.,  Latin  and  Greek  being  quite 

prominent  :     and.    in     both     classes    of    schools. 

pupils  are  prepared  for  admission  into  the  uni- 

\.  reities.     'These  grammar  schools  are.  therefore, 

the  same  as   what    have   been   called   class 
schools,  belonging  to  the  class  of  middle scl 
enl  representing  secondary  instruction.     Thej 
correspond  to  the  gymnasia  of   Germany  and 

the   lycies   of    France;     in    the    latter,  however, 

there  is  a  course  of  instruction  in  modern  lan- 
guages, running  parallel  with  the  ancient  course, 
for  all  pupils  beyond  a  certain  ag  .  Long  before 
the  Reformation,  there  were  grammar  schools  in 

all    the   principal    towns    of    Scotland,   in   which 

th'  Latin  language  was  taught.    In  the  lecture 

Schools  children    were    also   taught    to    read    the 

vernacular  language.      In  Clasgow,  a  grammar 

School  was  in  operation  iu  the  1 5th  century  :  and 
the  Edinburgh   Bigh  School,   in  the  early  part  of 

the  16th  century.  An  ad  ofJamesIV.  the 
earliest    Scottish    legislation   on   the  Bubjed  of 


education  (1494) — refers  to  the  grammar  school, 
especially  : 

'•Item,  It  is  statute  and  ordained  through  all  the 
Realm e  thai  ;>11  Barronnes  and  Freeholders  that  arc  of 
substance  put  their  eldest  sonnea  ami  aires  to  tic 
>chule-  Ira  they  lie  sex  or  nine  wires  (if  age,  ami  liil 
they  remain  at  the  Grammar  Schulea  qahill  they  be 
competentiie  (bunded  ami  have  perfect  Latine". 

Grammar  schools,  in  the  United  States,  were 
originally  of  the  same  character  as  in  England 
and  Scotland.  "By  free  school  and  free  gram- 
mar school,"  says  Barnard,  "in  the  early  records 
both  of  towns  and  of  the  General  Court  of  Con- 
necticut and  Massachusetts,  was  not  intended  the 
common  or  public  school,  as  afterwards  devel- 
oped, particularly  in  Massachusetts, supported  by 

tax  and  free  of  all  charge  to  all  scholars  rich  and 

poor  :  neither  was  it  a  charity  scl 1.  exclusively 

for  tin/  poor.  The  term  was  applied  here,  as  well 
as  in  the  early  acts  of  Virginia   and  other  states. 

in  the  same  sense  in  which  it  was  used  in  England, 
at  the  same  and  much  earlier  dates,  to  characterize 
a  grammar  school  unrestricted  as  to  a  class  of 
children  or  scholars  specified  in  the  instrument 
by  which  it  was  founded,  and  so  supported  as 
not  to  depend  on  the  fluctuating  attendance  and 
tuition  of  scholars  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
master.  In  every  instance  in  which  we  have 
traced  their  history,  the  free  schools  of  New 
England  were  endowed  by  grants  of  land,  by 
gifts  and  bequests  of  individuals,  or  by 'allow- 
ance out  of  the  common  stock  of  the  tow  n".  were 
designed  especially  for  instruction  iu  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  were  supported  in  pari  by  payments 

of  tuition  or  rates  by  parents.  These  schools 
were  the  well-springs  of  classical  education  ill 
this  country,  and    were   the    predecessors  of   the 

incorporated   academies,  which  do  not  appear 

under   that  name    until    a    comparatively    recent 

period."  The  gradual  development  of  the  com- 
mon-school system  in  the  United  States,  joined 
with  the  partial  decline  of  latin  and  Greek  as 

instruments  of  education,  and  the  demand  for 
Studies  of  a  more  practical  character,  that  is, 
more  in  demand  as  a  preparation  for  the  ordinary 
duties  of  life,  have  led  to  a  different  application 
of  the  term  grammar  schools.  The  study  of 
English  grammar  having  taken  the  place  of  Latin 
grammar  in  schools  of  an  elementary  grade, such 
schools  came  to  be  designated  grammar  schoi  s, 
and  the  former  grammar  or  classical  schools  re- 
ceived the  name  of  high  schools  atacadt  mies.  In 

most  of  the  public  school  systems  of  the  cities  of 

the  L  nion,  grammar  schools  areBchools  of  a  gi 
between  the  primary  schools  in  which  the  first 
rudiments  of  instruction  are  imparted,  and  the 
high  schools.  Some  of  the  grammar  schools 
called,  have  a  primary,  tin  intermediate,  and  a 
grammar  department.  In  these  cases,  the  term 
grammar  schools  has  been  used  with  no  definite 
idea  of  its  propriety,  except  as  designating  a 
Bomewhal  higher  grade  of  schools  than  those  in 
which  the  simplest  rudiments  of  an  English  edu- 
cation are  afforded  ;  since  even  in  these  English 
grammar  is  taught  in  only  the  higher  grades  i  r 
classes.  See  Barnard,  Education  in  Europe; 
and  American  Biography,  s.  v.  Ezekiel  Ch& 


GRASER 


GREECE 


383 


GRASER,  Johann  Baptist,  a  Catholic 
priest  and  educator,  bora  in  Eltmann,  Germany, 
in  L766;died  in  L841.  He  aroused  consider- 
able opposition,  especially  among  the  Catholic 
clergy,  by  his  educational  theories.  He  insisted 
that  education  should  not  aim  at  general  culture, 
but  at  a  preparation  for  life.  Class  education  was 
particularly  favored  in  his  doctrine.  His  general 
theory  of  e  lucation  was  derived  from  Schillings 
philosophy.  The  essence  of  man  is  reason  ;  and 
the  aim  of  reason  is  to  reproduce  the  divine 
likeness.  A  knowledge  of  human  life,  in  its  re- 
lation to  nature  and  God,  is  necessary  to  every 
one  :  and  no  power  should  deprive  any  one  of  it. 
The  aim  of  this  general  culture  should  be  to 
proline,'  a  feeling  of  solidarity.  Every  one 
should  be  made  to  feel  that  he  lives  not  for  or 
in  himself  alum.'.  Specific  education  must 
individual,  since  it  aims  to  prepare  each  one  for 
his  future  position  in  life.  The  idea  of  general 
culture  i-  contradictory  to  nature,  and  is  dan- 
gerous withal.  It  is  apt  to  produce  restless,  dis- 
Batisned  people,  rather  than  useful  members  of 
society.  With  Graser,  as  with  Caesar,  men  who 
think  too  much  were  consi  1  -red  dangerous,  in  im- 
parting knowledge,  the  teacher  should  strive  to 
develop  thestudent's  powers.  All  teachers  of  what- 
ever subject,  should  consider  themselves  as  teachers 
of  religion,  for  no  knowledge  is  complete  until 
its  object  is  seen  in  its  relation  to  God.  Graser 's 
theory,  like  that  of  Fichte,  subordinates  the  in- 
dividual to  the  state  in  so  despotic  a  fashion  as 
to  reduce  the  former  to  a  mere  tool.  It  was 
largely  a  reaction,  in  the  interest  of  government, 
from  the  individualism  which  was  at  that  time 
leavening  all  Europe.  It  was  due,  therefore,  less 
to  an  insight  into  human  nature  than  to  the 
political  exigencies  of  his  time.  His  polemic 
against  general  culture  is  due  to  the  same  cause. 
I  lis  class  education  fits  well  in  a  despotic  system 
of  government,  but  overlooks  the  fact  that  man 
is,  first  of  all,  called  to  he  a  man,  and  not  a 
tradesman  or  a  mechanic.  His  leading  idea,  though 
by  no  means  originating  with  him.  was,  that  edu- 
cation is  properly  a  self-culture, —  an  unfolding 
from  within.  His  philosophy  had  a  marked 
effect  upon  his  theory  of  religious  views.  As  a 
follower  of  Schelling,  he  believed  in  an  im- 
manent God,  and  was  impatient,  therefore,  of 
catechetical  instruction  in  religion.  God  must 
be  found  every-where,  according  to  him. —  in 
man.  in  the  world,  ami  not  alone  outside  of  them. 
Catechism  he  considered  as  having  a.  tendency 
to  irreligion  and  rationalism.  A  one  sided  mys- 
ticism characterizes  his  theory,  which  gave  rise  to 
the  charges  of  heterodoxy,  which  were  brought 
against  him.  —  See  Schmidt,  Geschichie  der 
Padagogik,  vol.  iv. 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND, 
the  United  Kingdom  of.  This  is  the  official 
title  of  the  British  empire,  Great  Britain 
being  properly  the  name  of  the  island  which 
comprises  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales.  In 
current   language,    however,    the    name    Great 

J  > 

Britain  alone  is  generally  used  to  designate  the 
whole  imperial  power.     At  present,  the  British 


empire,  in  point  of  extent,  is  the  largest  in  the 
world,  its  area  being  estimated  at  8,700,000  sq. 
in.  Its  aggregate  population  exceeds  283,000,000. 
This  work  contains  special  articles  on  ENGLAND, 
Scotland,  [rel and, also  on  each  of  the  provinces 
of  British  North  America,  on  British  India, and 
on  the  Australasian  Colonies  (qq.v.). 

GREECE,  a  country  of. south  eastern  Europe, 
Laving  an  area  of  I  '.;.:;.'>.'!  sip  m.,and,  according  to 
the  census  of  L870,  1,457,894  inhabitants,  nearly 
allot  whom  speak  the  Greek  language,  and  are 
connected  with  the  Greek  Church.  The  number 
of    those    who    speak    other    languages    is    only 

68,000,and  the  number  belonging  to  other  relig- 
ious denominations,  only  12,600.  Greece,  an- 
ciently called  Hellas,  is  the  earliest  of  all  the 
European  countries,  thai  appear  upon  the  stage 
of  the  world's  history:  and  though  the  Greek 
states  have,  for  many  centuries,  ceased  to  exist, 
the  language  and  literature  of  the  Greek  nation 
have,  in  uninterrupted  continuation,  been  instru- 
ments in  the  education  of  mankind.  The  limits 
of  ancient  Greece  were  not  well  defined,  as  the 
northern  boundary  line  considerably  varied  at 
different  periods.  Of  territories  now  subject  to 
Turkish  rule,  the  Sporades,  Crete,  Rhodes,  and 
parts  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus  are  generally  in- 
cluded in  ancient  Greece,  and  are  inhabited  by 
Greeks  at  the  present  day.  Numerous  and 
flourishing  colonies  were  established  by  the  an- 
cient Greeks,  or  Hellenes,  in  many  countries, 
especially  in  Sicily,  southern  Italy,  and  Asia 
Minor. and.  for  a  longtime,  took  an  active  part  in 
tlie  literary  and  educational  development  of  the 
race.  In  14<>  B.  C,  Greece  became  a  Roman 
province  ;  and  for  more  than  four  centuries  the 
I  lellenic  nation  remained  subject  to  foreign  rule. 
The  division  of  the  Roman  Empire,  in  395,  cre- 
ated the  Greek  Empire,  of  which  Constantinople 
was  the  capital,  and  which  embraced,  for  a  long 
time, not  only  theGreek  territory  now  belonging  to 
the  kingdom  of  Greece,  but  both  the  European 
and  Asiatic  portions  of  the  Turkish  empire.  The 
empire  was  destroyed,  in  1453, by  the  Ottomans, 
or  Turks  :  and  the  (decks  continued  for  centuries 
without  national  sovereignty,  until,  in  1829, the 
establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  restored 
to  them  a  place  among  the  independent  nations 
of  the  earth.  "We  shall  treat,  in  this  article,  of  (1) 
Ancient  Greece,  (II)  the  Greek  Empire,  and 
(111)  Modern  ( rreece. 

I.  Ancient  Greece.  —  In  the  history  of  edu- 
cation, the  ancient  Greeks  hold  a  more  promi- 
nent position  than  any  other  people  of  antiquity. 
They  attained  a  far  higher  degree  of  intellectual 
development  than  existed  in' the  Asiatic  or 
African  monarchies  which  preceded  them  ;  or 
in  the  Roman  republic,  the  Roman  empire,  and 
the  rising  monarchies  of  the  middle  ages,  which 
came  alter  them.  It  needed  the  revival  of  clas- 
sical learning,  in  the  L 5th century,  to  raise  the 
intellectual  culture  of  Kurope  again  to  the  lew  I 
of  ancient  ( Greece.  Since  t  hen.  the  <  dvek  language 
and  literature  have  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
development  of  modern  civization.  The  progress 
of  modern  literature,  especially  of  history,  mat  he- 


384 


GREECE 


matics,  philosophy,  the  fine  arts,  natural  science, 
and  geography,  is  largely  due  to  the  writings  of 
the  Greek  scholars  who  were  the  first  notable 
teachers  of  these  subjects,  and  who.  during  the 
last  four  centuries,  have  been  studied  by  so  large 
a  number  of  the  young  students  of  the  civilized 
world.  The  great  orators  of  ancient  Greece  have 
not  yet  ceased  to  be  admired  ;  and  the  greatest 
poets  of  t  lie  English  language  and  of  other  modern 
tongues  have  not  only  derived  from  the  master- 
pieces of  the  Greeks,  inspiration  and  the  laws  of 
literary  composition  of  every  kind,  but  in  many 
cases,  modern  poets  have  borrowed  from  them 
even  the  Subjects  of  their  poems. 

The  earliest  feature  of  education  in  ancient 
Greece,  as  we  infer  from  the  Homeric  poems 
and  other  writings  of  that  period,  was  the  im- 
planting of  a  strongly  filial  attachment  in  the 
minds  of  children,  and  the  ennobling  influence 
of  parental  discipline  and  example.  Reverence 
and  obedience  toward  parents,  respect  for  old 
age.  and  habits.of  modesty,  chastity,  and  silence 
in  the  presence  Of  elders  and  superiors  were  re- 
garded as  the  chief  ornaments  of  children.  The 
principle  was  generally  recognized,  that  lie  who 
is  to  be  called  upon  to  command,  mus1  first  learn 
to  obey.  Plainly  and  artlessly,  sons  and  daughters 
were  brought  up  to  be  the  images  of  their  par- 
ents. The  son  found  in  his  father  his  model 
and  his  teacher,  who  instructed  him  in  the  use 
of  arms,  in  gymnastic  exercises,  and  in  the  wor- 
ship and  fear  of  the  gods.  The  daughter  was 
expected  to  grow  up,  under  the  watchful  in- 
struction of  the  mother,  a  skillful,  prudent,  and 
virtuous  woman.  However  uncertain  the  his- 
torical background  of  the  heroic  age  may  be, 

we  know  that  the  ideal  of  a  hero  in  ancient 
Greece,  which  was  held  up  to  the  rising  youth 
to  be  copied,  awakened  more  lofty  aspirations, 

and  exerted  an    educational    influence    far  supe- 
rior to  anything  that  is  to  be  met  with  in  the 
early  history  of  the  oriental  monarchies.   A  re 
liance  on  self-activity,  a   longing  for  fame,  an 
earnest  effort  to  subject  physical  nature  to  the 

rule  of  the  mind  :   and  a  devotion  to  music  and 

gymnastics,  are  s e  of  the  features  which  fore- 
shadowed the  eminent  position  which  Greece 
\v;is  to  attain  in  the  annals  of  education.     In  the 

historic  age  of  the  Greek  republics,  we  notice  a 
passionate  ambition,  on  the  pari  of  the  noblesl 
minds,  for  distinction  in  political  life,  in  art.  ami 
in  science.  A  nobler  view  was  taken,  than  ever 
before,  of  the  functions  of  the  state ;  and  educa- 
tion was  recognized  as  the  mosl  important  sub- 
ject to  which  state  legislation  could  be  directed. 
The  good  of  the  state  was  an  object  constantly 

held   in    view,  and     the    individual    and    private 

interests  of  the  pupils  were  subjects  of  secondary 
consideration.  No  other  country  ever  had  an 
educational  legislation  like  thai  which  is  ascribed 
to  Lycurgus  (q.  v.),  and  Solon  (q.v.);  and  no- 
where do  we  find  Buch  attempts  to  develop  and 
test  new  educational  ideas,  as  those  made  by 
Socrates.  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle.  Xeno- 
phon,  Epicurus,  Zeno,  and  a  host  of  others.  \ 
characteristic  feature  of  the  educational  system 


of  the  Greeks,  from  the  earliest  period  of 
their  history  to  the  downfall  of  their  country,  is 

the  attempt  at  a  harmonious  development  of  the 

powers  of  the  mind  as  well  as  of  the  body-  G '>/»/- 
nasties  (<j.  V.)  constituted  an  essential  part  of 
Greek,  education,  and  was  taught  and  practiced 
in  the  gymnasia,  or  schools  for  bodily  exercise. 
All  that  part  of  education  which  related  more 
especially  to  the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  was- 
called  by  some.  Plato  and  Plutarch  for  instance, 
music,  while  others  separated  grammar  from 
music,  and  divided  education  into  three  parts: 
grammar,  music,  and  gymnastics.  The  centers 
of  <! reek  education  were  the  two  rival  capitals. 
Allien- and  Sparta.  Their  educational  systems. 
though  hoth  embraced  gymnastics  and  music. 
differed  iii  many  and  important  respects.  Sparta. 
the  representative  of  the  Dorictribes,  laid  greater 
stress  on  the  subordination  of  the  individual 
to  the  state  and  preferred  physical  to  intellectual 
culture  :  while  Athens,  the  representative  of  the 
more  highly  civilized  Conians,  was  the  birthplace 
of  those  grand  theories  which,  in  the  history  of 
education,  are  set  down  as  the  chief  characteris- 
tics of  ancient  Greece.  (See  Atukns.  and 
Spabta.)  Though  we  know  but  little  of  the 
schools  and  educational  systems  of  other  Grecian 
cities,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  all  of  them., -is 
well  as  the  colonies, took  a  greater  or  less  part  in 

the  educational  ideas  which  were  developed  and 
carried  out  in  Athens  and  Sparta.  One  of  the 
greatest  of  all  Greek  teachers.  Pythagoras,  was 
a  native  of  the  island  of  Sanios.  and  established 
the  famous  school,  which  has  immortalized  him 

in  the  history  of  education,  in  <  Votoii.  oneof  the 
Greek  colonies   in  southern  Italy.    (See  PvTHAG- 

okas.)  With  the  .subjection  of  Greece  to  the 
rule  of  .Macedonia,  its  achievements  in  the  work 
of  education  began  to  decline.  Of  considerable 
influence,  in  the  Liter  history  of  (.'recce  as  well 
as  in  that  of  the  Roman  empire,  were,  however, 
the  principles  of  the  Epicureans  and  the  Stoics. 
The  founder  of  the  former  was  Epicurus,  who 
died  at  Athens,  in  'J70.  I!,  ('..after  having  taught 
there  with  great  success  for  35  years.  Be  regarded 
a  happy  life,  a  quiet  and  cheerful  mind,  and 
an  undisturbed  enjoyment  of  pleasure,  as  the 
highest  attainable  good.     Intellectual  pleasures 

were  value  1   by  him    more   highly   than    sensual 

ones,  and   friendship,  tranquillity,  patience  in 

suffering  unavoidable  pain,  and  a  temperate  and 
natural  mode  of  life,  were  called  by  him  the  car- 
dinal virtues.  Epicurus  and  his  firsl  followers 
were  entirely  five  from  the  licentiousness  which. 

during    the   times    of    the  Roman   cinperois.  was 

considered  the  chief  characteristic  of  that  school. 
The  Stoics  were  founded  by  Zeno,  who  died 
at  \theiis, in  260,  B.  C,  after  teaching  there  for 
50  years  with  as  great  success  as  his  contempo- 
rary, Epicurus.    The  name  Stoics  was  given  to 

his  school  because  he  used  to  assemble  his  pupils 
in  a  rrr./.i,  or  porch.    Zeno  regarded  virtue  a.s  the 

highest  good,  and  he  defined  it  as  the  firm  ad- 
hesion  to  established    principles  of  rectitude. 

Vice  was.  in  his  opinion,  the  only  evil.  He. 
therefore,  laid  greater  BtreSS  than   EpicuruSUpOQ 


GREECE 


P.sf 


the  control  of  passions  and  emotions,  upon  the 
subordination  of  the  body  to  the  mind,  upon  re- 
fraining from  sensual  pleasures,  and  upon  every 
kind  of  abstinence  and  self-denial.  lEven  life 
itself  should  be  relinquished,  if  it  hindered  the 
exercise  of  conscience.  In  opposition  t<>  Epicu- 
rism, Stoicism,  in  later  times,  was  the  symbol  of 
an  austere  morality.  While  Greece  proper,  al 
this  time,  presented  more  and  more  a  picture  of 

i tinual  decay,  the   ('durational    institutions  of 

Athens  and  Sparta  perishing  with  the  total  loss 
of  their  independence,  the  city  of  Alexandria,  in 
Egypt,  became  the  scat  of  Greek  science  and 
literature,  and  its  teachers  and  schools  obtained 
a  world-wide  reputation.  (See  Alexandrian 
School.)  After  the  rise  of  Christianity,  the 
Alexandrian  school  of  philosophers  developed  the 
system  of  Neoplatonism,  which  endeavored  to 
harmonize  oriental  theology  with  Creek  dialec- 
tics, and  to  dislodge  Christianity  by  a  new  uni- 
versal philosophy.  The  fame  of  the  Greek 
hers  in  Alexandria  also  gave  rise  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  first  school  of  Christian  theolo- 
gians, some  of  whom  endeavored  to  keep  alive 
in  the  church  an  intimate  acqui  intance  with  the 
ttesl  representatives  of  ancient  Greek  litera- 
ture. These  efforts,  however,  were  not  success- 
ful ;  but  the  fact  that  the  earliest  literature  of 
tile  Christian  church  is.  like  the  New  Testament 
itself,  written  in  the  language  of  ancient  Greece, 
has  secured  to  the  latter,  at  all  times,  an  impor- 
tant educational  influence  in  the  ( !hristian  world. 
—  See  Grote,  History  of  Greece;  Hochhebjer, 
System  der  griechischen  Erziehung  (1785)  ; 
Goess,  Die  Erziehungswissenschqft  nach  </'■/> 
Grundsdtzen  '{<•/•  Griechen  und  Ho'mer  (1808); 
Krause,  Geschichte  <l<>r  Erziehung  und  des 
Unterrichts  i><j  den  Griechen,  Etruskern  und 
Rdmern  (1851);  Jacobs,  Ucbcr  di<>  Krzii'hung 
der  Griechen  zur  Siillichkeit,  in  vol.  m.  of  his 
I  rermischte  Schriften,  commenced  in  1 833  ;  trans, 
by  Pelton,  in  Classical  Studies,  by  Sears,  Fel- 
Tox.and  Edwards (1843).  Aselection  of  maxims 
on  education  from  the  Greek  classics  is  given  in 
Niemeyer,  OriginalsteUen  griechischer  />//</  rfi- 
mischer  Classiker  ihber  die  Theorie  der  Erzie- 
Im,i<i  mnl  des  Unterrichts  (1813);  Schmidt, 
History  of  Education  (New  York,  1842);  Wil- 
kixs.  National  Education  in  Greece  in  tin' 
Fourth  Century  be/ore  Christ  (London,  1872). 
IT.  77/e  Greek  Empire.  —  When,  in  the 
Uli  century.  A.  D.,  Constantine  transferred  the 
capital  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  Byzantium, 
which  from  him  received  the  name  of  Con- 
stantinople, the  predominance  of  the  Creek 
language  and  literature  in  the  educational  insti- 
tutions of  the  empire  was  firmly  established. 
About  70  years  later,  in  395,  Theodosius,  at  his 
death,  divided  the  empire  into  the  Western  Em- 
pire which  remained  under  the  influence  of 
Latin  or  Roman  culture,  and  the  Eastern  or 
Byzantine  Empire,  which,  in  language  and  civili- 
zation, was  almost  exclusively  <  Ireek  :  and  which, 
therefore,  is  sometimes  called  the  (ireek  Em- 
pire. It  dragged  out  a  wretched  existence,  until, 
in  1453.  it  was  conquered  bv  the  Turks.  Though 
25 


thus  existing  through   a   period  of  more  than  a 
thousand  years,  and  spreading over  a  vast  extent 

of  territory,  this  empire  presents  in  the  history 
of  education  little  more  than  a  blank.  A  general 

stagnation  early  became  the  chief  characteristic 
of  the  intellectual  condition  of  the  empire. 
Nothing  at  all  was  done  for  the  instruction  of 
the  masses;  the  few  schools  in  which  the  Creek 
classics  were  taughl  proved  unable  to  produce  a 
single  great  educator.  "The  Greeks  of  Constan- 
tinople held  in  their  lifeless  hands."  says  Gibbon, 
"the  riches  of  their  fathers,  without  inheriting  the 
spirit  which  had  created  and  improved  that  sa- 
cred patrimony:  they  read,  they  praised,  they 
compiled,  but  their  languid  souls  seemed  alike 
incapable  of  thought  and  action.  In  the  revolu- 
tion of  ten  centuries',  not  a  single  discovery  was 
made  to  exalt  the  dignity  or  promote  the  hap- 
piness of  mankind."  The  expulsion  of  the  last 
Neoplatonists  from  Constantinople,  under  Jus- 
tinian (527—  565),  had  a  disastrous  effect  ;  and. 
for  some  time,  a  few  convents  on  the  islands  of 
the  archipelago  and  on  .Mount  Athos  offered  the 
only  refuge  to  science  and  education.  A  few  of 
the  long  list  of  emperors  deserve  credit  for  having 
at  least  attempted  a  general  reform.  The  most- 
noted  among  these  was  Rardas  (850).  He  founded 
in  Constantinople  a  free  university,  with  a  free 
const  itution,  making  it  independent  of  the  church 
and  the  clergy.  Distinguished  teachers  of  philos- 
sophy.  geometry,  astronomy,  and  higher  gram- 
mar were  appointed,  and  the  emperor  himself  at- 
tended their  lectures.  He  estal  dished  special 
schools  for  different  sciences,  paid  the  teachers 
from  the  public  treasury,  and  intrusted  the 
superintendence  of  this  entire  system  of  educa 
tional  institutions  to  the  philosopher  Leo.  During 
the  reign  of  the  Macedonian  dynasty,  which  be- 
gan in  867,  Byzantine  literature  entered  upon  its 
most  brilliant  period,  and  Constantinople  became 
the  central  seat  of  philological  and  encyclopaedic 
erudition.  Constantine  l'orphyrogenitus  (913- 
959),  established  four  special  schools  for  philos- 
ophy, rhetoric,  geometry,  and  astronomy,  and 
required  in  every  public  officer  of  a  higher  grade 
a  knowledge  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric.  Among 
the  succeeding  emperors,  Constantine  Ducas 
especially  encouraged  education;  but  no  impor- 
tant or  lasting  results  were,  at  any  time,  ob- 
tained. The  decay  steadily  advanced,  and  the 
empire  was.  from  an  intellectual  no  less  than 
from  a  political  point  of  view,  a  complete  ruin 
when  it  fell  a  prey  to  the  conquering  arms  of 
the  lurks.  —  See  Schmidt,  Geschichte  der  Pa- 
dagogik. 

III.  Modern  Greece.  —  The  wars  which  the 
Sultans  waged  against  the  Byzantine  empire 
being  not  only  directed  against  a  hostile  nation, 
lnii  against  a  hostile  religion,  were  particularly 
disastrous  to  Creek  learning.  The  few  scholars 
who  succeeded  in  saving  their  lives,  were  either 
forced  to  Hy  to  foreign  lands  or  to  hide  in 
cloisters.  The  establishment  of  schools  of  an 
advanced  grade  for  the  instruction  of  (ireek 
youth  was  even  more  strictly  forbidden  than  the 
erection  of  churches.     In  consequence  of  these 


380 


GREECE 


measures,  schools  and  all  other  means  of  culture 
fell  into  entire  neglect  :  and  the  ignorance  of  the 
Greek  population  became,  from  year  to  year,  more 
dense  and  extensive.  After  a  long  period,  and 
particularly  during  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
Turks,  believing  their  authority  to  be  beyond 
danger  of  overthrow,  began  to  be  less  suspicious 
of  their  Greek  subjects;  and,  in  consequence, 
the  condition  of  the  latter  grew  more  tolerable. 
Gradually,  a  more  frequent  intercourse  with 
other  Christian  nations  of  Europe  awaken.' I 
among  the  Greeks  a  stronger  desire  for  Learning, 
which  was  easilv  gratified  by  their  growing 
wealth.  Public  schools,  before  so  rare,  began  to 
increase  in  number;  while  there  also  sprung  up, 
in  Bom  ■  of  the  cities,  schools  of  a  higher  grade, 
in  which  was  taught  ancient  Greek  history,  and, 
in  some  cases,  the  elements  of  philo  »phy,  mathe- 
matics, rhetoric,  and  natural  philosophy.  The 
most  efficient  and  best  known  of  these  schools 
were  those  situated  upon  the  islands  of  Patmos 
and  Scio,  at  Cydonia,  Smyrna,  Zagora  (with  a 
second  one  at  Melia,  on  Mt.  Pelion  in  Thessaly), 
two  in  Vanina  in  Epirus,  one  on  Mount  Athos. 
two  in  the  Peloponnesus,  one  at  Blumtchisnie 
on  the  Bosporus,  and  two  in  the  Danubian 
Principalities, — at  Bucharest  and  Jassy.  These 
schools  which  were  mostly  supported  by  the  en- 
dowments of  patriotic  citizens,  and  by  voluntary 
contributions,  were,  in  most  cases,  under  the 
direction  of  excellent  scholars,  who  had  received 
their  education  in  Italy.  Prance,  or  Germany, 
and  who  devote  1  their  time  to  the  instruction  of 
youth  at  a  merely  nominal  salary.  The  condition 
of  tile  elementary  schools  of  that  period  was 
extremely  miserable  ;  and  not  until  a  few  years 
before  the  insurrection,  did  any  improvement 
take  place.  A  learned  Greek,  Georgios  KJeo- 
bulos,  ha\  ing  become  acquainted  with  the  moni- 
torial system  of  instruction,  introduced  it  into 
Greece.  This  was  the  condition  of  public  instruc- 
tion at  the  outbreak  of  t he  revolut  ion.  During 
the  struggles  that  followed, this  condition  gradu- 
ally deteriorated.  In  the  neighboring  Ionian 
Islands,  which  were  under  the  protectorate  of 
<  iii  at  Britain,  there  had  been,  in  the  in.  an  while, 
a  decided  improvement  in  the  condition  of  liter- 
ary institutions.  Several  Hellenic  schools  and 
a  gymnasium  had  been  established  by  tin-  govern- 
ment; and  a  university  had  been  endowed  by 
the  liberality  of    Lord  Guilford,  which,  although 

imperfect  in  many  respects,  had  educated  many 
Grecian  youths,  who,  upon  the  establishment  of 
a  regular  government   in   the  new  kingdom  of 

Greece,    became    its   leading   statesmen.      Count 

Capo  d'Istria,  upon  being  elected  president,  bj 

the  national  < vention  in  1828, erected, besides 

numerous  public  schools,  a  gymnasium  on  the 

island    of    .  Kgina.  which   BOOH    became   of   great 

benefit  to  Greece.    Under  King  Otho,  the  entire 
bem  of  public  education  was  reorganized;  and 

Hie  relations  of  the  schools  and  of  the  depart- 
ment of  education  were  carefully  regulate  I. 

Primary  Instruction.  The  common  schools 
of  Greece  are  regulated  by  the  law  of  1 833,  which 
makes  school  attendance  obligatory   upon  all 


children  between  the  ages  of  5  and  12  years. 
This  requirement  is.  however,  far  from  being 
enforced,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  in  1870, 
but  .'!.'!  per  cent  of  adult  males,  and  but  7 
per  cent  of  adult  females,  were  able  to 
read  and  wait:'.  There  were  55  communes,  in 
1870,  in  which  not  one  woman  was  able  to  read 
or  write.  In  the  army,  the  proportion  of  totally 
illiterate  men  was  4s_  per  cent,  and  in  the  navy, 
it  was  53  \  percent.  Every  parish  is  required 
to  have  at  least  one  school:  and  in  case  its 
means  do  not  suffice  to  support  a    Bchool,  aid    is 

afforded  by  the  government.  There  are  also 
"irregular  schools"  in  towns  which  cannot  sup- 
port the  regular  government  school.  In  the 
irregular  schools,  the  old  method  of  individual 
instruction  is  still  followed.  Separate  schools 
for  girls  are  found  in  large  cities  only.  A  rule 
adopted  bythe  educational  department,  without 
any  authority  of  law.  however,  provides  that,  in 
every  school  in  which  the  number  of  scholars 
exceeds  1 50  or  250,  there  shall  lie  one  or  two 
■  lant  teachers  respectively.  Owing  to  a  want 
of  funds,  this  rule  has  not  been  fully  carried  out 
except  in  the  chief  towns  of  the  nomarxihies 
(provinces)  and  eparchies  (districts).  The 
schools  of  each  parish  are  governed  by  a  local 
board  of  inspectors,  called  the  ephory.  This 
board  is  composed  of  the  burgomaster  as  presi- 
dent, one  of  the  priests  of  the  place,  and  from 
two  to  four  private  citizens.  Where  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  districts  belong  to  different  faiths. 
a    priest    'Vim   each   of  the  denominations  is 

chosen.  Th  •  ephory  have  the  care. oversight. and 
management  of  all  the  schools  in  the  parish,  and 
may  exempt  poor  families  from  taxation  for 
school  purposes.  They  must  visit  the  schools 
at  least  once  a  month,  and  report  to  the  eparch 
or  the  nomarch  the  defects  in  the  schools. as  well 

as  the  improve uts  which  they  may  consider 

necessary.     They   also   present    a    report    on  the 

financial  condition  of  the  school.  Committees, 
similar  in  their  composition  to  the  ephories,  were 
provided  for  the  eparchies  and  nomarchies  by 

the   law  of    L833.     The  eparehs  are  required  to 

\i.-it  the  schools  under  their  charge  semi-annu- 
ally, and  the  nomarchs  the  schools  of  the  noin- 
archy  annually:  and  they  report  to  the  depart- 
ment on    the  condition   of   the   schools,   ami  the 

conduct  of  the  teachers  and  of  the  local  inspec- 
tors, 'the  principal  of  the  school  at  the  cap- 
ital  of    the   eparchy    has    the    supervision    of 

all  the  schools    in    that    district,  as  respects  the 

essional  skill  and  capacity  of  the  teachers; 

and  the  principal  of  the  school   at    the  capital  of 

a  nomarchy  has  a  similar  supervision  of  all  the 

schools  in  his  province.  It  is  the  duty  of  these 
principals  to  visit  the  schools  und'a-  their  charge 
every  six  months,  and  report  on  them  to  the 
director  of  the  teachers'  seininaiy  at  Athens. 
Who  is  the  chief  superintendent  of  all  the  schools. 
The   schools  are   divided    into    two   grades :  the 

lower  or  monitorial,  including  eight  classes,  in 

each  of  which  the  scholars  spend  from  one  to 
two  yean;  and  the  higher,  syndidactic  arsim-id- 
taneous,  composed  of  two  (In  the  cities  thn 


GREECE 


387 


annual  classes.  All  the  scholars  arc  instruct.' I 
in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  the  rudiments  of 
modern  Greek  grammar,  and  religion.  To  these 
studies  arc  added,  in  the  higher  schools,  the 
elements  of  geography,  Biblical  and  Greek  his- 
tory, and  the  grammar  of  the  ancient  Greek 
language.  Religious  instruction  is  generally  im- 
parted by  the  teacher;  but,  in  a  few  cases. 
where  the  scholars  are  of  different  religion,  the 
parents  of  thai  denomination  which  is  in  a 
minority,  provide  separate  religious  instruction 
at  their  own  expense.  The  scholars  are  also 
required  to  furnish  short  compositions.     Music 

and  drawing  arc  taught  in  but  very  few  scl Is, 

owing  to  the  scarcity  of  teachers.  The  teachers 
are  required  to  keen  a  general  register  of  the 
scholars,  a  record  of  school  delinquencies,  a  rec- 
ord of  the  visits  of  inspectors  and  other  persons, 
a  register  of  children  who.  through  want  of 
room,  have  been  refused  admission,  a  roll  of 
honor,  a  record  of  reprimands  and  punishments, 
a  book  for  each  scholar,  in  which  his  conduct  is 
noted  twice  a  month  by  the  teacher  and  the 
parents,  registers  of  the  different  classes,  and  a 
monthly  exhibit  of  the  condition  of  the  school, 
not  only  with  respect  to  the  scholars  and  their 
studies,  but  also  in  regard  to  the  school-building 
etc.  A  quarterly  report  is  seut  to  the  eparch  or 
nomarch,  drawn  up  front  these  monthly  exhibits, 
and  signed  by  the  teacher  and  the  local  inspector. 
Two  general  examinations  are  held  annually, — 
at  the  end  of  February,  and  at  the  end  of  August, 
of  which  the  latter  only  is  open  to  the  public. 
The  final  examinations  of  the  highest  classes 
take  place  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  are  con- 
ducted by  a  special  examining  committee.  The 
school  laws  are  read  to  the  scholars  and  are 
affixed  to  the  walls  of  the  school  rooms,  where 
they  remain  during  the  year.  Corporal  punish- 
ment is  strictly  forbidden;  the  usual  punishments 
being  the  loss  of  credit  marks,  detention,  re- 
primands, and  expulsion.  Pupils  are  rewarded 
by  certificates  of  merit,  admission  to  the  roll  of 
honor,  and  premiums  at  the  closing  examination 
of  the  year.  A  teachers'  seminary  has  ex- 
isted in  Athens  since  the  first  year  of  the 
kingdom,  to  which  a  model  school  is  attached. 
Upon  passing  an  examination  teachers  receive 
diplomas  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  grade,  ac- 
cording to  their  degree  of  proficiency.  This 
seminary  also  furnishes  the  Christian  population 
of  the  Turkish  provinces  with  teachers.  Female 
teachers  are  educated  in  the  higher  female 
schools,  particularly  in  the  one  founded  by  the 
Association  of  the  Friends  of  Education,  in 
Athens.  The  minimum  monthly  salary  is  LOO 
drachmas  (1  drachma=$0.19.3)  for  teachers  in 
the  capital  of  a  nomarchy,  90  drachmas  for 
teachers  in  the  chief  towns  of  eparchies,  80 
drachmas  for  second-class  teachers,  and  50  drach- 
mas for  third-class  teachers.  The  salaries  of 
teachers  at  the  capitals  of  the  nomarchies  and 
eparchies  are  increased  10  drachmas  a  month, 
but  cannot  exceed  140  drachmas.  Besides  the 
salary,  the  teachers  of  all  classes  are  provided 
with  free  lodging,  and  receive  from   the  parish 


isury  a  monthly  apportionment  of  '_''_'  lepia 
(100  lepta  equal  to  I  drachma)  for  each  pupil. 
As,  with  the  exception  of  the  islands  of  Syra, 
lino,  Naxia,  and  Santorini,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  an'  Roman  Catholics,  almost  the  entire 
population  of  the  kingdom  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church,  no  provision  has  been  made  fordenom- 
inational  schools;  and  hence  the  members  of 
both  churches,  in  these  islands,  send  theirchildren 
to  the  same  school.  In  some  places,  school.-  have 
been  established  by  the  Catholic  clergy  for  the 
children  belonging  to  thai  church;  but  these  are 
supported  entirely  by  private  means.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  clergy  in  the  government  schools 
is  very  limited,  not  extending  beyond  the  super- 
vision of  the  religious  instruction  and  the  ap- 
proval of  the  religious  books  to  be  Used.  The  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  schools,  as  well  ;  s  in  the 
school  attendance,  during  the  present  century, 
has  been  \ cry  marked.  While,  in  L830,  there 
were  only  71  schools,  with  t'i~'l\  scholars,  and,  in 
1858,  754  schools,  with  51,596  pupils,  there 
were,  in  ls7'_'.  !»'.>1  primary  schools  for  boys,  and 
1st;  schools  for  girls,  with  1713  male  and  560 
female  teachers,  and  73,580  pupils,  of  whom 
61,885  were  boys,  and  Ll,695,  girls.  In  1874, 
there  where  l'J'J7  schools,  with  81,449  pupils. 

Secondary  Instruction.  —  Secondary  instruc- 
tion is  imparted  in  the  Hellenic  schools  and  the 
gymnasia.  The  Hellenic  schools  correspond  to 
what  in  Germany  are  called  Latin  schools,  and 
also  to  the  higher  burgher  schools,  as  they  are 
intended  not  only  to  prepare  boys  for  the  gym- 
nasia, but  also  to  provide  a  higher  education 
for  those  who  intend  to  follow  a  business  or 
trade.  The  gymnasia  correspond  to  the  higher 
classes  of  the  German  gymnasia,  and  prepare 
those  for  the  university  who  look  forward  to  a 
learned  profession.  Fach  one  of  the  eparchies 
is  required  to  have,  at  least,  one  Hellenic  school ; 
and  each  one  of  the  nomarchies,  a  gymnasium. 
The  secondary  schools  are  governed  by  the  royal 
ordinance  of  L837.  In  order  to  receive  support 
from  the  state,  they  must  have  no  denomina- 
tional character.  The  Hellenic  schools  of  each 
province  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  nearest  gymnasium, who  visits  them 
and  reports  on  their  condition  annually.  The 
Hellenic  schools  comprise  three,  and  the  gym- 
nasia, four  annual  classes.  The  course  of  study 
in   the    Hellenic    schools   is   as  follows:    religion 

and  penmanship  (2  hours  each  per  week  in  all 

three  classes),  history  and  mathematics  (.'!  hours 
each),  French  language  (4  hours),  the  Creek 
language  (12  hours),  geography  (3  hours  in  the 
first  class,  and  2  in  each  of  the  othersj,  and  Latin 

(3  hours,  in  the  third  class  only).  In  the  gym- 
nasia, the  course  of  study  is  as  follows:  religion 
and  natural  philosophy  (2 hours  each  in  all  four 
classes),  mathematics,  history,  and  French  (each 
3  hours),  Latin  (5  hours;.  Greek  (9  hours),  geog- 
raphy (•'!  hours  in  the  first  two  classes,  ami  "_'  in 
the  two  highest  classes);  the  elements  of  philos- 
ophy are  taught  2  hours  per  week.  Religious 
instruction  is  given  in  the  Hellenic  schools  by 
lone  of  the   teachers,  and  in  the  gymnasia  by 


:;ss 


GREECE 


GREEK    CHURCH 


regularly  appointed  priests.  In  the  Hellenic 
schools,  chrestomathies  arc  used  :  and  the  classic 
authors  in  Greek  and  Latin  arc  generally  read 
in  the  gymnasia.  Text-books  have  been  pre- 
pared top  all  the  various  branches  of  study,  and 
have  steadily  improved.  The  system  of  clas 
teachers  prevails  in  Ihe  I  [ellenic  schools  ;  but,  in 
the  gymnasia,  all  the  branches,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Greek,  geography,  and  history,  are  taught 
by  special  professors.  The  law  also  provides  for 
a  library  for  the  use  of  the  teachersand  students 
in  each  Hellenic  school  and  gymnasium;  bul 
very  little  lias,  as  yet,  been  accomplished  in  tins 
direction.  The  final  examination  is  conducted 
by  the  professors  of  die  gymnasium,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  theephory  ami  is  both  oral  and  written. 
The  instructors ai  i  ttyled  professors,  tutors,  and 
assistants.  The  title  of  professor  is  given  to  those 
only  who  teach  the  above-mentioned  branch 
the  gymnasia;  all  others  who  hold  permanent 
positions  as  instructors  in  the  gymnasia  and 
Hellenic  schools,  are  styled  tutors;  bul  those 
who  are  not  permanently  eng  id  arc  called 
assistants.  The  royal  ordinance  of  L850  makes 
it  obligatory  on  a  candidate  for  a  position  as 
acher  in  a  Hellenic  school  to  have  attended. 
besides  a  full  course  in  the  gymnasium,  at  least 
two   years   the    philosophical    and  philological 

course  in  the    university,  an  I  !  taken  pari 

in  the  exercises  of  the  philological  seminary.  En 
the  Hellenic  schools,  the  teachers  arc  divided 
into  three  classes  in  regard  to  salaries,  receiving 
respectively  LOO,  L30,  and  150  drachmas  per 
month:  while  the  principals  receive  2(>o  drach- 
mas. In  the  gymnasia,  the  principal  receives  300 

drachma-,  and  the  professors  250.   These  salaries 

may    be     increased     -fifth    after    five  years' 

service.  Hellenic  schools  and  gymnasia  may 
also  be  established  by  private  persons,  upon  re- 
ceiving permission  from  the  government.  Higher 
schools  for  girls  have  been  established  in  the 

larger  cities ;  bul  they  arc,  with  one  exception. 
private  institutions  The  course  of  study  in  the 
private  institutions  is  of  three  years,  and  does  not 

differ  from  that  pursued  in  the  Hellenic  schools, 

except  that  French  and  English  arc  taught  instead 
of  Latin.    Instruction  is  given  by  both  male  and 
female  teachers  :    hut   there  must   he.  in  all    C8 
a  female  principal.      These  schools  arc  Subject   to 

governmental  Bupen  ision,  under  a  special  ephory. 
The  exception  mentioned  above  is  the  Central 

School  of  the  Sociciy  nf  i  he  l-'rieuds of  Education, 
at  Athens.  This  school,  which  is  specially  in- 
tended to  train   female  teachers,  has    four  cla-.-c-. 

The  fourth  class  is  obligatory  for  those  only  who 
wish  to  become  teachers  in  the  higher  schools. 
In  L870,  there  were  L  5  gymnasia,  and  III  Hel- 
lenic schools,  with  7780  pupils ;  and  '_'.'!  private 

institutions,  with  1589  pupils  of  both  sexes.  The 

number  of  gymnasia,  in  L872,was  IT.   According 

to  the  late-i  account-,  the  number  of  higher 
Bchools  for  girls  was  L0,  withaboul  900  pupil.-; 

and  the  <  eutral  Scl 1  has  over   LOO  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction.    The  Otho  University, 

in  Athens,  was  founded  in  L837,and  is  organized 
on  the  plan  of  the  German  universities.    It  has 


made  rapid  progress  during  the  short  period  of  its 
existence.  From  •';">  students  that  entered  at  the 
time  of  its  foundation,  it  has  risen  to  I. !:••.">  stu- 
dents, in  L869.  The  total  number  of  students  that 
attended  from  L837  to  1869  was  5,245.  The  num- 
ber of  professors,  in  L874,was43;  thai  of  student.-, 
I  .''>')'!.  it  is  cot;.]--  I  of  four  faculties.- theol- 
ogy, law  and  political  economy,  medicine  and 
pharmacy,  and  philosophy.  Each  faculty  elects  its 
own  rei  tor  and  a  representative  ;  and  tin  se,  with 
president  appointed  by  the  king,  constitute 
the  academic  council.  The  professors  elect  a  repre- 
sentative to  the  national  legislature.  A  philo- 
logical  and  pedagogical  seminary  for  the  training 
of  professors  and  teachers  for  the  gymnasia 
and  special  schools,  is  connected  with  the  uni- 
versity. There  are  also  connected  with  the  uni- 
versity a  Library,  a  botanical  garden,  a  museum 
of  natural  history,  an  observatory,  a  collection 
of  coins  and  antiquities,  and  a  hospital  for  prac- 
tice and  demonstration  in  medicine  and  phar- 
Lhstruction  is  free,  the  salaries  of  the 
professors  being  paid  by  the  government.  The 
endowments,  of  which  there  arc  quite  a  largo 
number,  are  used  for  in  !  expenses.     The 

university  of  Corfu  was  •  I  in  L865. 

rial  Instruction.  -  -  The  following  special 
schools  were  in  operation  in  l*7_:  live  com- 
mercial schools,  four  theological  schools,  four 
nautical  schools,  one  polytechnic  school,  and  one 
school  of  agriculture.  Of  the  theological  school.,. 
three  were  "fa  lower,and  one  of  a  higher  grade. 
The  course  of  study  in  the  lower  schools,  which 
arc  intended  to  educate  villag     ,  S,   i.-    essen- 

tially the  same  as  that  pursued  in  the  Hellenic 
schools,  the  principal  difference  being,  that  the 
writings  of  the  church  fathers  arc  u.-ed  in  con- 
nection with  the  pagan  classics.  These  three 
schools  had  about  80  students.  The  higher  sem- 
inary, known  as  the  Khizarian  School,  was 
established,  about    L845,  by   endowments  from 

two  brothers,  named  Rhizaris.  It  has  five  an- 
nual   classes,    in   which     the    students   receive   a 

thorough  theological  training ;  and,  upon  gradu- 
ating, they  are  eligible  to  all  the  church  offices. 
It  has  about  to  students.  Orphan  asylums 
were  not  established  until  quite  recently.  There 
two  in  Athens,  —  one  founded  by  Queen 
\melia.  for  girls;  and  another,  by  two  liberal 
Greeks,  for  hoys.  A  third  one.  in  Syra.  is  sup- 
ported by  the  parish.      These  three  asylums  had. 

in  L869,  L58  pupils.      SeeScHMiD,  Encyclopa< 
vol.  in:   Barnard,   National  Education  in  Eu- 
rope. Vol.  ]|. 

GREEK  CHURCH  (also  called  Greek 
Catholic,  Orthodox  Greek,  and  Eastern 
Church,i  is  the  name  generally  used  iii  English 
to  designate  that  part  of  the  Christian  Church 
which  recognizes  only  the  first  seven  of  the  so- 
called  oecumenical  councils,  and.  in  addition  to 
them,  the  so-called  Quini-sexium  vi  Constanti- 
nople, held  in  692,  and  the  council  of  Constanti- 
nople, held  uinlcr  Photius  in  879  and  880.  The 
chief  dogmatic  difference  between  the  Greek 
Church  and  the  Roman  Catholic  church  relate! 

the  doctrine   concerning  the  procession  ot   the 


GREEK    LANGUAGE 


389 


Holy  Chost.  the  former  charging  the  latter  with 
altering  the  faith  of  tin-  undivided  churcb  on 
this  subject,  as  i1  had  been  denned  by  one  of  the 
oecumenical  councils.  This  church  is  the  state 
church  in  Russia,  Greece,  Montenegro,  Servia, 
and  Roumania;  and  it  predominates  in  European 
Turkey,  and  in  the  Servian  and  Roumanian  dis- 
tricts of  Hungary.  The  population  connected 
with  the  church  numbers  about  TO  millions. 
The  church  organizations  in  the  countries  named 
are  all.  in  point  of  government,  independent  of 
each  other:  though  honorary  primacy  is  con- 
ceded to  the  see  of  Constantinople.  The  virtual 
separation  of  the  Greek  <  'hurch  from  the  churches 
of  western  Europe  began  in  the  9th  century, 
under  Patriarch  Photius,  and  was  fully  con- 
summated in  the  11th.  As  the  state  church  of 
the  Eastern  or  Greek  Empire,  this  church  had  a 
controlling  influence  upon  the  educational  affairs 
of  south-eastern  Europe  (see  Greece);  and 
since,  through  its  instrumentality,  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  Slavic  race  were  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, it  has  been  no  less  influential  in  the  edu- 
cational history  of  Russia  and  other  Slavic 
countries.  The  lethargy  into  which  the  Greek 
Church  appears  to  have  sunk,  is  reflected  in  the 
slowness  of  educational  progress  in  all  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Greek  faith.  This  lethargy  is  now 
on  the  wane.  An  active  intercourse  has,for  some 
time,  existed  between  Greek  and  Anglican  the- 
ologians, and  at  union  conferences  held  at  Bonn, 
in  1*71  and  1875,  between  prominent  represen- 
tatives of  the  Creek.  Anglican,  an  1  Old-Catholic 
communions,  the  unity  of  these  three  churches 
in  all  essential  doctrines  was  declared..  The 
strenuous  efforts  which,  for  some  time,  have  been 
made,  in  all  the  countries  of  the  Greek  faith,  to 
bring  their  educational  systems  to  the  highest 
stare  of  perfection,  will  be  greatly  strengthened 
by  these  church  movements.  Already,  the  church 
has  theological  faculties,  modeled  after  those  in 
Germany,  connected  with  all  the  universities  of 
Russia  (except  Dorpal  |, Greece,  Servia,  and  Rou- 
mania, as  well  as  with  the  Austrian  university  of 
Ozernowitz.  The  condition  of  the  ecclesiastical 
seminaries  has  likewise  greatly  improved.  Many 
of  the  theological  professors  have  received  their 
education  at  the  German  universities;  and  their 
efforts  to  raise  the  educational  standard  of  the 
young  clergy  have  met  with  consi  lerable  success. 
As  tin'  institutions  for  secondary  and  primary 
instruction,  in  all  the  countries  professing  the 
Greek  religion,  have  a  denominational  character, 
religious  instruction  being  either  given  or  super- 
intended by  the  Clergy,  the  improvement  of 
/logical  education  exert-  an  influence  upon 
the  schools  of  every  grade,  and  greatly  aids  the 
progress  of  education  in  general. 
_  GREEK  LANGUAGE,  one  of  the  two  clas- 
sical languages,  which,  as  su<  h,  constitute  an  im- 
portant   part    of   the  COUrse    of  study   in   all   the 

higher  literary  institutions  of  the  civilized  world. 
As  tli iginal  language  of  the  New  Testament, 

and  of  the  early  fathers  of  the  Christian  church,  it 

has  a  special  importance  for  Christian  theologi- 
ans, and  for  all  who  desire  to  study  the  Script- 


ures in    the  original  tongue.     In  the  middle., 
the    Greek    language    was    but    rarely    studied: 

although  Bede,  Alcuin,  Erigena,  Abelard,  and 

many  other  scholars  are  said  to  have  understood 
it.    Toward  the  close  of  the  I  1th  century,  several 

Greek  scholars,  who  came  as  fugitives  to  Italy, 
awakened  in  the  learned  institutions  an  interesl 
in  their  language.  Florence  and  Rome  were  the 
first  centers  of  the  new  study  ;  hut.  in  Italy,  the 
study  of  the  Latin  classics  gradually  Super- 
seded, to  some  extent,  that  of  the  Creek  lan- 
guage, which  found  its  most  enthusiastic  admir- 
ers andstudents  in  ( rermany  and  the  Netherlands. 
Erasmus,  Reucblin,  and  Melanchthon  were  the 
greatest  Creek  scholars  in  western  Europe;  and 
they  also  introduced  the  study  of  the  Creek 
classics,  though  to  a  limited  extent,  into  many  of 
the  institutions  of  learning.  The  appeal  of  the 
reformed  churches  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  to 
the  Creek  original  of  the  New  Testament  greatly 
increase'!  the  demand  for  a  knowledge  of  the 
Creek.  In  the  lTlh  century,  there  was  a  general 
decline  of  the  study  throughout  Europe  ;  but,  in 
the  18th  cciitury.it  was  resumed  with  new  vigor; 
and  it  was  especially  the  Dutch  school  of  Bem- 
sterhuis  and  Yalekenaer  that  promoted  the 
philosophical  study  of  the  language.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  L 9th century,  Gottfried  Hermann 
greatly  improved  the  method  of  teaching  Greek; 
and.  more  recently,  the  study  of  Greek,  like  that 
of  Latin  and  all  the  modern  languages,  has  been 
greatly  b  nefited  by  the  result  of  comparative 
philology.  Creek  is  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  the  Indo-European  languages,  li^ 
relation  to  the  other  branches  of  this  family  has 
not  yet  been  definitely  determined:  and  o2>in- 
ions  still  differ  as  to  whether  Greek  and  Latin 
(particularly  the  latter)  are  entirely  indepen- 
dent branches,  or  whether  they  spring  from  a 
single  branch,  now  lost,  which  was  co-ordinate 
with  the  Sanskrit,  the  German,  the  Slavic,  and 
other  branches.  Greekwas  probably  spoken  as 
long  ago  as  fifteen  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era.  and  appears,  in  the  most  ancient  traces 
which  are  left  of  it.  split  into  a  number  of  dia- 
lects, the  two  principal  of  which  were  the  I>oric 
and  the  Ionic.  The  largest  and  most  important 
portion  of  Greek  literature  was  written  in  the 
Ionic  dialect,  in  the  history  of  which  different 
periods  may  he  distinguished:  the  old  Ionic  or 
epic  dialect,  which   appears  in   the  poems   of 

Homer,  and  remained  the  dialect  of  epic  poetry: 
new  Ionic,  in  which  the  history  of  Herod- 
otus is  written:  and  the  Attic,  which  is  the 
language  of  the  larger  portion  of  Grecian  liter- 
ature Greek  was  spoken,  in  the  earliest  times 
to  which  we  can  trace  it.  in  Greece  as  well  as  in 
parts  of  Asia  Minor:  subsequently, the  establish- 
ment of  (  deck  colonies  carried  it  as  a  living  lan- 
guage to  Sicily,  southern  Italy,  and  southern 
Gaul.     Through   the   conquests  of    Philip  and 

Alexander  of  Macedon.  the  languages  of  (.'recce 
and  Macedon  gradually  mingled  :  and  new  dia- 
lects were  produced,  the  most  important  of 
which  was  that  spoken  at   Alexandria,  and    used 

in  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament, 


390 


GREEK    LANGUAGE 


in  the  New  Testament,  and  in  the  early  litera- 
ture of  the  Christian  Church.  During  the  first 
three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  Greek  held 

;i  position  similar  to  that  subsequently  occupied 
Eor  a  long  time  in  Europe  by  the  French  lan- 
guage, being  the  favorite  language  of  literature 
and  of  the  e  lucated  classes.  It  continued  to 
exist  as  a  spoken  language  in  southern  Prance 
during  several  centuries  after  the  introduction 
of  Christianity;  and  in  Sicily  ami  southern  Italy, 
until  the  11th  century.  Through  the  influence 
of  the  Romans,  anil  subsequently  of  other  nations 
that  conquered  south-eastern  Europe,  the  Greek 
language,  as  spoken  by  the  people,  was  consider- 
ably modified  ;  and  gradually  the  modern  Greek, 
or  Romaic,  arose,  at  present  the  language  of  the 
entire  population  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  and 
of  the  numerous  Greek  population  of  Turkey. 

The  Greek  alphabet  was  derived  from  the 
Phoenicians,  though  the  time  when,  and  the' 
manner  in  which,  it  was  introduced,  are  still  sub- 
jects of  learned  controversies.      Accentuation,  as 

well  as  the  signs  of  aspiration,  are  supposed  by 
many  to  have  been  invented  by  Aristophanes  of 
Byzantium,  and  to  have  been  introduced  about 

200  B.  < '..  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the  lan- 
guage to  foreigners.  The  pronunciation  of  an- 
cient < Ireek  is  still  a  matter  of  discussion.    The 

tireek  scholars  who  revived  the  study  of  the  lan- 
guage in  western  Europe,  pronounced  it  like  the 
modern  (ireek  of  their  time;  ami  this  system  is 
called  iotacism,  or  ReucMinism,  after  Reuchlin, 
who  was  its  chief  advocate  in  western  Europe. 
In  opposition  to  it.  Erasmus  maintained  that  each 
vowel  and  diphthong  had  its  own  proper  sound. 

a  like  the  Italian  a,  like  the  Italian  i,  i  like  the 
French  ",  <  and  ;/  like  the  Italian  long  and  short 
e,  respectively, and  that  ■>,  ;.  6,  f,  r,  -,  and  \  had 
respectively  the  sounds  of  the  German  b,g,  </.  ~. 

I .  />,  and  c//.  This  system  was  called  etacism.  The 
Controversy  between  the  two  systems   is   not  yet 

ended,  but  distinguished  scholars,  like  <  Hadstone, 
Eichthal,  Groves,  and   Felton,  recommend  the 

introduction  of  the  modern  (ireek  pronunciation 
into  the  Bngliah,  French,  and  American  schools. 

The  development  of  the  <  Ireek  language  has  been 
of  an  exclusively  national  character,  no  influence 
having  been  exerted  upon  it  b\  any  foreign  lan- 

v.  lii.  h    b    receive. I   from 
any  foreign  language  i  Persian),  it  thoroughly 
similated  w  ith  its  own.  It  is  rich  in  radical  words, 
and  in  compounds  and  derivatives.     It  also  pos- 
sesses an   abundance    of    grammatical    fol 
though,  in  this  respect .  it  is  inferior  to  som< 
the  older  branches  of  the  Indo-European  family. 

he  Sanskrit  and  the  Zend.  But  it  is  not  ex- 
ceeded by  any  language  in  the  number  of  its  par- 
ticles, and  in  the  ability  to  i  sprees,  by  mean 
them, the mosl  varied  relations  and  modifications 
of  ideas.  It  is  also  distinguished  for  its  euphony; 
ami  neither  the  Latin  nor  any  modern  langu 
can  compare  with  it  in  regard  to  rhythmical 
b.-auty.  "More  than  any  of  itt  sister  languages," 

j  Curtius,  "the  Greek  language  must  be  re 
carded  as  a  work  of  art,  on  account  of  its  sense 
t  >r  symmetry  and  perfection  of  sounds,  for  clear- 


ness of  form,  for  law  and  organism.  Its  syntax 
has  never  been  equaled  by  that  of  any  language 
in  the  world." — Ever  since  the  introduction  of 
the  study  of  Greek  into  classical  schools,  it  has 
been  a  general  rule  to  begin  it  later  than  Latin. 
Robert  and  Henry  Stephens  strongly  advised 
the  opposite  course  ;  and  many  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished scholars,  as  Hemsterhuis,  Buhnkea, 
Gedike,  Herbart.  and  I 'assow.  expressed  a  con- 
currence in  these  views.  The  vast  majority  of 
educators  have,  however,  been  so  decidedly  in 
favor  of  Latin  as  the  first  classical  language  to 
be  studied,  that  only  in  exceptional  eases  has  a 
practical  attempt  to  begin  with  (ireek  been  made. 
As  a  general  rule,  less  time  also  is  devoted  to 
(ireek  than  to  Latin  :  though  some  distinguished 
educators,  like  Raumer  (in  his  Gfeschichfe  der 
Pddagogik),  who  do  not  dispute  the  claim  of 
Latin  to  be  taken  up  first,  demand  an  equal  or 
a  superior  position  for  (ireek  in  the  hie  her  clas- 
ses of  classical  schools.  In  the  animated  conflict 
concerning  the  claim  of  the  classical  studies  to 
a  place  in  all  educational  institutions  of  a  higher 
grade,  (ireek  has  had  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the 

battle.  On  many  sides  concessions  have  been 
made  to  Latin,  because  of  its  closer  affinity 
with  modern  languages,  and  particularly  on  ac- 
count  of    its    importance    for    an    etymological 

knowledge  of  these  languages ;  and  a  readiness 
has  been  expressed  to  provide  instruction  for  it 
even  where  (ireek  has  been  entirely  excluded. 
Thus  we  find  that,  in  the  United  States,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  progress  of  optional  studies  in 
our  colleges  and  universities,  ami  with  the  ad- 
vancing establishment  of  scientific  and  other 
Courses  differing  from  the  classical,  the  study    of 

Greek  has  been  dropped  in  a  great  many  canoe, 
while  the  Latin  has  been  retained.  In  Germany, 
where  the  opponents  of  the  predominance  of 
classical  studies  have  concentrated  their  strength 
in  organizing  real  schools  in  opposition  to  the 
classic  gy  mnasia,  the  existence  of  a  large  number 
of  "real  schools  with  Latin"  is  sufficient  to  indi- 
cate the  different  estimate  in  which  thetwodas- 
.  ical  languages  are  held  by  the  opponents  of 
their  present  ascendency. 

In  regard  to  the  method  to  he  pursued  in 
teaching  (ireek,  there  is  a  greater  agreement 
among  leading  educators,  than  in  respect  to  many 
other  studies.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  the 
s  difficulty  of  (ireek  grammar,  even 
t  its  first  or  etymological  part,  makes  it  desir- 
able that  all  ducation   is   to  comprehend 

a  knowledge  of  this  language,  should  begin  the 

I  tudy  at  an  early  age.  when  the  vigor  of  memory 

:!l  Eresh,  and  its  function  still  prevails  in  the 

■  :  instruction.     Hamilton's  and  Jacotot'a 

hods    find    UOW-a-dayS   few     followers  in  the 

teaching  of  (ireek;  and  the  study  of  grammar, 
with  translation  from  (ireek  into   English  and 

English  into  (  ireek.  i  hielly  occupies  the  attention 

of  the  beginner.  It  has  been  proposed,  and  some- 
times attempted,  to  begin  the  teaching  of  the  lan- 
guage, in  accordance  with  the  development    of 

(  ireek  literature,  with  the  Study  of    the  epic  and 

old  Ionic  dial  old  practice  to  make 


GREEK    LANGUAGE 


391 


tin-  Attic  dialect  the  basis  has  rictoriouslj  main- 
tained its  traditional  ascendency.  Exercises  in 
translating  from  the  Dative  language  into  Greek 
should  not  be  omitted,  as  is  frequently  done; 
though  it  is  well  understood  that,  or  account  of 
the  greater  difficulties  presented  by  the  Greek, 
and  the  shorter  time  allowed  for  the  study  of  it, 
the  same  proficiency  in  writing  Greek  is  hardly 
ever  or  anywhere  attained  as  in  Latin.  The  first 
exercises  in  translating  Greek  into  English,  or 
any  other  native  tongue, are  now  generally  pro- 
vided in  the  grammars.  Where  grammars  are 
used  which  exclude  exercises  in  translation,  the 
use  nt  a  Greek  leader  is  at  once  begun.  In 
general,  the  use  of  a  reader  before  the  taking  up 
of  a  particular  author,  is  continued  Longer  in 
Greek  than  in  La  1 .in,  because  of  the  longer  time 
required  to  obtain  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
grammatical  rules  in  the  former.  When  the  pupil 
is  far  enough  advanced  to  take  up  the  reading 
of  Greek  authors,  the  teacher,  in  making  the 
selection,  should  not  oidy  lie  careful  to  proceed 
from  the  easier  to  the  more  difficult  writers,  and 
to  prefer  the  classic  authors,  but  also  to  read 
enough  of  the  selected  work  to  give  to  the 
students  an  adequate  idea  of  the  spirit  of  Greek 
literature.  The  orations,  philosophical  dialogues, 
and  dramas  are  particularly  suited  for  advanced 
classes  in  <  Ireek.  Of  course,  instruction  in  Greek 
is  not  considered  complete  without  the  reading 
of.  at  least,  one  of  the  Homeric  poems;  and  it  is 
fortunate  that  the  easy  flow  of  the  language  of 
these  poems  lits  them  for  an  early  stage  of  classic 
reading.  Among  the  Greek  historians,  Xenophon 
and  Herodotus  fully  deserve  the  favor  of  teach- 
ers and  students,  which  they  have  enjoyed  for 
centuries.  In  regard  to  Herodotus  it  is,  however, 
desirable  to  wait  until  the  pupils  are  well 
grounded  in  the  Attic  dialect.  To  include  Thu- 
cydides  in  a  regular  course  appeal's  to  many 
classical  scholars  objectionable,  as  the  language 
is  too  difficult  for  the  majority  of  college  stu- 
dents, and  as  tha  gloomy  period  which  he  de- 
scribes is  not  calculated  to  increase  the  students' 
interest  in  ancient  <  ireece.  Of  the  dramatic  poets, 
vLsehylus  and  Aristophanes  are  not  suited  for 
schools;  and,  therefore,  only  Sophocles  and 
Euripides  can  he  recommended. 

The  beginning  of  a  grammatical  treatment  of 
the  language  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Sophists, 
Plato,  and  Aristotle.  Considerable  progress  is 
visible  in  the  works  of  the  Stoics,  who  created 
most  of  the  technical  terms  used  in  Greek  gram- 
mar. The  idea  of  a  systematic  grammar  was 
developed  by  the  Alexandrian  school  of  gram- 
marians, some  of  whom  wrote  upon  the  subject 
of  grain  mar  in  the  most  limited  sense  ;  others. 
upon  different  specific  topics  included  in  it,  as 

syntax,  meter,  dialects,  and  the  like.  As  the 
author  of  the  first  systematic  grammar.  Dionysius 
the  Thracian  is  mentioned, whose  work  remained 
a  standard  for  a  long  time.  The  first  lexico- 
graphic attempts  were  likewise  made  at  Alex- 
andria. The  central  seat  of  Greek  philology  was, 
at  a  later  period,  transferred  from  Alexandria  to 
Constantinople,  where  a  number  of  scholars  dis- 


tinguished themselves  as  authors  of  dictionaries 
of  Greek  literature,  while  their  grammatical  la- 
bors consisted  chiefly  of  commentaries  upon  the 
work  of  Dionysius.  The  first  grammar  in  western 
Europe,  in  which  Greek  type  was  used,  was  that 
by  Constantine  Lascaris;  it  was  published  in 
Milan  in  1470,  and  remained  for  centuries  the 
basis  of   all  other   grammatical    works.      A.   new 

epoch  in  the  history  of  Greek  grammars  dates 
from  Hermann's  classical  work  De  emendan- 
</</  ratione  Graecce  grammatical  (Leipsic  I  sol). 
Since  that  time,  a  number  of  excellent  grammars, 
fully  superseding  previous  works,  have  appeared. 
Nearly  all  of  them  are  by  German  authors;  but, 
by  means  of  translations,  they  have  been  exten- 
sively introduced  into  English,  American,  and 
other  .schools.  Among  the  most  noted  of  these 
grammars,  are  those  by  Buttmann,  Schulgra/m- 
matik  (lsted.,  1824, 17th  ed.,  1874),  translated  by 
Edward  Everett  (Boston,  1822) ;  AusfuhrUche 
Griech.  Sprachlehre  (2  vols.,  1819—27,  2d  ed., 
with  valuable  additions  from  Lobeck,  2  volumes, 
1830 — 39),  trans,  by  Edward  Robinson  (An- 
dover,  Is.'lii)  ;  Matthise  (1807),  trans,  by  Ed.  V. 
Bloomfield  (London.  1832);  Kost  (1816,  7th  ed., 
1854),  Engl,  translation  (Loud.,  1 S27)  ;  Kiihner, 
Schulgraminalik,  trans,  by  15.  B.  Edwards  and 
S.  H.  Taylor  (Andover,  1843);  and  Ausfuhr- 
lit:lt<>  Grammatik  der  Griechischen  Sprache 
(2  vols.,  1 834 ,  revised  ed.,  1 869-1 871);  Westphal 
(2  vols.,  1870 — 72)  ;  Curtius,  Schulgrammatih 
(1852,  11th  ed.,  1875);  English  trans',  by  Smith. 
The  grammar  of  Curtius,  which  numerous  trans- 
lations have  extensively  introduced  into  the 
learned  institutions  of  the  countries  of  Europe 
and  America,  has,  to  a  larger  extent  than  any  of 
its  predecessors,  made  use  of  the  results  of  com- 
parative philology,  and  adopted  a  number  of  the 
technical  terms  which  have  first  been  brought  into 
use  by  Grimm's  German  grammar.  In  England 
and  the  United  States,  Greek  grammars  have 
been  published,  among  others,  by  Anthon,  Boise, 
Brooks,  Bullions,  Crosby,  Eisk,  Goodrich, Green- 
wood. Hadley,  Jelf,  Jones,  Kendrick,  M'(  'lintock, 
Mayor,  Moore,  Morris,  Popkin,  Silber,  Smith, 
Sophocles,  Taylor,  Yalpy.  Waddcll.  Wettenhall, 
Wordsworth,  and  Wright.  Some  of  these  works 
are  only  primers  for  beginners.  Among  the  lat- 
est and  best  of  the  complete  grammars,  is  that 
by  Hadley  [Greek grammar,  I860;  chiefly  based 
on  the  ( lerman  work  of  ( fortius). 

The  basis  of  all '  rreek  lexicons  in  modern  times 
is  Henry  Stephens's  Thesaurus  Linguce  (Intecce 
(I  ."72:  a  new  edition,  embodying  all  the  Creek 
learning  of  the  age,  Avas  brought  out  by  Flaae, 
I,  and  \V.  Dindorf,  8  vols..  Paris,  1831-63), 
The  first  real  improvement  over  Stephens  was 
made  by  Passow,  whose  work  {Handw&rterbuch 
der  Griechischen  Sprache,  2  vols..  1819 — 24)  ap- 
peared, at  first,  asa  revised  edition  of  Schneider's 
Greek  Dictionary  ;  but,  in  the  4th  edit.  (2  vols., 
L831),  as  his  own  work.  The  plan  of  Passow 
was.  in  each  successive  edition,  to  make  the  lex- 
icon complete  for  the  interpretation  of  some 
additional  authors,  until  it  should  become  a  fidl 
thesaurus  of  the  Greek  language.  After  the  death 


392 


GREEK    LANGUAGE 


GRIMM 


off  Passow,  a  new  edition,  carrying  out  the  plan 
nf  the  author,  was  prepared  by  the  joint  labors 
of  l.'ust.  Palm,  Kreussler,  Kett,  Peter,  and  Ben- 
seler (2  vols.,  L841— 57).  The  work  of  Pas- 
sow  was  the  basis  of  the  Greek-English  lexicon 
of  Liddell  and  Scott  (Oxford,  1845;  New  York, 
edited  by  Benry  Dnsler,  1848;  large  4to  ed., 
London,  L870.).  Other  large  Greek  dictionaries 
have  been  edited  by  Jacobitz  and  Setter  |2  vols.. 
1839  46),  and  Pape  (3  vols.,  1850  63;  the 
3d  vol.,  containing  proper  names,  by  Benseler). 
School  dictionaries  have  been  prepared  by  Rost, 

Benseler.  Schenkl,  Liddell  ami  Scott,  ami  others. 
Among  English  ami  American  authors,  who  have 
brought  out  Greek  dictionaries,  besides  Tim.-:' 
already  mentioned,  are  Jones,  Pickering,  Oliver. 
<  rroves,  Donnegan,  and  Dunbar.  (See  Dictionary.) 
There  is  also  a  very  rich  literature  of  special 
lexicons  for  those  Greek  authors  who  are  com- 
monly read  in  schools.  A  comparative  grammar 
ofGreekand  Latin  was  written  by  Leo  Meyer 
(2  vols.,  Berlin,  L861— 5),  and  an  etymological 
root-dictionary  on  the  basis  of  comparative  phi- 
lology by  Benfey  (Griechisches  Wurzellexicon, 
2  vols.,  1839     12). 

Among  the  Greek  readers  which  afford  selec- 
tions from  all.  nr  nearly  all.  the  authors  who  are 
suited  for  school  reading,  none  have  been  so  ex- 
tensively used  as  those  of  Jacobs  and  Dal/.el. 
The  work  of  Jac  mentarbuch  */'■>•  Griechi- 

schen  Sprache,  begun  in  L824)  consists  of  four 
parts,  the  first  ol  which  is  designed  for  beginners, 
the  second  gives  extracts  from  historians  or  ora- 
tors relating  to  the  history  of  Athens,  the  third 
is  composed  of  philosophical,  and  the  fourth  of 
poetical,  extracts.  Several  American  translati 
of  parts  of  this  work  have  been  published  our 
by  Prof.  Anthon  i,  and  have  been  used  by  many 
American  schools.  Dalzel's  two  readers  [Col- 
lectanea Graeca  Minora,&u&  Collectanea  Graeca 
Majora)  first  appeared  in  Edinburgh  (1789), 
where  the  author  was  professor  of  Greek  in  the 
university.  New  editions  were  broughl  oul  in 
England  by  Dunbar  and  0.  J.  Bloomfield,  and 
in  the  United  States  by  Popkin  and  Wheeler. 
Other  Greek  readers  have  been  published  by 
VMiott.  Arnold.  Boise,  Colton,  Pelton,  Good- 
win, Merry,  and   Wyttenbach.     Of  late,  the  use 

of  readers  has.  (,,  some  extent .  >/i\ m  place  to  the 

works  of  particular  authors,  of  which  many  an- 
notated editions  have  appeared.  Thus  there  are 
editions  of  works  of  ^Eschines,  by  Champlin 
and  Simcox;  of  /Eschylus,  by  Drake,  Edwards, 
Pelton,  Sachtleben,  Weale.and  Woolsey;  of  Aris- 
totle, by  Poste;  of  Aristophanes,  by  Felton, 
Greene,  and  Weale;  of  De sthenes,  by  Champ- 
lin, D'Ooge,  Drake,  Heslop,  Holmes,  kemlrick. 
Simcox,  Smead,  and  Tyler;  of  Euripides,  by  Al- 
len. Weal.',  ami  Woolsey:  of  Homer,  by  Lnthon, 
Boise,  Pelton.  Mayor,  Merry,  Owen,  Searing,  and 
Smith:  of  Herodotus,  by  Johnson,  Mather,  and 

Weale;  of  Isoerates.  by  Pelton;  of  l.ncian.  l»y 
Weale:  of  Lysias,  by  Huntingdon,  Stephens, 
and  W  hiton  :  ,,f  Pindar,  by  Myers;  of  Plato,  by 
Tyler,  Wagner,  Weale.  White,  and  Woolsey;  of 
Plutarch,  by  Hacketl  and  Tyler;  of  Sophocles,  by 


Campbell,  Crosby,  J'ebb,  Jones,  Smead,  White, 

W'eale.  and    Woolsey;  of  Theocritus,  by   Snow: 

of  Theophrastus,  by  Jebb;  of  Thucydides,  by 
Bigg,  Frost,  Owen,  and  W'eale:  of  Xenophon, by 
Anthon,  Boise,  Crosby,  Kendrick,  Owen,  Phil- 
potts,  Robbins,  and  "Weale.  Histories  of  Greek 
literature  have  been  written  by  Bernhardy,  K.O. 
Midler  (2  vols.,  with  continuation  by  Donald- 
son), Mure  l.l  critical  history  of  (he  language 
and  literature  of  ancient  Greece,  5  vols.),  Munk, 
(2  vols..  1849—50),  Nicolai  (2  vols..  1 866-  7 
Burnouf  i  Histoire  delalitteraturegrecque,2  vols.. 
1869),  Bergk  (vol.  i..  1872).  The  standard  gram- 
matical work  on  the  (deck  language  01  the 
New  Testament  is  Winer  ( Grammatik  des  neu- 
testamen&ichen  Sprachidioms,  Engl,  trans,  by 
Stuart  and  Robinson)  ;  and  other  grammars 
have  been  written  by  Greene  and  Stuart. 
Lexicons  to  the  Greek  New  Testament  have 
been  published  by  Wahl  (1822),  translated  by 
Robinson;  Bretschneider  (1824);  Wttke  (1841); 
and  a  second  -work  by  the  same  author  il.-."-  : 
Schirlitz  1 1851  i ;  Robinson  i  Greek  and  English 
Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament,  1836);  Grimm 
(1868). —  For  an  account  of  the  Greek  Church 

writers,  see  CLASSICS,  CHRISTIAN. 

GREENEVILLE  AND  TUSCTJLUM 
COI/LEGE,  at  I  Ionic.  Greene  Co.,  Tenn.,  near 
Greenevttle,  was  organized  in  1868,  by  the  union 
of  Greenevttle  College  and  Tusculum  College. 
founded  iii  1T!»1  and  1847,  respectively. 
under  Presbyterian  control.  It  has  a  primary, 
a  preparatory,  and  a  collegiate  department,  with 
a  classical  and  a  scientific  course.  The  libraries 
contain  7,000  volumes.  In  1874  5,therewere 
(.i  instructors  and  L12  students  (senior  class. 'J  : 
regular  course,  C> :  scientific  course,  24;  primary 
department,  1 1 1.  Both  sexes  are  admitted,  'i  be 
co-t  of  tuition  in  the  preparatory  department  is 
$20  per  year ;  in  the  collegiate  department.  $30. 
The  Rev.  W.  S.  Doak,  A.  M.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

GRIMM,  Jakob  Ludwig,  the  greatest  of 
all  German  .philologists,  was  born  at  Hanau, 
Jan.  I..  L785,  and  died  in  Berlin,  Sept.  20.,  1863. 
lie  w.i-  appointed,  in  1816, second  librarian  al 
Cassel,  and  in  1830  professor  and  librarian  at  the 
university  of  Gottmgen.  He  was  deposed,  in 
L837,  for  having  signed, with  six  other  professors, 
a  protest  againsl  the  abolition  of  the  etate  con- 
stitution by  the  king.  In  1841,  the  Prussian 
government  called  him  to  Berlin  as  profi  —or  and 
member  of  the  Academy,  which  position  he  re- 
tained until  his  death.  In  1846  and  1847,  he 
presided  over  the  meetings  of  the  German  phi- 
lologists, who  universally  recognized  him  as  their 
chief.  His  work  on  German  grammar  (Deutsche 
Grammatik,  3   vols.,    1819     37]    established  a 

ii.  w  branch  of  literature,  that  of  historical  gram- 
mar: and  while  it  has  called    forth  a  number  of 

similar  works  in  other  languages,  it  is  still  unsur- 
passed. The  German  dictionary,  which  he  began, 
in  1852,  jointly  with  his  brother  Wilhehn,  occu- 
pies an  equally  high  rank  in  the  history  of  dic- 
tionaries (Deutsches  Wbrterhuch,  1st  vol..  1852; 
l th  vol  .  L874).   This  work  was  designed  hy  him 


GRIMM 


GUIZOT 


393 


to  contain  every  *  lerman  Avon  I  from  the  time  of 
Luther  tot  loethe;  and  the  volumes  which  he  pub- 
lished exceeded,  in  comprehensiveness  of  plan, 
even  other  modern  dictionary.  The  continuation 
of  the  work  has  been  intrusted  to  M.  Heyne,  I!. 
Hildebrand,  and  K.  Weigand;  but  it  is  not  ex- 
•  pected  thai  it  will  be  completed  until  L890.  The 
historical  treatment  of  the  vernacular  tongue, 
which  t  rrimm's  German  grammar  and  dictionary 
have  introduced  into  the  literature  of  modern 
languages,  has  also  greatly  improved  the  method 
of  teaching  modern  languages,  both  foreign  and 
vernacular.  The  more  extensive  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  growth  and  structure  of  lan- 
guages, which  is  now  generally  possessed  by  in- 
telligent teachers,  is  reflected  in  the  instruction 
of  millions  of  children  ;  and  the  vast  superiority 
of  recent  school  grammars,  reading  hooks,  etc. 
is.  to  a  considerable  extent,  due  to  the  influence 
which  has  been  exerted  by  the  works  of  Grimm. 

GRIMM,  Wilhelm  Karl,  a  brother  of  Jakob 
Grimm,  and  like  him,  a  prominent  German  phi- 
lologist, was  born  at  Hanau,  Feb.  '-'4..  1786,  and 
died  at  Berlin,  Dec.  16.,  1859.  In  his  life  and 
literary  labors,  he  was  very  intimately  associated 
with  his  brother.  Like  him,  he  was  librarian  at 
tassel  (1  sl  4— 30),  librarian  (1830)  and  professor 
(1835)  at  Gottingen;  and,  finally,  after  having 
lost   his  offices  in  Gottingen  for  joining  the  pro- 

I  against  the  abolition  of  the  state  constitu- 
tion, he  accompanied  his  brother,  in  1841,  to 
Berlin.  Besides  writing  a  large  number  of  works 
;  on  the  earlier  literature  of  Germany,  he  was 
the  co-editor,  with  his  brother,  of  the  German 
dictionary. 

GRISCOM,  John,  an  American  educator, 
born  at  Hancock's  Bridge,  N.  J.,  Sept. '27.,  1  77  I; 
died  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Feb.  26.,  1852.  Be 
was  of  Quaker  extraction,  and.  for  a  time, 
studied  at  the  Friends'  Academy  in  Philadelphia. 
Afterwards,  he  took  charge  of  the  Friends' 
Monthly  Meeting  School,  at  Burlington,  lie 
removed  to  New  York  in  1807,  where  he  taught 
for  twenty-five  years,  during  which  time  he  as- 
sisted in  founding  the  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Pauperism,  and  established  a  private  semi- 
nary, called  the  New  York  High  School.  In 
1823,  he  published  A  Year  in  /:'>>>■<>/»'  (2  vols.), 
the  result  of  his  travels  and  visits  to  the  prin- 
cipal institutions  of  learning  and  charity,  prisons, 
factories,  etc..  on  the  European  continent.  From 
1831  to  L 835,  he  was  principal  of  a  boarding- 
school  in  Providence,  R.  [.,  after  which  he  re- 
moved to  Burlington.  One  of  his  last  acts  was 
the  reorganization  of  the  common-school  system 
of  New  Jersey.  His  son.  John  li.  Griscom, 
published  his  biography  (New  York.  1859). 

GRISCOM,  John  Haskins,  a  physician, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  New  York,  Aug. 
L3.,  L809;died  there  April  28.,  L874.  In  L833, 
lie  was  appointed  assistant  physician  to  the  New 
i  ork  dispensary,  and,  in  L834,  chief  physician. 
He  was  also  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  New 
York  College  of  Pharmacy,  from  1836  to  L840. 
In  L843,  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  New 
YYjrk   Hospital,  where    he    remained   till   18G7. 


I  lis  principal  works  relate  to  physiology;  hygiene 

and  ventilation;  hut  some  ot  them  have  an  im- 
portant bearing  on  education,  and  others  have 
been  extensively  used  for  school  instruction. 
The\  include:  Animal  Mechanism  and  Physi- 
ology i  L839);  Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Laboring 
Glasses  of  New  York  (1844);  Uses  and  Abuses 
qfAir,andthe  Means  for  tlve  Ventilation  of 
Buildings  (1850);  Hospital  Hygiene  (1853); 
First  Lessons  in  Physiology,  with  Brief  Rules 
of  Health,  for  the  Use  of  Schools  (I860);  Sani- 
tary Legislation,  past,  present,  and  future  (1861). 
Dr.  Griscom  also  rendered  an  important  service 
to  education  by  his  lectures  on  physiology. 

GROOT,   Gerard.     See  IIikkonvmiaxs. 

GROUNDS,  School.  See  School  Grounds. 

GUATEMALA.     See  (  'kntiiai,  America. 

GUIZOT,  Francois  Pierre  Guillaume, 
a  French  statesman,  who.  as  prime  minister  and 
minister  of  public  instruction,  exerted  a  con- 
siderable influence  upon  the  progress  of  educa- 
tion in  France,  was  horn  Oct.  4..  L787,  and  died 
Sept.  L3.,  L874.  He  was  of  Huguenot  descent; 
and  after  the  death  of  his  father,  an  eminent 
lawyer  of  Paris,  who  perished  by  the  guillotine 
•  luring  the  Reign  of  Terror,  he  was  educated  by 
his  mother  at  Geneva,  where  his  whole  nature 
became  permeated  with  the  spirit  and  influence 
of  John  Calvin,  whom  he  accepted  as  his  master 
and  model  until  his  dying  day.  Having  returned 
to  Paris,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  was,  for  a 
time,  tutor  in  a  distinguished  family;  but  he 
soon  became  connected  with  the  periodical  press 
and  the  literary  circles  of  Paris,  and,  in  1812, 
received  the  appointment  of  professor  of  modern 
history  in  the  Sorbonne.  ilis  political  career 
began  immediately  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  I.; 
and,  from  that  time  until  the  overthrow  of 
royalty,  in  1848,  his  influence  in  the  government 
of  France  was  quite  marked.  He  drew  up,  in 
L830,  the  protest  of  the  deputies,  which  led  to 
the  dethronement  of  Charles  X.;  and.  after  the 
success  of  the  revolution,  was  appointed  pro- 
visional minister  of  public  instruction.  He  ex- 
changed this  position, after  a  few  days,  with  that 
of  minister  of  the  interior,  but  resumed  it  in 
L832,  when  he  entered  the  new  cabinet  under 
the  presidency  of  Soult.  He  prepared  an  ex- 
cellent code  of  laws  for  promoting  primary  edu- 
cation, and  attended  personally  to  their  enforce- 
ment. En  the  cabinet  of  L836,  under  the  pres- 
ident Mole,  he  resumed  the  same  post;  hut.  lie- 
coming  dissatisfied  with  the  plans  of  his  col- 
Leagues,  he  abandoned  it   in   1837.     From  1840 

.... 

to  L847,  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
from  L847  tit  is  IS,  president  of  the  French  min- 
istry. After  the  revolution  of  L848,  he  retired 
from  public  life,  and  devoted  himself  wholly  to 
literary  labors,  lie  was  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences,  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres, and 

of    the    French     Academy-       Though  a  zealous 

Protestant,  he  knew  how  to  gain  the  esteem  of 
the  Roman  Catholics,  even  as  minister  of  public 
instruction.  His  indefatigable  zeal  and  his 
great    merits   in  behalf  of    the   promotion    and 


394 


GUTSMUTHS 


GYMNASIUM 


organization  of  primary  instruction  in  France, 
were  generally  recognized.  Guizot  was  one  of 
the  most  prolific  writers  of  France  during  the 
present  century.  Most  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English;  and  the  more  important 
of  them,  into  nearly  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
Some  of  them,  especially  the  History  qf  Civiliza- 
tion in  Europe,  have  been  extensively  intro- 
duced as  text-books  into  very  many  institutions 
of  learning. 

GUTSMUTHS,  Johann  Christoph  Fried- 
rich,  celebrated  for  his  efforts  in  behalf  of 
physical  education,  and  particularly  as  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  German  system  of  gymnastic 
training  [Turnunterrichi),  was  born  in  Quedlin- 
burg,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  in  1759,  and 
died  at  [benhain,  near  Schnepfentbal,  in  L839. 
lie  studied  theology  at  Halle  for  three  years, 
after  which  he,  was  employed  to  superintend 
the  gymnastic  exercises  at  Salzmann's  Institute. 
at  Schnepfentbal  (1786).  Here  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  stnly  and  elaboration  of  gymnastics 
as  a  branch  of  e  lucation,  and  was  the  means  of 
Introducing  it  into  many  other  institutions  of 
Germany.  lie  alsowrote  Beveral  works  on  gym- 
nastics, among  which  his  Gymnastik fur  <//■■■  Tu- 
</■  irl  i  1  793)  became  ;i  classic  work. and  the  basis 

of  most  other  German  treatises  on  the  subject. 
Among  others  are  Erholung  des  Kbrpers  und 
Geistes  fur  </i<'  Jugend  (1796),  and  Kleines 
Lehrbuch  der  Schwimmlcunst  (1798).  His  ser- 
vices in  behalf  of  geographical  instruction  were 
also  of  great  value.  He  was  not  only  an  able 
teacher  of  geography,  but  a  distinguished  writer 
on  the  subject.  The  celebrated  Karl  Ritter  was 
one  of  his  pupils  in  the  institute  at  Sehnepfen- 
ihal.  The  centennial  celebration  of  the  birth- 
day of  Gutsmuths  was  held  at  Schnepfenthal,  in 
18o9,with  great  festivity  and  pomp.-  Sic  Djttes, 
Schule  der  Pddagogik  (Ixdpsic,  1876).  (See  also 

( J\  MNA8TICS.) 

GUYOT,   Arnold  Henry,  a  distinguished 
atist,  particularly  in  the  department  of  phys- 
ical  geography,  and  the  author   of  a.  series   of 
school  textbooks  on  geography,  widely  used  in 

the  LTnited  Stale-,  was  born  near  Xeufchatel.  in 
Switzerland,  Sept.  28.,  L807.  He  studied  at 
Various  institutions,  at  Carlsruhe  making  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Agassi/.,  with  whom  he  began  the 
study  of  natural  science.  Subsequently,  he 
passed  through  a  course  of  study  in  theology  at 
Neufchatel  and  Berlin;  but  afterwards  gave  his 

attention  exclusively  to  natural  science.    In  I  835, 

he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  resided  till  L839, 
making  summer  scientific  excursions  through 
France,  Italy,   Belgium,  and    Holland.     Fr 

1839  to  1848,   he    was   professor   of   history  and 

physical  geography  in  the  academy  of  Neuf- 
chatel; and  during  this  period  made  some  im- 
portanl   researches  and  discoveries  in  regard  to 

the vemenl  of  glaciers  and  the  transportation 

ot  bowlders,  the  details  of  which  it  was  proposed 
to  publish  as  the  second  volume  of  the  Systeme 
glaciaire,  l>\  ^gassiz, Guyot,  and  Desor.the  firsl 
volume  of  which  was  printed  in  Paris  in  L848. 
Be  emigrated  to  the  I  nited  States  in  L848,  and 


took  up  his  residence  at  Cambridge.  Mass.  In 
the  winter  of  Is  Is  9,  he  delivered,  in  Boston, 
a  course  of  lectures  on  the  science  of  physical 
geography,  which  were  afterwards  translated  by 
Prof.  I'elton.  and  collected  into  a  volume,  which 
was  published  under  the  title  of  Earth  and  Man. 
This  work  introduced  important  improvements 
in  the  methods  of  studying  and  teaching  geog- 
raphy in  the  schools  of  the  United  States,  as 
well  as  in  the  construction  of  school  textdiooks 
on  that  subject.  Prof.  Guyot  was  employed,  for 
some  time,  by  the  Massachusetts  board  of  edu- 
cation to  deliver  lectures  in  the  normal  schools 
of  the  state  and  before  the  teachers'  institutes. 
In  1855,  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  pro- 
fessor of  physical  geography  in  the  College  of 
New  . Jersey,  at  Princeton,  which  position  he 
still  continues  to  occupy.  His  school  series  of 
geographies,  the  first  volume  of  which  was  pub- 
lished in  L866  [The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants; 
Common-School  Geography),  has  attained  a 
high  degree  of  popularity.  Its  distinguishing 
feature  is  the  prominence  given  to  physical  geog- 
raphy, and  the  treatment  of  the  v.  hole  subject  on 
the  basis  of  a  scientific  generalization.  'I  he  un- 
derlying principle  he  thus  expressed  in  the  pre- 
liminary section  of  the  above  work,  on  Geo- 
graphical Teaching:  "  It  was  not  until  the  iirst 
quarter  of  the  present  century,  when  Bitter's 
great  mind  made  its  power  fell  in  his  remark- 
able  generalizations    on    the    facts  given   to  the 

world  by  Humboldt,  that  it  began  to  be  sus- 
pected that  geographical  facts  could  be  reduced 
to  a  science,  in  which  hold  good  the  same  laws 
of  mutual  dependence  of  cause  and  effect  that 
prevail  in  all  the  other  physical  sciences."  The 
introduction  of  tins  philosophical  method  of 
teaching  geography,  the  principle  of  which  has 
been  adopted  by  most  other  authors  of  school 
text-books  on  this  subject,  has  exerted  an  im- 
portant influence  Upon  the  general  methods  of 
instruction  in  schools:  and.  in  this  way.  Prof. 
Guyot  has  done  an  important  service  to  the 
cause  of  education.     (See  Geography.) 

GYMNASIUM    (Gr.  yvHviaun>,  ;i  place  for 
bodily    exercises,    from   yvpvfc,   naked  i,  a   term 

applied,  in  ancient  Greece  and  Rome, to  schools 
for  physical  education,  but  in  modern  Germany 

and  some  other  countries  of  continental  Europe, 
to    a   class   of    secondary    schools   which    hold   a 

middle  place  between  elementary  schools  and 
the  universities.  In  England  and  the  United 
States,  in  which  the  colleges  correspond  to  die 
German  gymnasia,  the  term  gymnasium  is  lim- 
ited to  places  for  physical  exercises.  We  treat 
here  1 1 1  of  the  ancient  gymnasium  of  the  <  ireeks 

and    Romans,  and   (2)    of    the  schools   designated 

b\  this  name  in  Germany  and  other  parts  of 
continental  Europe. 

1 1  Gymnasia  were  first  introduced  in  Sparta 

and  Crete;  they  afterwards   became  common  in 

the  Greek  cities,  and  were,  to  a  limited  >  stent, 

adopted  among  the  Romans.  In  the  most  an- 
cient times,  the  gymnasia  were  leveled  and  in- 
closed  places,   with    divisions   for  the  several 

games.  For  the  purpose  of  shale,  rows  of  plane- 


GYMNASIUM 


395 


trees  were  planted,  to  which  afterwards  porti- 
coes with  sitting  rooms  (ki-idpai),  having  stone 
benches  around  the  walls,  were  added.  At  last, 
the  gymnasia  consisted  of  several  buildings,which 
were  joined  together,  and  thus  often  formed 
very  spacious  structures,  capable  of  holding 
many  thousand  persons.  A  detailed  description 
of  the  ancient  gymnasium  is  given  by  Vitruviua 
Hie  free  youths  were  instructed  in  gymnastics, 
by  a  paidotribes  (iraid&rp  >'vi,  while  the  pro- 
fessional athletes  were  trained  by  a  gymnast 
The  whole  institution  was  super 
intended  by  the  gymnasiarck  (yvuvaoidpxiK)- 
While,  originally,  gymnasia  were  only  places  for 
bodily  exercises,   they  were   afterwards   used  by 

philosophers,  rhetoricians,  and  teachers  of  various 
sciences  as  places  for  instructing  their  pupils. 
Thus  Plato  taught  in  the  Academy  and  Aristotle 
in  the  Lyceum  of  Athens. — The  Roman  republic 
had  no  special  buildings  which  could  be  com- 
pared with  the  Greek  gymnasia  ;  during  the 
reign  of  the  emperors,  the  public  baths  (thermae) 
served  for  the  same  purpose,  and  may  be  said 
to  have  gradually  absorbed  the  gymnasia.  (See 
Petersen,  Das  Gymnasium  derGr/irbrtt,  ls.">s.) 
(2)  In  modern  times,  the  name  gymnasium 
has  been  commonly  applied  in  Germany,  since 
the  time  of  J.  A.  Wolf,  to  those  schools  which 
prepare  students  for  the  universities.  Some 
of  these  institutions,  while  holding  the  rank  of 
a  gymnasium,  have  different  names,  as  poeda- 
gogium,  lyceum,  Gelehrienschule,  Landesschule, 
Fwrstenschule.  This  class  of  schools  has  gradu- 
ally developed  from  the  cathedral  and  consent 


tnnasia-c 

schools  (q.  v.)  of  the  middle  ages,  which  werejju«nt  ^hftr  tl 
designed  to  impart  to  the  youth  of  the  country 
the  highest  instruction  accessible,  in  those  times, 
especially  that  needed  for  the  priesthood.  After 
the  establishment  of  the  universities,  the  cath- 
edral and  convent  school  assumed  the  character 
of  preparatory  schools.  Their  number  increased 
rapidly,  and  the  course  of  studies  was  steadily 
enlarged.  In  addition  to  the  schools  attached 
to  cathedral  chapters  and  convents,  a  number 
of  schools  of  a  similar  rank  were  founded  by  the 
municipal  authorities  of  many  of  the  larger 
towns,  as  well  as  by  many  princes.  The  revival 
of  classical  studies,  in  the  15th  century,  greatly 
added  to  the  reputation  and  social  position  of 
these  schools.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
Melanchthon  introduced  more  exalted  views  of 
classical  studies  as  the  basis  of  the  classical 
school;  and  the  educational  efforts  made  by  the 
•Jesuits  provoked  a  rivalry  which,  in  many  re- 
spects, had  a  beneficent  influence.  The  civii 
wars  ainl  religious  conflicts  of  the  1  7th  and  1  8th 
centuries  caused  a  stand-still  for  a  time,  and 
progress  was  not  resumed  until  the  end  of  the 
18th  century.  A.  IT.  Francke  (q.  v.)  the  founder 
of  the  celebrated  institutions  at  Salle,  favored, 
like  all  the  1'ietists.  the  realistic,  in  preference 
to  the  humanistic,  studies  and  secured  the  in- 
troduction of  geography  and  history  as  branches 
of  instruction,  and  the  appointment  of  special 
teachers  of  mathematics.  But  Gesner  (q.  v.), 
Heyne,  (q.  v.),  and  other  champions  of  classical 


studies,  fully  secured  their  preponderance.  The 
opposition  made  to  the  classics  l>y  the  Philan- 
thropists Strengthened  rather  than  weakened 
their  position.  At  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  a  thorough  reform  of  the  gymnasia  was 

inaugurated    in    Prussia,   and    gradually   carried 

into  effect  in  all  the  German  states.    The  new 

arrangement  sanctioned    the    predominance  of 

classical  studies,  but.  at  the  same  time,  provided 
for  an  improved    plan    of  teaching    the    realistic 

branches;  such  as  the  natural  sciences, geography, 
and  mathematics.  The  supervisory  right  of  the 
churches  was  restricted  to  religious  instruction  ; 
and  the  supreme  control  of  all  the  institutions 
of  learning  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  state 
government.  The  gymnasia  now  hold  in  the  Ger- 
man states  a  privileged  position,  since  no  young 
man  can  be  matriculated  for  any  faculty  of  the 
university  without  having  passed  a  final  examina- 
tion at  the  gymnasium.  Violent  attacks  have  lie/n 
made  upon  this  privileged  position,  and  specially 
upon  the  important  place  which  the  course  of 
studies  of  the  gymnasia  assigns  to  the  classical 
languages;  and,  in  some  countries,  the  government 
has  so  far  yielded  to  the  growing  opposition  as  to 
organize  real  gymnasia,  in  which  the  Greek  lan- 
guage is  altogether  dropped,  and  the  Latin  at  least 
greatly  reduced.  (See  Real  Schools.)  But  the 
organization  of  the  real  gymnasia  is  far  from  be- 
ing completed,  and  governments  and  legislatures 
appear  to  be  inclined  to  uphold,  in  the  main,  the 
rights  of  the  A»ieal  gymnasium.  The  defenders 
of  the  course  or  instruction  as  pursued  in  the 
gvinnasia^clu^iK  rest  their  pleas  upon  the  argu- 
nt  course,  in  its  entirety,  is 


lie  |tei 
best  suiie*d"^r  efe'rate  the  pupils  of  these  institu- 


tionTto  the  level  of  our  modern  civilization,  and 
to  fit  them  to  become  intelligent  members  of 
modern  society.  The  superintendence  of  the  gym- 
nasia is  exercised  either  by  the  ministry  of 
educational  and  ecclesiastical  affairs,  or,  in  some 
states,  by  a  supreme  educational  council.  They 
are,  at  stated  times,  examined  by  school  coun- 
cilors. At  the  head  of  a  gymnasium,  is  a  rector, 
or  director,  and  the  number  of  teachers  varies 
with  the  number  of  the  classes.  No  one  can  be 
appointed  a  teacher  who  has  not  studied  at  a 
university,  and  passed  an  examination  before  a 
commission  appointed  by  the  government.  In 
Prussia,  a  gymnasium  is  generally  divided  into 
six  classes,  called  prima,  s<  cunda,  tertia, quarta, 
quinta,  and  sexta.  The  three  higher  classes  are 
generally  subdivided  into  two  divisions,  the  upper 
and  the  lower.  The  time  usually  spent  in  a  class, 
or  in  a  division  of  one  of  the  higher  classes,  is 
one  year;  and.  a  full  course,  at  a  I 'russian  gym- 
nasium, generally  requires  nine  years.  In  Bava- 
ria, a  gymnasium  has  four  classes,  and  a  prepar- 
atory school  (called  a  Latin  school),  which  com- 
prises five  classes.  In  Austria,  the  gymnasia 
wet,-  thoroughly  reorganized  in  L849,  and  now 
resemble,  in  their  essentia]  features,  in  Austria 
proper  as  well  as  in  Hungary,  the  institutions  of 
Germany.  In  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway, 
the  gymnasia  have  the  same  characteristics  as 
those   of   Germany.      In    Italy,  the  gymnasium 


396 


GYMNASTICS 


consists  of  five  classes  which  correspond  to  the 
lower  classes  of  a  German  gymnasium.  It  serves 
as  a  preparatory  school  to  the  lyceum,  which  has 
three  classes.  In  Russia,  the  gymnasium  has  seven 
classes,  besides  a  preparatory  class.  The  German 
gymnasia  resemble  the  Scotch  grammar  ami 
mgh  schools,  and  only  differ  from  the  RWiglish 
public  schools  for  the  upper  and  middle  classes 
in  being  day  schools,  instead  of  the  centers  of 
large  boarding  establishments.  The  literature 
relating  to  gymnasiums  is  very  numerous.  —  Sec 
on  the  German  gymnasium,  the  model  of  the 
others,  Wiss,  Encyclopadie  und  Methodolo 
der  Grymnasiatetudien  (1830);  Both,  Gymna- 
sicilrPcLdagogik  (18<>.*>);  Laas.  Gymnasium  und 
Realschule  (1875)  ;  Barnard,  Public  Education 

in    Enron''  f  L854). 

GYMNASTICS  ((Jr.  •  vfivaoTiicfi,  from  ;  vuvdg, 
naked),  a  system  of  bodily  exercises  designed 
to  develop  muscular  strength,  and  to  promote 
general  physical  culture  and  health.  In  the 
article  on  Calisthenics,  this  subject  has  already 
been  treated  as  far  as  it  comprehends  those 
light  physical  exercises  which  arc  especially 
adapted  for  females,  although  frequently  used 

in  the  education  of  persons  of  the  other  sex.  'I'hi' 
term  gymnastics  was  anciently  used  to  denote 
the  bodilj  exercises  exclusively  of  boys  and  men, 

because  those  who  performed  them,  ill  public  or 
in  private,  were  either  entirely  naked,  or  only 
wore  a  short  tunic,  called  x.trfav.  Among  the  an- 
cients, particularly  the  Greeks,  gymnastics  con- 
stituted the  most  essential  part  of  education; 
and  there  was  not  a  Greek  town  of  any  impor- 
tance (hat  did  not  have  its  gymnasium,  or  place 
for  the  regular  physical  training  of  youth,  which 
was  supplied  with  baths,  accommodations  for 
athletic  contests,  and  conveniences  also  for  the 
philosophers,  sophists,  and  teach  srs,  with  their 
pupils,  and  all  others  who  attended  for  intellect- 
ual instruction  or  amusement  The  laws  of 
Solon  regulated  the  management  of  these  gym- 
nasia among  the  Athenians.  One  of  these  laws 
forbade  all   adults  to    enter   a   gymnasium  while 

the  boys  were  engaged  in  their  exercises:  but  it 
was  the  practice  tor  adults  to  attend  for  exercise 

at    other    times  of    the   day.  or  in  other  portions 

of  the  building,  specially  set  apart  for  men.  Un- 
til boys  reached  the  age  of   sixteen,  gymnastics 

constituted  but  apart  of  their  education;  but. 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen,  it  seems  to  have  ab- 
sorb •  1  nearly  their  whole  attention.  At  Athens, 
ami  in  all  the  Ionian  state-,  females   wen'    never 

permitted  to  attend  the  gymnasium  ;  but  at 
Sparta,  and  in  some  of  the  other  Doric  states, 
unmarried  women  attended,  and  took  part  in,  the 
exercises,  dressed  in  the  ^rwv.  Instruction  was 
given  b\  regular  teachers  who  were  supposed 
to  understand  the  physiological  effects  of  each 

exei  I    thus    to    be   able  to  assign   tO  SI  cry 

youth    Such  were    befit    suited  to  his 

particular  case.  Gymnastics,  at  Hist,  compre- 
hended agonistics  (the  exercises  of  the  public 
games)  and  athletics,  or  professional  gymnastics 
a-  practiced  by  the  athletes;  but.  in  later  times, 

these  were  entirely  separated;  ami  the  gymnasia 


became  places  exclusively  for  physical  education 
and  training.  (See  Athens  and  Gymnasium.) 
There  was  almost  entire  uniformity  in  the  exer- 
cises of  the  different  gymnasia  in  various  parts 
of  Greece  :  the  Dorians,  however,  made  the  hard- 
ening of  the  body,  as  a  preparation  for  militarj 
life,  a  paramount  aim  :  while  the  Athenians,  and 
the  Ionians  in  general,  sought  to  impart  grace 
and  beauty,  as  well  as  strength,  to  the  body  and 
its  movements,  and  to  make  physical  health  the 
basis  of  a  sound  and  vigorous  mind.  These 
exercises  partook  largely  of  the  nature  of  games 
among  which  we  rind  mentioned  (1)  that  of  the 
ball  (odaiptmc),  played  in  various  ways  :  1 2)  that  of 
the  rope,  a  boy  holding  each  end.  and  one  trying 
to  pidl  the  other  across  a  line  :  (3)  that  of  the  top, 
played  very  much  as  in  our  own  time  :  (4)  the 
game  of  five  stones  {TrevT&Af&og),  like  the  jack- 
stones  of  our  day;  (5)  that  of  a  rope  drawn  over 
a  post  on  the  opposite  sides  of  which  two  boys 
stood  and  tried  to  pull  each  other  up  off  the 
ground.  Besides  these,  the  more  important 
exercises  were  swimming,  riding,  throwing  the 
quoit  and  javelin,  jumping  and  leaping,  wrest- 
ling, boxing,  running,  ami  dancing.  Among  the 
Greeks,  gymnastics  was  closely  allied  to  the  med- 
ical art,  because  systematic  bodily  exercise  was 
considered  to  constitute  not  only  an  important 

means   of    preserving   health,    but  a  certain    cure 

for  a  large  clas.s  of  diseases.    They  thus  recog- 
nized the  principle  on  which  Ling  has  based 
system  of  kinesipathy,  or  movement-cure.     To 
the  curative  effects  of  exercise,  Galen,  t'clsiis, 

ami  some  other  ancient  physicians  refer  in  works 
still   extant. —  In  the   middle  ages,  there   was  no 

use  of  gymnastics,  strictly  speaking;  the  exer- 
cises employed  in  education   partaking    rather 

of  the  nature  of  athletics,  and  being  almost  ex- 
clusively for  military  training  or  drill,  or  the 
knightly  amusement  of  the  tournament.  Among 
the   lower  orders,  archery,  footracing,  wrestling, 

the  u>e  of  the  quarter  staff,  etc.,  were  common 

athletic  sports;  but  there  was  no  such  thing  as 
a    systematic    scries    of    exercises    for    muscular 

development,  until  Basedow  (q.  v.)  introduced 
gymnastics,  as  a  part  of  education,  in  the  Phi- 
lanthropin  at  Dessau;  and  subsequently  (1784) 
Salzmann  adopted  the  same  system  for  bis  in- 
stitute.     Gutsmuths   extensively  introduced    the 

practice  of  gymnastics  into  Prussian  schools,  and 
wrote  several  works  on  the  subject  [Gymnastik 
fur  die  Jugend,  IT'.'.'i:  ami  Turnbuch/ilr  </i<' 
Siilni,'  d,'s  Vaierlandes,  L817).  A  stilt  more 
valuable  work  was  Encyclop&die  der  Leibes- 
Ubungen  (1804  18),  by  vieth,  a  pupil  of  the 
Philanthropin  at  Dessau.  Pestalozzi  also  favored 
gymnastic  training  as  an  important  instrumental- 
ity in  the  general  culture  of  man.  In  1810, 
.'aim  still  further  extended  the  system ;  and  the 

nexl    year,   under   his   direction,    was    opened    .it 

Berlin  the  firsl  public  Turnplatz,  the  object  of 

which  was  not  only  to  encourage  physical  devel- 
opment   but    patriotic   fervor   among   the  young 

men,  in  opposition  to  the  aggressive  schemes  of 

Napoleon  I.      After  serving    in   the  army  in  de- 

fense  of  his  country.  Jahn  resumed  the  manage- 


ITAIilT 


397 


ment  of  his  gymnastic  schools;  but  the  govern- 
ment, finding  their  influence  favorable  to  the 
spread  of  liberal  ideas,  suppressed  them  (1818). 
The  system  was.  however,  adopted  in  England, 
Switzerland,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  some  other 
countries,  and  became  widely  popular ;  and.  in 
L842,  the  king  of  Prussia  ordered  the  intro- 
duction of  these  exercises,  as  a  part  of  the 
school  system.  The  turn-wereine  also  spread 
from  Germany  to  the  United  States,  where  they 

are  now  very  numerous, 

As  a  department  of  education,  gymnastics  re- 
quires very  careful  regulation,  having  reference 
to  the  age  and  physical  constitution  01  the  pupil. 

Much  injury  may  lie  done  by  requiring  all  the 
members  of  a  school  or  of  a  class  to  perform  the 
same  exercises,  especially  if  they  are  of  a  violent 
character;  indeed,  it  maybe  doubted  whether. 
up  to  the  age  of  16,  for  the  ordinary  purpose 
oi  physical  development  and  health,  boys  need 
any  thing  more  than  abundant  opportunity  and 
time  for  the  out-door  sports  and  recreations  in 
which  their  natural  activity  will  generally  prompt 
them  to  engage.  Beyond  that  age,  gymnastic 
exercises,  properly  regulated,  may  be  made  the 
means  of  laying  the  foundation  of  permanent 
strength  and  health.  Military  drill  is  often  in- 
troduced into  schools  and  colleges,  and  is  found 
an  efficient  substitute  for  gymnastic  exercises,  or 
an  excellent  auxiliary  to  them.  The  testimony 
of  educators  is  uniformly  favorable  to  this  kind 
of  exercise  in  boys'  schools.not  only  as  an  effect- 
ive means  of  physical  culture,  but  as  imparting 
habits  of  attention,  order,  subordination,  and 
prompt  obedience.  For  schools  of  most  grades, 
and  for  cither  sex.  light  gymnastics  has  been 
found  to  supply  appropriate  and  efficient  exer- 
cise. Of  this  character  is  the  new  system  of 
gymnastics  by  Dio  Lewis  and  others,  the  dis- 
tinguishing peculiarity  of  which  is  its  complete 
adaptation  to  every  physical  constitution  and 
degree  of  strength.  It  dispenses  with  all  fixed 
and  cumbrous  apparatus,  and  only  employs  such 
implements  as  bags  of  beans,  light  poles,  or 
wands,  rings,  india-rubber  straps  with  handles, 
etc.  The  exercises,  being  ligh  t  and  simple,  can 
be  performed  in  any  room  or  hall ;  and  yet  their 
endless  variety  is  such  as  to  bring  into  healthful 
exercise  every  part  of  the  muscular  system  and, 


at  the  same  time,  to  give  a  pleasing,  recreative 
occupation  to  the  mind.    This  is  especially  the 

case  when  they  arc  regulated  by  the  rhythm  of 
music.  (See  ( '  ILISTHENICS.)  Tlmse  \  iolcnt  exercises 
ordinarily  called    athletics,  such   as    boat-racing, 

jumping,  putting  the  weight,  throwing  the  ham- 
mer, etc..  have,  during  the  last  .'!(>  or  40  years, 
been  very  popular,  particularly  in  the  English 
universities.  Boat-racing,  in  particular,  both  in 
British  and  American  universities  and  colleges. 
has  absorbed  very  much  of  the  attention  of  the  stu- 
dents, and  excited  much  inter-collegiate  rivalry. 
These  -ports  have  been,  for  some  time,  encouraged 
as  favorable  to  physical  culture;  but  their  desir- 
ability has  been  recently  called  in  question,  and 

many  educators  are,  at  present,  strongly  disposed 
to  repress  all  such  inter-collegiate  contests.  ( 1 )  as 
leading  to  many  vices,  such  as  drinking,  betting, 
gambling,  etc.;  (2)  as  dangerous  to  health,  in 
consequence  of  the  excessive  strain  upon  the 
physical  strength  which  they  require:  (3)  as 
making  mere  bodily  strength  and  its  triumphs 
almost  exclusively  the  aim  of  the  college  student. 
or,  at  any  rate,  secondary  to  intellectual  and 
moral  culture;  and  (4)  as  absorbing  too  much 
of  the  time,  attention,  and  efforts  of  the  students, 
and  thus  preventing  the  successful  prosecution 
of  their  studies.  Of  course,  all  these  evils  result 
from  that  excessive  spirit  of  rivalry  or  emulation, 
which  is  too  often  encouraged  by  injudicious 
parents  and  teachers,  by  unduly  exaggerating 
the  value  of  success  in  these  athletic  contests. 
Let  these  exercises  be  commended  and  encour- 
aged as  of  intrinsic  value,  not  as  the  means  of 
attaining  a  useless,  barren  victory  in  a  boat-race 
or  other  contest,  but  as  the  necessary  means  of 
cultivating  those  powers  and  virtues  which  are 
to  enable  the  student  to  run  a  brave,  manly,  and 
Christian  course  through  life,  meeting  all  its 
emergencies  not  only  with  coinage  but  physical 
endurance,  and  no  objection  can  possibly  be 
made  to  them. — See  Markby,  Practical  Essays 
on  Education,  s.  v.  Athletics  (London,  1868); 
Sohkeber,  Kinesiatrih  (Leipsic,  1852);  Nahl, 
Instructions  in  Gymnastic*  (San  Francisco, 
1863)  ;  Wood,  Manual  of  Physical  Exercises 
(N.  Y.,  1867);  Ravenstein  and  Hulley,  Gym- 
nastics and  Athletics  (London,  1867).  (See  also 
I  Ulisthenics.) 


HABIT,  a  tendency  to  repeat  the  same 
action,  more  or  less  unconsciously,  or  an  inclina- 
tion for  the  pursuits,  occupations,  or  states  to 
which  the  body  or  the  mind  has  become  familiar 
by  use.  Habit,  as  an  automatic  tendency,  takes 
a  wide  range,  not  only  extending  over  all  our 
mental  and  bodily  acts,  but  including  likewise 
our  moods  of  mind,  our  sources  of  indulgence, 
pleasure,  ease,  and  recreation,  and  comprehend- 
ing also,  either  by  improvement  or  debasement, 
our  entire  moral  and  spiritual  nature.  The 
singular  facility  which  is  acquired  by  repeated 
action,  in  accomplishing  what  at  first  was  either 


difficult  or  impossible,  has  never  been  satisfac- 
torily explained.  The  fact,  however,  is  univer- 
sally recognized    in  the  old  saying,  "  Habit  is 

second  nature,"  as  also  in  the  useful  educa- 
tional maxim,  "  Practice  makes  perfect."  "It 
conditions,"  says  Rosenkranz  {Pedagogics  as  a 
System),  "formally  all  progress ;  for  that  which  is 

not  yet  become  habit,  but  which  we  perform  with 
design  and  an  exercise  of  OUT  will,  is  not  yet  a 
pari  of  ourselves."  Physiologists  profess  to  find 
a  reason  for  this  power  of  habit,  in  the  sym- 
pathetic nerves;  and  some  psychologists  trace 
mental  habits  to  the  association  of  ideas.     The 


398 


HABIT 


extent  to  which  habit  influences  the  daily  life  of 
ry  one — even  the  youngest  child, can  scarcely 
be  realized.  Consciously  or  unconsciously,  it 
enters,  in  some  shape,  into  every  effort  at  con- 
tinuous action,  physical  or  mental,  and  more  or 
less  controls  it.  FrCm  the  dawn  of  intelligence, 
when  the  child  first  takes  cognizance  of  material 
things,  all  through  the  period  of  self-education, 
which  precedes  systematic  instruction,  it  is  form- 
ing, of  itself,  habits  of  observation,  comparison, 
and  generalization,  which  are  to  constitute  the 
basis  of  all  subsequent  intellectual  activity-  So 
is  it  also  forming  those,  habits  which,  taken  to- 
gether, make  up  what  is  called  disposition,  tem- 
per, etc.  It  is  this  tendency  to  contract  habits 
which  gives  such  plasticity  to  the  minds  and 
characters  of  youth,  and  which  really  underlies 
the  power  and  office  of  education;  for  what  we 
call  training  is  nothing  more  than  guiding  and 
regulating  the  formation  of  habit.  This  relation 
of  habit  to  education  has  never  been  more  clearly 
or  forcibly  illustrated  than  by  Dr.  Johnson  in 
his  beautiful  allegory  called  the  Vision  of  Theo- 
dore: "  As  Education  led  her  troop  up  the 
mountain,  nothing  was  more  observable  than 
that  she  was  frequently  giving  them  cautions  to 

beware  of  Habits;  and  was  calling  out  to  one 
or  another  at  every  step,  that  a  Habit  was  en- 
snaring  them  ;  that  they  would  be  un  ler  the 
dominion  of  Habit  before  they  perceived  their 
danger;  and  that  those  whom  Habit  should  once 
subdue,  had  little  hope  of  regaining  their  liber- 
ty." While  it  is  the  period  of  formal  education, 
at  which  the  child  especially  needs  to  he  pro- 
tected from  the  influence  of  habit,  to  some  ex- 
tent ami  in  some  respects,  the  watchful  care  of 
the  educator  is  required  even  from  the  earliest 
infancy  to  prevent  the  formation  of  injurious 
and  almost  ineradicable  habits;  indeed,  there  is 
scarcely  a  child  who,  on  being  sent  to  school  for 
the  first  time,  will  not  be  found  to  have  con- 
tracted habits,  both  physical  and  mental,  which 
the  teach. a'  will  find  it  necessary  to  strive  to 
correct.    One  of  his  most  important  functions 

will  be  to  detect  and  eradicate  bad  habits,  as  a 
kind  of    morbid  growth  :   for.   like   weeds,  these 

habits  not  only  cumber  the  ground  themselves, 
but  tender  it  sterile  for  any  other  productions. 

For  example,  what  can  be  done  with  that  most 
troublesome  of  all  cases,  a  "spoiled  child,"  un- 
til the  habits  of  self-indulgence,  self-will,  way- 
ward caprice,  and  despotic  control  of  others, 
which  characterize  it. are  eradicated,  or  super 
seded    by  other  dispositions?      So.   too.   with 

habits  of  deceit,  falsehood.  Cruelty,  and  many 
Others  that  are  apt  to  spring  up  in  even  very 
young  minds.  In  regard  to  the  intellect,  the 
sa principle  holds  true;  tor  that  natural  de- 
velopment which  precedes  formal  instruction 
may.  ind I.  be  luxuriant .  but  cannot  be  regular. 

The  mind  of  fche  most  active  child,  under  cir- 
cumstances that  present  the  very  best  Opportu- 
nities for  development,  if  il  has  been  left  entirely 
to  itself,  w  ill  be  found  to  have  acquired  settled 
ways  of  observing,  thinking,  and  speaking  which 
it  will  be  necessary  to  correct  ;  ami.  besides,  it 


I  will  generally  have  become  impulsive,  impatient 
of  any  continuous  attention,  and  prone  to  pass 
rapidly  from  one  thing  to  another,  in  obedience 
to  a  mere  momentary  fancy  or  impulse.  It  will, 
therefore,  be  generally  found  that  children,  on 
being  firsl  subjected  to  regular  instruction,  need 
to   have    habits  of   attention   formed,  in  place  of 

those  of  inattention,  which  have  been  implanted 

by  tluir  own  unconscious  and  unregulated  activ- 
ity. (See  ATTENTION.)  There  are  others,  how- 
ever, of  a  less  e'eneral  character  which  will  de- 
mand special  effort.  As  an  instance,  one  of  the 
earliest  of  these  objectionable  habits,  and  per- 
haps one  of  the  most  common. is  the  unconscious 
substitution  in  the  child's  mind  of  the  symbol 
for  the  thine-  symbolized.  This  will  be  mani- 
fested by  most  children  when  shown,  for  exam- 
ple, the  picture  of  a  horse,  and  asked  to  state 
what  it  is.  Usually  the  answer  will  be,  "  It  is  a 
horse;"  from  the  habit  of  confounding  things 
with  their  representatives.  Hence,  the  unre- 
sisting facility  with  which  children  yield  their 
minds  to  mere  memorizing  and  rote-learning, 
the  effect  of  which  is  to  confirm  the  bad  habit 
referred  to,  and,  in  its  final  result,  to  extinguish 
intelligence  and  destroy  mental  activity.  While 
some  of  the  habits  which  demand  the  teacher's 
attention  at  this  early  stage,  are  common  to  all 
children,  in  a  greater  or  a  less  degree,  there  are 
others  of  great  variety,  dependent  upon  either 
peculiar  traits  of  character  or  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  early  life.  The  law  of  the  formation 
of  habit  is  repetition  or  exercise.  This  is  recog- 
nized in  many  departments  of  instruction,  as  an 
indispensable  means  of  imparting  facility,  readi- 
ness, and  promptitude. without  which  certain  ac- 
complishments could  not  be  made,  or  if  made, 
would  be  comparatively  useless.  For  example, 
of  what  value  would  the  multiplication  table  be 
if  its  use  required  a  conscious  effort  of  mind  at 
every  application  of  any  of  its  details?  The 
same  principle  is  illustrated  by  the  playing  of  a 
musical  instrument,  by  the  use  of  language  in 
speaking  and  writing,  and  by  the  varied  bodily 
movements  needed  in  daily  life.  Good  habits 
should  be  formed  at  as  early  a  period  as  possible; 

because  experience  shows  that,  when  thoroughly 
established  in  childhood  or  youth,  they  generally 
continue,  with  more  or  less  strength,  through 
life.  Hence  the  importance  of  making  those 
qualities  and  observances  habitual,  which  con- 
stitute the  elements  of  practical  success  in  every 

walk  of  life;  such  as  punctuality,  older,  regular- 
ity, and  perseverance;  to  which  may  be  added 
neatness,  courtesy,  attention  to  the  wants  of 
Others,  forbearance,  and  sell  Control.  For  the 
same  reason,  bad  habits  should  be  eradicated  be- 
fore they  have   reached    that    mat  lire  state,  after 

which  they  scarcely  ever  entirely  disappear.     It 

is.  indeed,  rarely  the  case   that    thoroughly  fixed 

habits  are  wholly  removed-;  hence,  the  teacher 
should  strive  to  counteract  their  evil  influence, 
or  neutralize  their  activity,  by  implanting  those 

of  a  contrary  nature.  In  dealing  with  the  bad 
habits  of  children,  the  teacher  should  appreciate, 
and  make  due  allowance  for.  the  force   of   habit. 


I1ADLKV 


HALF-TIME   SCHOOLS 


399 


He  cannot  uproot  them  at  once  and  by  violence. 
As  time  is  an  important  element  in  their  forma- 
tion.so  is  it  also  in  their  eradication ;  and, there- 
fore, the  child  is  to  be  led  along  a  divergent 
path  which,  by  degrees,  will  conduct  him  away 
from  tlic  virions  impulse  which,  all  the  while, 
tends  to  overpower  his  best  resolutions.  "  Either 
we  should  not  attempt  the  conquest  of  habit," 
Bays  Miss  Edge worth,  in  Practiced  Education, 
"or  we  should  persist  till  we  have  vanquished. 
The  confidence  which  the  sense  of  success  will 
give  the  pupil  will  probably,  in  his  own  opinion, 
be  thought  well  worthy  of  the  price.     Neither 
his   reason   nor  his  will   was  in   fault;    all   he 
wanted  was  strength  to  break  the  diminutive 
chains  of  habit,  which,  it  seems,  have  power  to 
enfeeble  the  captives  exactly  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  time  they  are  worn."      Whatever 
force  or  coercion  may  be  found  necessary  for 
this  purpose  should  be  gradually  relaxed,  till  the 
child  has  formed,  to  some  extent  the  habit  of  self- 
control:    which  will  become  the   foundation  of 
most   other  good   habits.      The    implanting  of 
particular  habits  must  not,  however,  be  deemed 
the  whole  of  moral  training;  there  must  be  the 
culture  of  conscientiousness,  of  intelligence,  of 
self-respect,  of  a  constant  impression  and  recog- 
nition of  the  Divine  presence,  and  of   all  the 
other  principles  of  human    nature,  by  means  of 
which  it  rises  to  the  higher    plane  of  moral  re- 
sponsibility, consciously  exercising  its  own  facul- 
ties, not  blindly  obeying  habitual  tendencies  re- 
ceived   from   others.      Properly    educated,   the 
human  being,  in  the  exercise  of  his  own  will  and 
conscience,  enlists  the  power  of  habit  in  support 
of  his  own  moral  conclusions,  making  a  useful 
servant  of  that  by  which  so   many  others  are 
hopelessly  enslaved.     In  this  connection,  Rosen- 
kranz  says.  ••  Education  must  procure   for  the 
pupil  the  power  of  being  able  to  free  himself 
from  one  habit  and  to  adopt  another.     Through 
his  freedom,  he  must  be  able  not  only  to  re- 
nounce any  habit  formed,  but   to  form  a  new- 
one  ;  and  he  must  so  govern  his  system  of  habits 
that  it  shall  exhibit  a  constant  progress  of  de- 
velopment into  greater  freedom.     We  must  dis- 
cipline ourselves,  as  a  means  toward  the  ever- 
ehanging  realization  of  the  good  in  us,  constantly 
to  form  and  to  break  habits."'      And  it  is  in  the 
attainment  of  this  grand   object  of  self-culture, 
that  habit  may  render  the  important  aid  referred 
to,  in  making  the  exercise  of  self-criticism,  con- 
scientious watchfulness  of  our  own  conduct,  and 
obedience  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and  religion, 
easy   and    continuous    by   becoming    habitual. 
Thus  it  is  that  the  man  for  whom  education  has 
done  all  that  it  can  do,  within  the  utmost  scope 
of  its  power,  truly  finds  habit   not  his  master 
but  his  most  useful  servant  and  friend. 

HADLEY,  James,  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  educator,  was  horn  in  Fairfield, 
Herkimer  I  V.  N.  V..  March  30..  1821.  and  die  1 
in  New  Haven,  Ct..  Nov.  1  1..  1872.  At  the  age 
of  21,  he  graduated  at  Yale  College, at  the  head 
of  his  class  :  and  in  1  8  15,  completed  a  course  of 
study  at  the  Theological  Seminary  in  New  i  laven. 


The  same  year,  he  commenced  his  career  as  a 
teacher  of  the  Greek  language  in  Yale  College, 
filling  successively  the  positions  of  tutor,  assistant 
professor,  and.  in  L851,  professor,  succeeding 
President  Woolsey  in  the  latter  position,  lie 
was  a  man  of  profound  and  varied  scholarship, 
including  linguistic,  philological,  and  mathemat- 
ical attainments.  He  was  versed  not  only  in 
the  classic;  J  languages,  hut  in  most  of  the  oriental, 
including  Sanskrit,  Hebrew,  Arabic  and  Ar- 
menian: also  in  the  Gothic,  and  in  many  of 
the  modern  languages.  Hewasa  leading  mem- 
ber of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  and  during 
the  last  two  years  of  his  life,  its  president.  Be 
umte  the  History  of  t!f  English  Language  for 
the  introduction  of  Webster's  Dictionary,  and 
published  a  Gr<  <  kgrammar  1 1 86C  l-and  Eli  m>  nls 
if  tin1  Greek  "Language  (1869j  His  essay  on 
the  Greek  accents  was  translated  into  German, 
and  republished  in  Curtius's  Studien  zur  ijri>- 
chischen  und  laleinischen  Grammatik.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  Lectures  on  Roman  Law,  and 
Essays  Philological  and  Critical,  which  were 
edited  by  Prof.  W.  D.  "Whitney,  and  published 
after  his 'death  (1873). 

HAEHN,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  German 
educator,  born  in  1710; died  in  1789.  After  being 
for  a  time  teacher  and  inspector  of  the  school 
connected  with  the  monastery  at  Bergen,  he  went 
to  Berlin,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
Hecker  (q.  v.),  and,  in  1753,  was  appointed  in- 
spector of  the  latter's  real  school,  in  which  posi- 
tion he  perfected  his  method  of  instruction.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  text-books  for  his  pupils,  a 
compendium  of  geometry,  trigonometry,  and 
military  art,  in  synopses.  In  the  arrangement 
of  these  synopses,  lies  the  peculiarity  of  his  meth- 
od, called  the  tabular  or  literal  method,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  first  letters  of  the  principal 
subjects  of  instruction  -were  written  on  the  board, 
with  the  principal  sentences  contained  in  the 
lesson,  which  were  put  down  in  tabular  form. 
By  these  means,  he  designed  to  facilitate  not  only 
the  memorizing  of  the  Itssons.  but  to  produce 
thoroughness  and  thoughtfulness  in  the  study  of 
each  subject.  In  every  lesson,  he  illustrated  his 
instruction  as  much  as  possible  by  means  of  ob- 
jects, of  which  he  had  a  large  collection.  His 
method  was  copied  and  perfected  by  Felbiger 
(q.  v.),  but  gradually  fell  into  disuse  as  being 
sowewhat  impracticable.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  gym- 
nasium in  Aurich,  which  position  he  retained 
until  his  death. 

HALF-TIME  SCHOOLS,  a  class  of  schools 
which,  as  the  name  denotes,  hold  their  scs.-i.  i  s 
during  only  one  half  of  cadi  day.  thus  affording 
an  opportunity  to  a  numerous  class  of  children, 
employed  in  workshops,  factories,  stores,  etc.,  to 
attend  school  wit  hunt  giving  up  their  employ- 
ments. They  are  thus  kindred,  in  object,  with 
evening  schools,  which  in  a  certain  sense,  may  be 
considered  as  half-time  schools.  The  half-time 
system  is  encouraged  in  England  by  a  special 
government  grant,  and  is  said  to  work  well ;  espe- 
cially where,  by  the  co-operation  of  the  employers, 


400 


HALL 


HAMILTON    COLLEGE 


the  pupils  (half-timers)  are  made  to  attend  school 
with  regularity.  These  half-time  schools  are  ex- 
amined according  to  the  same  standards  as  full- 
time  schools;  but  the  amount  paid  for  half-time 
regular  attendance  is  only  half  of  that  paid  for 
full  time.  In  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  some 
of  the  cities  of  the  United  States,  the  half-time 
system  is  said  to  have  met  with  encouraging 
results.  This  plan  originates  in  the  effort  to 
adapt  the  public  schools  to1  he  circumstances  and 
needs  of  all  classes  of  the  community;  and  thus. 

in  a  measure  at  least,  supersedes  the  necessity  of 
compulsory  laws.  The  principle,  however,  ad- 
mits of  an  application  without  the  organization 
of  separate  schools,  which  might  be  objectionable 
in  American  communities,  as  establishing  a  class 
system  of  education.  The  same  object  may  be 
carried  out,  it  has  been  suggested,  by  a  half- 
time  course  of  study,  with  grades  and  subjects 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  giving  the  half-time 
pupils  a  good  elementary  education  in  a  reduced 
time.  Of  course,  some  degree  of  uniformity 
would  be  sacrificed  by  such  an  arrangement;  but 
it  is  claimed  that  no  real  efficiency  would  be  lost 
in  the  actual  working  of  the  school  system,  or  in 
the  education  received.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
urged  that   the  union  of  labor  and   schooling   has 

many  advantages,  the  one  assisting  the  other  ;  and 

that  the  half-time  pupils  prove,  as  a  rule,  as  apt 
scholars  as  their  full-time  da-s  mates,  if  not  SO  far 

advanced.  Besides,  it  affords  an  encouragement 
to  manual  labor,  and  gives  it  an  honorable  rec- 
ognition, which  is  of  great  importance  in  every 

inutility,   especially    where   the   boj    who   lias 

had  even  an  ordinary  school  education  is  prone 

to  look  down  upon  all  mechanical  trades  and 
artisanship    as    unworthy,    fixing    his    ambition 

rather  up icivantile  or  literary  pursuits.     The 

true  interests  of  a  community  depend  in  a  great 
measure  upon  the  productive  industry  of  edu- 
cated, skillful,  and   Self-respecting  artisans:  and 

if  the  halt-time  system  can  foster,  in  any  degree, 
this  important  class  of  occupations,  it  deserves 
the  attention  and  support  of  Statesmen  and 
educators. 

HALL,   Samuel  Read,   a  noted  American 
teacher,  the    first    principal  of   the  first  teachers' 

seminary  established  in  the  United  States,  was 
Lorn    in'  Croydon,   \.    EL,  Oct.  27.,    L795.      His 

Iiarents  having  removed  to  Vermont,  he  received 
us  early  education  in  that  state;  hut  subse- 
quently attended  an  academy  in  \'ew  Hamp- 
shire. Mi'  afterwards  studied  theology,  and 
entered  the  ministry,  during  the  whole  time. 
however,   teaching  school.     In   L823,  he  opened 

a  .seminary,  the  special    object    of    which    w;i 

educate   teachers.    This  scl 1    was   composed 

chiefly  of  advanced  students,  but  a  class  of 
younger  pupils  was  formed  to  serve  as  a  model 

iol.      Be    wrote    and    delivered    a   course    of 

Lectures  on  ScJioolrkeeping,  and  compiled,  in 
L827,  the  Geography  <ni<l  History  of  Vermont, 
which    met     with    much    success.      In    1S-J!»,  his 

Lectures  were  published;  and.  about  the  same 
time,  he  was  appointed  principal  of  the  English 
department  oi   Philips  Academy,  at    Andover. 


While    there,  he   founded   the  American   School 

Agents'  Society,  the  object  of  which  was  to  em- 
ploy agents  to  visit  different  pails  of  the  coun- 
try, for  the  purpose,  by  lectures  and  otherwise. 
of  awakening  an  interest  in  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion. Mr.  Hall  was  one  of  the  original  founders 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction. and, in 
1833,  read  before  it  a  lecture  on  the  Necessity 
of  Educating  Teachers,  in  which  he  said,  "In 
this  thirty-third  year  of  the  L9th  century,  there 
is  not,  in  our  whole  country,  one  seminary  where 
the  educator  of  children  can  be  thoroughly  quali- 
fied   for   his    important    work."     (See   Normal 

Sen ,s.)   Between  L830and  L838, he  published 

a  number  of  educational  works,  and  also  con- 
tributed quite  largely  to  the  Annals  of  Educa- 
tion. In  L837,  he  was  appointed  principal  of  a 
teachers' seminary  in  Plymouth,  N.  II..  and  sub- 
sequently filled  the  office  of  county  superintend- 
ent in  Vermont.   His  efforts  in  behalf  of  normal 

school  instruction  were  of  the  most  earnest  and 
devoted    character,    and    did    much    to    awaken 

public  opinion  in  its  behalf.— See  Barnard 
American  Teachers  and  Educators. 

HAMILTON,  James,  an  English  merchant, 
was  1  lorn  about  L769,and  died  in  Dublin,  in  L831, 
lie   removed   to  Hamburg  in   L798,  where  he 

learned  the  German  language  altera  method  of 
his  own.  which  he  afterwards  advocated  and  put 
into  practice  under  the  name  of  the  Hamiltonian 
System.  His  method  consisted  in  discarding  the 
grammar  of  a  language  entirely,  and  teaching 
pracl  ically  by  placing  in  the  pupil  s  hands  a  book 

of  the  foreign  language  with  a  literal   interlinear 

translation,  giving  always  the  primitive  signifi- 
cation of  each  word,  and   never  varying  it.     By 

translating  thus,  word  for  word,  from  the  for, 
language    into   the    pupil's  own.  and    then   back 

again,  a  good  general  idea  of  the  language  was 

obtained   -a  sort  of  rough-cast  for  practical  us.'. 

By  this  method,  of  course,  all  idiomatic  and  fig- 
urative expressions,  secondary  meanings  of 
words. etc..  remained  to  a  certain  extent  unintel- 
ligible, the  learner  getting  only  a  general  idea  of 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence.  To  go  further 
than  this,  however,  was  beyond  I  lamiltou's  plan. 
'flic  I  laniiltoiiian  method  has  had  the  good  effect 

of  inducing  teachers  of  modern  languages  to  dis- 

card  the  old  pedantic  method  of  requiring  the  stu- 
dent to  commit  to  memory  a  full  set  of  para- 
digms and  grammatical  rules  before  commencing 
the  actual  translation  of  a  single  sentence,  and 
has  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  system    which  com 

bines  the  advantages  of  the  Hamiltonian  method 

with     that     formerly     pursued.      (See     MoDERK 

I.Wol    U.KS.) 

HAMILTON  COLLEGE,  at  Clinton,  Onei- 
da Co.,  New  York,  was  founded  in  1812.  It 
is  not  under  the  control  of  any  religious  de- 
nomination, but  a  majority  of  its  board  of  trust- 
ees are    Presbyterians,   or   in    general  sympathy 

with  that  denomination.    The  college  buildings 

Stand  in  a  park  of    L5  acres.    The  institution  has 

endowments  amounting  to  about  $300,000.     It 

possesses  a  fine  chemical  laboratory,  improved 

philosophical  apparatus,   geological    and  mineral- 


IIAMHTOXI.W    METHOD 


HARMONY 


40] 


ogical  cabinets,  collections  in  natural  history,  an 
herbarium,  and  a  well-equipped  astronomical  ob- 
servatory, at  which  '_'.">  asteroids  ami  '1  variable 
stars  have  been  discovered,  by  its  director,  Dr.  C. 
II.  V.  Peters.  The  college  and  society  libraries 
contain  1.2,090  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  is 
S75  per  year.  There  are  20  permanent  scholar- 
ships of  from  $60  to  $100  a  year  for  the  benefit 
of  needy  ami  deserving  students.  The  interest 
of  beneficiary  funds,  amounting  to  about  $3000 
a  year,  is  also  distributed  among  needy  students. 
The  curriculum  is  the  ordinary  four  years' course 
of  American  colleges.  A  law  department  was 
opened  in  1855.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  con- 
nected with  the  college,  L2  instructors  and  171 
students  (20  law,  150  collegiate,  ami  1  special). 
The  whole  number  of  dtumni  was  L,532,  of 
whom  1,054  were  living;  of  graduates  of  the 
law  school,  97.  The  presidents  of  the  college 
have  been  as  follows  :  the  Rev.  A/el  Backus, 
S.T  I).,  1812—16;  the  Rev.  Henry  Davis.  S.T.I )., 
1817—33;  the  Rev.  Sereno  Edwards  Dwight, 
S.  T.  1»..  \>~:\:\— 5;  the  Rev.  Joseph  Penney, 
S.  T.  I).,  is;}.-)—!);  the  Rev.  Simeon  North, 
LL.  D.,  S.  T.  !>..  18:!!)— 57:  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Ware  Tidier.  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D.,  1858— (>i> ;  and 
the  Rev.  Samuel  Oilman  Brown,  S.T.  1).,  LL.  D., 
the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in  1866. 

HAMILTONIAN  METHOD.     See  Ham- 
ilton. James. 

HAMPDEN  SIDNEY  COLLEGE,  in 
Prince  Edward  Co..  Va.,7  miles  south  of  Farm- 
ville,  founded  in  1776.  is  under  Presbyterian  con- 
trol. The  name  of  the  post-office  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  institution.  The  college  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  the  interest  on  an  endow- 
ment of  805,000.  It  adheres  to  the  old  college 
curriculum.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  ^60  per  year, 
with  French,  German,  and  civil  engineering  as 
extras.  In  1875  —  6,  there  were  5  instructors 
and  77  students.  The  libraries  contain  about 
7,000  volumes.  The  presidents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows :  the  Rev.  Stanhope  Smith,  D.  D.,  1776 — 9; 
the  Rev.  J.  Blair  Smith,  D.  D.,  1779—89  ;  the 
Rev.  Dury  Lacy,  1789 — 97  ;  the  Rev.  Archibald 
Alexander.  1797— 1806;  the  Rev.  Wm.  S.  Reid, 
1806;  the  Lev.  Moses  Hoge,  1807  —  20;  Jo- 
nathan P.  Cushing,  A.  M.,  1821—35;  the  Rev. 
Geo.  Baxter,  D.  1).,  1835—6  ;  the  Rev.  D.  L. 
I  airoll,  D.  D.,  1836—8;  the  Hon.  Wm.  Max- 
well, 1838—44;  the  Rev.  P.  J.  Sparrow,  D.  I)., 
1845—7;  the  Rev.  S.  B.  Wilson,  D.  D.,  1847 
—8;  the  Rev.  L.  W.Green,  D.  D„  1848  — 56; 
the  Rev.  A.  L.  llolladay,  1856;  and  the  Rev.  J. 
If.  I\  Atkinson.  D.  D.,  the  present  incumbent, 
appointed  in  L857. 

HANNIBAL  COLLEGE,  at  Hannibal,  Mo., 
under  the  control  of  the  .Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  was   founded,  in   186!).  for  the 
education  of  both  sexes.     It  has  an  endowment  I 
of  35   acres  of    land,  and   possesses  chemical,  I 
physiological,  astronomical,  and  other  scientific 
and  philosophical  apparatus.     It  is  supported  by  i 
tuition  fees.    The  college  is  divided  into  3  depart- 
ments :  preparatory,  high-school,  and  collegiate. 
These  three  departments  are  sub-divided  into  six 
26 


|  schools,  as  follows:  (1)  School  of  English  litera- 
ture; (2)  School  of  physics;  (3)  School  of  lan- 
guages, including  Bebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  German, 
and  French,  togel  her  with  lecture.-  on  comparative 
philology;  (1)  School  of  mathematics;  (5)  School 
of  metaphysics  ;  and  (6)  School  of  fine  arts,  in- 
cluding vocal  and  instrumental  music,  painting, 
drawing,  wax-work,  and  worsted  work.  A  com- 
mercial course  and  an  evening  school  have  been 
organized.  The  cost  of  tuition,  in  the  preparatory 
department,  is  $10.50  per  quarter;  in  the  aca- 
demic and  collegiate,  $12.50.  In  1875 — 6,  there 
were  11  instructors  and  140  students.  The  Rev. 
J.F.Hamilton  was  president  from  1869 — 71. 
when  the  Rev.  Leo  Baier  was  appointed.  The 
college  is  at  present  suspended  (1877). 

HANOVER  COLLEGE,  at  Hanover,  Ind.. 
organized  in  li-^7.  and  chartered  in  1833,  is 
tmder  the  control  of  the  Presbyterians.  It  has 
a  campus  of  16  acres  and  a  fine  college  build- 
ing. Its  entire  grounds  embrace  over  200  acres. 
The  libraries  contain  about  7,500  volumes.  The 
value  of  its  buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is 
$145,000;  the  amount  of  its  productive  funds. 
$100,000.  Tuition  is  free.  The  institution  has 
a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department,  the 
latter  comprising  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  10  instructors  and  135 
students  (74  collegiate  and  61  preparatory).  The 
Rev.  Geo.  C.  Hickman,  D.  D.,  is  (1876)  the  pres- 
ident. 

HARMONY  in  Development,  as  regards 
both  the  mental  and  bodily  faculties,  is  now 
viewed  by  educationists  as  the  most  important 
aim  of  education.  "  One  part  of  instruction," 
says  Dittes  (Schule  der  Pddagogik,  1876), "must 
not  contradict  another  ;  nothing  should  be  neg- 
lected, nothing  exaggerated  ;  all  the  faculties  of 
the  pupil  should  be  cultivated  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, and  all  the  different  objects  and  depart- 
ments of  education  should  receive  attention, 
without  interruption,  and  in  due  proportion. 
The  intellect  should  not  be  favored  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  moral  and  physical  nature;  and 
hygienic  considerations  should  not  be  left  out  of 
view.  1'he  teacher  should  be  especially  careful 
not  to  accord  too  much  time  and  attention  to 
favorite  branches  of  study."  The  latter  is  a  very 
important  admonition.  Every  course  of  study 
should  be  arranged  with  a  view  to  the  average 
condition  of  the  growing  mind  and  its  needs : 
and.  therefore,  should  comprise  such  a  variety  of 
subjects  as  will  call  into  exercise  the  different 
mental  powers,  and  thus  become  instruments 
in  their  culture  and  development.  The  scientific 
teacher  will,  however,  watch  for  decided  peculi- 
arities of  character,  special  aptitudes,  traits  of 
genius,  etc.,  and  will  modify  his  course  of  pro- 
ceeding so  as,  while  giving  scope  for  the  unfold- 
ing of  these  particular  powers,  or  talents,  not 
to  permit  them  to  repress  the  growth  of  other 
indispensable  faculties.  Thus,  a  pupil  may  show 
a  special  inclination  and  talent  for  drawing, 
which  may  very  properly  be  allowed  its  full 
development ;  but,  in  doing  this,  the  educator 
is  not  to  permit  all  other  mental  or  manual  oc- 


402 


HARMONY 


HARMS!  II 


conations  to  be  neglected,  Indeed,  this  special 
gift  may  be  kept  in  abeyance,  and  stimulus  ap- 
plied, for  a  time  at  least,  to  penmanship,  ami  to 
the  study  of  language,  science,  or  other  impor- 
tant subjects.  Some  pupils,  as  a  further  example, 
may  be  tun  prone  to  the  exercise  of  the  imagina- 
tion :  in  which  case,  they  should  be  required  in 
study  science  or  mathematics.  Others  may  show 
an  almost  exclusive  bent  for  calculation  or 
mathematical  reasoning,  which  must,  of  course, 
be  corrected  by  the   pursuit    "f  studies  calling 

into  exercise  other  powers  of  the  mind  :  Such  as 
history,  general  literature,  mental  philosophy, 
Know  lei  lev  is  sometimes  called  the  food  of 
the  mind,  by  the  assimilation  of  which  its  various 
powers  arc  nourished;  hence,  to  continue  the 
metaphor,  there  should  be  a  due  variety  of  this 
food,  and  the  different  kinds  should  be  selected 
with  a  view  to  the  particular  condition  and 
needs  of  the  system  which  is  to  be  supplied  with 
nutriment.  As  in  physical  education,  if  a  pupil 
manifests  any  signs  of  abnormal  development  or 
morbid  growth,  such,  for  example,  as  distortion 
of  the  limbs  Or  curvature  of  the  spine,  continu- 
ous exercises  and  postures  are  prescribed  to 
correct  this  tendency:  so.  in  every  department 
of  education,  a  harmonious  development  can 
only  result  from  a,  discriminative  application  of 
those  agencies  which  call  into  active  ami  habitual 
exercise  the  powers  of  mjnd  and  body.  Such  a 
development  implies,  too,  a  full  recognition  of 
all  the  relations  and  powers  of  ihe  human  being, 
embracing  nol  only  the  cultivation  of  those 
capacities  which  concern  him  as  an  individual, 
luit  also  those  on  which  his  happiness  and  use- 
fulness as  a  social  ami  moral  being  depend.  How 
miserable  is  the  mere  student,  the  solitary  genius, 
cut  off  from  the  exercise  of  the  social  sympathies 
and  deprived  Of  SOCial  enjoyments  by  a  one-sided 
development!      It  is  no   answer    to   this,  that  the 

world  may  he  benefited  by  his  brilliant  thoughts 

ami  his  deep  intuitions  :   for   the  interests  of  the 

individual,  as  such,  claim  consideration  :  ami  be- 
sides that,  the  best   creations  of  genius  have  been 

often  impaired  or  marred  by  the  effects  of  this 
morbid  development,  of  this  Byron,  Shelley, 
ami    Toe  are   examples.    The    educator    must 

recognize  thai  there  is  a  body,  a  mind,  and  a 
.vmiI  to  be  addressed  and  cultivated  ;  and  that 
man    has  social,   i 'al.   and    religious    faculties. 

without   the  harmonious  development  of  which 
he  cannot  properly  fulfil  his  destiny,  nor  attain 
happiness.    The  special  claims  of  particular  ve- 
ins, it  is  said,  demand  one-sided  culture.    Of 

this    there   is   no  doubt  ;   but    preceding    it.   and 

hence  underlying  it,  there  should  be  such  gene- 
ral culture  as  the  circumstances  of  man.  as  nxin, 

require.  Profession  or  business  comprehends, 
in  general,  but  one  relation;  ami  unfortunate, 
therefore,  is  he  who  can  meet  the  demands  of 
only  that  relation,  unable  to  perform  aright  the 
domestic,  social,  political,  ami  religious  duties 
which  are  inseparably  oected  with  the  posi- 
tion of  every  person  in  this  lite.  In  order  to 
perform  these  duties,  even  person  is  endowed 
with    special     faculties,    which,    by    the    want    of 


proper  cultivation  in  early  life,  or  by  disuse, 
may  be  so  enfeebled  as  to  be  unfit  for  exercise  : 
and  the  harmonious  development  of  these  is  the 
only  true  aim  of  education.  If  all  these  (acui- 
ties do  not.  at  an  early  age,  receive  their  due 
share  of  training, self-education,  at  a  later  period, 
cannot,  but  within  very  narrow  limits,  supply 
the  deficiency.    The  individual  will  always  find 

himself  more  or  less  crippled,  because  no  self-cult- 
ure can  entirely  supply  the  place  of  early  habits. 
To  the  doctrine  of  harmonious  development, 
it  has  been  objected  that  s]  ei  ial  innate  endow- 
ments cannot  be  repressed  by  education;  and  to 
address  other  faculties  will  only  result  in  bestow- 

■  ing  superficial  accomplishments  of  no  practical 
value.  Thus  a  youth  of  decided  mathematical 
genius  could  never  become  more  than  an  im- 
perfect linguist  :  and  one  with  special  talent  for 
language  would  be  likely  to  make  but  indifferent 

attainments  in  science.  Barmonious  develop- 
ment, however,  dots  not   require  the  repression 

of  special  endowments,  but  the  cultivation  of 
what  may  be    (ailed   the  general  powers,  in  such 

a  vay  as  to  give  support  to  each  particular 
endowment.  A  wise  educational  training,  com- 
menced at  the  earliest  childhood,  and  continued 
through  each  successive  period  of  the  formative 

state  of  human  character,  will  not  only  fit  for 
any  particular  vocation  for  which  there  may  be  a 
special  bent,  but  will  also  prepare  the  individual 
tor   general    usefulness,   and    render   him  able  to 

enjoy  the  wonders  of  science,  and  the  beauties 

ot  nature  and  art.  as  well  as  to  participate  in  all 
ether  pleasures  incident  to  his  existc  in  e  as  a 
social  ami  rational  being.      (See  <  iEK  tl 

HARNISCH.  Christian  Wilhelm,  a  Ger- 
man educator  and  writer,  born  Aug.  28.,  L786, 
died  Aug.  L8.,  1866.  After  studying  at  the  uni- 
versities of  I  lalle  and  Frankfort  on  the  ( tiler,  and 
acquainting  himself,  in  Berlin, with   Pestalozzi's 

method,  he    was   appointed,  in   L812,    teacher    in 

the  training  school  of  Breslau ;  ami.  in  L822, 
director  of  the  training  school  of  Weissenfels. 
In  1847,  he  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  a  small 

town,  ami  remained  in  that  position  until  1861, 
Soon  afterwards,  he  was  seized  with  insanity,  from 

which  he  never  recovered.  In  his  writings,  as 
well  as  iii  all  his  teachings,  he  gave  a  promm<  nt 
place  to  religion, and  to  bodilj  exercises,  such  as 
bathing,  gymnastics,  etc.  He  also  took  great 
interest  in  the  education  of  deaf-mutes.  The 
influence  which  he  exerted  on  the  development 
of  the  common-school  system  of  Prussia,  was 
very  considerable.  Among  his  most  important 
works  arc.  Die  deutschen  Volksschulen  (1812), 
which  appeared  in  a  revised  form  under  the  title 
of  Handbuchfur  das  deutsche  Volksschulwesen 
(1820,  It li  edit..  1839);  Darstellung  m,<l  /! 
th.eilv.ng  des  Bell-Lancaster' scheii  Scliulwesens 
(1819);  Der  jetzige  Standpunkt  den  :i>s<i/>n, 
preussischen  VoOcsschulwesens  (1844),  ami  Die 
kunftige  Stellung  der  Schtde,  rorzilg/icJi  der 
Volksschule,  zu  Kirche,  Staal  »//</  /Acs  (1848). 
The  autobiography  of  Harnisch  was  published 
after  his  death  by  Sehmieder  [Mein  Lebens- 
morgen,  L866 


TTAKTLIB 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY        40.1 


HARTLIB,  Samuel,  was  thesonof  a  Polish 
merchant  of  Killing.  Prussia.  His  mother, be- 
ing an  English  woman, removed  him,  at  an  early 
age,  to  London  (1636),  where  he  afterwards  be- 
came the  friend  of  Milton,  and  labored  with  him 
for  tin-  advancement  of  learning.  It  was  to  Bart- 
lib  that  Milton  adressed  his  Tractate  on  Educa- 
tion. His  attention  was  turned  specially  to  agri- 
culture, for  the  improvement  of  which  ho  gave 
freely  of  his  time  and  income,  making  experi- 
ments iii  husbandry,  and  publishing  treatises  on 
the  subject,  with  such  assiduity  and  success,  that 
the  parliament  of  Cromwell  voted  him  an  an- 
nuity of  £100,  which  the  succeeding  parliament, 
however,  revoked.  He  rendered  important  ser- 
vice to  the  time  in  which  he  lived  by  his  publica- 
tion of  Sir  Richard  Weston's  Discourse  <>/< 
Wanders  Husbandry,  in  1652;  and,  probably, 
our  own  time  may  trace  a  direct  indebtedness 
to  him.  inasmuch  as  the  germ  of  the  modern 
agricultural  college  may  be  found  in  his  Pro- 
positions for  erecting  a  College  of  Husbandry 
(London,  1651).  Notwithstanding  his  unselfish 
life  and  great  public  services,  acknowledged  by 
the  annuity  above  mentioned,  he  is  thought  to 
have  died  in  want. — See  Barnard's  Journal  of 
Education,  vols.  xi.  and  xn. 

HARTSVILLE  UNIVERSITY,  at  Harts- 
ville.  Ind..  under  the  control  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ,  Avas  chartered  in  1851.  It 
grew  out  of  the  Hartsville  Academy,  which  was 
transferred  by  its  trustees  to  the  church,  in  1848. 
It  is  supported  chiefly  by  donations  and  tuition 
fees.  The  available  endowment  amounts  to 
120,000  :  the  entire  endowment  is  $54,000.  The 
college  has  a  good  achromatic  telescope,  philosoph- 
ical and  chemical  apparatus,  and  an  increas- 
ing cabinet.  The  library  contains  between  700 
ami  sin)  volumes.  The  regular  tuition  fees  vary 
from  SI  5  to  $21  per  year.  It  has  a  preparatory 
and  a  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  and 
a  scientific  course  :  also  a  theological  department. 
Facilities  are  afforded  for  instruction  in  the  com- 
mercial branches  and  in  music.  In  1874 — 5,  there 
were  !»  instructors  and  15!)  students,  of  whom  71 
were  of  the  collegiate  grade.  The  principals  and 
presidents  have  been  as  follows:  James  Mc.  D. 
Miller,  1849—52;  David  Shuck.  1852—64; 
John  W.  Scribner,  1804— 7:5;  David  Shuck, 
L873 — 1 :  and  the  Rev.  William  J.  Pruner,  the 
present  incumbent,  appointed  in  1874. 

HARVARD,  John,  an  English  non-con- 
formist divine,  who  graduated  at  the  university 
of  Cambridge,™  1631,  and  emigrated  to  Charles- 
town.  Mass.,  where  he  died  Sept.  24..  L638.  l\'\v 
particulars  of  his  fife  are  known.  Be  appears, 
however,  to  have  been  active  outside  of  his  pro- 
ion,  as  we  find  him  appointed,  in  1638,  "to 
consider  of  some  things  tending  toward  a  body 
of  laws."  At  his  death,  he  bequeathed  £700  anil 
about  300  volumes  for  the  founding  of  a  college, 
tin' present  Harvard  University  of  Cambridge. 
The  alumni  of  the  university,  in  1828,  erected 
a  granite  monument  to  his  memory  in  the  burial 
ground  of  Charlestown.  The  address  on  this  oc- 
casion was  delivered  by  Edward  Everett,  wdio 


was  afterwards  president  of  the  university.  (See 
1 1  arvakd  University.) 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY,  the  oldest 
institution  of  learning  in  the  United  States.com- 
prehends  Harvard  College,  tin-  Divinity  School, 
i lie  Law  School,  the  Medical  School,  the  Dental 

School,  tl'c   l"tVtr;^JjliiJiltiltil-  School,  the   BuS- 

sey  Inslitufioii  (a  school  of  agriculture  and  horti 
culture),  the  Observatory,  the  Botanic  Garden 
and  Herbarium,  the  Library,  the  Peabody 
Museum  if  American  Archaeology  and  Ethnol- 
ogy (a  constituent  part  of  the  University ,  though 
its  relations  to  it  are  affected  by  certain  peculiar 
provisions),  and  the  Museum  if  Comparative 
Zod'logy.  These  arc  all  in  <  Cambridge,  .Massachu- 
setts,   except    the    Medical  School,    which    is    on 

North  Grove  street,  Boston;  the  Dental  School. 
at  No.  50  Allen  street,  boston  ;  and  the  Bussey 
Institution,  at  Jamaica  Plain,  now  within  the 
limits  of  Boston.  The  Episcopal  Theological 
School  at  Cambridge  appears  in  the  catalogue, 
but  has  no  connection  with  the  University.  Stu- 
dents in  regular  standing  in  any  one  department 
cf  the  University  are  admitted  free  to  the  in- 
struction given  in  any  other  department,  with 
tin'  exception  of  exercises  earned  on  in  the  spe- 
cial laboratories.  No  one  is  excluded  from  any 
department  on  account  of  color. 

In  1636,  the  colonial  legislature  agreed  to  give 
£400  toward  a  school  or  college,  but  whether  this 
sum  was  ever  actually  paid  is  doubtful.  In  1639.it 
was  "ordered,  that  the  colledge  agreed  upon  for- 
merly to  bee  built  at  Cambridg  shal  bee  called 
Harvard  Colledge."'  in  honor  of  the  Rev.  John 
Harvard  of  Charlestown,  who.  dying  in  1638,  had 
left  to  the  institution  about  £700  and  a  library  i  't 
over  300  volumes.  The  college  was  opened  in  1638, 
and  the  first  class  ('.))  graduated  in  1  (112.  The  same 
year  a  board  of  overseers  was  constituted:  and.  in 
1650,  a  charter  was  granted,  under  which  the 
institution  became  a  corporation,  with  the  title  of 
the  "President  and  Fellows  of  Harvard  Collegi 
In  early  times,  it  received  much  legislative  aid. 
and  was  intimately  connected  with  the  govern- 
ment, but  its  connection  with  the  Commonwealth! 

was  dissolved  in  1865.     The  corporation  ( sists 

of  the  president,  five  fellows,  and  the  treasurer, 
who.  subject  to  the  confirmation  of  the  overs, 
fill  their  own  vacancies.  The  board  of  overseers 
is  composed  of  the  president  and  treasurer,  eat 
officio,  and  30  members,  elected  by  the  graduate  s 
of  five  years'. stain  line,  and  holding  of  lice  six  yea  is. 
five  being  chosen  each  year.  The  corporation 
nominates  the  professors  and  other  officers  of  in- 
struction constituting  the  different  faculties  of 
the  University,  who  must  be  continued  by  tin- 
board  of  overseers.  The  Medical  School  was 
established  in  17.^2.  the  Botanic  Garden  in  1807, 
the  Law  School  in  1817,  the  Divinity  School  in 
1  si!),  and  the  Observatory  in  L839.  The  Law- 
rence Scientific  School  was  founded,  in   lS17.lv 

Abbott  Lawrence,  by  a  gift  of  $50,000,  subse- 
quently increased.   The  .Museum  of  Comparative 

Zoology  was  established,  in  1  S.V.I,  by  a  grant  from. 
the  state  and  the  gifts  of  individuals  through  the 
influence  of  Agassiz,  who  was  its  director  till  hi- 


404 


JIAUVAUD  UNIVERSITY 


death,  and  whose  invaluable  collections  are  here 
deposited.  The  Peabody  .Museum  was  founded  by 
George  Peabody,  who  gave  8150,000  in  L866. 
The  Dental  School  was  organized  in  1868.  The 
Bussey  Institution  was  endowed  by  the  will  of 
Benjamin  Bussey,  in  1842.  The  lands  belonging 
to  the  University  in  Cambridge,  comprise  about 
(ill  acres.  The  college  yard  contains  about  22 
acres,  tastefully  laid  out  ami  adorned  with  many 
stately  elms.  In  the  yard,  arc  2]  buildings,  in- 
cluding the  president's  house,  four  professors' 
bouses,  the  chapel,  library,  law  school,  and  seven 
dormitories,  the  remaining  six  buildings  being 
used  tor  offices,  recitation  rooms, laboratories, 
The  oldest  of  these  is  Massachusetts  Hall,  erected 
in  1720,  and  occupied  by  Continental  troopsin 
177")— (i.  Adjac'iit  to  the  yard,  are  two  other 
dormitories,  the  <  lymnasium,  .Memorial  1  [all,  and 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  school.  A  little  north,  and 

near  each  oilier,  are  the  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology  and  the  I  h'viuity  School;  andaDOUt  three 
fourths  of  a  mile  N.  \\'..and  also  near  each  other, 

the  Observatory,  and  the  Botanic  Garden  and 
Herbarium.  The  mosl  magnificenl  building  is 
Hi-  Memorial  Hall,  ei  i  of  $420,000 

by  the  alumni  and  friend-'  of  the  college  in  com- 
memoration of  the  students  and  if  the 
University  who  died  in  the  national  service  dur- 
ing the  civil  war  of  L861  —5.  It  is  built  of  red  ami 
black  brick,  with  copings  and  window  tracery  of 
Nova  Scotia  stone,  and  is  310  ft.  long  by  L15  ft. 
wide.  'I'll.'  interior  comprises  three  grand  apart- 
ments :  a  dining  hall.  Kit  by  (JO  ft., and  80  ft.  high, 
capable  of  seating  1 0110  persons:  memorial  ves- 
tibule. I  L2  by  30  ft.,  and  <!(!  ft.  high:  and  the  San- 
ders theater,  for  commencement  exercises,  etc., 
arranged, on  the  plan  of  classic  theaters,  and  ac- 
commodating L,500  spectators.   The  dining  hall, 

said  to  be  the  grainiest  college  hall  in  the  world, 
is  used  for  college    festivals,   and   by   the  Dining 

Hall  Association,  an  organization  supported  and 

managed  by  students  for  the  purpose  of  supply- 
ing board  at  cost.  Its  walls  are  hung  with  the 
portraits  of  former  college  worthies,  ami  its 
windows  are  intended  to  be  memorial.  Between 
the  dining    hall    and   tin'  theater  is  the  memorial 

vestibule,  sunn ted  by  a  tower  200  ft.  high. 

Tin'  interior  is  surrounded  by  an  arcade  of  black 
walnut,  with  marble  tablets  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  lio  students  commemorated,  and  the 
dates  and  places  of  fcheir  death.  'The  walls  above 

arc  simply  decorated,  iii  color,  with  Latin  inscrip- 
tions concerning  patriotism,  duty,  and  immor- 
tality. The  property  of  the  University,  in  L876, 
mot  including  the  buildings,  collections,  and  pub- 
lic grounds)  amounted  to $$3,139,218.  The  income 
of  the  rnivcrsity.in  L874  5,  was 3473,305.  The 
libraries  of  the  University  contain,  in  theagg 
gate.  21  l.onii  volumes.  They  include  the  follow- 
ing: (1 )  College  Library  (in  Gore  Hall),  L55.000 
rola  ;    2     Library  of  the  Botanic  Garden,  boon 

vols.;    3   Of  the'  Divinity  Scl 1.  17,000  rols.; 

i  Of  the  Medical  School, 2,000 vols.;  CO  of  the 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  1.2,000  vols.; 
(6)  Law  Library.  1.5,000  W>1b.J  (7)  Libraries  in 
the    Lawrence    Scientific   School,   3,000    \ 


i  •hillips  Library  at  the  Observatory,  3.000  vols. 
There  are  also  L5,000  or  20.000  volumes  in  the 
Bociety  libraries  of  the  students.  There  are  two 
physical  and  three  chemical  laboratories,  azoolog- 
ical,  a  physiological,  and  a  geological  ami  palaeon- 
tological  laboratory  at  the  Museum  of  Com- 
parative Zoology,  a.  mineralogies!  collection  in 
Boylston  Hall,  and  extensive  natural  history  col- 
lections at  the  Museum  of  <  'oniparative  Zoology. 
Th"  large  collections  of  the  Peabody  Museum  are 
exhibited  in  Boylston  Hall.  The  Gray  collec- 
tion of  engravings  in  Gore  Hall  holds  a  1 
rank.  The  Observatory  is  admirably  equipped 
with  astronomical  instruments,  including  one  of 
the  be.-t  equatorials  in  the  world.  The  instruc- 
tion of  the  ( lollege  and  Scientific  School,  in  prac- 
tical astronomy  and  geodesy,  is  given  at  the  Ob- 
servatory;  in  Botany,  at  the  Botanic  Harden; 
and  in  zoology,  geology,  and  palaeontology,  at  the 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology.  The  course  of 
in  the  College  leads  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  covets  fouryears.  The  cur- 
riculum is  extended  and  varied,  being  so  arranged 
that  the  old  prescribed  college  course  may  be 
pursued,  or  other  courses,  according  to  the  taste 
or  purposes  of  the  student.  The  studies  of  the 
freshman  year  are  prescribed.  The  prescribed 
studies  of  the  sophomore  year  fill  four  hours  a 
Dry  and  rhetoric;  ami  those  of  the 
junior  year,  two  hours  a  week  in  philosophy,  be- 
sides certain  written  exercises.  In  the  senior 
year  only  certain  written  exercises  are  prescribed; 
sophomores  are  required  to  take  ten  hours  a 
week  of  elective  studies:  and  juniors  and  seni 
twelve  hours.  The  attendance  by  seniors  upon 
recitations  is  voluntary.  Several  of  the  fresh- 
man studies  may  be  anticipated  at  the  entrance 
examination  :   and  the  prescribed  sophomore  and 

junior  studies  maj  be  anticipated  at  the  same 
tini".  or  by  examinations  at  the  beginning  of  the 
respective  years.  Written  examinations  form  a 
marked  feature  of  the  method  of  instruction,  oc- 
curring frequently,  during  term  time,  in  the  dif- 
ferent branches,  ami  at  the  close  of  each  year. 
in  the  studies  of  the  year.  Special  honors 
are  given   at     graduation    for    excellence    in    the 

following  departments:  ancient  languages,  clas- 
sics, modern  languages,  philosophy,  history,  math- 
ematics, physics, chemistry,  natural  history, music. 
For  honors  in  modern  languages,  the  candidate 
must  presenl  himself  for  examination  in  Italian, 
Spanish,  or  English,  as  well  as  in  French  and 
German.  One  of  the  ancient  languages  must  lie 
Hebrew  or  Sanskrit,  in  addition  to  latin  and 
Greek.  A.  grade  of  second-year  honors  in  clas- 
sics ami  mathematics  has  been  est  abb  shed,  open 
to  Sophomores  and  juniors,  and  to  seniors  who 
intend  to  be  candidates  for  final  honors  after 
graduation.  For  final  honors  in  ancient  lan- 
guages and  classic8.  second  year  honors  in  classics 
must  have  been  taken  :  and.  for  final  honors  in 
mathematics,    second-year    honors    in    the    same 

department.    The  requisitions  for  admission  at 

I  [arvard  arc  higher  than  in  any  other   college   in 

the  country.     Instead  of  passing  the    entire  en- 
trance examination  at  the  time  of  admission  to 


IIAUVAKD    UNIVERSITY 


405 


college,  candidates  for  the  freshman  class  may 
be  examined  upon  five  or  more  subjects  the  year 
pre\  ious,  thus  dividing  the  cxa  initial  ion  into  two. 
lu  L876,  the  system  was  inaugurated  <>f  holding 
an  examination  For  admission  in  Cincinnati,  con- 
temporaneously with  the  examination  in  Cam- 
bridge, to  accommodate  Western  students.  In 
1  s 7 « >  7.  tin'  elective  courses  were  thrown  open 
to  students  21  years  old  and  upward,  not  candi- 
dates for  the  degree  of  A.  B.,  who  are  not  re- 
quired to  pass  the  general  entrance  examination, 
but  must  satisfy  the  faculty  of  their  fitness  to 
pursue  the  particular  courses  which  they  elect. 
A  certificate  of  proficiency  will  be  given  to  such 
as  pursue  their  studies  for  a  year,  and  pass  satis- 
factory examinations.  (For  additional  details 
respecting  the  requisitions  for  admission  and  the 
curriculum,  see  College.) — The  cost  of  tuition 
iu  the  college  is  8150  per  year.  One  hundre  I 
and  four  scholarships  have  been  established, 
varying  in  annual  income  from  $40  to  $300,  for 
the  aid  of  nee  ly  and  deserving  students.  There 
are  also  beneficiary  funds  having  an  annual  in- 
c  ime  of  about  $750,  which  is  usually  distributed 
in  gratuities  of  from  $50  to  $100  :  a  loan  fund, 
the  interest  of  which,  amounting  to  more  than 
$2,000  annually,  is  lent  in  sums  of  from  -Sot)  to 
$150  :  monitorships  &c,  amounting  to  about 
10  a  year:  and  a  number  of  prizes.  Accord- 
to  the  University  catalogue,  "  the  experien<  e 
of  the  past  warrants  the  statement  that  good 
scholars  of  high  character  but  slender  means  are 
seldom  or  never  oblige  I  to  leave  college  for  want 
of  money."  In  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School, 
five  regular  courses,  of  l  ye  us  each,  are  offered  : 
civil  and  topographical  engineering,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Civil  Engineer;  mining  engin  er- 
ing.  of  which  the  first  three  years  are  identical 
with  the  first  three  years  of  the  preceding  course, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  .Mining  Engineer;  chem- 
istry. Bachelor  of  Science;  natural  history,  S.  1!.; 
mathematics,  physics,  and  astronomy.  S.  B.  Can- 
didates for  these  courses  are  required  to  pass  an 
entrance  examination,  and  the  degrees  are  con- 
ferred only  after  examination.  There  is  a  one  year's 
course  in  the  elements  of  natural  history,  chemis- 
try, and  physics,  for  teachers.  The  cost  of  tuition 
is  Si 50  per  year.  Four  scholarships,  of  the  annual 
value  of  $150  each,  have  been  established.  The 
School  of  Mining  and  Practical  ( reology,  founded 
by  Samuel  Hooper  in  L865by  the  gift  of  $50,000, 
was,  in  L874— 5,  merged  in  the  Lawrence  Scien- 
tific School.  The  Bussey  Institution  his  a  superb 
estate  of  360  acres,  containing  a  fine  building,  a 
farm,  greenhouses,  propagating-houses,  etc.  The 
Arnold  Arboretum,  founded  by  James  Arnold  of 
New  Bedford,  is  established  h  xe.  The  institu- 
tion is  designed  to  give  thorough  instruction  in 
agriculture,  us  iful  and  ornamental  gardening,  and 
ck-raising,  and  to  this  end  affords  courses  in 
phvsical  g  :ography,  meteorology,  g  lology,  chemis- 
try, physics,  Wotany.  zoology,  entomology,  French, 
an  1  German.  Instruction  is  given  by  lectures  and 
recitations,  and  by  practical  exercises  in  the  labo- 
ratory, greenhouse,  and  field.  Frequenl  examina- 
tions are  held.    The  regular  course  for  a  decree 


occupies  three  years;  the  instruction  of  the  first 
year  is  given  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School. 
Candidates  for  admission  to  this  course  are  re- 
quired to  pass.au  examination.  Special  courses 
may.  however,  be  taken  by  persons  qualified  to 
pursue  them.  The  regular  tuition  fee  is  $150,  but 
all  tuition  fees  are  freely  remitted  to  poor  and 
meritorious  students.  Harvard  is  the  pioneer 
among  American  institutions  in  raising  the 
standard  of  professional  education,  in  reforming 
the  methods  ol  instruction  and  in  requiring  ex- 
aminations for  admission  in  law  and  medicine. 
The  full  course  in    the    Divinity   School   is   three 

years.  Candidates  not  Bachelors  of  Arts  arere- 
quired  to  pass  an  examination  for  admission  to 
this  course.     Its  satisfactory  completion   entitles 

the  student  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
Students  may  be  admitted  to  partial  courses 
without  examination.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $50 
per  year.  Nine  scholarships  have  been  established, 
varying  in  annual  income  from  $125  to  $260;  and 
there  are  other  funds  for  the  assistance  of  needy 
students.  The  course  in  the  Law  School  is  three 
years,  upon  the  completion  of  which  and  the  pass- 
ing of  -  >  examinations,  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Laws  is  conferred.  In  1877 — Sand 
thereafter,  candidates  for  admission  not  Bachelors 
of  Arts  will  be  required  to  pass  an  examination, 
though  persons  not  candidates  for  a  degree  will 
be  admitted  without  examination.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  $150  per  year,  fc  ight  scholarships,  of  the 
annual  value  of  $150  each, have  been  established. 
The  plan  of  study  in  the  .Medical  School  was  rad- 
ically changed,  in  L871,  from  that  previously  pre- 
vailing there  and  still  pursued  in  other  medical 
institutions  in  this  country.  Instruction  is  now 
given  by  lectures,  recitations,  clinical  teaching. and 
practical  exercises  uniformly  distributed  through- 
out the  academic  year.  The  regular  course  ex- 
tends over  three  years,  through  which  written 
examinations  on  all  the  main  subjects  of  medical 
instruction  arc  distributed.  Upon  the  completion 
of  this  course  and  upon  passing  satisfactorily  the 
required  examinations,  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Medicine  is  ((inferred.  In  1877 — Sand  thereafter. 
candidates  for  admission  to  the  regular  course 
must  present  a  degree  in  letters  or  science  from 
a  recognized  college  or  scientific  school,  or  pass 
an  examination  ;  but  persons  not  candidates  for 
a  degree  may  be  admitted  to  partial  courses 
without  examination.  The  Massachusetts  < leneral 

Hospital,  adjacent  to  the  School,  and  the  City 
Hospital,  with  other  similar  institutions  in  or 
near  Boston,  afford  admirable  advantages  for 
clinical  instruction,  for  the  study  of  practical 
anatomy,  and  for  witnessing  operative  surgery. 
Thecosl  "i  tuition  is  $200  peryear.  Four  scholar- 
ships, of  the  annual  value  ol  $200  each,  have  been 
established.  Instruction  in  the  Dental  School  is 
given  by  lectures,  recitations,  clinical  teaching, and 
praet  ical  exercises,  uniformly  distributed  through- 
out the  academic  year.  The  regular  course  is  of 
two  years,  and  examinations  are  held  at  the  close 
Of  each.  The  degree  of  Doctor  of  Dental  Medi- 
cine is  conferred  upon  candidates  '21  years  old 
and  upward,  who  have  studied  medicine   or  den- 


406 


HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


tistry  throe  full  years  (at  least  one  continuous 
year  at  this  school),  upon  presenting  a  satisfac- 
tory thesis,  and  passing  the  required  examinations. 
The  infirmary,  a  department  of  the  Massachusetts 
General  Hospital,  affords  opportunity  for  prac- 
tical instruction.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $200  for 
I  be  lirst  yar.  Si  50  for  the  second,  and  $50  for  any 
subsequent  year.  The  degrees  of  Master  of  Arts. 
Doctor  of  Philosophy,  and  Doctor  of  Science. 
imply  a  post-graduate  course  of  study,  and  are 
conferred  upon  examination  only.  The  degree  of 
.V.  M.  was  conferred  in  course  without  examina- 
tion for  the  last  time  in  L872.  The  degree  of 
I  loctor  of  Science  is  open  to  Bachelors  of  Science 
or  Philosophy, who  are  required  to  reside  at  least 
two  years  at  the  University  and  pursue,  during 
three  years,  a  course  of  scientific  study,  embra- 
cingat  Least  two  subjects,  and  pass  an  examination 
in  the  same.  The  other  two  degrees  are  open  to 
Bachelors  of  Arts.  Candidates  for  the  degree  of 
Master  of  Artsare  required  to  pursue,  for  at  least 
«me  year  at  the  Uuiversity,  an  approved  course  of 
liberal  study,  and  pass  an  examination  in  the 
.same.  Candidates  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy  arc  required  to  pursue,  at  the  Uni- 
versity for  two  years,  a  course  of  liberalstudy 

(and  pass  ail  examination  in  the  same)  in  one  of 

the  following  departments;  namely,  philology, 
philosophy,  history,  political  science,  mathemat- 
ics, physics,  Datura!  history,  or  music.  The  degree 
Master  of  Arts  is  also  conferred  upon  candi- 
dates who  pursue,  al  the  University,  al  least  one 
year  after  taking  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Laws,  Bachelor  or  Divinity,  or  Doctor  of  Medi- 
cine in  Harvard  University,  an  approved  course 
of  study  in  law,  theology,  or  medicine,  and  passan 

examination  in  the  same.     Post-graduate  courses 

of  study  have,  accordingly,  been  established  in 
the  three  professional  schools,  as  well  as  in  the 
College  and   Scientific   School.      The   fees   for 
these  courses  range  from  S.~>0  to  si.Mt  p,T  year. 
which,  however,  are  remitted  to  needy  and   meri- 
torious students.    The  examination  fees,  $30  for 
A.  M.  and  $60  for  each  of  the  other  two  degrees, 
not  remitted.   Six  fellowships  have  been  es- 
tablished, with  an  annual  income  of  from   $600 
to  $1000  each,  to  aid  graduates  of  the  Ohiversity 
in  pursuing  a    post  graduate  course  of   liberal 
.study.  Summer  courses  of  instruction,  especially 
igned  for  teachers,  are  given  in  chemistry  and 
mineralogy,  botany,  and  geology.    The  firs!   is 
given  in  Boylston  Hall.     The  course  in  pheno- 
lic botan]    is  given  at   the    Botanic  Garden; 
that  in  cryptogamic  botany,  at  some  point  on  the 
hore;  and  thai  in  geology,  at  present,  al  Cum- 
berland  Gap,  Ky..  in  connection  with  the  state 
logical   Burvey.    The   fee   for   the  geological 
course  is  $50;  for  the  others  $25.   In  L875,  these 
courses  were  attended  by  98  persons,  as  follows: 
chemistry  10 ;  botany,  27 ;  geology  31.     Among 

those  in  chemistry  and  botany  were  women,  who 

are  excluded  from  the  regular  courses  in  the  va- 
rious departments  of  the  University.  In  1874, 
examinations  for  women  wen'  established, of  two 
\  general  or  preliminary  examination 
tor  young  women  not  [est  than  IT  years  of  age, 


in  English,  French,  physical  geography,  elemen- 
tary botany  or  elementary  physics,  arithmetic, 
algebra  through  quadratic  equations,  plane  geom- 
etry, history,  and  German,  Latin,  or  Greek; 
(2)  An  advanced  examination  for  young  women, 
ool  Less  than  18  years  old,  who  have  passed  the 
preceding,  in  one  or  more  of  the  following  depart- 
ments :  languages,  natural  science,  mathematics, 
history,  and  philosophy.  ( 'ertificates  are  granted 
to  those  who  pass  satisfactorily.  The  fee  for  the 
preliminary  examination  is  $15;  for  the  advanced. 
SHI.  Two  preliminary  and  three  advanced  cer- 
tificates were  granted  in  1ST."). —  In  1875 — 6, 
In  sides  26  proctors,  librarians,  and  other  officers 
there  were  128  teachers  of  various  grades  as  fol- 
lows : 


-3 

o 

C   fc 

V 

VI 

0 

c    r-  % 

Departments. 

1 

O 

1  i 

2  c 
<  >- 

(J 

O 

- 

o 
J- 
m 
C 

strators 
assista 

O 

H 

College 

is 

8 

13 

4 

— 

10 

2 

3 
1 

6 

44 

Scientific  School. . . 

21 

Bussey  Institution. . 

2 

4 

— 

— 

4 

3 

13 

I  Mvmitv  School. .  .  . 

6 

6 

■1 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

■) 

Medical  School. . . . 

11 

:: 

1 

— 

17 

2 

:;t 

Dental  School 

I 

I 

1 

— 

2 

3 

14 

Museum  of  Compar- 

ative Zodlogy. . . . 

2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9 

11 

'-' 

2 

Total,  deducting 

repetitions 

19 

21 

2 

11 

27 

18 

[28 

In  the  College,  there  are  professorships  of  <ht- 
man  ;  Christian  morals:  astronomy  and  mathe- 
matics: natural  religion,  moral  philosophy,  and 
civil  polity  :  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy; 
ancient.  Byzantine,  and  modern  Greek;  ancient 
and  modern  history ;  anatomy:  the  French  and 
Spanish  languages  and  literatures:  belles-let- 
tres; rhetoric  and  oratory;  Latin:  the  history 
of  art;  chemistry  and  mineralogy;  political 
economy;  Greek  literature:  modern  languages; 

history:   mathematics:  and  music.    In  the  other 

departments  of   the   University,    besides  those 

strictly  professional,  there  arc  professorships  ot 
natural  history:  engineering;  geology  ;  elocution; 

entomology;  the  application  of  .science  to  the  use- 
ful arts:  applied  zoology;  astronomy  and  geodesy; 
Hebrew  and  other  oriental  languages;  zoology; 
agricultural  chemistry:  topographical  engineer- 
ing;  and   palaeontology.     The    whole   number  of 

different  students,  in  1875  6,  deducting  repeti- 
tions, wa>  L ,263, distributed  as  follows: 

Number.        Dep  rtments.        Number 

Resident  Graduates  54     Scientifio  School       :'\ 


( ollege  Students     77<> 
Divinity  School  19 

Law  "  161 


Medical        "  L92 

Dental  "  33 

v  Institution       5 


Of   the   resident    graduates.    .'i.r>   were   candidates 

for  higher  degrees,  and  6,  holders  of  fellowships ; 
of  the  college  undergraduates,  1  18  were  seniors, 

194  junior.-..  182  sophomores,  and  252  fresh- 
men. The  following  degrees  were  conferred  at 
the  commencement  in  1876:  A.M.,  L36;  S.  I'. 

C.  I-'...  I  ;   l».  M.  I'..  L0;    M.  1».  36;   LI..  B.,  I    ; 

D.  I:..  5;   A.  M.,  T:  PL  D.,  5 ;  *.  \\.  1  :  accord- 


HA  FY 


HAWAIIAN    [SLANDS 


407 


doctors 
dental  medicine, 


ing  to  the  triennial  catalogue  of  1875,  the  whole 
number  of  alumni  of  the  college  was  8,741,  of 
whom  3,298  were  living;  of  bachelors  ant 

of  medicine.  2.1  2S  ;  doctors  of 
">7  ;  bachelors  of  laws.  1,857;  bachelors  of  science, 
196  ;  alumni  of  the  Divinity  School.  439.  The 
presidents  of  the  University  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: Henry  Dunster,  1(140 — 54;  Charles 
Chauncy,  1654 — 72  ;  Leonard  Hoar.  1(172 — 5; 
Uriah  Cakes.  1  <lT-"»  — 81  ;  John  Rogers,  H1S2— 4  ; 
Increase  Mather,  1685 — 1701  :  Samuel  Willard 
(vice-president),  1701 — 7:  John  Leverett,  1708 
— 24  :  Benjamin Wadsworth,  1725 — 37  ;  Edward 
Holyoke,  1737 — 69;  Samuel  Locke,  177(1 — 73; 
Samuel  Langdon,  1774 — 80;  Joseph  Willard, 
1781—1804;  Samuel  Webber,  180(1—10;  John 
Thornton  Kirkland,  1810 — 28  ;  Josiah  Quincy, 
1829—45;  Edward  Everett,  1S4(1— 49;  Jared 
Sparks.  1849  -53;  James  Walker,  1853—60; 
Cornelius  Conway  Felton,  1860 — 62;  Thomas 
Hill.  18(12—68;  and  Charles  William  Eliot,  the 
present  incumbent,  appointed  in  1869. 

HATJY,  Valentin,  distinguished  for  his  phil- 
anthropic efforts  in  behalf  of  the  blind,  and  as  the 
inventor  of  an  apparatus  for  their  instruction, 
was  born  at  Saint-Just,  in  France,  in  1745,  and 
i lie  I  in  1822.  He  was  brother  to  the  distin- 
guished French  mineralogist,  Abbe  (Rene  Just) 
llaiiy.  His  remarkable  zeal  and  success  in  the 
cause  to  which  he  devoted  his  life,  fully  entitled 
him  to  the  appellation  conferred  upon  him  in 
France,  —  the  Apostle  of  th"  Blind.  His  interest 
was  first  excited  in  this  cause  by  hearing  a  blind 
lady  play  on  the  piano  before  the  French  king, 
which  circumstance  led  him  to  believe  that  the 
blind  might  be  educated.  Learning  that  she  ha  I 
instructed  herself  by  means  of  raised  notes  and 
lines,  and.  moreover,  that  she  had  also  made  use 
of  raised  letters  in  her  correspondence,  he  took 
so  deep  an  interest  in  the  matter  that,  in  order 
to  be  able  to  study  the  subject  experimentally, 
he  became  an  instructor  of  blind  persons.  He 
taught  them  to  read  by  means  of  carved  letters, 
which  could  be  moved,  in  the  grooves  of  a  board, 
and  combined  into  words  like  type.  The  need 
of  books  led  him  to  invent  the  raised  print.  His 
school  was  established  in  L 784,  partly  by  means 
supplied  by  the  Philanthropic  Society  of  Tan's: 
and.  in  1786,  he  published  an  essay  on  theeduca- 
tion  of  the  blind,  in  which  he  explained  his  plan 
of  instruction.  The  Academy  in  Paris  declared 
it  to  be  the  best  that  had  been  proposed,  and 
fully  endorsed  it.  This  led  to  the  adoption  of 
his  institution  by  the  government,  in  1800;  upon 
which  he  ceased  to  be  its  director,  but  received, 
as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  services,  a  pension 
of  2(10(1  francs.  In  1806,  he  received,  from  the 
emperor  Alexander,  a  call  to  St.  Petersburg, 
where  he  founded  a  similar  institution;  but  his 
labors  were  interrupted  by  the  war  which  broke 
out,  in  J, si  2,  between  France  and  Russia,  and 
he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  retirement.-  See  Y.  I  Iain/ 
<ii"l  tin-  Instruction  of  the  Blind,  in  Barnard's 
Journal  (>f  Education.  (See  also  Blind,  Edu- 
cation OF  Til  K.J 


HAVEN,  Erastus  Otis,  an  American 
clergyman  and  educator,  born  in  Boston,  .Mass., 
Nov.  L,  1820.  After  graduating  a1  Wesleyan, 
University,  Middletown,  Ct.,  in  1842,  he  taught 
for  sonic  years  in  Ameiiia  Seminary,  New  York; 
after  which  he  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  and  was  pastor  several 
years  in  New  York.  In  1853,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  iii  the  University 
of  Michigan  :  but.  in  1856,  assumed  the  editor- 
ship of  Ziotis  Herald  in  Boston,  where  he  re- 
sided until  1863.  1  tilling  this  period,  he  served 
as  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  board  of  edu- 
cation: and.  in  other  respects,  took  an  active  in- 
terest in  education.  In  1863,  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  University  of  Michigan,  which  under 
his  administration  greatly  increased  in  numbers, 
resources,  and  efficiency,  in  1869,  he  accepted 
the  presidency  of  the  North-western  University, 
at  Evanston,  111.;  and,  in  1872,  was  elected  first 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal board  of  education.  In  June,  1874,  he 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  Syracuse  Uni- 
versity, in  New  York.  II  is  chief  publications 
are  The  Young  Man  Advised  (N.Y.,  1855),  Pil- 
lars of  Truth  (1860),  and  Rhetoric,  a  Text-Book 
for  School*  (1869). 

HAVERFORD  COLLEGE,  in  Montgom- 
ery Co.,  Pa.,  9  miles  from  Philadelphia,  was 
founded  in  1832,  and  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  The  name  of  the  post-office 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  institution.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees,  contributions,  and  an  en- 
dowment fund  of  about  81 20,000.  It  has  fine 
college  buildings  and  grounds.  The  libraries 
contain  about  11,000  volumes.  It  includes  a 
full  collegiate  course  and  a  scientific  course.  In 
1874 — 5.  there  were  5  instructors  and  49  stu- 
dents. The  president  of  the  college  is  Thomas 
Chase  (1876). 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS,  or  Sandwich. 
Islands,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  ocean, 
forming  an  independent  kingdom;  area  7,629  sq. 
miles;  population,  in  1872,  56,877.  Of  these, 
49,044  were  natives;  889,  Americans;  2,521,  Eu- 
ropeans;  2,485,  half -breeids ;  and  1,938,  Chinese. 
The  total  ( 'atholic  population, in  1873,  was  about 
23,000;  the  remainder  were  Protestants.  The 
native  race  is  rapidly  dying  out,  having  been 
estimated,  in  1822,  as  high  as  142,000.  These 
islands    were    known   to   the  Spaniards   about  a 

century  before  their  discovery  by  Captain  Cook, 
in  177s.  Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
they  wen'  united,  by  conquest,  under  one  king. 
and  have  thus  remained  ever  since.  The  first 
schools  on  these  islands  were  established  between 
the  years  1823  and  1827,  by  the  native  chiefs, 
who.  through  the  persuasive  power  of  the  Amer- 
ican missionaries,  were  induced  to  place  them- 
selves under  instruction.  In  the  course  of  time, 
the  accomplishment  of  reading  became  so  popular, 
that  the  adherents  of  the  chiefs  were  sent  to  every 
island  of  the  group  for  the  jiurpo.se  of  introduc- 
ing it.  The  schools  grew  rapidly,  being  at  one 
time  900  in  number,  with  about  52,000  pupils, 
most  of  whom  were  adults.  Besides  reading  and 


408 


HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS 


HAZIXG 


writing,  arithmetic  and  geography  -were  taught, 
of  which  two  studies  the  Hawaiians  are  very 
fond.  The  instruction,  however,  was  necessarily 
of  a  very  primitive  character.  The  American 
Board  (if  Foreign  Missions  sustained,  from  L830 
to  Is  m.  schools  at  each  of  their stal  ions,  intended 
as  models  for  the  native  schools.  When,  in  1  839, 
the  French  Roman  Catholic  mission  had  been 
firmly  settled,  it  established  its  own  schools. 
which,  although  not  so  oumerousas  the  others, 
have  always  been  prominent  in  the  educational 
history  of  these  islands.  The  first  written  con- 
stitution and  laws  were  promulgated  in  L840; 
and  among  the  latter  was  one  for  the  establish- 
ment of  schools,  which  was  amended  in  Is  II. 
This  law  had  for  its  model  the  school  law  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1846,  a  minister  of  public  in- 
struction was  appointed,  which  office  was  after- 
wards changed  to  thai  of  president  of  the  board 
of  education.  In  1865,  a  new  school  law  was 
promulgated,  which,  with  few  changes,  is  in 
operation  at  the  present  tim 

School  System.  —  There  is  a  hoard  of  edu- 
cation of  five  ii  ited  by  the  king. 
The  duties  of  the  former  minister  of  public 
instruction,  which  were  transferred  to  the  pres- 
ident of  the  hoar,;  i  iation,  are  exercised 
by  the  inspector  general.  This  of£  ppointed 
by  the  board,  and  is  required  to  visit  all  the 
schools,  to  direct  what  studies  are  to  be  pursued,  to 
grant  certificates  of  qualification  to  I  and 
to  revoke  the  sam  ■  for  proper  cause.  No  cle 
man  of  any  denomination  can  hold  this  position. 
The  board  appoints  a  school   agent   in   each  of 

the   twenty-five  districts   into  which    the    islands 

divided,  who  is  the  local  executive  officer  of 
the  board.  The  agent,  the  district  judge,  and 
an  elective  member,  yearly  balloted  for  by  the 
parents  of  the  district,  together  form  a  disl 

Scl 1  board.  This  hoard  has  the  power  to  ap- 
point and  remove  teachers, subjeel  to  an  appeal  to 
the  hoard  of  education.     The  school  sessions  are 

held  from  9  A.M.  to  2  P.  M..  with  two  inter- 
missions.one  of  15  minutes  and  the  other  of  30 
minutes.  Every  teacher  is  required  to  have  a 
certificate  of  competency  from  the  inspector 
general,  and  must  attend  the  quarterly 
teachers' institutes,  of  which  there  are  three  in 
Hawaii,  and  one  in  each  of  the  other  islands. 

There    is    no  normal    school,    hnt     most    of    the 

teachers  receive  their  education  in  the  Lahaina 
luna  seminary.    The  usual  salary  of  teachers  is 
50  cents  a  day.    The  Hawaiian  language  is  the 

only  medium  of  instruction    in  the  schools,  in 

which  tuition  is  free,  with    the  exception   of   the 

Onion  school  at  llilo.  which  is  the  arsl  attempt 
at  a  gra  led  school  on  the  islands.  English  is 
taught  in  thi-  school  in  the  higher  classes.  All 
children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  I  I  are  re 
quired  to  attend  school.  This  law  is  enforced  by 
tni'  >  ami  oi her  penalties. 

School  Statistics. —  The  statistics  for  L872  arc 
a-  follows:    Common  schools.  202,  with  .''...">7l 
!"'•,-    and    2,700  L'irls:   government    boarding 
3, with 205 boys;  government  daj  schools 


aided  by  the  government,  9,  with  1  70  boys  and 
P>7  girls;  day  schools  aided  by  the  government, 
8,  with  Wis  hoys  and  106  girls ;  independent 
boarding-schools  4,  with  is  hoys  and  7s  girls; 
and  independent  day  schools  L4,  with  312  boys 
267  girls ;  making  a  total  of  245  schools,  with 
4,791  hoys,  and  3,496  girls;  or.  in  811,8,287  pupils. 
The  Lahainaluna  seminary,  in  Lahaina,  is  a  col- 
for  native  males.  It  was  founded,  in  1831, 
by  the  American  mission  :  hut  is.  at  present, 
supported  and  controlled  directly  by  the  govern- 
ment. Like  the  American  colleges,  its  course  of 
study  embraces  a  period  of  tour  years.  It  had. 
in  1872, 103  students.  The  Oahu  college,  near 
Honolulu,  was  founded  in  1841,  by  American 
missionaries,  for  their  own  children,  and  was 
chartered  in  1849.     It  is  the  principal  institution 

toi-  English-speaking  youths  of  both  sexes,  and 
has,  at  present,  75  pupils.  There  are  six  female 
seminaries,  with  358  pupils.  These  schools  re- 
ceive a  small  portion  of  their  support  from  the 
government.  —  See  Lyons,  Education  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  in  the  Report  cf  the  /'.  S. 
Commissioner  of  Education,  IS72  :  Nordhoff, 
Northern  California,  Oregon,  mnl  the  Sand- 
wich 

HAYTI,  a    Negro   republic   in  the  West  'li- 
lts area  is  about  9,232  square  miles,  and 
its  population, about  572,000, of  whom  the  great 
majority  are   of  negro  extraction.    The  prevail- 
ing   religion    is   the  Roman  Catholic,    hut    other 

sects  are  tolerated.  'I  be  language  of  the  country 
is  French.  The  island  of  Bayti  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  on  Dec.  5.,  1492.  The  western  part 
of  this  island  was.  in  L697,  formally  annexed  by 
France;  hut  the  eastern  part  remained,  for  a  long 
time,  a  dependency  of    Spain.       See  Santo  Po- 

mingo.)  In  L791,  the  negroes  of  Hayti  rose  against 
the  French  rule.  and.  after  assassinating  all  the 
whites,  proclaimed  their  independence  in  1804. 
Under  the  French  rule,  nothing  was  done  to 
educate  the  negroes.  'I  he  constitutions  of  1816 
ami    L846     contained    educational    provisions. 

which   were   never  carried   into   effect      Private 

schools  were  established  in  a  few  places:  hut  it 

was    not    until    President    Geffrard      came    into 

power,  in  1859,  that  any  thing  was  done  by  the 
government,  to  promote  the  cause  of  education. 
Under  this  president,  the  schools  rapidly  in- 
creased. According  to  the  latest  accounts,  there 
.ire    about     235     national    schools,    with     ahoiit 

15.0IKI  pupils.     Port-au-Prince  has  a  school  of 

navigation,  a  law  school,  a  scl 1  of  physicians 

and  surgeons,  a  music  scl I.  with  about    l<i<> 

pupils,  a  drawing  school,  a  school  of  arts  and 
sciences,  a  lyceum,  and  a  high  school  for  L;iids. 
A  high  school  for  females  was  also  founded  by 
Geffrard  at  Cape  EJaytien.  See  Delitsch,  Wesl- 
Tndien  mul  <li-'  Sudpoktrlander. 

HAZING,  a  term  applied  to  the  mischievous 
and  often  abusive  and  injurious  tricks  which  are 

played  by  older  college  students  upon  freshmen. 

The  term,  as  well  as  the  practice,  is  of  considerable 

age;  but,  during  the  last  few  years,  much  effort 
has  been  put  forth  by  those  who  have  the  charge 


with  .'!  I  I  boys,  and  I  Is  girls  :    hoarding-schools     of  higher  institutions  of  learning   t<>  suppress  the 


III.  ART 


HEBREW    LANGUAGE 


409 


custom,  as  being  shameful,  barbarous,  and  utterly 
demoralizing  to  those  participating  in  it.    In  the 
naval    and   military   academies  of  the    United 
States,  this  custom  was.  a  short  time  ago,  ob- 
Berved  in  the  must  revolting  manner,  often  vio- 
lating tlic  rules  of  common  decency,  and  some- 
times inflicting  severe  bodily  injuries.     In  L871, 
a  number  of  cadets  at  the  West  Point  Academy 
were  dismissed  from  the  U.  S.  service  for  being 
engaged  in  acts  of  outrage  of  this  character  ;  and 
at  the  Naval   Academy,  at   Annapolis,  several 
midshipmen  had  their  names  dropped  from  the 
roll  for  what  was  designated  "coarse,  cruel,  and 
oppressive  conduct  toward  other  members  of  the 
institution."    In  issuing  the  order,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  remarked,  that  "youthful  vivacity 
and  mischief"  might  sometimes  be  overlooked, 
but  that  "persistent  blackguardism"  could  not  he 
tolerated.  In  most  of  the  better  class  of  American 
colleges,  this    demoralizing   practice    has    been 
partly  or  wholly  suppi-essed;    but  nothing-  but 
severe  and    persistent   measures,   supported  by 
strong  public  opinion,  will  banish  it  entirely.    In 
mixed  colleges,  in  which  male  and  female  students 
are  instructed,  it  has  almost  wholly  disappeared ; 
and.  as  an  illustration  of  the  difference  between 
male  and  female  college  students,  the  following 
account  of  the  reception  of  new-comers  at  Vassar 
College  is  cited  :  "Upon  a  certain  evening,  a  few 
days  after  the  opening  of  the  session,  the  mem- 
of  the  sophomore  class  receive  their  sisters 
who  have  just  entered,  with  flowers,  music,  and 
a  delightful,  though  inexpensive,  entertainment". 
How  much  better  this  than  the  ruffianism    of 
hazing/ 

HEART,  Education  of.     See  Moral  Edu- 
cation. 

HEBREW  LANGUAGE,  the  language  in 
which  the  Sa i aei  1  Scri  ptures of  the  Old  Testament 
were  written,  is  on  that  account  of  special  impor- 
tance both  for  the  Hebrew  people  and  for  ( Ihris- 
tians.  more  especially  theologians,  who  desire  to 
read  the  Scriptures  in  the  original.  Etisoneofthe 
Semitic  languages,  so  called  because  chiefly  spoken 
by  nations  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  among 
the  descendants  of  Shem,  and  embracing,  besides, 
the  Arabic,  Syriac,  Chaldee,  and  Ethiopic  as 
its  principal  branches.  It  is  the  only  one  among 
the  Semitic  languages  which,  in  countries  of  the 
Indo-European  world,  is  extensively  studied;  and 
thus  always  serves  as  the  portal  through  which 
Indo-European  students  are  introduced  to  an 
acquaintance  with  a  family  of  languages  different 
from  their  own.  [ts  great  antiquity  is  acknowl- 
edged on  all  sides:  and  theologians  have  often 
claimed  for  it  an  age  coeval  with  the  earliest 
hwtory  of  mankind.  After  the  captivity  in 
Babylon,  it  gradually  became  mixed  with  Chal- 
dee, by  which  it  was  finally  supplanted  as  the 
national  language.  The  knowledge  of  the  Old 
Hebrew  language  was, however,  preserved  by  the 
priests  and  scribes,  who  used  it  for  literary  and 
educational  purposes.  From  the  2d  to  the  6th 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  Hebrew  literature 
shows  an  independent  development  ;  from  the 
8th  to  the  11th  it  was  stationary  and   iieglecte  1  ; 


from  the  1 1th  century  to  I  he  present  lime,  a  lieu 

Hebrew  literary  language,  formed  on  the  basis 

of  the  old  Hebrew,  and  enriched  by  many  new 
formations,  technical  terms, particles, and  foreign 
words,    lias    been    extensively    used    by    learned 

Hebrews  in  all  branches  of  literature.  -The 
alphabet  now  used  in  the  Old  Testament  Script- 
ures is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  by  or 
soon  after  Ezra.  It  is  called  by  the  Jewish 
doctors  Assyrian. and  is  generally  admitted  to  he 
of  Aramean  origin.  Another  alphabet,  the  rab- 
binical or  mediaeval,  is  chiefly  used  in  Hebrew 

commentaries  and  in  notes  to  the  Old  Testament  : 
and  a  third  alphabet,  the  cursive,  is  used  in  writ- 
ing. A  fierce  controversy  was  carried  on,  for  a 
long  time,  as  to  the  origin  and  authority  of  the 
punctuation  by  which  the  vowel  sounds  are  in- 
dicated. The  learned  Buxtorff  believed  that  tin- 
vowel  points  are  coeval  with  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, and  apprehended  from  the  opposite  opin- 
ion, which  was  chiefly  advocated  by  Cappel,  the 
most  dangerous  consequences  to  the  Christian 
religion.  At  present,  the  view  of  Cappel,  that. 
the  vowel  points  were  introduced  about  the  7th 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  for  the  purpose  of 
preserving  as  far  as  possible  the  true  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  language,  is  generally  acq  d  in. 
Like  all  the'  Semitic'  languages,  with  the  sole  ex- 
ception of  Ethiopic,  the  Hebrew  is  read  from 
right  to  left. 

The  scientific  study  of  the  Hebrew  language 
did  net  begin,  even  among  the  Jews  themselves, 
until  about  the  9th  century.  Among  the  Church 
Fathers,  Origen  and  Jerome  devoted  themselves, 
with  much  zeal,  to  the  study  of  Hebrew,  and 
Jerome,  especially,  became  proficient  in  all  that 
his  Jewish  masters  could  teach  him  :  but,  from 
the  entire  literature  of  this  period  which  has  been 
left  to  us,  it  appears  that  both  .lews  and  Chris- 
tians had  but  an  imperfect    knowledge  of  the 


ancient  Hebrew  language. 


Toward   the  end  of 
were  stimulated   by 


the   9th   century,  the  .lews 

the  example  of  the  Arabians  to  bestow  careful 
study  upon  ancient  Hebrew:  but.  unlike  the 
Arabians,  they  compared  in  their  studies  the 
whole  of  the  Semitic  languages.  Among  the 
many  who   distinguished    themselves  by    writing 

grammatical  or  lexicographical  Murks,  the  most, 
noted  are  Saadia  Gaon  (died  942),  Jehuda  Cha- 
jug  (about  I <>."><>).  Abraham  ben-Esra  (about 
1150),  and  David  Kimchi  (about  L190  to  L200). 

Among  the  Christians,  the  Hebrew  language  was 
Studied  only  to  a  limited  extent  during  the 
middle  ages:    although    Pope    Clement    V..  at 

the  Council  of  Vienna,  held  in   I  ill  I  .ordered  the 

appointment  at  each  university,  of  six  professors 
of  the  Hebrew-.  Chaldee,  and  Arabic  languages. 
The  revival  of  classical  studies,  in  the  Loth  cen- 

tury,  gave  an  impulse  also  to  the  study  of  He- 
brew: and  Wessel,  Picusof  Mirandola,  and  Agric- 

ola  are   mentioned    among   those   who  promoted 

the  study  of  Hebrew,  which  was  especially  culti- 
vatedal  the  university  of  Tubingen.  The  real 
founder  of  a  scientific  study  of  Hebrew  at  the 
European  high  schools  was  Keuchlin.  whose 
grammar  and  lexicon   appeared   in   1506,  and 


410 


UKRRIAV    LANGUAGE 


closely  followed  the  methods, and  traditions  of  the 
dcwisli  grammarians.  Lather  and  Melanchthon 
strongly  recommended  the  study  of  Bebrewto 
the  1'rotestant  theologians;  and  several  Protest- 
ant states  of  Germany,  accordingly,  received  it  in- 
to the  course  of  instruction  of  the  learned  institu- 
tions, though  generally  as  an  optional  study.  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  principal  works 
were  the  grammar  (1526)  and  dictionary  (1529) 
of  Sautes  Pagnini,  a  Dominican;  and,  somewhat 
later  (1  ;")TS).  a  greatly  improved  grammar  by  the 
Jesuit  Bellarmin,  who  was  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  the  university  of  Louvain.  In  the  Protestant 
schools,  the  grammars  and  lexicons  of  the  older 
Buxtorff  were,  for  many  years,  the  principal  aids 
to  the  study  of  Hebrew.  A  new  school  of  He- 
brew philology  arose  under  the  leading  of  Alting 
and  Dauz,  in  the  second  half  of  the  1  7th  century, 
which  endeavored  to  show  thai  the  phenomena 
which  the   Hebrew  exhibited,  in  a  grammatical 

point  of  view. — the  inflect  ions,  etc.,  bad  their  basis 

in  the  essential  properties  of  the  language,  and 
could  be  rationally  evolved  from  definite  prin- 
ciples. Great  advancement  was  made,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century,  by  the  almost 
simultaneous  rise  of  the  two  rival  schools  of 
Schultens.in  1  lolland.and  M  Ichaelis,  in  *  rermany. 
In  the  former,  the  predominating  tendency  was 

toward  the  almost  exclusive  use  of  the  Arabic  for 
the  illustration  of  Hebrew  grammar  and  lexicog 

raphy.  To  this  school  belong  Schroder,  professor 
at  Groningen,  and  Robertson,  professor  at  Edin- 
burgh [GrammcUica  Heft.,  2d  edit.,  L783).  The 
principle  adopted  by  the  school  founded  by  the 

M ichaelis  family,  was  to  combine  the  use  of 
all  the  sources  of  elucidation  for  the  I  lelnvw,  the 

cognate  dialects,  especially  the  Aramaic,  the  ver- 
sions, the  rabbinical  writings,  etymology, and  the 
Hebrew  itself,  as  exhibited  in  the  sacred  writ- 
ings. Prom  this  school,  to  which  the  majority  of 
recenl  German  I  [ebraists  belong,  proceeded  Ge- 
senius,  whose  grammars  (Lekrgebaude,  2  vols.. 
1817  :  Grammatik,  L813;  21st  ed.,  1872),  reader 
(1814,  Llthed.,  Is::'.),  and  dictionaries  [Hand- 
w&rterbuch,  1810  12;  7th  ed.,  L868;  latin 
tranal.,  2d  ed.,  1846,  English  trans,  by  Edward 
Robinson  and  by  Tregelles ;  Thesaurus,  3  vols., 
1829  58)  have  been  more  extensively  used  than 
any  other  works  of  the  same  kind.    I  lis  grammar 

was    translated    into     English    by    Moses    Stuart 

(1826)  and  by  Cunaut  (1839) ;  his  shorter  dic- 
tionary, U  Gibbs  (1824),  and  Robinson  (1836); 
and  both  have  been  extensively  used  in  Ajner 
ican  schools.  The  greatest  rival  of  Gesenius  for 
the  headship  in  Hebrew  philology  is  Ewald 
itische  Grammatik,  L827,  8th  ed.,  L870; 
Sprachlehrefur  Anf&nger,  Ith  ed.,  1875),  who, 

Btarting  tV the  principles  first  developed  by 

Alting  and  Danz,  treated  the  Hebrew  language 
as  an  organic  whole,  accordineto  historico-aenet- 

teal    principles,    making  at  the  same  time   a    \ery 

extensive  use  of  the  cognate  dialects.    Among 
ili  •  1 1  in  nen  his  other  1 1  el  new  grammars  published 
in  Germany,  those  by  Hupfeldl  Grammatik,l8  1 1 
and  Niigelsbach  [Grammatik,  3d  ed.,  1870)  are 
highly  valued.      In  England  and  in  the  United 


States,  grammars  have,  among  others,  been  pub- 
lished by  Lee  (3d  ed.,  L844),  Greene,  and  Jones. 

Of  the  numerous  Jewish  scholars  who  have 
written  grammatical  and  lexicographical  works 
on  the  Hebrew  language,  none  is  valued  so  highly 

as  burst  {Handw&rttrb licit.  2  vols..  ls.">7).  who 
illustrates  the  Hebrew  not  only  from  cognate 
tongues,  but  also  from  those  of  the  tndo-Ger- 
manie  class,  and  endeavors,  on  philosophic 
grounds,  to  separate  the  accidental  from  the 
essential, the  radical  from  the  ramified, the  root 
from  the  stem,  the  stem  from  the  branches,  so  as 
to  arrive  at  the  laws  which  actually  rule  the  lan- 
guage. Among  the  Hebrew  grammars  published 
in  Kngland  and  in  the  Tinted  States  by  Jewish 
scholars,  are  those  by  llorwitz  (London,  183")), 
Nordheimer  (2  vols..  New  York.  1838 — 42), 
kalidi  (London,  L863),  .Mayer,  and  Felsenthal 
(Chicago.  1875). 

As  the  study  of  Hebrew,  among  Christians, 
generally  is  not  begun  until  the  students  have 
obtained  a  good  knowledge,  not  only  of  their 
native  tongue,  hut  also  of  Latin  and  Greek,  the 
teacher  will  find  it  expedient  to  pursue  a 
method  very  different  from  that  observed  in 
teaching  young  pupils  the  elements  of  Latin 
and  Greek.  The  mastering  of  the  chief  rules  of 
grammar  may  lie  expected  to  consume  compar- 
atively little  time.  As  tin'  chief  purpose  of 
nearly  all  students  of  Hebrew  is  to  lie  enabled 
In  read  the  Bible,  it  is  natural  that  teachers 
should  generally  conform  their  method  to  that 
special  aim.  'I  he  study  of  the  Hebrew  Lible  is, 
therefore,  begun  as  soon  as  possible,  and  most  of 
the  grammatical  peculiarities  are   explained  in 

connection  with  reading.  Translations  from  the 
native  tongue  are  rarely  made  ;  though  many 
scholars    strongly    recommend    them,    on    the 

ground  that  every  foreign  language,  to  be  com- 
pletely understood,  requires  exercises  in  written 
composition.  In  most  Christian  countries,  the 
study  of  1  lebrew  is  optional  tor  (  hristian  theo- 
logians. In  Germany,  the  state  governments  de- 
mand of  all  the  Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic 
theologians  a  knowledge  of  this  language;  and  it 
is  included  in  the  subjects  in  which  all  the 
theologians  of  those  churches   have    u>   pass  an 

ext  ruination.  To  that  end.  the  course  of  in- 
struction in  the  gymnasia  embraces,  for  the 
higher  classes,  the  study  of  Hebrew;  and  the 
lectures  given  in  the  theological  faculties  of  the 

universities  and  in  the  theological  seminal  ii  ^ex- 
plain the  Hebrew  text  no  LeSS  than  the  theo- 
logical meaning.  The  Study  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage  is  of  special    interest   to   the  Jews,  whose 

total  number  is  estimated  at  from  six  to  seven 

millions.  As  the  reading  of  the  Hebrew  script- 
ures is  a  prominent  part  of  religioufl  worship, 
the  study   of  the  Hebrew   language   is  not   only 

obligatory  for  all    rabbis  ana   readers,  but    is 

generally    pursued   in   all   Jewish   BChools.      (See 

Hebrews,  Education  imong  tiik.i     The  history 

of  the  lb  bicw  language  has  been  written  by 
Gesenius  [Geschichte  der  hebraischen  Sprache, 
1 1  si  ."n  :  and  by  Kin  \x  (  Histtrire  <■/  systeme  >/•  s 
I  mgues  sfrnitiquea,  Ith  ed..  L864).    The  method 


HEBREWS 


411 


of  tfat'liiiiLr  Hebrew  is  treated  of  in  Kxingek 
stkin.  />>/•  Unterridht  im  Hebrdischen  (1861). 
The  complete  literature  relating  to  the  Hebrew 
language  up  to  ls-"><>  is  found  in  Steinschnei- 
der,  Bibliographisches  Handbuch  fv/r  hebra- 
ische  Sprachkunde  (1859). 

HEBREWS,  Education  among- the.  This 
subject  will  be  treated  under  the  following  heads: 
(1)  Ancient  Hebrews;  (II)  Hebrew  education  in 
the  middle  ages  :  (111)   In  modern  times. 

1.  Ancient  Hebrews. — Notwithstanding  the 
accessibility  and  abundance  of  the  earliest  records 
of  the  lite  and  labors  of  the  Hebrews,  scarcely 
anything  is  known  of  their  educational  status 
until  after  the  termination  of  Biblical  history. 
From  the  sacred  records  we  simply  learn  that 
the  Law  made  it  the  duty  of  parents  to  teach 
their  children  its  precepts  and  principles.  — 
During  the  Egyptian  bondage,  the  Hebrews 
probably  enjoyed  some  educational  advantages, 
but  to  what  extent  it  does  not  clearly  appear 
from  the  records.  Moses  himself  had  been 
carefully  trained,  and  was  competent  not  only  to 
lead  but  also  to  instruct  the  people  of  God, 
during  their  wanderings  in  the  wilderness.  At 
that  time,  the  Hebrews  must  have  been  more 
or  less  subject  to  mental  as  well  as  to  religions 
training.  They  must  have  been  able  to  read 
and  write;  for  they  were  commanded  of  God  to 
write  the  precepts  of  the  Law  upon  their  door- 
posts and  gates  :  and  tiny  were,  moreover,  re- 
quired to  write  the  injunctions  upon  great  stones 
••very  plainly  '.  immediately  upon  crossing  the 
Jordan,  so  that  they  might  easily  be  read  by 
every  Israelite. 

The  end  and  aim  of  all  mental  training  among 
the  ancient  Hebrews,  up  to  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity, was  to  develop  most  prominently  the  re- 
ligious tendency,  in  the  child,  in  order  to  rear 
obedient  servants  of  the  true  Elohim.  Being  a 
peculiar  people  —  the  only  theocratic  people  of 
antiquity  —  engaged  almost  exclusively  in 
pastoral  and  agricultural  pursuits,  their  system 
of  education  aimed  to  secure  the  energetic  as- 
sertion of  a  nationality  whose  essence  consisted 
in  the  principle  of  faithfulness  to  the  covenant 
of  God.  Hebrew  education,  therefore,  was, 
previous  to  the  captivity,  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  a  corollary  of  religion:  and  teaching  was 
necessarily,  in  the  main,  if  not  altogether,  relig- 
ious. It  involved  instruction  in  the  Law.  the 
customs,  and  the  symbolical  observances  of  the 
nation,  as  well  as  the  narration  of  its  history  in 
illustration  of  these  subjects.  We  should  bear 
in  mind,  moreover,  that  the  understanding  of 
the  sacred  oracles  was  not  the  peculiar  prerogative 
of  the  priestly  order,  but  was  enjoined  upon 
3very  Israelite.  This  makes  it  self-evident  that 
the  knowledge  of  reading  and  writing  must  have 

formed  a  prominent  part  in  the  education  of  all 

children.  For  the  same  reason,  too.  arithmetic 
mil.-;  have  been  taughl  ;  as  the  days  of  the  week, 
the  months,  the  festivals,  etc..  were  not  designated 
by  proper  names,  but  by  numerals.  In  fact.everj 
art  or  science  which  is  alluded  to  in  the  Old 
lestament.   and    upon   a   knowledge   of   which 


depended  the  understanding  of  the  Scriptures, 
must,  to  some  extent,  have  formed  a  part  of  the 
strictly  religious  Jewish  education.      Now.  when 

we  consider  that  the  education  of  the  Hebrew 
children  depended  upon  the  parents,  it  becomes 

sell-evident  that  the  Hebrews  must  have  been, 
while  residents  of  Canaan,  a  universally  edu- 
cated people. 

Of  course, so  long  as  the  education  of  the  child 
devolved  upon  the  parent,  there  could  not  very 
well  have  been  much  room  iar  schools.  There  are, 
however,  eases  on  record  (previous  to  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity)  in  which  professional  teachers 
were  resorted  to.  This  was  probably  the  case 
when  parents  found  themselves  incapacitated  or 
too  much  engaged  otherwise.  Thus  David  tells 
us  that  he  had  many  teachers.  In  the  days  of 
the  .Judges  we  read  of  a  Kirj(t/h-8epher,1foe  "city 
of  books  ",  a  name  which  seems  to  indicate  the 
seat  of  some  scholastic  establishment  that  had 
been  founded  by  the  *  'anaanites.  But  to  what  ex- 
tent the  people  availed  themselves  of  such  helps 
we  do  not  know.  In  the  days  of  Samuel,  again, 
and  down  through  the  prophetical  age.  thei^e  are 
indications  of  collegiate  settlements  in  several 
parts  of  the  country,  as  Bethel,  Jericho,  Gilgal, 
Kama,  and  Mt.  Carmel,  where  the  students, 
under  the  name  of  b'ney  hannebiim  "sons  of 
the  prophets"  lived  a  kind  of  monastic  or  rather 
Pythagorean  life  (not  as  celibates),  in  great  num- 
bers and  at  common  cost,  and  where  the  severer 
study  of  the  theocratic  laws  and  institutions  was 
accompanied  with  that  of  poetry  and  music.  But 
these  schools  of  the  prophets  fell  into  decay  a 
long  time  before  the  captivity. 

During  the  Exile,  the  Hebrews  became  very 
neglectful  of  the  education  of  their  children.  The 
Law  was  not  so  carefully  observed  as  in  Canaan, 
their  vernacular  language  was  to  a  great  extent 
forgotten,  and  there  was  even  much  amalgama- 
tion with  the  heathen  nations.  Yet  the  Baby- 
lonish residence  was  not  without  its  benefits.  The 
intercourse  with  the  Chaldean  people  enlarged 
the  Hebrew's  held  of  knowledge,  and  gave  to 
superior  intellectual  capacity  a  stimulus  for  its 

speculative  exercise.  The  wonderful  development 
of  their  Babylonish  schools  for  centuries  proves 
thai  they,  even  then,  enjoyed  that  remarkable 
fertilitj  of  resource  that  has  preserved  the  He- 
brews to  our  day  a  peculiar  people, though  riven 
and  broken,  and  scattered  in  every  clime.  — 
With  the  restoration  of  the  Hebrews  to  their 
own  country,  a  brilliant  page  opens  in  their  in* 
tcllectual  history.  True,  when  Ezra,  the  priest. 
first  came  to  Jerusalem  to  re-establish  Mosaism 
in  all  its  former  glory,  he  did  not  find  as' 
many  competent  for  the  task  of  instructing  the 

youth,  as  there  had  been  previous  to  the  captivity, 
but  he  found  enough  of  highly  cultured  Hebrews 
to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  college.  By  the  co- 
operation of  the  most  enlightened  and  learned 
of  the  HebrewBi  he  formed  a  synod,  or  rather  a 
college,  commonly  called  the  Great  Synagogue 
[keneseih  haggedolah)  composed  altogether,  it  is 
said,  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  :  and,  wisely 
organized  these  scholars  into  a  distinct  order. 


4  1 2 


BBBREWS 


continued,  in  a  succession  of  about  as  many 
years,  the  work  of  public  instruction  in  Jerusalem. 
From  this  capital,  teachers  were  senl  throughout 

country  of  Palestine;  and  all  Israel  again 
enjoyed  the  training  it  bad  been  accustomed  to 
before  the  Exile,  only  with  manifold  improve- 
ments, obtained  by  the  contact  of  theirwise  men 
with  foreign  nations.  Not  merely  was  the 
study  of  the  Law  re-established, but  the  study  of 
other  languages  besides  the  Hebrew  was  intro- 
duced, and,  in  consequence,  the  critical  examina- 
tion of  other  religious  systems,  as  well  as  of 
philosophical  speculation.  It  need  not  then  be 
a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  Hebrews  Boon 
came  to  be  noted  as  scholars,  that,  in  260  I!.  C, 
Ptolemy  Philadelphia  paid  seventy  Jewish 
scribes    2,500,000    dollars    for    the   septuagint 

ion  of  the  Bible,  prepared  by  them  at  Alex- 
andria at  his  request,  or  that  the  greatest  light 

of    aeoplatonic   philosophy   was   none  other  than 

Philo  "the  -lew"    (A.  D.  20).  —  After  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  Great  Synagogue,  its  place  was 
supplied   by  the  sanhedrim,    the   president  of 
that  body,  who  was  called  "  prince"  [nasi)  and 
arbiter  and  authority  in  the 
whole  sphere  of  morals  ami  education, exercising 
a  rectoral  office  in  the  scholastic   institutions  of 
the  land.     Besides,  many  of  (lie  members  of  tin' 
:  Jreal  <  louncil  actively  en         [in   the  wo; ' 
instruction  itself.     One  of  the  brightest  lights 
in  the  historj    of  ancient  Hebrew   pedago 
Simon  ben  Sqetach,  who  took  a  wider  ran. 
thought  and  speculation  than  any  of  his  pred- 
3ors.     He  introduced  high  schools  in  many 
places  and  did  much  to    !  the  standard  of 

.  scholarship.  S  le  lived  about  80  15.  <  '• 
At  that  time,  schools  nourished  throughout  the 
gth  and  breadth  of  Palestine,  and  education 
had  been  made  compulsory.  Every  Judean  town 
containing  a  certain  number  of  inhabitants  was 
bound  to  maintain  a  primary  school, the  ckazan, 
or  reader  of  the  Bynagogue,  usually  being  the 
teaclar.  Schools  of  a  higher  grade  were  presided 
over  by  the  rabbins,  and  a  certain  portion  of  the 
publi  revenue  was  set  apart  for  the  support  of 
these  institutions.  While  there  is  not  a  single 
term  for  school  to  be  found  before  the  Exile,  we 

now  meet  with  alioitt  a.  dozen  iii  common  use. 
The  etymologies  of  some  of  these  words,  and  the 

signification  of  others,give  us.  in  a  very  striking 
manner,  the  progressive  history  of  Jewish  educa- 
tion,  and  tell  us  that  foreign  elements  had  largely 
and  favorably  impressed  Hebrew  pedagogy. 
Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  paramount 
importance  which  public  instruction  had  assumed, 
in  the  life  of  the  nation,  from  the  innumerable 
popular  sayings  of  the  period:  "Jerusalem 
was  destroyed  because  the  instruction  of  the 
youi  neglected. "  "  The  world  is  onlj  saved 

by  the  breath  of  the  school  children."  "  Even  for 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  the  schools  must 
be  interrupted."  "  Study  is  more  meritorious 
than  sacrifice."  ■■  \  scholar  is  greater  than  a 
prophet."  "  You  should  revere  the  teacher  even 

ie  than  your  father.    The  latter  only  brought 

you  into  this  world,  the  former  indicates  the  way 


into  the  next.  But  blessed  is  the  son  who  has 
learnt  from  his  father:  he  shall  revere  him  both 
as  his  father  and  as  his  master;  and  blessed  is 
the  father  who  has  instructed  his  son.  "  —  The 
character  of  the  schools  may  be  besi  inferred 
from  the  laws  by  which  their  founding  and 
management  were  controlled.  For  elementary 
instruction  a  school  or  teacher  was  required  for 
every  25  children;  when  a  community  had 
40  children,  they  might  have  one  master  and  an 
assistant.  Schools  could  not  be  established  in 
the  most  densely  crowded  part  of  the  town, 
nor  near  a  river  which  had  to  be  crossed  by  an 
insecure  bridge,  so  as  to  endanger  the  health 
or  lives  of  the  children.  The  proper  school  age 
for  a  boy  was  six  years,  until  men  the  father  be- 
ing his  instructor.  Great  care  was  taken  in  the 
selection  of  text  hooks,  and  that  the  lessons 
taught  were  in  harmony  with  the  capacity  and 
inclination  of  the  chili  I.  were  practical,  few  at 
a  time  but  weighty.  "The  parents  must  never 
cease  to  watch  that  their  children  are  in  school 
at  the  proper  time." 

\Yh.  n  the  power  of  the  Hebrews  was  broken 
anew  at  Jerusalem, and  their  temple  again  de- 
stroyed, the  sense  of  their  com  i  noii  danger,  misery, 
and  want  bound  than  only  mole  clo-ely  (o  om 
another.       No   sooner  had   the  war   terminated 

than,  in  place  of  the  temple,  the  synagogue  ap- 
ed, and  what  at   firsl    the    priesl  had  guided. 

rabbi  novi  controlled.    The  dispersion  of  the 

Hebrews  and  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and 

ol  at  Jerusalem, therefore, did  not  longinter- 

w  ilh  their  enjoyment  of  that  peculiar  nation- 

.  which  they  have  now  maintained  for  nearly 
nteen  centuries.     A  citi/eii  of  the  world,  hav- 
ing no  country  he  could  call  his  o\\  n,  the  I  lehrew. 

nevertheless,  lived  within  certain  well-defined 
limits,  beyond  which, to  him.  there  was  no  world. 
Thus,  though  scattered  abroad,  the  Israelites  had 
not  ceased  to  be  a  nation:  nor  .lid  any  nation 
feel    its  oneness   and    integrity  so  truly  as   they. 

Jerusalem,  indeed,  had  ceased  to  be  their  capital; 

hut  the  school  and  the  synagogue,  and  not  a 
!.e\itical  hierarchy,  now  became  their  impreg- 
nable citadel,  and   the    Law    their   palladium. 

The  old  men.  schooled  in  sorrows,  rallied  the 
manhood  that  remained,  and  the  infancy  that 
multiplied,  resolving  that  they  would  transmit 
a  knowledge  of  their  mission  to  future  gen- 
erations. They  founded  schools  as  well  as  syn- 
agogues, ami  developed  a  grade  of  scholarship 
the  ability  of  which  IS  attested  L\  the  writing  of 
a  code  of   laws  only  second  to  that    of    Mums — a 

system  of  traditionary  principles,  precepts, and 
customs, intended  to  keep  alive  forever  the  pe- 
culiar spirit  ot  Judaism.  The  high  school  de- 
stroyed at  the  holy  city,  was  supplanted  by  the 

College  at  Tiberias;  and  that   place,  changed    into 

a  kind  of  Jerusalem,  where  instead  of  building 

in  wood   and   stone,  they  employed  workmen  in 

rearing  another  edifice,  which,  even  to  this  day. 
continues  to  proclaim  the  greatness  of  the  people 
after  their  dispersion.  This  was  the  Mishna  and 
the  <  ;■■!!!■  tr.  i,  better  know  n  as  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud, the  SO-Called  Oral  Law    reduced  to  writing. 


HEBREWS 


413 


arranged,  commented  upon,  and  explained;  un- 
til it  became,  in  the  course  of  a  few  centuries,  a 

complete  digest  of  the  law  .  the  religion,  and  the 
nationality  of  the  .lews.  The  greatest  complete- 
ness was  given  to  their  means  of  public  in- 
struction by  the  establishment,  in  many  places, 
of  high  schools  like  that  ai  Tiberias.  And  not 
only  was  this  done  in  Palestine  and  Babylon, 
but  in  all  countries  where  the  -lew  had  found  an 
asylum.  Thus,  the  college  at  Alexandria,  in 
pt.  became  as  celebrated  as  the  colleges  at 
Sora.  Pumbadita,  and  Nahardea.  The  most 
noted  schools  of  this  period  were,  besides  those 
just  mentioned,  the  colleges  at  Akbara,  Bethira, 
Usesarea,  Chammatha,  Lydda,  Jabneh,  Magdala, 
Maohuza,  Mares,  Sepphoris,  Selki,  Shaken-Zib, 
and  Ushach.—  At  first,  the  organization  of  these 
high  schools  was  very  simple.  Besides  the  pres- 
ident, who  was  the  chief  teacher,  and  an  assist- 
ant, there  were  no  offices  or  ranks.  Gradually, 
however,  superior  and  subordinate  ranks  were 
established.  The  president  or  rector,  who  was 
elected  by  the  students  from  the  rank  of  profess- 
ors, was  called  resh  meikibiha.  Xext  in  rank 
stood  the  resh  kalla,  or  ••dean."  the  chief  of 
///-'  assembly,  whose  office  it  was  to  expound  or 
simplify  to  the  students,  for  the  first  three  weeks 
of  the  session,  the  theme  of  the  rectors  forth- 
coming lectures:  and  so  arduous  became  the  task, 
as  the  number  of  disciples  increased,  that,  in 
time,  no  less  than  seven  "deans''  had  to  be  ap- 
pointed. Their  colleagues,  or  the  graduates  who 
were  eligible  to  that  dignity,  were  called  chaberim 
(companions),  and  corresponded  somewhat  to 
the  English  "  fellows."  The  mode  of  instruction 
was  chiefly  catechetical.  After  the  resh  had 
delivered  his  exposition,  for  which  the  "dean" 
had  prepared  the  students,  and  the  chaberim 
hal  followed  with  their  comments,  the  disciples 
questioned  the  teachers.  Now  all  became  life, 
movement,  and  debate;  question  was  met  by 
counter-question,  answers  were  given  wrapped 
up  in  allegories  or  parables,  until  the  inquirer 
was  brought  to  deduce  the  questionable  point 
for  himself  by  analogy,  when  a  memorandum 
was  ma  le  of  the  conclusions  reached.  The  cur- 
riculum of  study  was  quite  varied,  as  much  so  as 
in  any  modem  university.  All  manner  of  sub- 
jects were  brought  forward  in  these  Hebrew 
colleges.  Theology,  philosophy,  jurisprudence, 
astronomy,  astrology,  medicine,  botany,  g 
raphy,  arithmetic,  architecture,  were  all  themes 
which  alternately  occupied  the  attention  of  mas- 
ters and  disciples.  In  fact,  the  Talmud,  which 
is  the  repository  of  these  discussions,  is  nothing 
less  than  an  encyclopaedia  of  all  the  sciences  of 
that  time,  and  shows  that,  in  many  departments 
of  science,  these  Jewish  teachers  anticipated  some 
of  the  modern  discoveries.  See  1 1  uiBCEGER,i2ea/- 
Encyklop&die  fur  Hi'"'/  und  Talmud  (Hamb., 
1866 — 74).  The  principal  subjects  of  study 
were,  of  course.  Biblical,  including  herincneuties. 
or  scripture  interpretation  ;  halaka,  OT  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  traditional  law  ;  popular  ethics, 
legendary  history,  sacred  poetry,  ami  the  science 
of    the  calendar.     Etiquette  received  very  great 


attention,  as  it  was  regarded  by  the  Hebrew 
sages  an  essential  pari  of  education.  The  most 
minute  directions  were  given  as  to  the  behavior 
of  students  toward  their  parents,  their  teachers, 
their  superiors  in  age  or  rank.  Perhaps  the  stran- 
gest feature  of  1  iebrew  education  was  the  training 
of  every  student  in  some  trade.  Consequently, 
most  Hebrew  "doctors"  were  but  humble  me- 
chanics. They  were  tent-makers,  sandal-makers. 
weavers, carpenters,  tanners,  bakers,  cooks.  Piety 
and  learning  only  r<  i  eived  their  proper  estimation 
when  they  where  joined  to  healthy  bodily  work. 
One  of  the  greatest  Hebrew  sages.  Rabbi  Gama- 
liel, declares.  "  learning,  no  matter  of  what  kind, 
if  unaccompanied  by  a  trade,  ends  in  nothing, 
and  leads  to  sin." — The  high  schools  had  two 
sessions  in  the  year:  the  summer  semester  be- 
ginning with  nisan  (new  moon  of  April),  and  end- 
ing with  ehd  (new  moon  of  September) ;  and  the 
winter  semester,  beginning  with  tishri  (new  moon 
of  October),  and  ending  with  adar  (new  moon 
of  March).  In  the  concluding  month  of  each 
half  year,  the  studies  of  the  session  were  re- 
viewed. Gn  these  occasions,  there  were  academic 
disputations  which  created  extensive  interest. 
and  were  attended  by  thousands  of  hearers. 
The  academical  degree  of  chaber  was  conferred 
by  the  resit,  who  laid  his  hand  on  the  head  of 
the  candidate,  with  the  words, "Be  thou  chaberl" 
As  such  he  was  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the  schools 
as  commentator  and  judge  on  questions  in  dis- 
pute, his  opinion  possessing  a  certain  value  or 
authority.  He  then  also  dropped  his  simple 
personal  name,  and  took  the  briefer  but  more 
honorable  designation  of  "the  son  of"  (ben); 
e.  g.,  Joshua,  the  son  of  Bethira,  called  himself 
Ben  Bethira.  The  higher  degree  was  that  of 
rab  or  rabbi;  in  Babylon,  mar.  It  was  given 
in  the  same  form  as  the  cliaber,  with  the  be- 
stowment  of  a  key.  symbolizing  that  there  was 
now  conveyed  to  the  recipient  a  power  of  open- 
ing the  law  by  authoritative  exposition,  and  of 
locking  up  or  releasing  the  consciences  of  men. 
Unmarried  men  and  women  were  not  allowed  to 
be  teachers  of  boys.  —  As  to  girls,  we  have  but 
little  account  in  Scripture  regarding  their  edu- 
cational advantages.  Needle-work  formed  the 
chief,  but  by  no  means  the  only,  subject  of  in- 
struction imparted  to  females.  The  31st  chapter 
of  Proverbs  is.  probably,  a  pretty  full  descrip- 
tion <>f  what  was  the  education  of  a  woman  and 
house-wife  in  the  Old  Testament  period  among 
the  1  lebrews  ;  but.  aside  from  this,  the  fact  that 
mothers  had  to  take  part  in  the  education  of 
their  children,  would  of  itself  show  that  their 
education  must  have  been  attended  to.  It  is 
certainly  clear  that  the  prophetical  schools  in- 
cluded within  their  scope  the  instruction  of 
females,  who  were  occasionally  invested  with 
authority  similar  to  that  of  the  prophets  them- 
selves. It  will  he  remembered  also,  that,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  other  oriental  people,  many 
female  poets  and  learned  women  figure  in  the 
history  of  the  ancient  Jews. 

II.  The  establishment  of  the  Mohammedan 
power  opens  a  new  epoch  hi  Hebrew  education. 


4U 


HEBREWS 


The  severe  treatment  of  the  Romans  had  been 
superseded  by  a  milder  government  at  the  hand 
of  the  Abbassides ;  but  the  Hebrew  found  con- 
siderate masters  firsl  in  the  Mohammedan  ruins 
from  Arabia.  For  centuries,  the  external  con- 
dition of  the  Hebrews,  under  the  eastern  caliph- 
ate, was  undisturbed  by  any  great  vicissitudes; 
and,  from  the  7th  to  the  I  lth  century, their 
schools  reached  the  height  of  prosperity.  Thou- 
ls  of  students  repaired  to  those  fountains  of 
instruction,  not  a  few  of  whom  came  from 
distant  parts  of  Europe  and  Africa,  to  carry 
back  the  means  of  promoting  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation in  their  adopted  countries.     In  the  1  lth 

i  urv.  however,  a  less  tolerant  spirit  ruled  the 

eastern  caliphates;  and.  in  consequence,  we 

with  a  dec-line  in   lit  !,  which,  hal  It  not 

been  for  the  humane  policy  of  the  western  or 
white  caliphates,  would  have  resulted  in  an  entire 

ion  of  literary  activity   ai ig    die  Jews. 

So  far  was  the  intolerance  of  the  eastern  caliphs 
carried,  that,  by  the  middle  of  the  1  lth  century 
the  schools  of  Palestine  and  Babylon  were  shorn 

of  all  their  ancienl  splendor,  and   Spain  al • 

■  las  the  world's  representative  of  Hebrew 
scholarship.  Iu  the  Iberian  peninsula  theHebrew 
had  had  representatives  from  time  immemorial; 
but.  up  to  the  close  of  the  H'tli  century, the  Jews 

there,    though     numerous     and     wealthy,     were 

atly  behind  their  eastern  brethren  in  intel- 
lectual development.  No  schools  of  any  account 
are  met  with  among  them  until  the  intolerance 
of  the  Eastern  caliphs  drove  over  to  Spain  some 

of  the  most  renowned  1 1  el  ire  w  scholars  the  Ea 

could  then  boasl  of.     It  was  thus  that  Hebrew 

Science  receive;!    so  decisive    an    impulse   in    the 

peninsula,  as  to  inaugurate  a  new  era  in  Jewish 
intellectual  progress.  Indeed,  the  periodfrom 
the  opening  of  the  Llth  to  the  close  of  the  L5th 
century,  may  well  be  denominated  the  golden 
period  of  mediaeval  Hebrew  Learning.  The  same 
spirit  of  broad  tolerance  which  had  prevailed  for 
over  three  centuries  in  the  East,  now  marked  the 

rule  of  the  "white"  Or   Western  caliphs.      Schools. 

colleges,  and  libraries  were  multiplied  in  the 
great  centers  of  the  population.  The  Learned  of 
other  countries  were  invited  to  take  positions 
munificently  endowed,  and  ere  Long  the  univer- 
sitiesof  Spain  became  the  resort  of  students  from 

the  Last  and  the  West.      Among  both    stud 
and  teacher-;,  the  dews  counted  Largely;   and  the 

fountains  of  knowledge  which  sent  forth  th  Lr 

streams  from  the  Arabian  universities  of  Cor- 
dova and  'I'oli do.  were  fed  ly  dews  as  freely  as  by 
( 'hi'isl  ians  and  Saracens.  (See  ARABIAN  ScHOOl 

Besides  freely  entering  th iramon  as  well  as 

literary  walks  of  life,  and  contesting  with  the 
other  religionists  the  differenl  avenues  thus 
liberallj  opened  to  them,  the  dews  maintained 

ihool  System   very   much  akin    to    that    of    the 

tern  countries  in  the  preceding  period.  They 
not  onlysoughl  to  influence  the  training  of  their 
children  iii  the  earliest  youth,  bul  founded  many 
collegiate  establishments  of  their  own,  where  a 
Liberal  education  could  be  prosecuted  by  Hebrew 
young   men   and   women    under  rabbinical  in- 


fluence. Such  schools  arose  in  Aragon.  Castile. 
Catalonia,  and  Navarre,  and  in  the  towns  of 
Barcelona,  Alcala,  Burgos,  Cordova.  Saragossa, 
Toledo,  Tarazona,  and  Lucena.  In  these  institu- 
tions, under  the  care  of  some  of  the  most  eminent 
scholars  of  the  age,  a  multitude  of  men  were 
trained  whose  works  have  been  ever  held  in  esti- 
mation not  only  ly  Israelites,  but  by  the  learned 
of  the  Christian  world  as  well.  (See  Ticknor, 
History  of  Spanish  Literature,  3d  ed.,  vol.  i.) 
d'he  principal  of  each  college  bore  the  title  of 
nagidor  prince,  equivalent  to  that  of  resh 
tkibiha  in  the  eastern  s<  hools.  Of  course,  rabbin- 
ical learning  was  made  the  basis  of  other  forms 
of  instruction,  The  Hebrew  professors  of  these 
schools  very  naturally  wished  the  minds  of  their 
students  to  be  preoccupied  with  their  own  na- 
tional doctrines  and  traditions,  dims  a //<////>/, 
SalomO  ibn  Adrath,  went  so  far  as  to  enact  that 
"gentile"  philosophy  should  not  be  studied  till 
the  age  of  24  years.  (It  should  be  added,  how- 
ever, that  this  proposition  divided  Hebrew 
scholars,  and  gave  rise  to  a  troublesome  contro- 
versy.) There  was  a  tendency  in  the  Spanish- 
Hebrew  youth  to  forsake  the  distinctively  Jew- 
ish schools,  and.  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
greater  benefits  of  the  more  extensive  educa- 
tional movements  which  were  displaying  them- 
selves around  them.  The  rabbins,  of  course, 
saw.  or  thought  they  saw.  imminent  danger  to 
Judaism,  or  ra! her  to  rabbinisni;  and  hence  their 
activity  in  educational  movements.  On  the  whole, 
this  fear, though,  as  it  now  appears, ungrounded, 
was  productive  of  much  good  to  Hebrew  learn- 
ing :  for  it  stimulated  to  a  healthy  exertion,  and 
resulted  in  perfecting  Judaism  in  Spain  and  in 
Portugal,  until    it   rivaled    that    uprooted  in  the 

East.    To  facilitate  talmudical  studies,  the  works 

of  I  [ebrew  tradition  were  translated  into  the  then 
vernacular  Arabic;  and  thus  the  rabbinical  insti- 
tutes  acquired    a,   status    in    modern     literature. 

The  critical  study  of  the  I  [ebrew  was  encouraged, 
and  a,  Bystem  of  Hebrew  grammar  developed 
which  maintains  its  hold  t<>  this  day.  Besides, 
the  use  of  the  I  [ebrew  in  composition  and  the  en- 
largement of  the  Hebrew  ritual  were  encouraged, 
and  thus  a  large  number  of  students,  in  the  west- 
ern peninsula,  Learned  to  write  as  freely  the 
Hebrew,  as  their  forefathers  had  written  it  in 
Jerusalem's  most  glorious  d  y.  In  all  these  ways, 
the  Hebrew  sages  domiciled  in  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal cherished  national  and  ancestral  feelings 
iii  i  he  minds  of  the  rising  generation.  The  result 
of  all  this  labor  was  a  vigorous  religious  life  in 

the  social  condition  of   the  people,  and  an  age  of 

literary  activity  such  as  had  not  been  known  in 
1  [ebrew  literature  since  the  dispersion.    Numbers 

of  eminent  Hebrew  scholars,  theologians,  poet-. 
linguists,  and  physicians  were  brought  into  gen- 
eral public  notice;  and,  besides,  many  works  were 

Composed,    treating   Of   every    species   of   science. 

including  law.  medicine,  astronomy,  language. 

and    the    line    arts.        In    philology,    rose    I 'avid 

Kimchi;  in  philosophy,  Moses   Vlaimonides,  of 

whom  it  is  sail  by  some  that  he  has  only  been 
excelled   in    wisdom   and   learning   by    -Moses  the 


HEBREWS 


415 


prophet:  in  poetry ,  Jehuda  ben  Levi, pronounced 
by  some  the  rival  of  king  Solomon;  iii  astron- 
omy, Alton  Ezra  and  tbn  Tibbon.  Bui  these  are 
only  a  few  lights  in  tin'  much-illuminated  fir- 
mament.  In  philosophy  and  astronomy,  the 
Hebrew  sages  of  that  day  excelled  the  Moham- 
medans. See  Guedemann,  Das  judiscke  Unter- 
richtswesen  wcfftrendder  spanischrarab.  Periode 
(Vienna.  1ST-'!)  ;  Zunz,  Literaturgeschickte  der 
synagogalen  Poesie  (Berlin,  L865);  Kayserling, 
GeschicJUe  der  Juden  in  Spanien  und  Portugal; 
Li\i><>.  History  oftlve  Jews  of Spain  and  Portugal. 

Hebrew  learning  and  institutions  of  learning, 
however,  flourished  thus  not  only  in  the  Iberian 
peninsula,  but  in  many  parts  of  the  continent 
also,  especially  in  France  and  [taly,  where  a  hu- 
mane policy  prevailed  for  centuries.  In  the  former 
country,  colleges  flourished  at  Montpellier,  Xar- 
bonne,  Lunel,  and  Marseilles,  besides  many 
schools  of  inferior  grade,  all  of  which  were  con- 
ducted after  the  Spanish  model.  In  Italy,  the 
colleges  at  Mantua,  Lucca,  Otranto,and  Bari  not- 
only  enjoyed  considerable  reputation,  hut  had  the 
support  of  princes  and  of  the  pontiff  at  Rome. 
In  the  eternal  city,  the  Hebrews  supported  an 
academy  which  boasts  as  its  presidents  the  most 
renowned  literati  of  the  middle  ages.  One  of 
them,  Nathan  ben  Jechiel,  who  presided  about 
the  close  of  the  11th  century,  is  said  peritus 
omnis  generis  scientiarum  fuisse. 

III.  The  general  spirit  of  persecution  which 
prevailed  against  the  Jews  in  Europe,  from  the 
13th  to  the  17th  century,  largely  stifled  their  liter- 
ary activity;  and  the  educational  history  of 
that  period  is  very  meager.  When  the  religious 
zeal  of  Isabella  ami  the  covetous  heart  of 
Ferdinand  close!  the  doors  of  Spain  against 
all  Hebrews  who  decided  to  remain  faithful  to 
the  dictates  of  their  conscience,  many  Israelites 
went  to  Holland,  Germany,  and  Poland,  and 
there  established  schools,  which  flourished  for 
centuries.  But  these  schools  were  almost  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  talmudic  study.  No  such  sys- 
tem as  prevailed  in  Spain  and  on  the  continent 
previous  to  the  persecutions  by  the  Inquisition, 
has  ever  been  re-introduced;  nor  could  such  a 
system  have  been  maintained  previous  to  the 
present  century.  The  baneful  spirit  of  those 
dark  ages  had  closed  the  doors  of  the  schools, 
common  or  academic,  against  the  -lew;  and  thus 
the  liberal  professions  being  made  inaccessible  to 
him, he  could  not  well  develop  the  scholarship  of 
which  his  forefathers  had  boasted,  lint  as  the 
Hebrews  labored  for  centuries  under  such  dis- 
advantages, and  yet  maintained  among  them- 
selvesa  high  moral  culture,  and  did  not  sink  into 
that  state  of  degradation  and  crime  which  would 
"have  probably  been  the  lot  of  other  nations,  a 
high  estimate  must  be  placed  upon  the  culture 
and  accomplishments  resulting  from  the  spirit 
of  Mosaism  ;  and  it  mighl  as  well  be  confessed 
that  the  theocratic  institutions  of  the  Hebrews 
and  the  foundation  of  their  politics  and  ethics 
on  their  religion  has  produced  abetter  culture, 
mental  and  moral,  in  literature,  than  that  of  any 
other  non-Christian  people.  Their  ancient  educa- 


tion was  far  in  advance  of  the  Chinese  and  the 
Hindoos;  for.  in  every  lesson  taughl  the  Hebrew 
youth,  were  inculcated  the  sublimest  virtues, 
among  which  may  be  enumerated  charity, grati- 
tude, obedience  and  respeel  to  tin.'  commands  oi 

parents,   politeiuss    and    cleanliness,  all   coupled 

with  extreme  reverence  for  the  Almighty.     In 

short,  the  aim  of  Hebrew  education  seems  to 
e  been  the  moral  perfection  of  the  individ- 
ual, as  well  as  the  welfare  of  soeiety.-  -from 
the  establishment  of  the  American  republic, 
the  modern  .lew  dates  his  liberation  from 
bondage,  not  only  in  this  country  but  all  over  the 
continent  of  Europe.  His  enjoyment  of  freedom 
was  not  instantaneous  in  all  these  countries,  but 
the  dawn  of  the  new  epoch  began  with  the  ad- 
vance of  republican  principles  in  America  and  in 
France,  [n Germany,  where, of  all  the  enlightened 
countries,  the  -lew  had  to  wait  Longest  tor  his 
emancipation,  the  close  of  the  last  century  is  par- 
ticularly noted  for  his  literary  advance.  Both 
Moses  Mendelssohn,  the  philosopher,  and  llart- 
wig  Wessely,  the  philologist,  deserve  to  be 
named  as  the  founders  of  the  first  Hebrew  free 
school  at  the  Prussian  capital  (1778).  Indeed, 
the  latter  scholar  was  really  the  ablest  advo- 
cate of  the  modern  method  of  education  among 
the  Hebrews.  Thus,  he  not  only  exerted  himself 
at  Berlin,  but  also  at  Vienna,  and  elsewhere  in 
the  Austrian  dominions,  to  prevent  all  opposition 
to  the  legislative  recognition  of  the  equality  of 
the  .lews  with  the  Christians  and  their  rights  to 
admission  to  the  state  schools.  After  these.  David 
Friedlander,apupilof  Mendelssohn. exerted  him- 
self for  the  further  improvement  of  the  Hebrew 
schools.  Wherever,  in  Germany  or  Poland,  he 
heard  of  schools  barbarously  deficient  in  the  ele- 
ments of  useful  secular  knowledge,  he  labored  for 
the  introduction  of  the  progressive  system.  An- 
other noted  philanthropist  of  the  period  is  Israel 
Jacobson  (born  in  1768,  died  in  1828),  who  ex- 
pended his  large  fortune  for  the  education  of 
his  coreligionists.  At  Seesen,  he  founded,  in 
1801,  a  school  at  an  expense  of  100,000  thalers; 
and  later,  he  labored  at  Cassel  and  in  Berlin  in 
the  same  direction.  In  more  recent  times,  t  he 
German  scholar,  Leopold  Zunz,  still  living,  figures 
as  tin'  ablest  ami  most  successful  advocate  of 
Hebrew  culture.  Next  to  him  in  rank,  Abraham 
Geiger  of  Prussia,  and  S.  L.  Rappaport  of  Cali- 
cia,  in  Austria,  deserve  a  place.  In  Italy  S.  D. 
Luzzato  has  done  more  in  this  direction  than 
all  his  contemporaries.  In  France,  the  place 
of  honor  belongs  to  Salomon  Munk  and  -I. 
i  Salvador.  —  There  arc.  at  the  present  time, 
good  schools,  both   public  and  private,  pretty 

widely  distributed  in  Germany,  Austria.  Hen- 
mark.  France,  and  even  in  Russia  and  Poland, 
where  efficient  elementary  instruction  is  afforded 
to  Hebrew  children.  Usually,  these  schools  are 
under  the  care  of  the  state,  and  supported  in 
part  by  it,  and  in  part  by  the  forced  contribu- 
tions of  the  Hebrews  who  reside  where  the 
schools  are  located.  In  some  of  the  larger  cities 
where  many  Jews  reside,  the  Hebrew  schools 
[Hi  a  ide  separate  training  for  the  sexes,  those  for 


41(3 


HEP.  HEWS 


1IECEER 


girls  giving  special  attention  to  needle-work  and 
other  female  accomplishments;  those  for  boys 
giving  sufficienl  classical  training  to  admit  them 
to  the  5th  or  6th  year's  course  of  the  gymnasia. 
where  the  course  extends  over  a  period  of  tin 
years.  Since  L873,  the  German  government  has 
also  supported  several  Hebrew  theological  chairs 
at  the  Berlin  university,  and  afforded  aid  to  a 
"seminary''  (normal  school)  for  the  training  of 
teachers  to  be  employed  solely  in  schools  for  lie- 
brews.  The  Hebrew  normal  schools  at  Berlin  and 
Breslau  are  regarded  as  among  the  besl  institu- 
tions of  the  kim  I  in  <  Jet-many.  Hundreds  of  teach- 
ers are  annually  trained  there.  The  Hebrews 
also  support  two  greatly  noted  seminaries  for 
theological  training;  the  one  (founded  in  L8  17). at 
Breslau,  Prussia;  the  other  (founded  in  L828),at 
Padua,  Italy.  At  the  Berlin  university,  Hebrew 
students  in  theology  enjoy  (since  L874)  not  only 
the  training  of  their  co-religionists  bul  of  all  the 
prof essors  employed  in  that  institution. — In  Eng- 
land, much  has  been  done,  in  recent  times, for  the 
education  of  pool-  Hebrews,  who  are  mostly  of 
ii.  In  the  country,  the  schools  main- 
tained by  Hebrewsare  intended  simply  for  relig- 
ious instruction.  In  London,  a  number  of  Hebrew 
private  schools  existrand  several  for  the  educa- 
tion of  ] ■  children.    The  most  noted  of  I 

institutions  is  the  .lews'  Infant  School,  where 
the  gutter  children  of  Spitalfields  and  White- 
chapel,  from  the  age  of  2  to  7.  are  taught  to 
speak,  read,  and  write  in  English,  and  to  recite 
their  Hebrew  prayers,  in  addition  to  other  ele- 
mentary instruction.  From  750  to  1000  children 
now  find  admission  there.  The  governmenl  has 
the  supervision  :  ami  it  is  pronounced  by  the  Earl 
of  <  larlisle "  one  of  the  I'm 
land."  The  Free  School,  in  the  same  city, 
is  of  a  more  advanced  grade.  It  admits tho  e 
who  desire  instruction  after  leaving  the  infant 
School.  This  Free  School  is  pronounced  the 
largest  scholastic  institution  in  England,  if  not 
in  Europe.     About  2,500  children  are  here  in- 

.struct  i •  I.  1  lie  sexes  separately;  the  branches  in  the 

higher  classes  being  beyond  the  range  of  element- 
ary Btudy.  The  teaching  staff  is  made  up  of 
'.Ml  masters  ami  mistresses.  This  school  also  is 
under  government  inspection,  ami  is  supported 
mainly  by  voluntary  contributions.  It  has  re- 
ceived several  munificent  legacies,  amounting 
thus  far  to  over  £50,000.  Another  noteworthy 
Hebrew  school  is  the  London  -lews'  College, 
founded  to  afford  good  education  at  a  moderate 

charge    to  the   children    of    the    mill  lie  clu 

Many  of  its  pupils  arc  trained  tor  university 
degrees  ami  in  some  instances  for  the  Jew- 
ish   ministry.       There    is    also    a    society    calle  1 

The  Jewish  Association  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Religious  Knowledge  which  supports  schools 
ami  synagogues, and  circulates  publications, aim- 
ing, in  all  these  ways,  "to  impress  upon  the 
Jewish  mind  proper  notions  of  the  principles 
ami  observances,  the  spirit  ami  mission  of  Juda- 
ism, ami,  by  appeals  to  the  reason  rather  than 
to    sentiment,    to    develop    ami   foster    a     most 

fervent   conviction   of  the  truths  of   their  re- 


ligion.    But  notwithstanding  these  institutions. 

it  is  claimed  for  London  that  it  is  probably  the 
only  city  in  which  illiterate  Hebrews  reside.  But 
for  the  degraded  condition  in  which  the  very 
poor  Hebrews  in  this  city  exist,  it  might  safely 
he  asserted  that  the  Hebrews  everywhere  are 
educated  :  and  that,  though  belonging  to  all  na- 
tionalities, and  scattered  promiscuously  all  over 
the  face  of  the  earth,  no  Israelites  can  be  found 
who  cannot  read  or  write,  if  not  in  the  domicil- 
iary language,  certainly  in  the  Hebrew.  -In  the 
United  States,  the  Jews  have  always  occupied  a 
most  honorable  position.  Recognizing  the  value 
of  the  political  and  social  fabric  of  that  country, 
they  have  no;  only  maintained  institutions  tor 
the  training  of  their  children,  but  have  sup- 
ported education  in  the  public  schools.  Sunday- 
schools  are  now  maintained  in  the  cities  for 
ih"  religious  training  of  Hebrew  youth:  and 
where  no  such  facilities  are  provided,  the  rabbi 
or  chazan  (public  reader  of  the  synagogue) 
usually  assumes  the  task.  At  Philadelphia, 
where  there  are  several  distinctively  Hebrew 
schools  for  general  mental  training,  the  Mai- 
monides  College  was  founded,  in  1868;  and.  for 
a,  few  years,  it  struggled  in  vain  to  secure  stu- 
dents, though  its  facilities  were  superior,  and 
the  president  one  of  the  ablest  educators  and 
scholars  in  the  country.  In  1872,  a  movement 
was  set  on  foot  for  the  union  of  all  American 
Israelites;  and.  supported  principally  by  congre- 
gations in  the  Western  States  as  a  Union  of 
American  Hebrew  Congregations,  a  college 
was  started,  in  1875,  "with  Dr.  1.  M.  Wise  as 
president.  There  are  reported  to  be  17  stud 
in  the  institution,  which  is  located  at  Cincinnati. 
Ohio.  Thus  far,  the  instruction  is  confined  to  the 
Hebrew  language  ami  literature.  In  May.  bs7<'«, 
the  congregation  of  New  Fork,  supported  by 
many  of    the    congregations    in    Philadelphia, 

Baltimore,     <  hicago,    and    other    cities,    held    a 

convention  in  New  Fork,  ami  determined  to 

found  a    Hebrew  Theological   Seminary,  for  the 

education  of   Hebrew   preachers  ami    teachers 
first,  and   for  general  culture  afterwards.     The 
is  high  school  will  probably  be  pre- 
ceded   by   the   founding  of  schools  for  instruc- 
tion in  the  rudiments  of  the  Hebrew  language 
andin  Jewish  history. — See  (Ik  my.  Geschi 
der  Juden, vol.  in. — xi.;  Jost,  Oesckichte  desJu- 
denlhums;  Beer,  v         n  einer  Oesckichte  der 
Erziehung  unddes  Unierrichts  bet  den  Israeliten 
(1832);    Ethrtdqe,   History  qf  Hebrew  Liter- 
(revised  and  enlarged  byWorman  and 
I'ick.    N.  V.,  1S7(>)  ;     \\'ki;i:i;    and   HoLTZMANN, 
GeschicJite  der  Israeliten;  Salvador,  Histoire 
des  institutions  de  MoXse  et  du  Peuple  Ji&br 
(1828);  Schmidt,  GeschicJite  der  PcLdagogik,\., 
451;   Knrn.  Biblical  Cyclopaedia,  sit.  Hebrews; 
J.    H.   WoRMAN,   Jews,    in    McClintock    and 
Strong's  Cyclopaedia  qfBibl.  Theol.  and  Eccles. 
Literature. 

HECKER,  Johann  Julius,  an  eminent 
< ;  en  nan  educator  of  the  L8th  century,  died  June 
24.,  L768.  He  was  one  of  the  foremost  followers 
of  A.  II.  Eraneke  (q.  v.),  with  whom  he  became 


HKDDINC    COLLEGE 


IIEGIUS 


41' 


acquainted  while  studying  at  the  university  of 
Halle.  I  If  was  ap|  minted,  in  1 735, inspector  of  the 
orphan  house  at   Potsdam,  and,  in   L739,  pastor 

of  the  church  of  the  Trinity,  in  Berlin  :  and.  at 
the  same  time,  became  instructor  of  the  German 
schools  belonging  to  the  parish,  lie  at  once  dis- 
played the  greatesl  zeal  to  increase  the  number 
of  the  schools.  In  May.  L739,  the  first  of  ins 
schools  was  opened  with  six  teachers;  and  a  num- 
ber of  free  schools  followed  in  rapid  succession, 
until  almost  every  street  had  its  own  free  school. 
In  L 746  and  1717,  he  enlarged  his  institutions. 
by  adding  to  the  course  of  instruction  drawing, 
geometry,   mechanics,  architecture,  agriculture, 

and  the  natural  sciences.  1  le  now  called  his  school 
Realsckule,  the  first  institution  of  this  name. 
(See  Real  School).  In  L748,  the  school  was 
definitely  organized  as  the  Royal  Ileal  School  of 
Berlin,  and  consisted  of  three  schools.  —  a  Latin 
school  (Pcedagogium),  a  German  school,  and  a 
real  school.  A  teachers'  seminary  was  connected 
with  it  in  the  same  year.  The  school  gained 
great  renown  under  Becker  and  Halm  (q.  v.), 
his  assistant.  Hecker  also  paid  great  attention 
to  the  new  phonic  method  of  reading  as  opposed 
to  the  spelling  method.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  the  Prussian  school  law,  promulgated  by 
Frederick  the  <  rreat,  in  1763,  which  made  instruc- 
tion compulsory  for  all  children  from  the  fifth  to 
th"  thirteenth  year  of  age.  —  See  Dtttf.s,  Sclm!*' 
der  Pddagogik  (Leipsic,  1870)  ;  and  Barnard, 
(r,  run i, i  Educational  Reformers,  and  Journal  of 
Education. 

HEDDING  COLLEGE,  at  Abington,  111., 
founded  in  L854,  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It  admits  both 
-.  in  1st.'!— 4,  it  had  (J  instructors,  200  pre- 
paratory and  L8  collegiate  students,  and  1,200 
volumes  in  its  libraries.  The  value  of  its  build- 
ings, grounds  and  apparatus  was  $50,000.  The 
Rev.  J.  G.  Evans.  A.  M.,  was  the  president. 

HEDGE-SCHOOL,  the  name  originally 
given,  in  Ireland,  to  a  school  held  in  the  open 
air,  beside  a  hedge  ;  hence  applied  to  any  tem- 
porary school  in  the  country,  whether  literally  a 
bedge-school  or  not.  In  some  parts  of  the  United 
States,  such  schools  are  called  ambulatory  schools. 
For  an  amusing  description  of  a  hedge-school  and 
its  teacher,  see  William  Carleton's  Traits  and 
Sloriesofthe  Irish  Peasantry  (Dublin  1830—32). 
The  hedge-schoolmasters  resembled  somewhat 
the  German  bacchants  (schn/nn's  vagantes), 
ami  were  often  men  of  quite  respectable  attain- 
ments in  scholarship.  The  popular  novelist 
Carleton,  whose  work  is  referred  to  above,  was 
partly  educated,  near  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent century,  in  a  hedge-school. 

HEGEL,  Georg-  Wilhelm.  Friedrich,  one 
of  Germany's  most  distinguished  philosophers, 
wa>  horn  in  Stuttgart.  Aug.  27.,  L 770,  and  died 
in  Berlin,  Nov.  14.,  1831.  In  1801,  he  was  ap- 
pointed  privat-docent,  and. in  1806,  extraordinary 
professor  of  philosophy,  at  Jena.  In  1807,  he  was 
professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Nuremberg;  in 
1816,  professor  in  Heidelberg;  and,  in  1  Hi  S.  pro- 
fessor in  Berlin.  Though  his  life  was  chielly 
97 


devoted  to  the  elaboration  of  a  new  system  of 
philosophy,  he  exerted  considerable  influence  on 

the  educational   system   of   Germany.      While  at 

Nuremberg,  he   received    from    the    Bavarian 

government  (1S13)  the  appointment  of  school 
councilor;  and.  in  L820,  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment appointed  him  a  member  of  the  scientific 
commission  of  education.  Three  years  later,  he 
was  commissioned  to  report  on  the  study  of 
philosophy  in  the  Prussian  gymnasia,  lie,  more- 
over,  exerted,  for  a  long  time,  a  powerful  influence 
over  the  ministry  of  public  instruction  in  Prus- 
sia. He  did  but  little,  however,  directly  for  the 
science  of  education  :  but  the  philosophical  prin- 
ciples which  he  enunciated  have  been,  through  the 
exertions  of  his  followers,  the  means  of  intro- 
ducing many  important  modifications,  both  in 
educational  theory  and  practice.  In  his  own 
works,  pedagogics  appears  only  in  the  form  of 
applied  psychology  and  ethics  ;  and  as,  according 
to  his  system,  development  is  incomplete  until 
it  assumes  an  ethical  form,  practical  education 
is  simply  the  art  of  making  men  moral.  The 
child  is  the  offspring  of  nature  ;  and.  to  become 
truly  human,  it  must  be,  as  it  were,  reborn — must 
pass  from  the  natural  into  the  self-conscious 
and  spiritual  condition.  To  aid  this  transition 
is  education.  Flegel  attributed  great  importance 
to  the  institution  of  the  family  and  of  the  state. 
The  former  he  deemed  the  chief  factor  in  edu- 
cation;  and  both  together,  the  great  nurse  and 
teacher  of  humanity.  He  also  placed  great  stress 
upon  authority  in  the  instruction  of  children. 
The  attempt  to  develop  the  reasoning  faculties 
at  too  early  an  age  he  reprehended  as  baneful ; 
but  the  child  should  not  be  kept  too  long  in  the 
bondage  of  the  senses,  but  should  be  early  ac- 
customed to  think  of  supersensual  things.  He 
insisted  strongly  upon  classical  studies  as  the 
source  of  an  indispensable  culture.  In  general, 
however,  11  (gel  himself  elaborated  no  theory  of 
education;  but  the  essential  principles  of  his 
philosophical  system  constitute  the  basis  for  such 
a  theory,  upon  which  his  followers  have,  in  part, 
worked.  Among  the  noted  educational  writers 
who  are  followers  of  IK  gel.  we  mention  Rosen- 
kranz,  Thaulow,  and  Kapp.  —  See  Rosenkranz, 
Hegel's  LebenQ  84  1);  Kapp, Hegel als  Gfymnasial' 
director  ( 1 835);  Thaulow, HegeVs  .  [nsichtenwber 
Wrziehung  und  Vhterricht,  (3  vols.,  1853 — 4); 
IIavm.  Hegel  und  seine  Zeti  (1857);  Schmjdt, 
Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  vol.  iv. 

HEGITJS,  Alexander,  one  of  the  greatest 
German  teachers  in  the  second  half  of  the  15th 
century,  was  born  at  lleck,  in  Westphalia, 
between  1430  and  14-10,  and  died  at  Deventer.  in 
L498.  His  name,  after  the  fashion  of  those 
times,  was  derived  from  his  birthplace,  lie  was 
educated  by  the  famous  Thomas  a,  KempLs.  in 
the  school  of  the  llieronyiniaiis  (q.  v.)  at  Zwolle. 
A  iter  conducting  schools  at  Basel  and  Emmerich, 
he  opened  another  at  Deventer,  which,  under  his 
able  management,  became  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated schools  of  that  age.  Among  his  pupils  were 
Erasmus  (q.  v.)  and  Pope  Adrian  VI.  Hegius 
greatly  encouraged  the  study  of  the  Greek  lau- 


418 


HEIDELBERG   COLLEGE 


HERBART 


guage,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  a 
better  method  of  teaching  the  Latin  classics.  A 
collection  of  his  works  was  published  at  Deventer. 
They  are  enumerated  in  Erhard,  Geschichte  des 
Wiederaufblil hens  w issen sch a/flicker  Bildung 
in  Deutsckland,  vol.  i.    (See  also  Netherlands.) 

HEIDELBERG  COLLEGE,  at  Tiffin, 
Ohio,  was  founded  in  1850,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States, 
for  the  education  of  both  sexes.  It  has  an  en- 
dowment of  about  $80,000.  The  college  and 
society  libraries,  with  that  of  the  theological 
seminary,  contain  about  5,000  volumes.  The 
institution  comprises  a  collegiate  department, 
with  a  classical  course  of  four  years,  and  a  sci- 
entific course  of  three  years,  and  an  academy  or 
preparatory  department,  with  a  classical  and  an 
English  course.  Special  facilities  are  afforded 
for  the  study  of  German.  Heidelberg  Theolog- 
ical Seminary,  though  under  a  separate  board  of 
trustees,  is  intimately  connected  with  the  col- 
lege. The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  classical  course 
is  $26  per  annum  :  in  the  scientific  course,  $21  ; 
and  in  the  academy,  $17.  In  the  theological 
seminary,  it  is  free,  in  1875 — 6,  the  college 
had  6  professors,  and  the  theological  seminary,  2. 
The  number  of  students  was  189  ;  namely,  col- 
lege, 90  ;  academy,  75  ;  theological  seminary,  24. 
The  whole  number  of  the  <  tin  mat  of  the  college 
was  138  ;  of  the  theological  seminary.  112.  The 
president  of  the  college  is  Rev.  George  W.  Wil- 
liard.  D.  D.  (1876). 

HEINICKE,  Samuel,  a  German  educator 
and  teacher  of  deaf-mutes,  born  April  10.,  1  729. 
died  April  30.,  1790.  Having  grown  up  without 
education,  he  joined  the  army,  when  twenty-one 
years  old,  and  by  a  careful  use  of  his  leisure 
hours  acquired  some  knowledge  by  self-instruc- 
tion. In  1760.  he  became,  through  the  recom- 
mendation of  Klopstock,  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Count  Schimmelmann,  and,  in  1768,  teacher  in 
Eppendorf.  Finding  here  a  deaf-mute,  he  tried 
a  new  method  for  the  instruction  of  that 
class  of  people.  Differing  from  the  abbe  de 
l'Epee  (q.  v.),  who  taught  deaf-mutes  to  ex- 
press themselves  by  means  of  signs  and  panto- 
mimic gestures,  and  in  writing,  lleinicke  strove 
to  teach  them  to  speak  in  the  common  language 
of  articulate  sounds,  so  that  they  might  under- 
stand, and  be  understood  by,  every  body.  The 
sign  language  he  considered  only  as  a  means  toan 
end,  not  as  the  end  itself.  1  [is  chief  aim  was  to 
practice  the  deaf  in  the  same  forms  of  expression, 
as  are  used  by  those  that  can  hear.  As  he  was 
quite  successful,  a  number  of  deaf-mutes  were 
sent  to  him  from  different  countries  for  educa- 
tion. In  177N,  at  the  request  of  the  elector  of 
Saxony,  he  returned  to  his  native  country  ;  and, 
in  the  same  year,  founded,  at  Leipsic,  the  first 
German  institution  for  the  instruction  of  deaf- 
mutes.  But  lleinicke  was  an  excellent  educator 
generally.  He  did  much  to  improve  the  wretched 
condition  of  the  common  schools,  and  zealously 
advocated  the  substitution  of  the  phonic  method 
of  spelling. — See  H.  E.  Stcetzner,  Samuel  Hei- 
niclce,  sein  Leben  und  Wirke/t  (1870). 


HENDERSON  COLLEGE,  at  Henderson. 
Tex.,  was  founded  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  as  Fowler  Institute,  in  1840,  and  contin- 
ued under  Methodist  control  till  1870,  when  it 
was  rechartered  as  Henderson  College,  and  be- 
came non-sectarian.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
and  incidental  fees.  There  is  a  fund  of  $10,000, 
but  not  yet  available.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  It 
has,  besides  the  collegiate  department,  a  prepar- 
atory and  an  inferior  department.  In  1874—5, 
there  were  6  instructors  and  200  students.  Oscar 
II.  Cooper  has  been  the  president  since  the  or- 
ganization of  the  college. 

HENRY,  Joseph,  a  distinguished  American 
physicist,  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  17.,  1797. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  Albany  Academy  in  1826;  and,  shortly  after, 
began  a  series  of  experiments  in  electricity,  which 
led  to  the  theoretical  invention  of  the  magnetic 
telegraph,  several  years  before  its  practical  estab- 
lishment by  Prof.  Morse.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  College  of 
New  Jersey,  at  Princeton,  in  1832,  and  has  con- 
tinued up  to  the  present  time  his  experiments 
and  researches,  not  only  in  electro-magnetism, 
but  in  other  departments  of  physics.  He  is  the 
author  of  Contributions  to  Electricity  and  Mag- 
netism (1839),  and  has  been  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  American  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions,  Silliman's  Journal,  Journal  of  the 
Franklin  Institute,  etc.  On  the  organization  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  at  AYashington,  in 
1846,  Prof.  Henry  was  appointed  its  secretary, 
which  position  he  still  holds. 

HERBART,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  distin-  | 
guished    philosopher    of    Germany  who    made 
pedagogics  the  great  end  and  aim  of  philosoph- 
ical study,  was  born  in  Oldenburg,  May  4.,  1776, 
died   in   Gottingen,  August   14.,  1841.      After 
studying  at  the  university  of  Jena,  where  he  at- 
tended  the  lectures  of  Fichte,  he  became,  in  1797,  i 
a  tutor  in  the  family  of  a  citizen  of  Bern,  and  at 
once  began  to  elaborate  a  system  of  pedagogy. 
His   pedagogical    studies    led    to   an    intimate 
acquaintance  with  I'estalozzi.  who,  at  that  time, 
was  teaching  at  Burgdorf  in  the  canton  of  Bern. 
In  1800.  he  went  to  Bremen,  where  he  delivered 
pedagogical  lectures,  and,  in  1802,  he  became  a 
privat-docent    (lecturer)    at    the   university   of 
Gottingen.     In  1805, he  was  promoted  to  an  ex- 
traordinary professorship ;  in  1809,  he  received 
a  call  as  ordinary  professor  to  Konigsberg  ;  and. 
in  1833.  he  returned  to  Gottingen.     In  all  these 
academic  positions,  he  lectured  on  pedagogics  as 
well  as  on  philosophy,  and  gathered  around  him- 
self a  number  of  young  men  thoroughly  imbued 
with  his  ideas.    At  Konigsberg,  he  also  founded, 
in  1810.  a  pedagogical  seminary  in  which  young 
teachers,  under  his  immediate  direction,  were  to 
instruct  a  select  number  of  boys  according  to  his 
educational  principles.  Herbart  says,  that  his  in- 
vestigations were  chiefly  due  to  the  settled  con- 
viction that  very  many  of  the  tremendous  gaps 
in  our   pedagogical  knowledge  are  attributable 
to  defects  in  our  psychology,  and  that  these  must 
be  remedied  before  a  science  of  education  is  pos 


HERBART 


HERDER 


419 


sible.  His  educational  principles  flow  directly 
from  his  philosophy.  His  psychology  recognizes 
no  predetermined  capacities  in  the  soid  which 
direct  its  future  development.  The  soul,  in  it- 
self, contains  only  the  power  of  reacting  against 
external  influences.  Such  reaction  constitutes 
perception;  and  the  mind,  as  a  conscious  intelli- 
gence, resembles  a  machine  constructed  of  these 
perceptions.  If  impressions  from  without  are 
not  guided,  the  result  must  be  disorderly  and 
worthless.  Hence  the  necessity  of  systematic 
education,  in  order  to  give  form  and  direction  to 
the  indefinite  activity  of  the  soul.  In  proportion, 
then,  to  the  extent  and  regularity  with  which 
perceptions  are  called  forth  in  the  soul,  will  be 
the  breadth  and  value  of  the  mental  organism 
which  the  soul  creates  out  of  its  perceptions. 
The  whole  of  Herbart's  system  is  an  indirect 
polemic  against  all  theories  which  place  the  aim 
of  education  without  the  individual  subject. 
Neither  family,  nor  state,  nor  humanity,  is  the 
end  of  education,  but  the  development  of  the 
individual  himself.  Every  thing  but  the  indi- 
vidual is  an  abstraction,  and  valueless  except  as 
it  serves  to  advance  his  interests.  Pedagogics, 
therefore,  with  Herbart  is  a  department  of 
ethics,  or  rather  the  method  by  which  ethics 
secures  its  aim  ;  namely,  the  perfection  of  the 
individual.  The  work  of  education  has  three 
parts:  discipline,  instruction, and  training.  The 
child  has  no  control  of  himself.  He  is  the  prey 
of  whatever  lawless  inclination  may  claim  him. 
To  overcome  this  is  the  office  of  discipline. 
Society  and  the  family  furnish  a  part  <>f  the 
needed  discipline,  but  not  enough ;  it  must  be 
supplemented  by  the  systematic  discipline  of  the 
school.  Discipline,  however,  must  not  be  con- 
tinued any  longer  than  is  necessary,  but  care 
must  also  be  taken  not  to  relax  it  too  soon.  In- 
struction must  not  be  limited  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  knowledge,  or  of  technical  skill.  Its 
chief  aim  is  the  culture  of  the  will ;  that  is,  to 
impart  an  insight  into  ethical  relations  and 
the  ability  to  realize  ethical  ideas.  Discipline 
and  instruction  must  be  united,  in  order  to 
bring  forth  many-sidedness  in  knowledge  and  in 
character.  Training  aims  to  fix  the  moral  les- 
sons into  abiding  forms  of  character,  and  to 
bring  the  student  to  a  point  where  he  can  un- 
dertake the  work  of  self-cidture.  It  follows  from 
Herbart's  psychology,  that  he  would  not  be  con- 
tent with  unrelated  knowledge.  According  to 
him,  the  so-called  faculties  are  produced  and 
developed  purely  by  the  association  of  ideas. 
Mental  vigor,  therefore,  can  be  secured  oidy  by 
a  habit  of  looking  at  things  in  their  relations  ; 
hence,  the  true  order  of  teaching  is  to  begin  as 
soon  as  possible  to  give  not  merely  the  facts, 
but  their  bearings  and  connections.  In  this 
way,  knowledge  acquires  an  intellectual  interest 
for  the  student,  and  a  moral  interest  also;  for 
the  most  important  relations  are  ethical  ones  ; 
and  the  highest  aim  of  instruction  is  to  enable 
one  to  see  all  things  in  their  ethical  relations, 
and  to  act  accordingly.  These  points  are  con- 
stantly repeated  by  Herbart,  and  illustrated  at 


considerable  length  and  with  great  energy.  To  a 
certain  extent  also,  he  viewed  statesmanship  as  a 
branch  of  pedagogics.  The  chief  educational 
works  of  Herbart  are :  AUgemeine  Pada- 
gogik  (1806),  and  Umriss  pddagogischer  Vor- 
lesungen  (1835  ;  2d  edit.,  1841).  Among  the 
numerous  smaller  works,  the  Aphorismen 
zur  Padagogik  is  of  special  importance  for 
teachers.  A  full  understanding  of  the  edu- 
cational principles  of  Herbart  is,  however, 
scarcely  possible  without  a  knowledge  of  his 
philosophical  system,  which  is  chiefly  explained 
in  his  two  principal  works,  Psychologie  (2  vols., 
1824 — 5),  and  AUgemeine  Metaphysik  (2  vols., 
1828 — 0).  His  complete  works  were  published 
by  Hartenstein  (12  vols.,  1850 — 52).  An  edi- 
tion of  his  educational  writings,  in  chronological 
order,  with  introductions,  notes,  and  a  compara- 
tive register,  was  published  by  Willmann  (Her- 
bart's Pddagogm ■// e  Schrifien,  2  vols.,  1S73 — 5). 
A  large  number  of  educators  have  more  fully  de- 
veloped the  views  of  Herbart;  prominent  among 
these,  are  Mager,  Waitz,  Stoy,  and  Ziller.  A 
biography  of  Herbart  was  published  by  Harten- 
stein (in  an  edition  of  the  smaller  philosophical 
writings  of  Herbart,  3  vols.,  1842 — 3). — See  also 
Schmidt,  Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  iv.,  trans- 
lated in  the  Journal  of  Speculative  Philosophy, 
April,  1876.  In  May,  1876,  his  native  city  cele- 
brated, with  great  solemnity,  his  centennial  birth- 
day, and  erected  a  monument  to  him. 

HERDER,  Johann  Gottfried  von,  one 
of  Germany's  most  distinguished  theologians, 
authors,  and  teachers,  was  born  at  Mohrungen, 
Aug.  25.,  17-11,  and  died  in  Weimar,  Dec.  18., 
1803.  He  early  distinguished  himself  by  his 
progress  in  scholarship ;  and  his  literary  attain- 
ment gained  him  the  friendship  of  a  Russian 
physician, by  whom  he  was  induced  to  commence 
medical  studies.  But  he  soon  renounced  these, 
and  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  theology.  In 
1764,  he  was  appointed  teacher,  and  afterwards 
preacher,  at  the  cathedral  school  in  Riga;  and 
while  there,  he  attracted  much  attention  by  his 
writings.as  well  as  by  the  brilliancy  and  cloquence- 
of  his  preaching.  In  1769,  he  left  Riga  to  travel 
in  Germany,  Erance,  and  Italy;  and  while  at 
Strasburg  was  intimately  associated  with  Goe- 
the. In  1776,  he  became  court  preacher,  general 
superintendent,  and  counselor  of  the  Upper 
Consistory  at  Weimar,  where  he  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life,  in  constant  communion  with 
the  most  gifted  minds  of  that  brilliant  period  of 
German  literary  history.  Here,  too,  he  labored 
for  the  improvement  of  the  schools.  In  1783, 
he  drew  up  a  plan  for  their  management,  and 
secured  an  increase  of  salary  to  the  teachers.  A 
teachers'  seminary  was  established  in  1787,. 
through  his  influence.  In  the  lower  schools  he? 
introduced  the  Pestalozzian  method  as  far  as  it 
was  practicable  under  the  circumstances.  Her- 
der's views  on  education  present  many  points  of 
interest  and  value.  His  leading  principle  was, 
that  the  aim  of  education  is  to  develop  human- 
ity. First  and  foremost,  he  says,  we  are  re- 
quired to  be  men  ;  and  any  educational  system 


420 


HERMANN 


BEYNB 


which  aims  at  less  than  the  full  culture  of  all 
the  powers  of  manhood  is  treason  toward  God 
and  humanity.  It  is  only  the  purest  and  most 
gifted  persons  that  should  be  teachers ;  for  the 
teacher  must  not  only  know  what  the  pupil  is 
to  learn,  but  he  must  be  what  he  aims  to  have 
his  pupil  become.  I  lis  connection  with  his 
pupils  must  be  of  the  most  intimate  character. 
His  intellectual  instruction  must  be  given 
with  all  the  freshness  of  original  discovery  ; 
and  his  moral  teaching  must  have  all  the 
fervor  of  conviction,  and  the  authority  of 
absolute  truth.  In  teaching  science  and  history, 
it  is  noi  isolated  facts  that  must  be  presented, 
but  their  relations  and  their  aggregate  logical 
significance.  Especially  should  the  student's 
self-activity  be  thoroughly  aroused ;  and,  hence, 
he  favored  the  Socratic  method  of  leading  the 
pupil's  mind  to  develop  truth  for  itself  from 
fundamental  principles.  The  whole  of  education 
must  be  permeated  with  the  spirit  of   humanity 

and  with  a  fervent  piety.  Notwithstanding 
his  enlarged  views  and  derp  insight,  he  was 
quite  conservative,  lie  condemned  in  unmeas- 
ured terms  the  raw  ami  presumptuous  reformers 
of  his  day;   and   the    Philanthropinists  did    not 

entirely  escape  his  censure.  In  one  of  his  ad- 
dresses, he  remarks  that  "instead  of  the  ■ 
old  word  school,  a  fashion  has  been  introduced 
of  using  new  and  more  showy  terms,  such  as 
Educational  Institution,  and  Philanthrqpinum  ; 
and  that  much  is  said  of  'genius',  'original 
genius',  which  docs  every  thing  for  itself,  and 
has  mi  need  of  any  other  instructor;  and 
of    wonderful    self-development     by    one's     own 

powers."  lie  strongly  opposed  a  "French  edu- 
cation", instead  of  teaching  in  the  native  lan- 
guage.     He    also  advocated    that    the    lower 

classes  of  real  schools  should  train  useful  citi- 
zens, and  thai  the  upper  ones  should  form  a 
scientific  gymnasium.  1  lis  views  on  the  teaching 
of  language  were  eminently  sound  and  practical. 
"Grammar,"   he   said,  "must    be    learned    from 

the  language,  and  not  the  language  from  gram 
mar;  style,  from  speaking,  and  noi  Bpeaking 
from  an  artificially  formed  style."  Be  was,  in 
every  respect,  a  practical  educator,  and  was 
proud  to  be  considered  such.  ••  In  my  nineteenth 
year,"  he  said, "  I  began  teaching  in  the  highest 

of    an    academical    institution,    and    from 

that  time  to  this  I  have  never  been  free  from 
the   responsibilities  of  a  teacher,  or  else  of  a 

school     Officer."       The     complete     edition    of     his 

works  (45  vols.,  L805  22)  contains  a  large 
number  of  addresses  and  essays  on  educational 
subjects.  See  Schmidt,  Geschichte  der  P&da- 
_</o<//7,\  vol.  iv. ;  I;  w  mki;.  Geschichte  der  Piidago- 
gik  (translated  in  Barnard's  German  Teachers 
,ni  1 1  Educators), 

HERMANN,  Gottfried,  one  of  the  great- 
est cla  sical  scholars  of  modern  times,  born 
Nov.  'J-..  1TT-J,  died  Dec.  :U .,  1848.  He  studied 

at    the    university  of    Leipsic,   where    he  became. 

iii  L794,  privat-docenl  (lecturer);  in  1798,  extra- 
ordinary professor;  and.  in  L803, ordinary  pro- 

OT.   At  the  lime  of  his  death,  he  W8JB  the  senior 


professor  of  the  university.  He  had  a  vigorous 
delivery,  an  unfailing  memory,  a  line  perception 

of  the  beauties  of  poetrv.  and  a  complete  mas- 
tery of  the  Latin  language,— aU  qualities  which 
rendered  him  an  excellent  teacher.  When,  in 
1834,  the  philological  seminary  in  Leipsic  was 
revived,  Hermann  was  appointed  to  conduct  the 
(ireek  instruction.  He  banished  all  practical 
exercises  in  teaching  from  the  seminary,  because 
he  believed  that  a  man  who  had  become  a 
thorough  scholar,  would  also  be  able  to  teach. 
He  trained  his  pupils  to  translate  back  into'  ireek 
a  translation  from  a  Greek  prose  writer,  so  that 
the  mistakes  might  be  detected  by  a  comparison 
with  the  (ireek  model,  and.  at  the  same  time, 
show  why  the  author  had  written  differently. 
Hermann  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  a  more  rational  treatment  of  Greek  grammar, 

and  as  having  thus  indirectly  exerted  a  consider- 
able influence  upon  the  improvement  of  gram- 
matical science  in  general.  His  views  on  this 
subject  are  chiefly  laid  down  in  his  work  De 
cim  ndanda  ratione  Gra?ca>  grammatical  (ImH  ), 
and  in  his  learned  notes  to  Viger's  Depratcipuis 
Grcecce  dictionis  idiotismis  (1802;  4th  ed.,  18 
His  endeavors  to  elucidate  the  intellectual  life 
of  the  ancient  world  chiefly  through  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  language  and  of  the  metrical 

form,  involved  him  in  literary  controversies  with 
Bockh,  K.  <>.  .Midler,  and  Greuzer.    Bis  editions 

of  the  tragic  (ireek  poets  and  of  other  (Ireek 
writers  are  still  highly  valued.  Memoirs  of  his 
life  and  works  have  been  published  by  0.  Jahn 
(1849),  and  Kochly  (1874). 

HESPERIAN  COLLEGE,  at  Woodland, 
OaL,  under  the  control  of  the  Christian  denom- 
ination, was  founded  in  1869.  It  admits  both 
sexes.  In  L875  -(i.  it  had  10  instructors,  L50 
students,  and  productive  funds  to  the  amount 
of  $50,000.  The  value  of  its  buildings,  grounds, 
and  apparatus  is  $30,000.  ,;.  |[.  Smith,  LL.D. 
is  (1876)  the  president. 

HESSUS,  Eobanus,  one  of  the  foremost 
German  educators  of  the  time  of  the  Refor- 
mation, born  in  1  188,  died  in  1540,  lie  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1516,  prof essor  at  the  university  of 

Erfurt  :  accepted,  in  L525,  a  call  to  the  newly 
established  gymnasium  of  Nuremberg,  returned 
in  1534  to  i'.rfurt.  and.  in  1 536,  became  profes- 
sor of  history  at  the  university  of  Marburg. 
He   was  an    intimate   friend   of     Lcuchlin.     Me- 

lanchthon,  and  other  eminent  men  of  the;; 

and  his  reputation  as  a  teacher  was  so  great, 
that,  as  professor  at  Erfurt,  he  is  said  to  have 
had  at  one  time  1500  hearers.  He  was  on.' 
of  the  best  modern  Latin  poets  ;  and,  as  author 

no    less    than    as    teacher,   largely   contributed    to 

a  better  knowledge  of  Latin  and  (ireek.  Special 
works  on  the  life  of  Hessus  have  been  written 
by  Camerarius  (1553),  Lossius  (1797),  Her/. 
(1860), and  Schwertzell  (1873).     An  interesting 

aCCOUnl  Of  Hessus  is  also  given  in  the  work  ot 
II.  P.  Strauss  on  llutten  (2d  edit,  1871}. 

HEYNE,  Christian  Gottlob,  a  German 
scholar  and  educator,  born  Sept.  '-'•">..  1729,  died 
July  11.,   1812      lie  studied  iii  the  university 


HIERONYMIANS 


HIGH    SCHOOLS 


421 


of  Leipsic,  and  after  holding  several  minor  posi 
dons,  received,  in  L 763,  a  call  to  the  university 
of  Gottingen,  where,  besides  his  position  as 
academic  teacher,  he  also  held  those  of  director 
of  the  philological  seminary,  librarian  in  chief  of 
the  university  library,  and  inspector  of  the  peed- 
agogium  in  Qefeld.  In  his  philological  semi- 
nary, he  educated  a  large  number  of  efficient 
teachers;  and  as  librarian,  he  succeeded  in  raising 
the  university  library  to  one  of  the  largesl  and 
best  arranged  in  Europe.  As  an  organizer,  lie 
showed  great  talent  in  the  p&dagogium  in  lle- 
feld  as  well  as  in  the  schools  of  Gottingen  and 
Hanover,  which,  through  his  reforms,  attained 
great  celebrity  throughout  <  lennany.  1  levne  is  re- 
corded as  one  of  the  greatest  German  philologists 
of  the  18th  century.  Besides  editing  several 
Latin  and  Greek  classics,  he  wrote  numerous 
works  on  classic  antiquity.  His  life  was  written 
by  Beeren  (1813).  —  Bee  also  Kajemmel,  in 
SciiMrn's  Encyclop&die. 

HIERONYMIANS,  or  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life,  a  religious  order,  which  did 
much  for  education  in  the  Netherlands  and  north- 
ern Germany  during  the  1 4th,  15th,  and  Kith 
centuries.  It  was  founded  by  <  Herard  Groot  (also 
written  Groote  or  Grote),  a  native  of  Deventer. 
lie  was  born  in  1 .140.  and  studied  in  Paris  from 
1355  to  L358,  where  he  gave  his  attention  to 
magic,  astrology,  and  necromancy;  but  he  re- 
nounced these  arts  and  was  chosen  a  canon  in  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  and  in  Cologne.  In  the  latter  ]>! 
he  preached  in  his  native  language, — a  thing  un- 
heard of  and  bitterly  opposed  at  that  time.  Urge.  I 
by  his  friends  and  supporters,  he  founded  an  in- 
stitution devoted  to  instruction  and  purity  of  life. 
Many  friends  joined  him  in  this  undertaking,  and 
soon  a  society  was  formed,  the  members  of  which, 
without  taking  m<  mastic  vows,  devoted  their  lives 
to  piety,  charity,  and  the  education  of  the  people. 
They  depended  for  their  subsistence  on  their  own 
labor,  ami  on  property  donated  by  the  members 
on  entering  the  order.  The  first  house  of  the 
order  was  founded  at  Deventer,  in  1384.  Branch 
houses  soon  followed  in  many  other  cities  of  the 
Netherlands;  and  in  many  parts  of  northern 
Germany.  Female  associations  were  also  formed, 
with  similar  objects.  "Where  they  had  no  insti- 
tutions of  their  own,  they  taught  in  the  existing 
schools.  Thus,  by  the  end  of  tie  15th  century, 
they  had  spread  from  the  Scheldt  to  the  Vistula. 
They  regarded  Hieronymus  (St.  Jerome)  and 
St.  Gregory  (the  Great)  as  their  patron-saints, 
and  hence  called  themselves  Hieronymicens,  or 
Qregorians.  Gerard  only  lived  long  enough  to 
see  the  commencement  of  the  work  of  the  order, 
as  he  died  in  L384.  He  appointed  as  his  suc- 
cessor Florentius  Radewin,  who  was  born  in 
1350,  studied  at  Prague,  and  became  canon  at 
Utrecht.  As  .-<  ><  »n  as  he  hail  heart  I  of  <  rerard's  in- 
fluential career  at  Deventer.  he  had  given  up  his 
position  in  Utrecht,  and  had  gone  to  Deventer  as 
a  vicar,  where  he  soon  became  an  intimate  friend 
of  Gerard.  I  [e  died,  after  a  life  of  great  useful- 
ness, in  the  year  L400.  It  was  he  who  proposed 
the  living  in  common,  which  led  to  the  order's  be- 


ing called  Brethren  of  the  Common  Ldfe.  Among 
its  other  distinguished   members,  were  Gerard 

Zerbolt,  com |y  styled  Gerard  of  Zutphen, 

Thomas  a  Kempis,  Johann  Wessel.  ami  the  cele- 
brated cardinal.  N  icolaus  <  'usantts.  Some  of  their 
pupils  attained  great  celebrity  in  after  life,  among 
whom  were  Erasmus,  Agricola,  and  Hermann 
Busche.  They  reached  their  greatest  efficiency 
in  the  16th  century ;. and  their  last  union  was 
established  at  Cambrai.  in  L505.  After  the  Ref- 
ormation, man;  of  their  number  embraced  the 
new  faith,  while  the  remainder  were  absorbed  by 
the  -Jesuits.  Although  they  cared  for  the  edu- 
cation of  all  the  people,  they  were  particularly 
distinguished  for  their  zeal  in  receiving  the  poor 
children  of  both  sexes,  and  educating  them. 
They  laid  particular  stress  on  the  religious  ele- 
ment. The  plan  pursued  in  their  instruction 
was  simple  in  the  extreme,  and  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  words  of  the  founder : 
"Spend  no  time  either  on  geometry,  arithmetic, 
rhetoric,  logic,  grammar,  poetry,  or  judicial 
astrology.  All  these  branches  Seneca  rejects: 
1  x  >w  much  more,  then,  should  a  spiritua  lly-mii  ided 
Christian  pass  them  by.  since  they  subserve  in 
no  respect  the  life  of  faith.  Of  the  sciences  of 
the  Pagans,  their  ethics  may  not  be  so  scrupu- 
lously shunned;  since  this  was  the  special  held 
of  the  wisest  among  them,  as  Socrates  and  Plato. 
That  which  does  not  improve  a  man,  or  at  least 
does  not  reclaim  him  from  evil,  is  positively 
hurtful.  Neither  ought  we  to  read  pagan  books, 
nor.  indeed,  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  order  merely 
to  penetrate  into  the  mysteries  of  nature  by 
that  means."  They,  however,  endeavored  to 
promote  the  study  of  the  Bible  by  the  common 
people;  and  to  their  efforts  in  that  direction  is 
attributed  the  foundation  of  Christian  popular 
education;  since  to  study  the  Bible,  the  people 
must  be  instructed  in  reading,  which  led  neces- 
sarily to  writing;  and  thus  the  seeds  of  intel- 
lectual progress  were  sown,  which  sprang  up 
and  bore  fruit  in  the  Reformation.  Because  of 
their  activity  in  promoting  education,  the 
brethren  were  sometimes  called  the  Scholastic 
fraternity  (fratres  scholares);  and,  indeed. they 
devoted  themselves  not  merely  to  the  elementary 
instruction  of  the  people,  but  to  the  higher 
branches  of  education,  as  is  obvious  from  the 
many  distinguished  scholars  found  in  their 
schools. —  See  1!  a  f.\i  ER,(  }eSChichtederPadagogik\ 
translated  in  Barnard's  German  Educators; 
Delprat,  Over  de  Broederschap  run  G.  Qrote 
(1836;  German  translation!)}-  Mohnikb,  L840). 
HIGH  SCHOOLS,  generally  schools  of  sec- 
ondary or  academic  instruction,  corresponding, 
to  the  lower  grades  of  the  German  gymnasia, 
but  sometimes  partaking  rather  of  the  character 
of  real  schools.  Public  high  schools  exist  in 
most  of  the  states  of  the  Union,  forming  a  part 
of  the  public-school  system,  being  the  connecting 
link  between  the  elementary  district,  common, 
or  grammar  schools,  and  the  state  university,  for 
which  they  perforin  the  office  of  preparatory 
schools.  Some  of  these  schools  are  so  organized 
as  to  comprise  academic,  normal,  and  commer- 


422 


HIGH   SCHOOLS 


cial  departments.  In  small  cities  and  towns, 
high-school  classes  or  departments,  taught  in  the 
same  building  with  the  grammar  .schools,  take 
the  place  of  separate  high  schools.  There  is  a 
great  want  of  uniformity  in  the  grade  and  char- 
acter of  these  schools  in  different  states  and  in 
different  cities  of  the  same  state.  Home  are 
Bimply  of  a  higher  grade  than  the  grammar 
schools;  that  is,  they  give  instruction  in  more 
advanced  studies;  while  others  strictly  forma 
a  part  of  a  graded  system  which  includes  a 
complete  representation  of  primary,  secondary, 
and  superior  instruction.  En  some  of  the  large 
cities,  as  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Chi- 
cago, Cincinnati,  Detroit,  and  St.  Louis,  the 
high  school  assumes  large  proportions,  and  per- 
forms a  very  important  function,  both  as  regards 
elementary  and  superior  or  university  education. 
stimulating  the  one  and  supporting  the  other. 
The  establishment  of  public  nigh  schools  in  the 

1'nited  States  is  of  quite  recent  date  ;  although, 

in  Massachusetts,  as  early  as  1 797,  the  academies 
were  virtually  incorporated  into  the  system  of 
public  schools,  by  receiving  endowments  of  land 
from  the  state.  In  1834,  an  act  of  the  New 
York  legislature  required  the  regents  of  the 
university  to  apply  the  Surplus  income  of  the 
literature  fund,  beyond  the  sum  of  $12,000,  to 
the  education  of  common-school  teachers,  by 
distributing  i1  to  such  a  ies  as  should  un- 

dertake their  instruction.  Until  L837,  when 
the  Philadelphia  High  School  was  established, 
there  was  no  institution  of  the  kind  in  the 
United  States  outside  of  Massachusetts.  Balti- 
more organized  a  high  school  in  L839  ;  Cincin- 
nati, in  L850 ;  and  Chicago,  in  1856.  In  the 
city  of  New  York,  as  early  as  L826,  effortswere 
made  to  establish  a  high  school  "for  instruction 
in  the  higher  branches  of  an  English  education, 
and  in  Latin  and  Greek  ;"  but  the  plan  was  not 

realized  until  tin' organization  of  the  New    York 

free  Academy,  in  L849,  in  pursuance  of  an  act 
of  the   legislature,  and  a  subsequent   popular 

vote,  the  resull  of  which  was,  L9,404  in  favor  of 
the  measure, and  3,409  against  it.  This  institu- 
tion is  now  thi'  College  of  the  City  of  Nev. 
York.  Boston  had  no  high  school  for  girls  until 
1853;  ami    the  city  of   New  York,  no  public  in- 

utioD   tor  the  higher  education   of 
until  the  establishment  of   the   Female   Normal 
College,  in    L870.     It   is  thus  within  a  peri< 
less  than  twenty-five  years  U  em,  now 

so  extensive,  of  public  high  schools  has  grown 

up     in     the     1'nited     States.       In  some  of    the 

states,  the  system  is  much  better  organized 
than  in  others,  as  to  the  gradation  of  the  course 
of  study,  both  in  its  relation  to  the  elementary 
schools  below  and  the  university  above.  In 
.some  cases,  i  he  graduates  of  the  high  school  are 
admitted  ipso  facto  into  the  university.  In 
Michigan,  there  is  an  arrangement    by   which 

high  scl Is  ih.it  desire  a  recognition  from  the 

university  are  visited  and  examined  by  ;i  com- 
mittee of    the    facility;    and.   if   approved,    have 

their  graduates  admitted  to  the  university  with 
out  further  examination.    This  plan  appears  to 


have  worked  well,  especially  in  its  effect  upon 
the  high  .schools  themselves,  as  subjecting  them 
to  good  scholastic  supervision,  and  placing  them 
in  proper  organic  connection  with  the  university. 
This  is  substantially  the  arrangement  existing 
in  a  few  other  states,  and  is  strongly  advocated 
in  some  of  the  states  in  which  it  does  not  exist. 
[n  many  places,  however,  much  opposition  has 
been  made  to  the  establishment  of  public  high 
schools,  as  transcending  the  scope  of  state  edu- 
cation, which,  it  has  been  contended,  should  be 
confined  strictly  to  primary  instruction.  In  sup- 
port of  this  position,  the  small  proportion  of 
pupils  attending  these  schools,  as  compared  with 
the  school  population,  has  been  urged  to  demon- 
strate the  injustice,  as  alleged,  of  taxing  the  en- 
tire community  for  the  higher  education,  and, 
therefore,  the  particular  benefit,  of  so  small  a 
portion  of  it.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  urged 
that,  although  only  a  few  directly  enjoy  the  ad- 
vantages afforded  by  these  schools,  the  whole 
community  is  greatly  benefited  by  their  influence, 

independently  of  their  elevating  and  stimulating 
effect  upon  the  elementary  schools.  "I  will 
thank  any  person."  says  Everett,  "to  show  why 
it  is  expedient  and  beneficial  in  a  community  to 
e  public  provision  for  teaching  the  elements 
of    learning,  and    not    expedient   nor    beneficial 

to  make  similar  provision  to  aid  the  learner's 
progress  toward  the  mastery  of  the  most  difficult 

i  hes  of  science  and  i he  choicest  refinement 
of  literature."  'I  he  specific  grounds  on  which 
higher  education  at  the  public  expense  is  advo- 

I  and  defended  are  the  following;  ill   High 

schools  serve  to  give  increased  efficiency  to  the 
elementary  schools  below  them.  ('2)  The  high 
school  and  the  state  university,  to  which  it  is 
preparatory,  constitute  the  best  preservative  of 
republican  equality,  and,  therefore, a  preventive 

of    social    caste;    inasmuch    as    they    afford    the 

means  for  all,  of  whatever  social  grade,  to  enjoy 
the  benefits  of  all  the  education  which  they 
have  the  capacity  to  receive.     (3)   High-school 

education  is  the  means  of  discovering  and  devel- 
oping genius  and  talent,  by  the  cultivation  of 
which  the  political,  social,  and  industrial  inter- 
ests of  the  community  are  greatly  advanced. 
il  forces  in  ev<  ry  community  center 
in  its  leaders,  political,  social,  and  religious; 
of  the  greatest  importance  that 
those  gifted  minds  and  those  em  rgetic  charact 
that,  with  or  without  culture,  always  make 
then  Felt    in    a  free    community,    should 

have,  regardless  of  wealth  or  social  grade,  full 
opportunity  of  receiving  such   an    education  as 

will  render  the  power  they  must  ine\  itablj  wield, 

beneficent  to  society  at  large.  "No  system  of 
public  education."  says  Huxley,  " is  worthy  the 
name  of  national.  unl(  ss  it  crea  it  edu- 

cational ladder  with  one  end  in  the  gutter,  and 
the  otherin  the  university."  '•  Experience  has 
proved,"  says  ITas.  Adams  (in  Free  School 
System  of  '///'■  United  States,  London,  L87 
"that  elementary  education  tlourishes  most, 
where  the  provision  for  higher  education  is  most 
ample.      If  the  elementary  schools  of  Germany 


ITIOII    SCHOOLS 


HISTORY 


423 


are  the  best  in  the  world,  it  is  owing,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  the  fact,  thai  the  higher  schools  are 
accessible  to  all  classes.  In  England,  not  only 
hare  the  aims  of  the  elementary  schools  been 
educationally  low  and  narrow,  but  an  impass- 
able unit'  has  separated  the  people's  schools 
from  the  higher  schools  of  the  country.  In  the 
United  States,  the  common  schools  have  always 

E reduced  the  best  results  where  the  means  of 
igher  education  have  been  the  most  plentiful." 
Superintendent  Philbrick,  of  Boston,  in  his  an- 
nual report  for  L87  l.  said.  "  The  common  school 
is  always  feeble  and  inefficient  when  high  schools, 
academies,  and  colleges  are  wanting.  Educational 
science  teaches  that  educational  improvement 
works  from  the  top  downward,  and  not  from 
the  bottom  upward.  Harvard  College  was,  for 
a  long  period,  the  mainspring  of  the  success  of 
the  common  schools  of  .Massachusetts."  In  L874, 
the  citizens  of  Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  brought  a 
case  before  the  circuit  court  in  order  to  test  the 
right  of  a  school  board  to  establish  and  maintain 
a  high  school  as  a  part  of  the  public  school 
system  of  the  state.  Against  the  right,  it  was 
argued  that  the  law  contemplated,  in  the  free 
schools,  only  primary  instruction  in  the  element- 
ary English  studies,  that,  therefore,  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  high  school,  with  a  curriculum 
embracing  higher  mathematics,  languages,  etc., 
was  a  transgression  of  the  law;  and  that,  conse- 
quently, taxation  to  support  such  an  institution 
might  be  legally  resisted  by  the  people.  The 
■court,  however,  ruled  against  this  point, — that 
tin;  law  providing  for  primary  schools  did  not 
prohibit  the  establishment  of  other  schools  ;  that 
the  enumeration  of  branches  for  a  teachers 
■examination  was  only  prescribing  a  minimum 
of  qualification;  that  the  legal  direction,  "  all 
instruction  shall  be  in  the  English  language,'' 
must  be  held  to  refer  to  the  medium  for  com- 
municating knowledge,  not  to  any  subject  of  in- 
struction ;  that,  accordingly  the  teaching  of 
Greek,  Latin,  German,  French,  etc.,  was  not  ex- 
cluded ;  and  that,  as  the  school  in  question  came 
fairly  within  the  provided  system  of  public 
schools,  it  might,  like  others,  be  sustained  by  a 
reasonable  district  taxation. 

High  schools  should  not  be  needlessly  multi- 
plied, ami  should  be  carefully  prevented  from 
trenching  upon  the  sphere  of  the  elementary 
schools.  Since  their  value  depends  greatly  on 
their  influence  upon  the  elementary  schools, 
the  requirements  for  admission  should  lie  such 
as  to  incite  the  latter  to  accurate  and  thorough 
scholarship  within  their  sphere,  and  stimulate 
their  pupils  to  faithful  and  earnest  study.  When 
the  number  of  high  schools  or  high-school  de- 
partments is  excessive,  the  tendency  is  to  weaken 
this  influence  by  reducing  the  standard  for  ad- 
mission, or  relaxing  the  strictness  of  the  exami- 
nations. Insomeof  thecitiesof  the  Union — New 
Ti 'ork,  Boston,  St.  Louis,  and  others,  the  high 
■school  has  been  introduced  as  a  part  of  the 
evening-school  system.  Besides  the  public  high 
schools,  there  is  a  large  class  of  private  institu- 
tions   of    a    similar   grade,    which    differ  only 


in  name  from  seminaries,  academics,  classical 
schools,  etc.  In  England,  the  gnat  public 
schools,  such  as  Eton,  Harrow,  etc..  belong  to 
the  same  class,  as  secondary  or  middle  schools ; 

and  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh  is  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  same  class.  (Sec  Skconuary 
Instruction.) 

HIGHER  EDUCATION.  See  High  Schools, 
Skconuary  Instruction,  and  Superior  Instruc- 
tion. 

HIGHLAND  UNIVERSITY,  at  High- 
land, Kan.,  under  the  control  of  the  Presbyterians, 
was  chartered  in  1858.  It  has  productive  funds 
to  the  amount  of  $25,000.  The  cost  of  tuition 
is  $33  per  year,  it  has  a  preparatory  and  a  col- 
legiate  department,  to  which  both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted, and  there  is  a  special  course  for  young 
ladies.  The  library  contains  5,000  volumes.  In 
1872 — 3,  there  were  (>  instructors,  and  145  pre- 
paratory, and  25  collegiate  students. 

HILLSDALE  COLLEGE,  at  Hillsdale, 
Mich.,  under  the  control  of  the  Freewill  Baptists, 
was  established  at  Spring  Arbor  in  1844,  and 
(bartered  as  Michigan  Central  College  in  1845. 
It  was  removed  to  its  present  site  and  rechar- 
tered  as  'Hillsdale  College',  in  1 855.  Both  sexes 
are  a<  tmitted.  <  >ver  $25,000  have  been  subscribed 
to  the  endowment.  Tuition  fees  are  nominal. 
The  library  contains  4,000  volumes.  The  college 
has  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department, 
with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course,  and  also 
a  theological  and  a  commercial  course,  and  courses 
in  art  and  music.  In  1872 — 3,  there  were  21  in- 
structors and  579  students,  of  whom  197  were  in 
the  college  classes,  273  in  the  preparatory  depart- 
ments, and  1 3  in  the  theological  course. 

HIRAM  COLLEGE,  at  Hiram,  Portage  Co., 
Ohio,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Disciples.  It 
took  its  present  title  in  1867, growing  out  of  the 
Western  Reserve  Eclectic  Institute,  founded  in 
1850.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  an 
endowment  of  about  $60,000.  The  libraries 
contain  about  2,500  volumes.  The  collegiate 
department  comprises  (1)  a  classical  course,  (2)  a 
Latin  and  scientific  course,  (3)  a  scientific  course, 
and  (4)  a  ladies'  course.  It  has  also  a  prepara- 
tory, a  normal,  a  commercial,  and  an  elementary 
course.  Considerable  attention  is  given  to  pre- 
paring yung  men  for  the  ministry.  Many  of 
the  best  known  and  most  useful  Disciple  minis- 
ters have  studied  in  this  college.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  9  instructors  and  233  students  (126 
males  and  107  females),  of  whom  30  were  of  the 
collegiate  grade.  The  president  of  the  college 
is  Burke  A.  Hinsdale.  A.M.  (1876). 

HISTORY,  as  a  branch  of  instruction,  pre- 
sents very  many  important  points  of  inquiry 
for  the  educator.  The  vast  field  which  it  oc- 
cupies as  a  realm  of  facts,  the  great  difficulty  in 
classifying  these  facts,  and  deducing  from  them 
any  general  principles  or  laws,  or  even  in  asso- 
ciating them  so   that  they  may    be  presented  to 

tb"  mind  of  the  learner  in  groups  bound  together 
by  some  common  relation,  —  these  character- 
istics of  history  make  it  perhaps  the  most  dif- 
ficult which  the  educator  has  to  deal  with.   This 


424 


HISTORY 


will  account  for  the  diversity  of  opinion  as  to 
the  proper  method  of  teaching  it.  as  well  as  for 
the  many  obvious  errors  of  method  that  exist. 
Some,  indeed,  have  condemned  it  as  a  school 
study;  on  the  ground  that  the  mere  facts  of 
history,  without  the  general  laws  which  they 
teach,  arc  of  no  account,  while  the  study  of  the 

philosophy  of  history  is  too  deep  for  immature 
minds.  » >n  this  account,  Prof.  Bain  contends 
that  it  is  a  subject  proper  only  for  the  university. 

John     Locke    said.    "As     nothing     teaches,     so 

nothing  delights,  more  than  history.   The  firsl  of 

these  recommends  it  to  the  study  of  the 
grown  man;  the  latter  makes  me  think  it  fittest 
for  a  young  lad".  These  extreme  opinions  arise 
from  viewing  the  subject  from  different  stand- 
points.    There   is  no  doubt    that    the   study    of 

history,  like  that  of  geography,  botany,  astron- 
omy, and  other  school  subjects  may  be  presented 
to  tlu-  mind  of  the  child  in  such  a  manner  as 
not  only  to  be  useless  and  distasteful,  but  actually 
injurious.  As  in  every  other  subject,  the  edu- 
cator is  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  mind  to 
be  addressed,  and  the  character  of  the  study 
itself.  Primarily,  history  is  a  narrative;  and 
there  is  nothing  which  pleases  children  BO  much 
as  narratives  con<3erning  things  in  which  they 
take  ail   interest,  or  with  which  they  are  familiar. 

If  children,  therefore,  are  to  study  history,  they 
must  first  be  interested  in  the  persons  and  things 
that  it  refers  to.  Thus  American  children  will 
be  eager  to  learn  about  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica by  Columbus,  because  it  concerns  the  coun- 
try in  which  they  live:  and  they  will  be  scarcely 
satisfied  with  any  amount  of  detail  in  regard  to 
the  particular  facts  connected    with    that    event. 

<  lolumbus  as  a  great  personage  will  then  loom  up 
in  their  imagination,  and  their  curiosity  will  be 
exerted  to    know-    something   about    him.      This 

will  interest  them  in  Isabella,  the  good  queen  of 

Spain;  and  BOmething  may  he  said  of  her.  and 
of  the  country  to  which  she  belonged.  In  this 
desultory  way.  and  without  any  special  effort 
to  show  the  relations  of  events  as  to  time  or 
cause  and  effect,  the  coneeptive  faculty  of  quite 
young  children  may  be  addressed  in  teaching  his- 
tory, and  thus  their  minds  will  be  prepared  fol- 
ds regular  study,  by  receiving  those  underlying 
Conceptions  which  are  constantly  needed  to  make 
formal  historical   narratives    interesting  or  even 

understood.  "The  fact",  says  Emerson,  "must 
correspond  to  something  in  me  to  be  credible  or 
intelligible".  It  is  in  reference  to  this  principle 
that  Wickersham  remarks,  "H  concerns  us  little 
to  know  the  lineage  of  lungs  and  queens,  the 
intrigues  of  courts,  or  the  plans  of  campaigns; 
but  it  would  interesl  us  much  to  be  told  how 
people  in  past  times  built  their  houses,  worked 

their  fields,  or  educated    their   children  what 

style  of  dress  they  wore,  what  kind  of  food  they 

ea'-  w  hat   I ks  they   read."      The    latter   . 

of  facts  are  not,  however,  more  interesting  in 

themselves.   Imt    hecause   they    are    more    nearly 

related  to  our  individual  experience.     Different 

persons  will  not  he  interested  in  the  bs class 

of  historical  facts.    The  soldier  will  attend  to 


the  military  history  of  a  country:  the  statesman 
and  politician,  to  the  political:  the  agriculturist, 
to  tlie  methods  of  husbandry  in  use ;  and  to  a 
numerous  class  of  minds  the  dynastic  history — ■ 
the  "lineage  of  kines  and  queens",  will  possess 
supreme  fascination.  All  departments  of  historj 
ate  useful  in  their  special  applications:  and  are  of 
interest  to  those  who  desire  to  know  the  facts 
which  they  severally  comprehend.  In  arranging 
history  for  educational  purposes,  we  must  con- 
sider the  decree  of  development  of  the  pupils 

mind:  and  in  this  respect  historical  study  may  be 
divided  into  three  stages:  (lj  The  introductory, 
in  which  the  mind  of  the  young  child  has  to    be 

prepared  for  the  study,  as  above  indicated ;  (2) 

The  intermediate,  at  which  the  formal  study  of 

history  commences,    dealing    principally    with 

facts  and  their  obvious  relations  ;  and  (.*{)  The 
advanced,  in  which  the  higher  forms  of  general- 
ization  are  presented, constituting  what  has  been 
styled  the  philosophy  of  history.  In  the  first 
stage,  what  has  been  called  the  "  fragments  of 
history",  that  is.  brief  and  interesting  narratives, 
biographical  sketches.  &c,  clothed  in  a  simple 
picturesque  style,  should  constitute  the  subject 
matter  of  the  instruction.  This  may  be  pre- 
sented iua  desultory  manner,  without  any  spe<  ial 

regard  to  Logical  or  chronological  order,  the  great 
object  being  to  interest  the  learner  by  filling  his 
-  mind  with  vivid  conceptions  of  certain  events 
and  personages.  Of  course,  this  preliminary  in- 
struction may  take  a  wide  range,  embracing  the 
most  prominent  persons  and  events  in  the  history 
of  the  world,  ami  thus  constituting  a  valuable 
outline,  on  which  to  base  the  subsequent  study. 
but  this  is  not  so  important  as  that,  in  every 

thine'  that  is  taught,  the  young  pupil's  experience 

and  imagination  should  be  addressed  :  that  is. 
the  facts  presented  to  be  learned  should  be  con- 
crete facts,  not  mere  abstractions.  Epitomes  oi 
history  are  valueless  for  this  purpose,  because 
they  attempt   to   cover   the    whole  ground.      As 

has  been  well  said  by  a  celebrated  educationist, 

the  use  of  an  epitome  is  like  giving  a  child  an 
••  index  to  learn  by  heart  ". 

In  the  .second  Stage,  while  the  same  principle 

should  be  steadily  kept  in  view,  the  study  should 
become  more  formal  and  systematic.  It  is  here 
that  tin'  most  important  questions  arise  for  con- 

Siderat  ion.  The  first  of  these  concerns  the  choice 

between  a  compendium  of  history  and  a  series 
of  historical  text  books  on  different  nations.  The 

System  of  .special  national  text-hooks  mew  up 
at  a  lime  when,  from  national  patriotism,  each 
country  considered  its  own  history  as  foremost 
and  hence,  all  others  as  of  secondary  importance  : 
and    it    has    been    fostered,    in    the   advance   of 

historic  learning,  bya  system  of  abridgments  of 
large  standard  works,  or  by  school  books  based. 
in  method  of  treatment,  upon  them.  Bui  sin  h 
treatment  is  not  adapted  to  conditions  for  which 
the  originals  were  nol  intended.     Each  of  these 

special    works   presupposes   the  existence  of  all 

the  others,  and  thus  virtually  depends  on  them 
for  its  general  stand-point,  and  for  that  knowl- 
edge which  is  indispensable  to  render  the  nana- 


HISTORY 


!•_'.. 


five  intelligible;  and.  hence,  for  school  purposes, 
the  abridgments  are  of  little  use.  because  this 
general  knowledge  cannot  be  supposed  to  exist. 
Besides  that,  the  large  standard  works  are  too 
exclusively  philosophical  in  their  character  and 
arrangement  to  admit  of  an  abridgment  for 
school  purposes.  Narrowing  the  field  <>t'  view 
for  the  purpose  of  scientific  investigation,  such 
works  naturally  adopt  largely  the  consecutive 
narrative  form  :  but  consecutive  narrative  is  not 
essential  when  only  general  leading  facts  are  to 
be  presented,  and  narrative  detail  is  unsuited 
to  the  treatment  required  for  school  instruction. 
There  can  be  no  perspective  in  such  a  mode  of 
treatment.  Leading  facts  rank  side  by  side  with 
subordinate  ones,  and  the  history  assumes  the 
form  of  dry  annals.  Excessive  detail  in  historical 
text-books  is  always  a  fruitful  source  of  vexation 
to  both  teacher  and  pupil.  What  is  needed.  f<  r 
this  stage  of  instruction,  is  a  skillful  grouping 
of  facts,  which,  while  it  departs  but  little  from 
the  chronological  order,  shows  the  proper  rela- 
tion of  events  —  how  one  brought  about  the 
other.  In  the  history  of  the  world,  as  of  each 
separate  country,  and  of  every  great  event,  as.  for 
example,  the  Reformation,  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.  the  Revolution  in  England,  the  American 
Revolution,  the  French  Revolution,  the  great 
Civil  War  in  the  United  States,  there  are  cer- 
tain conspicuous  stand-points,  or  centers  of  in- 
terest, around  which  other  events  should  be 
grouped,  as  dependent  upon  them.  '1  he  same 
principle  is  opposed,  in  the  teaching  of  general 
history,  to  confining  the  attention  of  the  pupil 
exclusively  to  each  nation  ill  succession,  through- 
out its  entire  history  [ethnographic  method).  It 
is  a  well-defined  feature  of  every  historic  move- 
ment that,  in  many  of  its  epochs,  it  is  carried 
along  by  some  particular  nation  as  the  represen- 
tative. f(  >r  the  time  being,  of  some  controlling  idea 
or  principle,  other  nations  playing  a  subordinate 
part.  This  should  be  clearly  brought  out  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  subject  ( grouping  method  |. 
It  is  not  always  possible, however,  to  distinguish 
a  single  nation  as  holding  such  an  undisputed 
prominence ;  but,  where  this  question  is  in 
doubt,  there  is  always  a  movement,  more  or  less 
general,  to  which  the  contemporaneous  nations 
are  subject,  and  to  which,  therefore,  the  history 
of  the  separate  nations  should  have  a  distinct  ref- 
erence. In  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  for 
example,  it  is  desirable  to  present  the  nations 
collectively  in  their  relation  to  it,  the  events 
which  concern  their  separate  existence  being 
kept  in  the  background.  A  system  of  instruction 
which  presents,  in  succession  and  at  widely  sep- 
arated intervals,  the  share  of  each  particular 
nation  in  such  a  great  movement  as  the  Refor- 
mation, cannot  possibly  impress  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  properly  in  regard  to  it.  In  the  compi- 
lation of  a  compendium  of  history  suitable  for 
school  use,  a  compromise  is  requisite  between  the 
plan  of  teaching  the  history  of  each  nation  by 
itself  [ethnographic  method  |  and  that  of  teaching 
by  periods  or  epochs,  the  history  of  each  nation 
coming  iu  where  it  belongs  in  the  period  (syn- 


chronistic method).  The  latter  method,  by  short 

periods,  centuries  for  instance,  is  useless  for  be- 
ginners, as  it  gives  only  a,  confused  picture  of 
tlie  whole.  Iii  ancienl  history,  it  has  but  a 
limited  application ;  because  the  nations  of  an- 
tiquity were  essentially  separate,  coming  on  the 

Stage  at    successive   periods,  and    rarely  blended, 

to  any  extent,  in  any  general  movement.  The 
ethnographic  method  is,  therefore,  the  best  for 
this  department  of  history,  but  may  be  departed 
from  in  certain  portions  of  it.  as,  for  example, 
in  the  history  of  the  states  of  tireece.  For  be- 
ginners, the  ethnographic  method  seems  to  be 
best,  at  least  until  a  (rood  general  outline  has 
been  fixed  in  the  mind,  after  which  the  grouping 
method  ought  to  be  steadily  pursued,  but  still 
with  a  constant  regard  to  the  mental  advance- 
ment and  maturity  of  the  student.  The  chrono- 
logical method  must,  however,  lead  in  every 
scheme  of  elementary  historical  teaching.  The 
pupil  must,  above  all  things,  attend  to  the  order 
of  time ;  or  his  subsequent  reading  and  study 
will  be  greatly  embarrassed.  This  method  has 
been  used  in  Germany  from  time  immemorial, 
with  modifications  such  as  have  been  referred  to, 
for  adaptation  to  the  purposes  of  elementary, 
burgher  and  real  schools,  and  gymnasia.  These 
modifications  consist  chiefly  in  the  relative  prom- 
inence given  to  the  synchronistic  and  ethno- 
graphic principles.  Stiehl's  Der  vaterldndische 
Geschichtsunterricht  in  misern  Elementarschu- 
len  —  The  history  of  our  Country  in  ///<■  Ele- 
mentary  Schools  (Coblenz,  1842),  and  Haupt's 
Wdtgeschichte  nach  Pestalozzi's  Grundsdtzen — 
General  History  on  the  Principles  of  Pestalozzi 
(1841),  were  attempts  to  introduce  the  grouping 
method.  Many  of  the  school  text-books  on 
history,  published  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  are  based  on  the  same  system;  but 
teachers  have  generally  favored  the  ethnographic 
system,  as  less  fragmentary  and  disjointed.  For 
a  field  so  vast  as  that  of  general  history,  it  is  of 
the  highest  impoi'tance  that  the  idea  of  both 
unity  and  sequence  should  be  impressed  upon 
the  pupil's  mind.  In  the  chronologic  method, 
the  perspective  view  which  this  unification  of 
the  broader  parts  demands,  is  not  dependent  on 
the  special  notions  of  any  teacher  or  compiler, 
but  gro\Vs  up  in  the  mind  from  the  study  of 
the  facts  themselves.  In  the  treatment  of  antiq- 
uity, thi'  history  of  the  eastern  nations  precedes 
that  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Greeks  the  Romans; 
and  while  teaching  each  in  chronologic  order, 
the  other  contemporaneous  nations  should  be 
brought  in.  as  episodes,  at  such  periods  and  in 
such  connections,  as  will  best  illustrate  the 
history  of  the  great  nation  which,  for  the  time 
being,  is  controlling  the  affairs  of  the  world. 
Egypt,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Persia,  Greece,  Rome 
(republic  and  empire),  may.  in  succession,  he 
made  the  leading  nation;  and  all  the  others  will 
cnine  in  at  certain  periods.  In  the  middle  ag 
the  treatment  should  be  analogous;  there  is  at 
every  period,  a  great  tribe  or  nation, whether  the 
Franks,  the  Saracens,  the  Normans,  or  the  Ger- 
mans, the  history  of  whom,  treated  in  its  chrono- 


\ 


426 


HISTORY 


logic  order,  will  absorb  the  remainder,  except  what 
may  come  in  episodically.  In  modern  history. 
the  ethnographic  principle  must  at  first  have 
prominence,  before  the  pupil  can  study  the  great 
European  movements,  such  as  the  Reformation 
and  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  with  any  real  sat- 
isfaction or  benefit.  As  Ranke  remarks,  "it 
i>  only  on  the  side  of  the  activity  that  the  events 
can  be  judged."  In  the  early  part  of  the  Kith 
century,  the  policy  of  Charles  v.,  in  the  latter 
part,  the  Protestant  development  in  Holland, 
France,  and  England  controls  the  Bcene.    In  the 

1  Till,  alternately,  the  advance  of  the  .Jesuits,  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  the  reign  of  Louis  XI  V.. 
claim  an  absorbing  attention.  In  the  18th,  the 
England  of  Walpole,  the  Prussia  of  Frederick, 
and  the  French  Revolution,  successively  give  the 
stand-point  for  understanding  European  history. 
Chiefly  as  episodes,  in  mediaeval  and  modern 
history,  coin  'in  certain  great  topic3  ;  such  as  the 
Saracenic  civilization,  the  Byzantine  culture,  the 
Turkish  ascendency,  the  maritime  discoveries  of 
Portugal  and  Spain,  the  Italian  Renaissance, 
the  struggle  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  the  rise  of 
Sweden  and  Russia,  etc.  Whatever  method  may 
be  used,  synchronistic  exercises  will  be  con- 
stantly requisite  to  a  full  understanding  of  the 
relations  of  events.  These  may  take  the  form 
of  lists  of  sovereigns  grouped  into  centuries  ami 
arranged,  side  by  side  in  perpendicular  culm  mis; 
or  leading  events  arranged  in  the  same  way. 
Alter  tin'  history  of  any  nation  or  period  has 
bi    H  stu  lie  1  in  the  chroi  1  order,  various 

inci  ho  Is  of  arrangement  may  be  adopted  for  the 

{iurpose  of  review,  varying  the  sequence  which 
tas  been  followed  in  the  regular  lessons.  Thus, 
the  pupil  may  be  required  to  state  all  the  events 
connected  with  a  particular  place,  or  a  particular 
individual,  which  he  has  previously  learned  in 
a  strictly  chronologic  order,  or  in  connection 
with  the  national  history.  The  topical  method 
of  recitation  will  be  found  the  most  effective. 
DOi  only  lor  the  attainment    of    the   besl    results 

as  far  as  history  itself  is  concerned,  bul   for  col- 
lateral culture,  particularly  of  expression.    On 
account    of    the     latter,    accuracy    in    langu 
should,  as  much    as    possible    be   insisted   upon: 

and  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  use  their 
own  language,  instead  of  memorizing  that  oi  the 
text-book.  Brief  written  sketches  of  events, 
ges,  periods,  etc.,  will  be  of  great  us- in 
making  this  collateral  culture  effective,  and  will 
■  afford  much  useful  practice  in  other  re- 
Bpects.  A  Bevere  ami  Bustaine  1  drill  on  a.  single 
manual  is  of  great  use  lor  the  strong  landmarks 
it  leaves  in  the  pupil's  mind  ;  but,  to  he  thor- 
oughly effective  as  an  educational  process,  it 
ought  to  In'  accompanied  with  the  reading,  to 
BOme  extent,  of  auxiliary  books  giving  interesting 
detail  in  regard  to  prominent  points.  Such  a 
system  of  independent  reading  by  the  different 
members  of  a  class,  properly  utilized,  will  lead 
to  the  acquisition  of  much  interesting  infor- 
mation, each  pupil  bringing  his  own  contri- 
bution,   lo    In-    offered    in    connection    with    the 

class  ex©  Children,  at  an  early  age,  with 


a  taste  for  reading,  will  devour  solid  books  of 
history,  when  not  under  compulsion  ;  especially 
if  they  have  a  strong  frame-work  fixed  in  their 
minds  for  the  separate  facts  to  attach  themselves 
to:  and  such  reading  will  constitute  a  very  im- 
portant part  of  mental  culture.  —  Dates  are  to 
some  extent  needed,  hut  only  in  connection  with 
the  general  narrative.  To  memorize  the  dates 
of  isolated  events  is  worse  than  useless.  The 
dates  of  certain  great  events,  marking  epochs, 
should  be  carefully  fixed  in  the  mind.  As  already 
said,  the  method  pursued  should  be  such  as  to 
keep  the  stream  of  time  constantly  in  view  ;  and 
this  will  render  the  memorizing  of  many  dates 
unnecessary.  "  I  »ates  ",  says  the  <  rerman  writer 
Abbenrode,  "are  the  most  simple  monitors  of 
memory,  and  can  never  be  entirely  omitted, 
though  they  ought  to  be  limited  for  children, 
and  sometimes  to  be  made  round  numbers,  for 
the  sake  of  memory  ;  nay,  a  sensible  arrangement 
of  them  often  aids  the  understanding  of  related 
events  better  than  could  be  done  by  long  ex- 
positions."  Chronological  relations  may  be 
better  taught  by  means  of  historical  charts,  rep- 
resenting the  exact  position  in  time  of  every 
nation  and  event,  just  as  a  map  represents  coun- 
tries, cities,  etc.,  iii  space.  'I  hese  should  be  large 
enough  to  show  clearly  to  the  eye  what  is  rep- 
resented :  and  the  different  nations  should  be 
marked  out  in  strong  colors.  Of  such  charts, 
Labberton's  and  Halsey's  arc  examples.  Pro- 
gressive maps,  showing  the  states  and  countries, 
and  their  extent  at  different  periods,  are  indis- 
pensable. American  school  manuals,  such  as 
Anderson's  General  History,  Swinton's  Outlines 
of  History,  and  Thalheimer's  manuals  of  ancient 

and  modern  history,  are  copiously  supplied  with 
maps    of   this    kind.     Those    of   Freeman's    Old 

"English  History  (London,  1869)  are  also  good 
examples   of   such   maps;   as  are  also  those  of 
Labberton's  IIistnrir.il  Alias  (Phila.,1872).  Th 
progressive  maps  illustrate  the  relation  of  geog- 
raphy and  history,  and  afford  an  indication  of 

the  extent  to  which  geographical  study  is  needed 
in  connection  with  that  of  history.  It  is.  how- 
ever, desirable  that  all  the  places  mentioned  in 
the  history  should  be  at  least  pointed  out  on 
the  map. 

Good  historical  lecturesare  eminently  benefi- 
cial, in  connection  with  regular  lessons,  or  re-in- 
forced  by  suitable  class  exercises.  The  taking  of 
notes  by  the  pupils  is  of  little  value:  because  such 

notes  can  concern  only  definite  and  disconnected 

facts  which  should  lie  impressed   upon   the  mind 

by  the  study  of  a  compendium  or  by  class  drill; 
while  the  lecture  is  designed  to  give  broad,  gen- 
eral views  of  events,  in  their  relations,  and  in 
their  bearing  on  some  great  historical  movement. 
'flic  taking  of  notes  l>y  young  pupils  must  licccs- 
Barily  interrupt  the  current  of  their  thought,  and 

thus  mar  the effed  of  the  lecture.  It  is,however, 
in  the  third  or  advanced  stage  of  historical  study 
that  lectures  have  their  special  place. 

'flic  class  of  fads — the  kind  of  material  —  to 

be  selected  for  the  elementary  study  of  history 
is     another     important    consideration   for   the 


HISTORY 


42T 


teacher,  as  well  as  for  the  compiler  (if  a  school 
compendium.  There  is  a  great  diversity  in  this 
respect.  In  some  text-books,  undue  prominence 
is  given  to  the  political  and  military  history. 
every  thing  pertaining  to  social  life  being  left 
out.  This  deprives  the  study  of  much  of  its 
strongest  and  best  interest.  The  condition  and 
progress  of  the  people  in  the  elements  of  civili- 
zation.the  industrial  and  fine  arts,  literature, 
education,  social  culture,  manners,  customs,  etc, 
should  be  graphically  sketched,  in  connection 
with  the  political  history,  which  must,  of  course, 
constitute  the  frame-work  of  the  whole.  The 
office  of  history  as  a  school  study,  is  not  only  to 
give  information  in  regard  to  the  events  of  the 
past,  but  it  is  to  discipline  the  mind  by  cultivat- 
ing and  improving  (I)  the  memory,  (2)  the  im- 
agination, (3)  the  judgment,  (4)  the  power  of 
expression,  and  (5)  the  moral  and  emotional 
nature.  The  pupil,  when  properly  instructed, 
has  his  sympathies  aroused :  he  applauds  the 
noble,  the  patriotic,  and  the  virtuous  ;  he  con- 
demns the  mean,  the  selfish,  and  the  wicked. 
Every  lesson  teaches  him  by  example,  for  it  con- 
fronts him  with  either  human  virtue  or  human 
wickedness.  The  false  tinsel  of  glory  must  not 
be  permitted  to  conceal  the  selfishness,  cruelty, 
and  wrong  of  the  ambitious  tyrant  or  conqueror; 
and  the  nobleness  of  the  martyr  will  not  be  de- 
based because  he  pines  in  a  dungeon  or  dies  on 
the  scaffold.  Treated  in  the  right  spirit,  history 
thus  becomes  a  great  moral  teacher  for  pupils  of 
every  class  and  grade. 

In  the  third  stage,  that  of  superior  instruc- 
tion, history  has  strong  claims  to  attention. 
Whatever  the  sphere  of  life  in  which  the  stu- 
dent is  to  engage,  he  should  possess  himself  of 
the  key  to  the  records  of  the  past  history  of 
mankind.  History  may  peculiarly  be  called  a 
'diving  study,"  since  it  draws  its  interest  at  once 
from  the  slow  but  certain  movement  of  human 
forces,  among  which  self-interest,  will,  and  pas- 
sion play  a  great  part.  The  field  is  so  vast,  that 
the  untrained  student  will  be  lost  in  the  maze, 
and  will  wander  about  aimless  and  bewildered.  Tt 
is  the  office  of  education  to  show  that  the  elements 
are  really  simple,  and  to  impart  a  system  to  the 
vasl  crowd  of  facts,  by  which  they  may  become 
useful,  by  being  co-ordinated.  It  is  here,  then, 
that  history  assumes  whatever  scientific  phase 

it  may  be  capable  of.  What  has  been  called  the 
philosophy  of  history  is,  in  an  especial  manner 
and  degree,  suitable  for  college  study,  as  it 
brings  into  play  the  higher  faculties  of  the  mind, 
—  generalization,  reason,  and  judgment.  At  this 
stage,  we  do  not  rest  satisfied  with  a  simple 
narrative  of  events,  but  we  attempt  to  trace 
them  to  their  real  causes,  and  deduce  from  them 
those  general  laws  on  which  political  and  social 
science  must  be  based.  "The  true  science  of 
history,"  says  Bossuet,  "is  to  observe  the  latent 
tendencies  which  have  prepared  great  changes, 
and  the  important  conjunctures  which  have 
brought  them  into  fact."  Those  latent  tendencies 
are  to  be  looked  for  in  the  principles  "1  human 
nature  as  constituting  one  factor ;  while  the  in- 


fluences which  constitute  the  other  factors  are 
neither  obvious,  nor  established  in  the  general 
convictions  of  mankind.  This  gives  rise  to  various 
theories;  as  the  materialistic  theory,  which  sup- 
poses the  co-ordinate  factor  in  bringing  about  the 
changes  in  history  to  be  the  forces  of  material 
nature,  acting  on  human  character  and  human 
will;  the  spiritualistic  theory  which  attributes  to 
the  soul  of  man  a  certain  freedom  of  purpose 
and  will,  acting  independently  of  its  material  sur- 
roundings; and  the  theistic  theory,  which  attrib- 
ute's great  movements  and  changes  in  the  world's 
history  to  the  special  interposition  of  an  over- 
ruling Providence,  a  Divine  will,  and  thus  makes 
"God  in  history"  the  supreme  source  of  all  the 
great  events  that  have  marked  the  intellectual, 
social,  and  moral  progress  of  mankind.  These 
theories  may,  however,  be  called  the  metaphysics 
of  history  ;  they  are  not  essential  to  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  laws  which  constitute  its  philos- 
ophy ;  inasmuch  as  the  generalizations  upon 
which  these  laws  are  based,  are  chiefly  independ- 
ent of  them,  the  course  of  human  events,  like 
the  course  of  nature,  being  controlled  only  by 
general  laws. 

What  has  already  been  suggested  has  exclu- 
sive   reference  to  facts,  or  statements  of  facts, 
accepted  as  such  ;   but  there  is  another  depart- 
ment of  history  which  concerns  the  sources  of 
history,  their  nature  and   credibility  ;   and  this 
has  an  indisputable  claim  upon  the  attention  of 
those  who  teach,  and  those  who  study  history  in 
its  advanced  stages.     Two  objects  will  be  sub- 
served by  this  :  (1)  The  mind  will  acquire  the 
useful  habit  of  withholding  its  assent  from   all 
statements    that    are   not    supported    by  suffi- 
cient  testimony;   and    (2)   The  judgment    and 
critical  faculty  will  receive  a  practical  culture 
which  must  prove  of  great  service  in  the  further 
prosecution  of  study,  and  in  the  affairs  of  daily 
life.    In  the  prosecution  of  this  historical  criti- 
cism, the  student  is  invariably  to  consider  (1)  the 
writer  or  writers  from  whom  the  narration  pro- 
ceeds,  (2)  their  means  of  information,    (3)  their 
character  for  sagacity  and  discernment,  (4)  their 
interests,  assoi  iations  and  affections.     All  these 
inevitably  color  the  narrative,  and    hence  consti- 
tute an   important   element   to  be  considered  in 
the  kind  and  degree  of  credibility  to  which  it  is 
entitled. —  In  the  struggle, for  some  time  in  prog- 
ress, between     the    friends  of   classical    and  of 
Scientific   studies,  history   as  a  branch  of  educa- 
tion holds  a  Strong  and  prominent  posil  ion.  While 
it  is  a  record  of  the  past,  it  is,  in  fact,  the  science 
of  the  future  ;  and  one  only  has  to  imagine  the 
condition    of    the   world,   were  all   its  annals 
destroyed,  to  appreciate  the  practical  value  of 
this  science.    The  studies  pertaining  to  matter 
and    force   claim    supreme    consideration    with 
many;   and  those  pertaining  to  the  mere  linguis- 
tic   expression    Of    thought,    often     obsolete    and 
valueless,  with   many   others;  but  history  deals 
with   the  facts  of  human   intelligence  and  will, 
illustrates  the  principles  which  control  the  prog- 
ress of    mankind  in  all   the  elements  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  hence  assumes  an  office  and  agency  in 


428 


BIWASSEE   COLLEGE 


UOFWYL 


connection  with  human  education,  without  which 
it  must  be  measurably  ineffective  and  imper- 
fect.—See  Wickersham,  Methods  of  Instruction 
il'hila..  L865);  Oi  rrie,  Principles  and  Practice 
of  CommonScln ml  Education  (Edinburgh  and 
London);  Vox  Raumer,  Geschichte  der  Pada- 
gogik,  trans,  in  Barnard's  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, No.  \x.:  also,  in  the  same,  Catechism  on 
Methods  of  Teaching,  s.  v.  History,  by  Abben- 
rode,  in  which  will  be  found  a  list  of  valuable 
works  for  consultation  on  the  met  hods  of  teach- 
ing this  subject. 

HIWASSEE  COLLEGE,  in  Monroe  Co., 
Trim..  7  miles  from  Sweetwater,  was  founded  in 
L849,  under  the  auspices  of  the  -Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South.  The  name  of  the  post- 
omce  is  the  same  as  thai  of  the  institution.  It 
is  supported  by  tuition  lees,  and  has  a  prepara- 
tory and  a  collegiate  department.  The  library 
contains  about  L  ,500  volumes.  The  tuition  Fee 
for  live  months  is  $12.50  for  primary  studies, 
$15  for  intermediate,  and  $12  for  collegiate. 
A  law  department  has  been  organized,  but  it  has 
made  little  progress.  In  L875  -6,  the  coD 
had  5  instructors  and  186  students.  John  II. 
Brunner,  .V.  M..  i<  the  president  of  the  institu- 
tion (1876). 

HOBART  COLLEGE,  at  Geneva,  N".  V.. 
was  chartered  in  1825,  growing  out  of  an 
academy  and  divinity  school  established  by  Bishop 
Bobari  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  in 
L821.  Its  entire  endowment  is  something  over 
$300,000,  of  which,  perhaps,  $60,000  is  repre- 
sented by  land  and  buildings,  while  one  consider- 
able portion  is  in  the  shape  of  free  scholarships, 
of  which  there  are  twenty-six,  leaving  less  than 
$21,000  of  annual  income  from  endowment  for 
the  support  and  maintenance  of  the  college.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  entire  sum  ($  1,200)  is 

in  the  shape  of  annuities,  contributed  from  New 

York  City.  The  library  contains  .about  13,000 
\nl nines.  There  are  two  courses,  a  classical  of  tour 
years,  and  a  scientific  of  two  years.     The  tuition 

fee  is  $50  a  year.  The  scholarships  are  primarily 

designed  for  students  intended  tor  the  ministry. 
In  Is7."i — 6,  there  were  7  instructors  and  29 
students.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows: 
the  Rev.  Jasper  Adams.  D.  D.,  1826— 28  ;  the 
Rev.  Richard  S.  Mason,  l».  I»..  L830— 35;  the 
Rev.  Benj.  Hale.  1>.  D.,  L836  57;  the  Rev.  \l>- 
ner  Jackson  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  1858  68;  the  Rev. 
•lames  Kent  Stone,  l».  I>..  L869  70;  the  Rev. 
James  Rankine,  l>.  I>.,  L870  7:: ;  the  Rev. 
Maunsell   Van   Rensselaer,   l>.  D.,  LL.  D.,  L873 

— 76  :   and  the  Rev.  William    Stevens    Perry,  I  >. 

I>..  LL.  D.,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in 
1876. 

HOFWYL,  Schools  of,  a  group  of  educa- 
tional institutions  established  by  Pellenberg, 
which  very  widely  attracted  attention,  and  at- 
tained a  high  reputation  for  the  excellence  of 
the  theorj  "ti  which  they  were  based,  and  for 
their  practical  success.  Hofwyl,  originally  called 
Wylhof.was  a  large  estate,  aboul  six  miles  from 
Bern,  Switzerland,  which  was  purchased  by  Fel- 
lenberg,  in   1799,  lor  the  purpose  of  enabling 


him  to  carry  out  his  peculiar  educational  views. 

Deeply  impressed  with  the  need  of  ameliorating 
the  condition  of  the  poorer  classes  by  affording 
them  the  means  of  a  practical  education. he  was 
also  convinced  that  the  education  received  by 
the  higher  classes  in  the  universities  and  middle 
schools,  very  greatly  needed  reform.  He  de- 
signed, therefore,  to  establish  "an  institution  for 
both  classes,  in  which  they  should  be  so  separated, 
as  to  prevent  confusion,  and  yet  so  connected, 
that  each  might  observe  the  other,  and  that  oc- 
casion might  be  given  to  establish,  on  a  <  'hristian 
basis,  the  character  of  each."'  Agriculture  he 
believed  best  adapted,  as  an  occupation,  to  de- 
velop the  powers  of  both  mind  and  body  in  their 
proper  harmony.  Hence,  he  conceived  that  an 
agricultural  school  would   form   the  best  basis 

In 

j  for  the  carrying  out  of  his  proposed  plans.  In 
1  829,  I  Iofwy!  was  described  as  a  village  of  about 
300  inhabitants, comprising  (1)  A  farm,  of  about 
600  acres;  (2)  Workshops,  for  the  fabrication 
and  repair  of  agricultural  implements,  and 
of  clothing  for  the  inhabitants-  (3)  A  litho- 
graphic establishment  in  which  music  and  other 

things  needed  in  the  institution  were  printed ; 

(4)  A  Literary  Institution  fur  the  education  of 
the  higher  classes  :    (5)    A    Practical    Institution 

for  those  who  were  destined  for  trade,  or  whose. 
circumstances  did  not  permit  a  more  complete 

education:  and  (6)  An  Agricultural  Institution 
for  the  education  of  the  laboring  classes.  The 
secluded  situation  of  Hofwyl.  at  a  convenient 
distance  from  a  Large  town,  and  surrounded  by 
Some    of    the    most    beautiful    objects   of    Swiss 

scenery,  particularly  commended  it  to  Fellen- 
berg.  The  first  <<\  the  schools  was  commenced 
in  1804;  but.  in  L829,  the  writer  of  a  series  of 
letters,  published  in  the  American  Annals  of 
Education,  for  L831,  thus  described  the  institu- 
tions of  I  lofwyl : 

"On  entering  Hofwyl  from  Bern,  the  traveler 
finds  liiniselt  in  an  extensive  courl  or  play-ground, 
furnished  with  instruments  for  gymnastic  exercises, 
ami  a  hillocs  of  clean  sand,  in  «  hich  the  younger  b< 
exercise  their  ingenuity  in  digging  cai  es  nnd  building 
castles,  Burrounded  en  three  >iilcs  by  the  building  de- 
voted t<>  the  literary  institutions,  ami  sheltered  mi  the 

west  by  a  little  WOOd,  Composed  Ol  a  variety  of  trees. 

which  serve  at  (nice  as  a  place  for  botanical  observa- 
tions, ami  as  a  retreat  during  the  heat  of  summer.    Ill 

pleasanl  weather,    the    les>on>    are    net    iiiilrei|ueiitly 

given  here,  iii  arbors  furnished  w  ith  seat-  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  principal  building  mi  the  east  ol  this  court, 
is  inhabited  by  80  pupils,  under  the  constant  snj>er- 
intendenoe  of  Fellenberg  ami  four  of  his  children. 
The  basement  Btorj  i>  occupied  by  the  kitchen  and 
store-rooms.  The  first  floor  is  divided  into  four  sec- 
by  halls  which  traverse  the  building  in  its  length 
and  breath.  One  ol  these  Bectiona  i-  occupied  by  the 
superintendents;  another,  by  the  dining  hall  and  music 
room;  a  third  and  fourth,  by  the  chapel  and  three 
large  and  lofty  rooms  for  study.  The  Becond  Horn'  is 
devoted  to  the  class  rooms,  the  library,  and  the  col- 
lection of  oasts.  The  third  and  attic  Btories  contain 
the  dormitories  of  the  pupils,  and  chambers  for  the 
superintendents.  The  Bize,  airiness,  and  neatness  of 
every  part  of  the  building  areverj  striking;  and  a 
well-arranged  system  of  stoves  en  the  Russian  plan, 
maintain-  a  mild  and  uniform  temperature  during  ilie- 
winter,  which  ia  net  to  he  found  in  climates  far  i 
severe,  w  here  the  methods  of  employing  fuel  are  I 
perfect     in  tin-  institution,  Pellenberg  proposes  to 


1IOFWYL 


HOUMMtok 


429 


.1  c < m 1 1 1 > I o t e  education  preparatory  to  professional 
studies.  Between  '-'<>  and  80  instructors  are  employed 
in  this  establishment,  most  of  whom  reside  in  another 
building,  and  have  no  connection  with  the  pupils,  ex- 
cept during  the  hours  of  instruction.  Two  small  build- 
ings, which  shelter  the  oourl  on  the  north  and  south, 
contain  a  large  warm  bath  for  winter,  the  store-room 
for  the  gardening  tools  oi  the  pupils,  a  cabinet-maker's 
shop,  in  which  those  who  have  the  disposition  are 
taught  this  art,  the  book-bindery  of  the  institution, 

and  several  rooms  which  are  devoted  to  exercises  in 
instrumental  music,  fencing,  and  dancing,  which  would 
interfere  with  the  tranquillity  necessary  in  the  prin- 
cipal building.     Bej 1   the  Literary  Institution  is  a 

second  court,  furnished,  like  the  firsts  with  frames  and 
poles  for  gymnastic  exercises.  On  the  east  side  of 
this  court,  and  at  the  entrance  of  the  first  court,  are 
garden  spot-,  assigned  to  the  pupils  as  a  means  of 
amusement  and  exercise ;  and,  at  a  little  distance  on 
the  side  of  the  hill,  a  circular  cold  bath  of  hewn  stone, 
90  feet  in  diameter,  and  10  feet  deep,  in  which  they 
arc  taught  to  swim,  with  a  neat  bathing-house  in  the 
Gothic  sty],-.  On  the  west  side  of  the  court  is  the 
chateau,  or  family  mansion,  in  which  Mrs.  Fellenberg 
resides  with  her  younger  children.  It  also  contains 
the  bureau,  or  counting-house,  of  the  establishment, 
in  which  strangers  are  received,  and  the  business  of 
the  institution  transacted,  by  a  person  devoted  to  this 
object.  It  Likewise  serves  as  a  depot  for  the  little 
articles  which  the  pupils  have  occasion  to  purchase, 
in  the  garden  of  the  chateau,  is  the  school  for  peas- 
ant girls,  under  the  immediate  direction  of  Mrs.  Fel- 
lenberg, and  one  of  her  daughters.  In  the  rear  of  the 
chateau,  are  two  buildings  occupied  by  20  or  30  pupils 
of  the  Practical  Institution.  These  are  lodged  and  fed 
in  a  more  simple  manner  than  the  pupils  in  the  Liter- 
ary Institution,  and  are  permitted  to  avail  themselves 
of  its  lessons,  and  to  partake  of  the  labors  of  the  farm, 
or  the  counting-house,  according  to  their  necessities 
and  destination. — In  the  rear  of  these  buildings,  is  a 
second  cold  bath  of  hewn  stone,  only  2  feet  in  depth, 
designed  for  the  use  ol  the  younger  pupils.  Adjoin- 
ing this  is  a  building  150  feet  long,  the  lower  part  of 
which  tonus  a  large  sheltered  arena  for  riding  and  gym- 
nastic exercises  in  unpleasant  weather.  The  upper 
stories  are  occupied  by  the  class  rooms  and  dormi- 
tories of  the  Agricultural  Institution,  in  which  children 
of  the  laboring  classes  are  taught  the  practical  part 
of  agriculture,  and  receive  three  or  four  hours  of  in- 
struction daily   in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,   and 

other  useful  branches Vn  interesting  branch  of  the 

Institution  of  Hofwyl  is  the  colony  of  Meykirk,  at  the 
distance  of  live  or  six  miles.  It  consists  of  8  or  10 
poor  boys  who  were  placed  under  the  direction  of  a 
teacher  on  a  spot  of  uncultivated  ground,  from  which 
they  were  expected  to  obtain  the  means  of  subsist- 
ence. It  is  designed  as  an  experiment  on  the  prac- 
ticability of  providing  for  the  support  and  education 
of  friendless  children,  without  any  further  expense 
than  that  of  the  soil  which  they  cultivate.  Several 
hours  are  devoted  daily  to  intellectual  and  religious 
instruction,  and  thus  the  children  advance  in  cultiva- 
tion and  knowledge,  as  well  as  in  hardihood  and  in- 
dustry." 

It  was  a  ruling  principle  with  Fellenberg,  in 
the  management  of  Hofwyl,  thai  "gradual  prog- 
ress is  the  only  sure  progress."  Ami  he  care- 
fully avoided  bringing  together  a  large  number 
of  children  of  various  characters,  to  be  subjected 
to  a  kind  of  discipline  entirely  new  to  them. 
He  commenced  with  introducing  two  or  three 
boys  into  his  own  family  ;  and  afterwards  he 
would  receive  only  a  few  pupils  at  once  into  his 
school,  so  that  they  ought  fall  insensibly  into  the 
prevailing  habits  and  discipline.  Wehrli,  who 
distinguished  himself  so  highly  as  an  assistant 
of  Fellenberg,  was  tlius  taken  into  his  family  ; 
and  the  active  benevolent  spirit  was  so  rapidly 


and  strongly  developed  in  him.  that,  before  the 
end  of  the  year,  lie  requested  to  be  placed  with 
three  pupils,  gathered  from  the  highways  and 
heiloes.  in  tin-  farm-house  of  the  establishment. 

Mere  Wehrli    partook    of    their  straw    beds  ami 

vegetable  diet,  became  their  fellow  laborer  and 
companion,  as  well  as  their  teacher,  and  thus 
Laid  the  foundation  of  the  Agricultural  Institu- 
tion, in  L808.  The  Normal  School,  or  Seminary 
for  Teachers,  was  an  important  addition  to  the 
institution.  The  iirst  year,  gratuitous  instruc- 
tion in  the  art  of  teaching  was  given  to  42 
teachers  from  the  Canton  of  Bern.  Subsequently 
a  number  of  young  Russians,  of  the  highest 
class,  were  sent  by  the  emperor  Alexander  to  be 
instructed  ;  but  the  Russian  government  after- 
wards withdrew  its  patronage,  being  jealous  of 
the  liberalizing  influence  of  Hofwyl.  Other 
Euro] lean  states  entertained  the  same  feeling. 
Many  English  and  Swiss  pupils  were  instructed 
in  this  school.  Jn  1823,  a  building  was  erected 
in  the  garden  of  the  mansion,  to  accommodate 
a  school  for  poor  girls. 

All  the  schools  at  Hofwyl  were  conducted  on 
the  soundest  and  most  approved  principles  of 
education,  and  with  a  devotion,  on  the  part  of 
the  instructors,  that  could  not  but  be  followed 
by  success.  In  1813,  a  commission,  at  the  head 
of  which  was  M.  Ringger,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished patriots  of  Switzerland,  was  appointed 
to  examine  the  Agricultural  School.  The  report 
of  this  commission  (published  at  Paris,  1815)  is 
a  most  interesting  document.  Six  days  were 
spent  in  the  examination,  which  embraced  all 
the  details  of  the  labors,  studies,  and  religious 
exercises  of  the  pupils,  their  food,  dress,  and  ac- 
commodations.  The  approval  of  the  commission 
was  full  and  emphatic.  Of  the  noble  Wehrli 
the  report  expressed  great  admiration:  "From 
the  dawn  of  day,"  it  remarked,  "he  seems  to  have 
no  thought  nor  time  except  for  his  pupils. 
When  he  came  among  them,  amidst  their  labors 
or  amusements,  he  appeared  rather  like  an  elder 
luother  than  an  instructor."  The  school  at  that 
time  comprised  2.'5  boys,  from  the  lowest  and 
often  the  most  vicious  families  —  some  of  them 
abandoned  children — and,  literally,  taken  from 
the  highways  and  hedges;  and  yet  they  lived, 
under  a  mild  system  of  government,  in  perfect 
peace  and  harmony.  Such  was  the  effect  of  the 
sound  principles,  wise  administration,  and  de- 
voted labors  of  Fellenberg  and  his  co-laborers, 
in  this  most  interesting  institution.  It  still  re- 
mains under  the  control  of  the  descendants  of 
Fellenberg,  and  was  advertised  by  them  to  be 
re-opened. after  thorough  renovation  and  repairs, 
on  Sept.  23.,  1871),  under  the  management  of 
Mr.  A.  Fr.  Andresen,  the  successor  of  Dr.  Ed- 
ward -M  tiller.  For  a  full  account  of  Fellenberg 's 
system,   see    ..\u>>  m-nn    A/Oials    cf    EduCClHon, 

vol.  i..  passim.     (See  also  Fellenberg.) 

HOLBROOK,  Josiah,  distinguished  for  his 
labors  in  behalf  of  science  teaching  in  common 
schools  and  the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge 
among  all  classes,  was  bom  in  Derby,  Ct,  in 
L788,  and  died  near  Lynchburg,  Ya.,  in  1851. 


430 


IIOLIJROOK 


HOME   EDUCATION 


It  was  while  pursuing  his  studios  in  Yale  Col- 
lege, that,  under  the  instruction  of  Prof.  Silli- 
inan,  he  imbibed  that  fondness  for  natural 
science,  particularly  chemistry  and  geology, 
which  gave  direction  to  his  future  life.  For 
some  time  after  graduating,  in  1810,  he  gave  his 
attention  to  agriculture,  managing  his  father's 
farm  at  Derby.  There  he  took  part  in  the 
establishment  of  an  agricultural  school,  in  which 
he  delivered  lectures  on  his  favorite  sciences.  In 
L826,  he  published  his  plan  for  an  Association 
of  Adults  for  Mutual  Instruction,  and  organized 
the  Millbury  Lyceum,  as  ;t  branch  of  the  pro- 
jected American  Lyceum,  which  he  designed  to 
consist  of  affiliated  Lyceums,  or  associations  for 
mutual  improvement,  in  every  state  of  the 
Union.  Tims  the  town  Lyceums  wore,  by  dele- 
gates, to  constitute  a  county  board  of  education. 
the  county  boards,  in  a  similar  manner,  a  state 
board;  and  the  state  boards  were  to  he  repre- 
sented in  a  grand  national  convention. the  object 
being  to  promote  general  education  and  the 
spread  of  intelligence  among  all  classes.  Hun- 
dreds of  these  lyeeuins  were  established  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  United  States,  through  the  in- 
defatigable labors  of  Mr.  Bolbrook,  who  gave  his 
whole  time  to  the  delivery  of  scientific  lectures, 
the  distribution  of  circulars  ami  tracts,  and  the 
personal  visitation  of  schools.  In  L825,  he 
began  the  manufacture  of  cheap  and  simple 
Bchool  apparatus  for  illustrating  geology,  natural 
philosophy,  and  geometry;  which,  in  L829,  in 
connection  with  Timothy  Claxton,  of  Huston,  he 
greatly  extended,  into  what  was  afterwards 
known  as  the  Holbrook  School  Apparatus.  In 
L842,  he  undertook  the  organization  of  a  system 
of  school  exchanges,  the  object  of  which  was  an 
interchange,  among  schools  in  different  parts  of 
the  country  and  in  foreign  countries,  of  speci- 
mens of  pupils'  work  ;  such  as.  maps,  draw- 
ings, geometrical  solids,  collections  of  minerals, 
etc.  In  this  way,  he  conceived,  the  intellectual 
activity  of  the  pupils  would  be  stimulated  ;  and, 
besides,  bj  becoming  acquainted  with  the  prod- 
ucts of  each  other's  labor,  their  standard  of 

excellence  would  he   elevated,   and    their   desire 

for  improvement  increased.  This  scheme  met 
with  considerable  favor  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  particularly  in  the  city  of  New  York. 
and  lor  a  time  was  successfully  carried  on.  The 
.  I  merican  Lyceum  also,  tor  a  w  hile,  greatly  nour- 
ished.    In  L828,  a  public   meeting  was   held   in 

Ho  'on   to  pro ie  its  objects,  at  which  Daniel 

Webster  presided,  and  George  B.  Emerson  acted 
as  so -retary  :  and  resolutions  were  adopted  com- 
mending the  Lyceum  to  public  favor  and  sup- 
port. At  other  meetings,  Edward  Everett  took 
pari  in  the  proceedings;  and  subsequently,  out 
of  this  movement,  in  favor  of  popular  education, 
grew  the  Boston  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  I  se- 
Knowledge, followed  soonafterby  the  Boston 
Lyceum',  and,  partly  as  the  result  of  the  same 
awakening,  the  American  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion was  established  in  1830;  and  the  next  year. 
the  Florida  Education  Society  was  organized  at 
Tallahassee.    The  American    Lyceum  held   its 


first  national  convention,  May  4.,  1831,  in  New 
York,  and  adopted  a  constitution.     There  were 
presenl   delegates  from   Maine.    Massachusetts, 
New   York.    Pennsylvania.    Yale    College,    the 
city   of    Washington,   and    other   places;    and 
Stephen   Van   Rensselaer  was   elected  its  first 
president.     A  general  meeting  was   held  each 
succeeding  year  till  1839,  when  a  special  conven- 
tion, held  in  Philadelphia  November  '2'!..  termi- 
nated the  public  proceedings  of  the  Lyceum. — 
Mr.  Holbrook   continued  in   his    favorite  enter- 
prises of  philanthropy  until  the  close  of  his  life. 
While  on  ;t  visit  to  Virginia, near  Lynchburg, he 
went  out  for  geological  exploration,  and  was  not 
again  seen  until  his  body  was  found  at   the  foot 
of  a   cliff,  from   which   it   was  supposed  he  had 
fallen.   Few  lives  have  been  so  earnest,  unselfish, 
and  philanthropic;  and  to  very  few  has  it  been 
given  to  be  the  means  of  stimulating  the  intellect- 
ual   activity   of   so   many   thousands.    —    See 
Baenaed's  Journal  of  Education,  vols.  viu..  and 
xrv.;  and  American   Educators,  vo1.il;  Amer- 
ican Annals  of  Education;  Bodkne,  History  of 
the  Public  School  Society  (N.  Y..  1870). 
HOLIDAY.     See  School  Festtvaia 

HOLLAND.       See  NETHERLANDS. 

HOLY  ANGELS'  COLLEGE,  at  Van- 
couver, Washington  Ter..  under  Itoman  Cath- 
olic control,  was  founded  in  I860.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees  and  voluntary  contri- 
butions. In  187(*>.  it  had  T(i  pupils.  Its  presidents 
have  been  as  follows:  the  Kev.  J.  I!.  Brouillet, 
1860—62;  the  Rev.  P.  Means,  1862— 72 ;  the 
Rev.  I'.  Bylebos,  1872— 3;  and  the  Rev.  Louis 
<i.  Sehratn,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed 
in  1873. 

HOLY  CROSS,  College  of  the,  at  Worces- 
ter, Mass..  was  founded  in  1843  by  the  Ht. 
Rev.  Benedici  Joseph  Fenwick,  Roman  Cath- 
olic Bishop  of  Boston,  and  was  given  by  him 
to  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  In  1865, 
it  was   incorporated  by  the  legislature  of  the 

state,  with  power  and  authority  "  to  confer  such 

degrees  as  are  conferred  by  any  college  in  this 
commonwealth,  excepl  medical  degrees."  The 
object  of  the  institution  is  to  prepare  youth  for 
a  professional  or  for  a  commercial  course  of  life. 
The  course  of  studies  embraces,  in  its  whole  ex- 
tent, a  period  Of  seven  years,  of  which  three  are 
given  to  the    preparatory  and  junior  classes,  and 

the  remainder  to  the  Benior.    1  he  candidates  for 

the  degn f  Bachelor  of  Arts  must  undergo  an 

examination  in  rational  and  natural  philosophy, 
astronomy,  and  chemistry,  and  must  be  well  ac- 
quainted with  Latin,  <  deck,  and  mathematics. 
The  charge  For  hoard  and  tuition  is $250  per  an- 
num.  besides  some  extras.  In  1874  5,  there 
were  l  •_'  instructors  and  177 students.  The  num- 
ber of  degrees  conferred  at  the  commencement 
in  1875  was  13.  The  library  contains  1  L,000vol- 
mnes.  The  Rev.  Joseph  r>.  O'Hagan,  S.  J.,  is 
1 876)  the  president. 

HOME  EDUCATION  is  that  which  is  car- 
ried on  in  the  home  circle,  or  family,  as  con- 
trasted  with   that    which   is  afforded    by  the 

school.      Op  to  a   certain  age.  and  within  a  cer- 


HOME   EDUCATION 


431 


tain  sphere,  homo  education,  or  its  equivalent, 
is  not  only  indispensable  but  inevitable.    The 
parents  are   the   first   teachers,   especially   the 
mother:   and  the  educative   influences  of  the 
nursery  not  only  precede  in  time,  but  exceed  in 
power,  those  of  the  school.   Bere  the  foundation 
is  laid  on  which   the  school-teacher  must  sub- 
sequently build  :  and,  comparatively  speaking, 
more  is  accomplished  in  the  period  of  earliest 
childhood,  both   in    storing    the    mind    and    in 
forming  the  disposition  and  character,  than  dur- 
ing any  equal  number  of  subsequent  years.    "  A 
child  gains  more  ideas,"  says  Lord  Brougham, 
'•  in  the   first  four  years  of    his  life  than  ever 
afterward."     Early  home  education  consists  pe- 
culiarly in  what  has   been   called  unconscious 
tuition,  by  means  of  which  the  plastic  nature  of 
the  young  child  is  insensibly  moulded  by  the 
agencies  which  environ  it.     The  mother  chiefly 
controls  these  agencies,  which  may  be  enumer- 
ated as  follows  :  (1)  The  affectionate  tenderness 
which  she  displays,  in  ministering  to  the  wants 
and  gratifying  the  desires  of  the  child,  and  in 
sympathizing  with  and  alleviating  its  distresses  ; 
(2)  Her  behavior,  as  being  delicate  and  refined. 
or  coarse  and  rude. — showing  self-restraint  and 
dignity,  or  manifesting  impulsiveness  and  pas- 
sion ;    (3)    The  tones  of  her  voice — sweet  and 
tender,  or  harsh  and  dissonant,  firm  and  decisive, 
or  weak  and  yielding;    (4)  The  expression  of 
her  face,  implying  similar  traits  ;  (5)  The  force 
of  her  will,  under  the  intelligent  guidance  of 
educational  principles  and  the  restraints  of  con- 
science.    Such  are  the  elements  of  a  mother's 
educative  power, — a  power  the  exercise  of  which 
results  in  forming  in  the  child  traits  of  character 
that  no  succeeding  agency  of  circumstance,  edu- 
cation, or  self -discipline  can  entirely  efface.     It 
will  be  seen,  from  this  enumeration,  that  the 
mother's  influence  is  rather  moral  than  intellec- 
tual ;  indeed,  the  special  period  of  its  exercise 
supersedes  the  necessity  of  any  formal  cultiva- 
tion of  the  knowing  faculties.     The  child,  dur- 
ing the  first  few  years  of   its  existence  needs 
little  direction  in  this  respect.     Natural  curios- 
ity and  innate  activity  constantly  stimulate  the 
growth  of  the  mind,  and  fill  it  with  those  ideas 
which  are  to  constitute,  in  succeeding  years,  the 
materials  of  thought.      It   is  just  as  absurd  to 
subject  a  very  young  child  to  formal  instruction 
as  it  would  be  to  attempt  the  development  of  its 
physical  powers  by  gymnastic  exercises.  Watch- 
fulness is,  however,  constantly  required  to  check 
the  formation  of  bad  habits,  which  have  just  as 
strong  a  tendency  to  Bpring  up   in  the  young 
mind  as  rank   weeds   in    a   virgin   soil.     (See 
Habit.)    The  period  of  exclusive  home  educa- 
tion here  referred  to  bring  so  decisive  of  the 
future  character  of  the  child,  and  the  mother 
being  the  first  and  most  effective  of  all  educa- 
tors, it  will  be  apparent  that  the  science  of  edu- 
cation, in  its  most  comprehensive  sense,  should 
constitute  an  essential  part   of  the  curriculum 
of  every  female  seminary  or  college.     Particu- 
larly should  the  future  mother  be  taught  to  ap- 
preciate the  character  of  the  influence,  in  all  its 


phases,  which  she   is  to  exert;  as  well  as  to  un- 
derstand, how  to  render  it  effectual  in  contribut- 
ing to  the  future   welfare  of   her  child.     The 
father,   at  a   somewhat    later  period,   but  in  a 
similar  manner,  is  a    powerful  educator  within 
the  circle  of  home.      I  loth  by  precept  and  ex- 
ample, but   especially  by   the  latter,  he  makes 
life-long   impressions.      In   vain  are    precepts, 
however,  if  they  are   not  fully  supported    by  ex- 
ample.    What  a  terrible  indictment  is  brought 
by  Quintilian  against  the  home  education  of  his 
time   in   the   following    suggestive   statement: 
"  \\  ould  that  we  ourselves  did  not  corrupt  the 
morals  of  our  children!      We  are  delighted  if 
they  utter  any  thing    immodest.      Expressions 
which  would  not  be  tolerated  even  from  the 
effeminate  youths  of  Alexandria,  we  hear  from 
them  with  a  smile  and  a  kiss.     Nor  is  this  won- 
derful; we  have  taught  them  ;  they  have  heard 
such  language  from  ourselves.      They  see  our 
mistresses,  our  male  objects  of  affection;  every 
dining-room  rings  with   impure  .songs;   things 
shameful  to  be  told  are  objects  of  sight.     From 
such  practices  springs  habit,  and  afterwards  nat- 
ure.    The  unfortunate  children  learn  these  vices 
before  they  know  that  they  are  vices ;  and  hence, 
rendered  luxurious  and  effeminate,  they  do  not 
imbibe  immorality  from  the  schools,  but  carry  it 
themselves  into  the  schools."  While  contemplat- 
ing so  shocking  a  picture  as  this,  not  of  home 
education  but  of  home  corruption,  no  one  can 
wonder  at  the  degree  of  degeneracy  which  the 
political  and  social  system  of  the  Romans  finally 
reached.   While,  in  the  grade  of  society  to  which 
the  above  quotation  refers,  no  child,  in  the  state 
of  society  of  our  times,  could  be  subjected  to 
such   contaminating    influences;    yet,   even   at 
present,  the  impressions,  both  intellectual  and 
moral,  received  by  children   in  very  many  of 
the  home  circles  of  what  are  considered  the  bet- 
ter classes  of  society,  are  rather  debasing  than 
elevating.      The  complaint  is  often   made  by 
teachers  that  the  children   placed  under  their 
care  are  so  depraved  by  bad  home  training,  or 
in   consequence  of  absolute  neglect,  that  their 
efforts  to  discipline  and  instruct  these  pupils  are 
almost  useless.  1  his  is  the  more  to  be  regretted, 
as  school  education  can.  in  most  cases,  only  sup- 
plement that  of  home;  and  because  the  influ- 
ences that  center  in  the  latter  are  always  more 
potent  than  those  wielded  by  the  former,  chiefly 
because  school  education  is  primarily  intellectual; 
whereas  that  of  home  is  primarily  moral.     At 
any  rate,  such  is  the  fact  generally. 

After  the  period  of  formal  instruction  has  ar- 
rived, the  question  arises  in  the  minds  of  many 
parents,  whether  it  is  better  to  detain  the  cliild 
at  home  to  be  instructed  by  private  tutors  or  to 
submit  it  to  the  discipline  and  instruction  of  the 
school.  This  question  has  been  much  discussed 
by  educators.  Quintilian,  in  regard  to  this 
point,  said,  in  favor  of  school  education,  that  "it 
had  the  sanction  of  those  by  whom  the  polity  of 
the  most  eminent  states  was  settled,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  most  illustrious  authors."  The  fol- 
io wing  arguments  are  generally  adduced  to  prove 


432 


HOME   EDUCATION 


HOME   LESSONS 


that  the  education  acquired  in  school  is  to  be 
preferred  to  any  that  is  possible  by  private  tutors 
at  home:  (1)  The  intellectual  training  is  more 
effective;  since  the  boy  or  girl  coming  in  com- 
petition with  those  of  the  same  age  is  stimulated 
to  greater  exertions  than  would  be  possible  in 
any  system  of  home  instruction.  As  Quintilian 
says.  "At  home,  the  boy  can  learn  only  what  is 
taught  himself:  at  school,  he  will  also  learn  what 
is  taught  to  others.  Be  will  hear  many  things 
approved;  many  others,  corrected.  The  reproof 
of  a  fellow  pupil's  idleness  will  be  a  good  lesson 
to  him;  as  will,  likewise,  the  praise  of  his  neigh- 
bor's industry,  lie  will  think  it  disgraceful  to 
yield  to  his  equals  in  age,  and  great  honor  to  ex- 
cel his  seniors.  All  these  matters  amuse  the 
powers  of  the  mind;  and  if  ambition  be  an  evil, 
it  is  often  the  parent  of  virtue."  The  child 
educated  at  home  can  never,  realize  the  full  ex- 
tent of  his  own  powers,  having  no  standard  by 
which  to  measure  them.  Bence,  he  is  satisfied 
with  meager  results,  at  the  same  time  that  he  is 
likely  to  be  filled  with  self-conceit.  It  is,  how- 
ever, scarcely  disputed  that  the  school,  as  a  mimic 
world,  presents  a  variety  of  incentives  which  a 

home  education  could  never  afford  :  and  that    it 

is  favorable  to  rapid  mental  growth.  Bui  it  is 
its  influence  on  the  moral  nature  that  has  been 
chiefly  called  in  question.  Home  has  been  de- 
picted as  the  abode  of  purity  and  it cence, — 

of  kindness,  gentleness,  and  affection, — of  court- 
esy and  refinement, — of  morality  and  religious 
influence  ;  and  such  it  ought  to  be.  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped,  often  is.  From  such  an  atmosphere,  the 
home-bred  child  is  at  once  introduced  into  a  new  . 
and  to  him  utterly  unknown, world.  Instead  of 
sympathy,  he  finds,  among  his  school-mates,  in- 
difference; instead  of  courtesy  and  kindness,  a 
thoughtless  disregard  of  all  weakness,  cither  of 
mind  or  body,  except,  indeed,  to  turn  it  into 
ridicule.     Be  finds  that,  if  he  is  not  mindful  of 

himself,  and   sufficiently  self-assertive,  he  will  be 

borne  down  in  the  mass.  'There  is  an  antag- 
onism— an  aggressiveness  in  those  around  him 
that  begets  caution  and  resistance;  there  is  a 
sense  of  danger  that  cultivates  courage,  and  a 
matter-of-fact  spirit  that  crushes  out  egotism 

and    sensitiveness.     Thus   the   boy,  in   the   little 

world  of  the  school,  is  prepared  for  the  greater 

School  beyond.      Probably,  no  better  illustration 

of  this  fact   is  afforded  anywhere   than  in  the 

great  Public  Schools  of  England.     Eton  has  1 d 

especially  noted  for  the  rough  discipline  to  which 

its  pupils  subject   each   other:  and   yet  we   find 

the  following  cogent  testimony  as  in  the  favor 
able  effects  of  thai  system  upon  the  boys' char- 
acters, from  an  entirely  reliable  source:  "  I  think 
it  cannol  be  denied  that  the  tendency  of  the 
Eton  system  is  to  make  a  boy  generous  and  firm- 
minded,  to  exercise  his  common  Bense  early,  to 

make  him  habitually  feel  a  moral    responsibility, 

to  act  not  under  the  impulse  of  tear,  but  of 
generous  shame  and  generous  emulation,  to  be 
willing  and  determined  to  keep  trust  because  he 

is  trusted:      in  a  WOld,  to  make  him  a  manly  DOJ 

and  a  gentleman."     (Public  School  Education, 


by  Sir  J.  T.  Coleridge,  London,  1860.)  It  has 
been  well  said  in  regard  to  the  corrupting  influ- 
ence of  school,  ■•  School  indeed  brings  the  knowl- 
edge of  evil,  but  the  innocence  of  childhood  is 
but  the  innocence  of  ignorance  :  by  home  edu- 
cation it  cannot  be  much  prolonged,  and  when 
knowledge  comes  at  last,  it  finds  less  force  of 
character  and  less  strength  of  principle  to  coun- 
teract its  poison."  Better,  therefore,  it  would  aj>-. 
pear,  is  it  to  unite  the  education  of  a  good  Bchool 

with  that  of  a  properly  ordered  family. in  which 
combination  the  evils  of  school  life  will  be  neu- 
tralized by  the  stronger  and  purer  influences  of 
home.  Not  home  or  school,  but  home  and 
school,  constitutes  the  proper  agency  for  the 
education  of  children,  whether  hoys  or  girls.  It 
is  the  opinion  of  some,  however,  that  admitting 
the  advantages,  in  general, of  a  school  education. 
that  of  home  generates  certain  peculiar  traits 

and  excellencies  of  character  which  are  essential 

to  the  welfare  of  society.  This  is  the  argument 
of  Isaac  Taylor,  in  Home  Education,  who  says, 
-  the  school-bred  man  is  of  one  sort — the  home- 
bred man  is  of  another:  and  the  community  has 
need  of  both;  nor,  as  I  think,  could  any  meas- 
ures be  much  more  to  be  deprecated,  nor  any 
tyranny  of  fashion  more  to  be  resisted,  than 
such  as  should  render  a  public  education,  from 
first  to  last,  compulsory  and  universal." 

HOME  LESSONS,  or  Home  Studies.  The 
question  whether  home  lessons,  or  home  studies. 
should  be  a  part  of  the  system  of  instruction  iii 
schools  of  different  grades,  and  if  so,  to  what 
extent  they  should  be  permitted,  and  in  what 
manner  they  should  be  pursued  and  super- 
vised by  the  teacher,  is  one  of  considerable  im- 
portance, which  is  still  extensively  discussed  by 
writers  on  education.  The  need  of  home 
lessons    for     pupils    of    secondary    and     higher 

schools  has   never  been  disputed.     In  regard 

to  the  schools  of  a  lower  grade,  many  physicians 
have  strongly  objected  to  any  kind  of  home 
lessons,  as  long  as  the  children  are  required  to 

spend  from  4  to  5  hours  a  day  in  the  school 
loom.  Their  arguments  are.  however,  chiefly 
directed  against  the  length  of  the  school  sessions. 
From  an  educational  point  of  riew,  it  has  justly 
been  urged  by  recent  writers,  that  the  regulation 
of  this  matter  must  chiefly  depend  on  the 
question,  for  what  purpose  should  home  lessons 
be  given.  I  In  this  point,  educators,  at  the  present 
i  nee,  are  much  more  nearly  agreed  than  formerly. 
No  \\  riter  of  note  will,  nowadays,  maintain  that 
home  lessons  should  be  for  the  mere  purpose  of 
preventing  idleness  —  of  keeping  the  children 
busy,  or  as  a  punishment  for  delinquencies ;  but 
it  is  agreed  that  all  home  studies  should  aim  at 
training  the  pupils  to  self-exertion,  at  giving 
them  the  ability  to  depend  upon  their  ovi  d  efforts 
as  students,  and  by  degrees,  to  dispense  with  the 

aid  of  a  teacher.      If   this   principle    is  accepted. 

several  corollaries  are  self-evident.  Home  lessons 
should  not  begin  at  too  early  an  age.  Young 
children  need  the  supervision  of  a  teacher  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  those  of  a  more  ad- 
vanced age,  and  are  much   Less   fitted  to  spend 


IIOMK    LESSONS 


ITORX-ROOK 


43; 


their  time  profitably  without  direct  guidance. 
Moreover,  while  the  school  sessions  for  young 
children  are  as  long  as  for  older  ones,  the  medical 

warning  not  to  overwork  the  brain,  applies  with 
much  greater  force  to  the  home  lessons  of  the 
former  than  to  those  of  the  latter.  Special  care 
should  be  taken  that  all  the  children  fully  un- 
derstand the  work  which  they  are  required  to 
perform  at  home,  and  that  they  are  compe- 
tent to  do  it.  No  child  of  good  standing  in  the 
class  should  feel  it  uecessary  to  apply  to  his  par- 
rents  or  adult  friends  for  help.  It  is  especially 
this  point  that  is  so  apt  to  be  disregarded  by 
teachers.  Parents  have  a  right  to  object  to  any 
home  lesson  or  exercise  which  requires,  in  the 
case  of  diligent  pupils,  any  help  in  addition  to 
that  of  the  teacher.  All  exercises  of  this  kind 
prove  a  torment,  and  are  absolutely  injurious. 
•■The  school",  says  Diesterweg,  "must  teach 
the  method  of  home  studies.  It  is  not  enough 
that  the  home  lesson  be  appropriate  in  itself ; 
the  pupil  must  be  enabled  to  prepare  it  in 
a  proper  manner.  How  often  poor  children  tor- 
ment themselves  where  this  is  not  taught!  The 
teacher  should  show  them  how  to  memorize, 
how  to  prepare  or  review  a  lesson,  how  to  write 
a  composition,  by  previously  memorizing,  pre- 
paring, reviewing  etc.,  with  them  at  school.  Thus 
the  teacher  becomes  the  pupil's  friend,  and  this 
is  more  than  to  be  his  master."  Moreover,  when 
pupils  are  required  to  write  exercises  at  home, 
the  teacher  should  faithfully  correct  them.  The 
failure  to  do  this  fosters  habits  of  carelessness. 
Many  teachers  greatly  err  in  this  regard, 
burdening  children  with  the  task  of  writing 
pages  of  exercises,  and  correcting  but  few,  or 
none,  of  them.  Certainly,  no  teacher  who  is 
guilty  of  so  serious  a  mistake,  can  be  regarded 
as  understanding  the  work  either  of  instruction 
or  of  discipline.  Home  lessons  are,  in  general, 
more  frequent  in  European  than  in  American 
schools.  The  opinion  is  entertained  by  many 
European  writers,  especially  German  (as  Rol- 
tus  and  Pfister,  Realencyclopadie,  vol.  i.,  art. 
Aufgabe),  that  home  lessons  are  entirely  un- 
known in  American  schools.  Of  course,  this  is 
not  correct:  but  the  views  strenuously  advocated 
by  the  best  American  educators,  that  home  lea- 
s' ms  should  not  begin  early,  and  that  they  should 
occupy  only  a  small  portion  of  the  childrens1 
time  out  of  school  are  fully  concurred  in  by  the 
best  educational  writers  of  Germany.  "Under 
the  guidance  of  the  teacher",  says  Diesterweg, 
•'  the  attentive  pupil  will  be  able  to  learn  at 
school,  in  one  tenth  of  the  time,  what  he  is 
Bometimes  required  to  learn,  when  distracted 
and  fatigued,  at  home.  Thousands  of  pupils  and 
parents  become  disgusted  with  the  school,  on 
account  of  the  annoyance  which  they  receive  from 
the  home  lessons  heedlessly  assigned  by  the 
teachers ;  home  lessons  should,  therefore,  be  re- 
stricted to  the  smallest  possible  amount ;  and  I  he 
teacher,  before  assigning  such  a  lesson,  should 
ponder  well  the  question  whether  just  this  les- 
son cannot  be  dispensed  with,  or  be  made  un- 
necessary."     Dittos    {Schule  der    Padagogik) 

28 


is  of  opinion  that  the  best  arrangement  for  a 
common  school  is  to  confine  all  the  learning  of 
Lessons  to  the  school  room,  and  to  set  apart 
special  hours  for  study,  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  teacher.  This,  of  course,  is  an 
extreme  view ;  but  it  serves  to  illustrate  the 
depth  of  the  conviction  that  home  lessons,  as 
usually  assigned,  do  not  promote  the  real  prog- 
ress of  the  pupil.  "The  effect  of  poorly  learning 
a  lesson",  says  I).  P.  Page  [Theory  ami  Practice 
of  Teaching),  "  is  most  ruinous  to  the  mind  of  a 
child.  He,  by  the  habit  of  missing,  comes  to 
think  it  a  small  thing  to  fail  at  recitation.  He 
loses  his  self-respect.  He  loses  all  regard  for  his 
reputation  as  a  scholar.  Besides,  the  attempt 
to  acquire  an  unreasonable  lesson,  induces  a 
superficial  habit  of  study,  —  a  skimming  over 
the  surface  of  things.  The  motto  of  the  wise 
teacher  should  be,  not  ho wmuch,  but  how  well 
He  should  always  ask,  is  it  possible  that  the 
child  can  master  this  lesson,  and  probable  that 
he  will" 

HOPE.  See  Incentives,  Prizes,  and  Re- 
wards. 

HOPE  COLLEGE,  at  Holland,  Mich.,  was 
established  in  1851,  by  the  Reformed  Dutch 
(  hurch,  as  the  Holland  Academy.  It  was 
organized  as  a  college  in  1863,  and  incorporated 
in  18 G 6.  Its  especial  design  was  to  furnish  a 
suitably  educated  ministry.  It  has  an  endow- 
ment of  about  $60,000.  The  library  contains 
about  1,200  volumes.  Three  departments  have 
been  organized :  (1)  preparatory,  (2)  academic 


In 


or  collegiate,  and  (3)  theological.  In  1874 — D, 
there  were  9  instructors  and  111  students.  Rev. 
Philip  Phelps,  Jr.,  has  been  the  president  since 
the  organization  of  the  college. 

HOPKINS,  Mark,  a  noted  American 
scholar  and  teacher,  born  in  Stockbridge,  Mass.. 
Feb.  4.,  1802.  After  graduating  at  Williams 
(  ollege,  and  serving  as  tutor  in  that  institution 
for  two  years,  he  commenced  the  practice  of 
medicine  in  New  York;  but,  in  1830,  returned 
to  Williams  College  to  fill  the  position  of  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  and,  in 
1  s.'! 6,  succeeded  Dr.  Griffin  as  president  of  the 
College,  in  which  position  he  remained  until 
1872,  when  he  resigned  to  resume  the  duties  of 
professor  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy.  He 
has  published  a  number  of  works,  all  of  which 
evince  high  intellectual  and  moral  culture,  as 
well  as  literary  ability.  Among  them,  that  which 
illustrates  best  his  peculiarly  lucid  mode  of 
teaching  difficult  subjects  is  An  Outline  Stud// 
of  Man  (New  Fork,  1ST,'!),  which  is  a  model  of 
the  developing  method  as  applied  to  intellectual 
science,  as  well  as  of  blackboard  illustration. 

HORN-BOOK,  a  book  consisting  of  a  single 
page,  formerly  used  to  teach  children  the  alpha- 
bet and  other  simple  rudiments.  It  was,  in  fact. 
the  first  page  of  the  primer,  pasted  on  a  thin 
board,  which  terminated  in  a  handle,  and  having, 
fastened  over  the  printed  matter,  a  thin  plate  of 
transparent  horn,  to  protect  it  from  being  soiled 
or  torn  by  the  young  learner.  Usually  there  was 
a  hole  in  the  handle  for  a  string,  by  which  the 


434 


HOUSE  OF  REFUGE 


HOWE 


apparatus  was  slung  to  the  scholar's  girdle. 
Hence,  in  a  View  of  the  Beau  Monde  (1731),  we 
find  a  lady  described  as  "dressed  like  a  child,  in 
a  bodice  coat  and  leading-strings,  with  a  horn- 
book tied  to  her  side".  Sometimes,  instead  of 
being  mounted  on  a  board,  the  printed  page  was 
pasted  on  the  back  of  the  horn  only.  The  horn- 
book was  in  use  in  England  from  the  time  of 
queen  Elizabeth  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century ;  it  was  also  used  in  some  of  the  Amer- 
ican colonies  until  about  the  same  time.  The 
oldest  specimens  contain  the  alphabet,  in  small 
letters  and  capitals  —  in  black-letter  or  in 
Roman  —  commencing  with  a  cross,  which 
serves  to  designate  the  first  row.  This  is  followed 
by  the  vowels,  and  their  simplest  combination 
with  the  consonants,  the  Lords'  Prayer,  and  the 
Roman  numerals.  (See  Curist  Cross  Row).  Be- 
fore the  horn-book  was  invented,  it  is  thought, 
a  cast-leaden  plate  was  used  in  England,  having 
on  its  face  the  alphabet  in  raised  letters;  as 
ancient  carved  stones  have  been  discovered 
which  appear  to  have  served  as  moulds  for  cast- 
ing such  plates.  There  are  many  allusions  in 
English  literature  to  this  little  implement  of 
elementary  education.  Shenstone  in  his  quaint 
poem,  the  Schoolmistress  (1741),  thus  refers  to  it: 

"Eftsoons  the  urchins  to  their  tasks  repair  ; 
Their  books,  of  stature  small,  they  take  in  hand, 
Which  with  pellucid  horn  secured  are, 
To  save  from  finger  wet  the  letters  fair." 

Cowper,  in  Tirocinium,  or  a  Review  of  Schools, 

(1784),  thus  describes  it: 

Neatly  secured  from  being  soiled  or  torn 

Beueath  a  pane  of  thin  translucent  horn, 

A  book    to  please  us  at  a  tender  age, 

'Tis  called  a  book,  though  but  a  single  page) 

Presents  the  prayer  the  Saviour  deigned  to  teach, 

Which  children  use,  and  parsons — when  they  preach." 

Locke,  in  Thoughts  on  Education,  mentions  the 
horn-book  and  primer  as  the  "on  Unary  road"'  to 
Learning  to  read  in  his  time.     (See  Primer.) 

HOUSE  OF  REFUGE.  See  Reform 
Schools. 

HOWARD  COLLEGE,  at  Marion,  Ala., 
was  founded  by  the  .Missionary  Baptists,  in 
1843.  It  has  a  library  of  about  2000  volumes, 
geological  and  mineralogical  cabinets,  and  chem- 
ical, mathematical,  and  philosophical  apparatus. 
The  cost  of  tuition,  board,  etc.  in  the  college  de- 
partment is  $226  per  annum.  Theological  stu- 
dents receive  tuition  free.  The  course  of  study 
is  divided  into  the  fallowing  distinet  schools: 
!l)    School  of  Latin;    (2)    School  of    Greek; 

School  of  i Lern  languages ;  (I)  School  of 

English  ;  (5)  School  of  moral  science  and  theol- 
ogy; (6)  School  of  mathematics;  (7)  School  of 
chemistry,  geology,  and  mineralogy;    (8)  School 

Of  natural  philosophy  and  applied  inatheinat  ICS  : 

School  of  civil  engineering;  (10)  Business 
school  There  is.  also. a  preparatory  department. 
The  degrees  conferred  are  B.  S.,  A.  B.,  M.  A.,  ami 
('.  B.,  each  of  which  requires  proficiency  in  sev- 
eral schools.  In  L874  ."'.there  were  5  instruc- 
tors and  L 02 students.  The  presidents  have  been  as 
follows  :S.S.Sherman,LL.D.,H.W.Talbird,D.D., 
.1.  L  M.(  vu-ry.  Id,.  l>..  S.  It.  Freeman,  D.D.,and 
J.T.Murfee,LL.D.,the  present  incumbent(1876). 


HOWARD  UNIVERSITY,  at  "Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  was  chartered  by  Congress  in  18G7, 
and  named  after  Gen.  O.  O.  Howard,  one  of  its 
founders.  It  occupies  a  commanding  and 
beautiful  site  at  the  head  of  Seventh  street,  north 
of  and  just  beyond  the  city  limits,  and  has  several 
fine  buildings.  Though  the  institution  was  es- 
pecially designed  for  colored  youth,  every  depart- 
ment is  open  to  all,  without  distinction  of  race  or 
sex ;  and  both  white  and  colored  persons  of  both 
sexes  are  found  among  its  instructors  and  stu- 
dents. The  univeisity  is  supported  by  contri- 
butions and  tuition  fees.  It  has  libraries  con- 
taining over  8,000  volumes,  a  mineral  cabinet, 
and  a  museum.  The  departments  of  instruction  in 
connection  with  it  are  as  follows  :  (I)  Academical 
branch,  consisting  of  (1)  Normal  department, 
with  a  model  school ;  (2)  Preparatory  depart- 
ment; (3)  College  department.  (II)  Professional 
/•notch,  (1)  Medical  department;  (2)  Law  de- 
partment ;  (3)  Theological  department.  The 
normal  department  was,  at  first,  supported  by 
what  was  known  as  the  Miner  Fund.  The  medical 
students  have  the  advantage  of  the  Freedmen*s 
General  Hospital  and  Asylum,  situated  within 
the  grounds  of  the  institution.  The  theological 
department  is  open  to  students  of  every  Chris- 
tian denomination.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the 
law  department  is  $50  a  year  (or  $40,  when  paid 
in  advance)  ;  in  the  medical  and  theological  de- 
partments, it  is  free;  in  the  other  departments, 
SI 2  per  year.  The  number  of  instructors  and 
students,  in  1875 — C,  was  as  follows  : 
Departments.  Instructors.  Students. 

Normal  \  34 

Model  school    (  1n  141 

Preparatory     f  39 

College  )  33 

Medical  8  24 

I   ,u  2  13 

Theological 3 2.5 

Total  23  309 

Gen.  Howard  was  president  of  the  University 
till  Iy7i5,  when  he  was  succeded  by  John  M, 
Langston, LL  D.,  as  vice-president.  In  187">.  the 
Rev.  Edward  P.  Smith  was  chosen  president; 
and  continued  in  ollice  till  his  death,  in  1876. 

HOWE,  Samuel  Gridley,  a  distinguished 
American  educator  and  philanthropist,  partic- 
ularly noted  for  his  zeal  and  success  as  a  teacher 
of  the  blind  and   the    imbecile,  was  born   in 

Boston,  in  L801,  and  died  in  that  city,  in  1876. 
After  graduating  at  Brown  Univeisity.  in  L821, 

he  studied  medicine  for  a  time  ;  but.  becoming 
interested  ill  the  cause  of  the  Greek  patriots,  he 

entered  the  revolutionary  army,  in  which  he 
served  as  surgeon  till  L827.  About  this  time. 
Dr.  John  D.  Fisher,  who  while  pursuing  his 
medical  studies  in   Paris,  had  become  acquainted 

with  the  abbe*  Baiiy's  institution  for  the  blind, 
proposed  the  establishment  of  a  similar  institu- 
tion in  Boston.  I>r.  Bowe.  who  had  returned  to 
the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of  soliciting 
contributions  for  the  cause  of  the  struggling 

Greeks,  was  invited  to  take  charge  of  the  pro- 
posed institution;  and  having  accepted, he  imme- 
diately embarked  for  Europe  to  visit  the  asylums 


HUARTE 


HUNGARY 


435 


for  the  blind  in  England,  France,  and  Germany. 
On  his  return,  the  institution  was  organized, 
under  the  name  of  the  Perkins  Intitution  for 
the  Blind,  with  Dr.  Howe  at  its  head  (1832). 
Id  are  the  education  of  Laura  Bridgman  (q.  v.), 
a  blind  deaf-mute,  under  his  personal  instruc- 
tion, attracted  general  attention,  and  placed  Dr. 
Howe  in  the  front  rank  of  teachers;  since  only 
the  most  anient  zeal,  and  the  most  consummate 
skill,  tact,  ami  patience  cotdd  have  accomplished 
so  difficult  a  task.  He  was  also  much  interested 
in  the  education  of  the  imbecile  :  and  the  ex- 
perimental school  for  their  training,  which  he 
helped  to  found,  resulted,  in  L851,  in  the  Mas- 
sachusetts School  tor  Idiotic  and  Feeble-Minded 
Youth,  in  South  Boston.  I Te  was  the  author 
of  a  Reader  for  the  Blind  (1839)  and  a  Histor- 
ical Sketch  of  die  Greek  Revolt// ion  (ls28). 

HUARTE,  Juan,  a  Spanish  physician  and 
philosopher,  was  born  inXavarre,  about  1535,  and 
died  about  1600.  He  gave  great  attention  to 
psychology,  and  particularly  to  the  external 
physiological  indications  of  character ;  and  at- 
tempted to  show  the  practical  value  of  his  system 
in  education  and  otherwise,  in  his  great  work 
Exdmen  de  Ingenios para  Sciencias  {Test  of 
Minds  for  the  learn  ing  of  the  Sch  m  <  \es) ,  published 
about  1580,  in  which  he  gave  directions  for  dis- 
covering the  special  talents  of  individuals  for 
the  aecpusitiou  of  particular  sciences.  This  book 
became  very  famous,  and  was  translated  into 
various  languages.  The  English  version  was  en- 
titled the  Trial  of  Wits.  It  taught  that  every 
person  is  endowed  with  a  talent  for  some  specialty, 
which  should  be  discovered  and  cultivated;  since 
whatever  attention  he  might  give  to  other  pur- 
suits, he  could  never  rise  above  mediocrity  in 
them.  As  a  means  of  ascertaining  this  special 
gift,  he  laid  great  stress  upon  an  examination 
of  the  form  of  the  head,  thus,  to  some  extent 
anticipating  the  doctrine  of  Gall  and  Spurz- 
lieim. — See  Tickxor,  History  of  Spanish  Liter- 
ature. 

HTJET,  Pierre  Daniel,  a  noted  French 
scholar,  born  at  Caen,  Feb.  8.,  1630,  died  at 
Paris,  Jan.  26.,  1721.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Des- 
cartes and  Bochart,  accompanying  the  latter  to 
Sweden,  in  1652.  He  also  visited  Holland,  but 
returned  to  Caen  and  gave  himself  up  entirely 
to  study.  He  became  Doctor  of  Laws,  in  1670. 
and  soon  after,  was  summoned  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  appointed  sub-preceptor,  under  Bossuet, 
of  the  Dauphin.  He  directed,  for  his  royal  pupil, 
the  preparation  of  the  Delphin  edition  of  the 
classics.  In  1G85,  he  was  made  bishop  of  Sois- 
sons,  but  was  transferred  to  the  see  of  Avran- 
ches,  in  1692,  which  position  he  resigned  in 
1699,  on  account  of  ill  health,  nis  complete 
works  were  published  in  1856,  in  6  vols. 

HUMANITIES  (bat.  hwmaniora  or  literce 
Juiniaitiori's),  those  branches  of  education  or 
study,  which  are  included  in  what  is  called  po- 
lite or  elegant  learning,  as  languages,  grammar, 
rhetoric,  philology,  and  poetry,  with  all  that  per- 
tains to  what  is  called  polite  literature,  includ- 
ing the  ancient  classics.    The  name  implies  that 


the  study  of  these  branches,  in  opposition  to  the 
physical  sciences,  which  especially  develop  the 
intellectual  faculties,  has  a  tendency  to  human 

man,- — to  cultivate  particularly  those  faculties 
which  distinguish  him  as  man,  in  all  his  rela- 
tions, social  and  moral;  that  is,  which  make  him 
a  truly  cultured  man.  In  the  older  systems  of 
education,  the  humanities  took  the  lead  ;  in  the 
new,  they  have  been,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
superseded  by  studies  deemed  more  practical, 
from  a  utilitarian  point  of  view.  The  contest 
between  the  humanities  and  the  so-called  prac- 
tical studies,  as  branches  of  higher  education,  is 
still  rite.  The  humanities  are,  at  present,  more 
commonly  designated  belles-lettres  (q.  v.). 

HUMBOLDT,  Karl  Wilhelm  von,  a  dis- 
tinguished German  statesman,  philologist,  and, 
e<  lucator,  1  ir<  it  her  of  the  great  scientist,  Alexam  ler 
von  Humboldt,  was  born  June  22.,  1767,  died 
Aprils.,  L835.  He  studied  at  the  universities 
of  Frankfort  on  the  Oder  and  Gottingen,  and 
after  holding  several  positions  in  the  Prussian 
diplomatic  and  state  service,  was  appointed,  in 
January,  1809,  chief  of  the  educational  depart- 
ment in  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  in  which 
position  he  remained  until  April,  1810.  This 
short  period  was  fruitful  of  reforms  in  the  edu- 
cational affairs  of  Prussia  ;  but  it  was  especially 
in  the  fields  of  higher  education  that  Humboldt's 
influence  was  felt.  1  Ie  prepared  the  way  for,  and 
thus  became  the  real  founder  of,  the  University 
of  Berlin,  and  also  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
future  greatness  of  the  Prussian  gymnasia.  His 
reforms  in  the  study  of  languages,  in  the  schools 
of  Prussia,  exerted  a  far-reaching  influence.  His 
own  linguistic  works  were  of  great  importance, 
especially  that  upon  Kavi,  the  language  of  an- 
cient Javanese  literature  ( Ueber  die  Kawispraehe 
auf  der  Insel  Java,  3  vols.,  1836 — 40),  still  re- 
garded as  a  classic  on  the  philosophy  of  language. 
The  introduction,  which  treats  of  the  differences 
of  languages  and  their  influence  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  the  human  race,  appeared  in  a 
separate  volume  [Ueber  die  Verschiedenheit  des 
menschlichen  Sprachbaves,  etc.). —  See  Steix- 
tiial, Die Sprachwissi'iischaft  TF.  ran  Humboldt's 
(1848);  Heym,  Wiflielm  von  Humboldt  (18.*>6). 

HUMBOLDT  COLLEGE,  at  Humboldt, 
Iowa,  was  founded  in  1869,  by  the  Rev.  Stephen 
1 1.  Taft,  but  was  not  opened  until  1872.  It  is 
non-sectarian,  and  is  supported  by  voluntary 
contributions.  Tuition  is  free  to  students  to 
the  number  of  100.  The  college  building  is  a 
beautiful  marble  edifice,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
over  ^40,000.  The  library  contains  1,300 
volumes.  It  includes  an  English,  a  preparatory, 
and  a-  collegiate  course.  In  1*71 — 5,  there  were 
I  instructors,  and  97  students,  of  both  sexes. 
Rev.  Stephen  H.  Taft  has  been  the  president 
since  the  commencement  of  the  institution. 

HUNGARY,  one  of  the  principal  divisions 
of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy,  is  composed 
of  Hungary  proper,  the  former  kingdom  of 
Croatia,  which,  besides  sending  delegates  to  the 
Hungarian  diet,  has  a  provincial  diet  of  its  own,' 
and  the  free  city  of  Fiume.     Its  entire  area  is 


436 


iicxcary 


125,045  sq.  m.,  and  its  population,  which,  ac- 
cording to  tin ■  census  of  1869,  was  15,509,455, 
was  estimated,  in  L875,  at  L5.993.196.  The 
population  of  Hungary  is  made  up  of  a  number 
of  different  races,  no  single  race  having  an  ab- 
solute majority.  These  races  differ  not  only  in 
language,  but  also  in  dress  and  customs.  Accord- 
in:;'  to  estimates  by  Austrian  statisticians,  the 
races  are  divided  nearly  as  follows:  Germans, 
1,780,000,  forming  J  1.4  per  cent  of  the  total 
population  :  Slaves,  1,74<>.000,  or  30.6  per  cent  ; 
(nearly  Hi  per  cent  being  Servians  or  Croats, 
and  12  per  cent  Slovacks);  Italians  and  Rouma- 
nians 2,673,000,  or  17.fi  percent:  .lews.  553.7(10, 
or  3.5  per  cent;  Magyars,  5,553,700,  or  35.7 
percent;  and  various  other  tribes  amounting 
to  about  199,000,  or  1.2  per  cent  of  the  total 
population.  The  Magyars,  though  constituting 
considerably  less  than  one-half  of  the  population, 
are  the  ruling  race,  and  are  making  strenuous 
efforts  to  introduce  the  study  of  their  language 
into  all  the  schools  of  i he  country.  The  former 
kingdom  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  in  which  94 
per  cent  of  the  people  belong  to  the  Slavic  race, 
preserves  a  certain  degree  of  administrative 
independence;  and  the  Croatian  language  is 
used  in  all  the  public  schools.  In  L869,  the 
different  religious  denominations  were  repre- 
sented as  follows :  Roman  Catholics,  7,600,000; 
United  Greeks,  L,600,000;  United  Armenians, 
5,200;  Protestants  of  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
1 .1 1  1,000  ;  and  of  the  Helvetian  Confession, 
2,031,000;  Oriental  Greeks,  2,590,000;  Grego- 
rian Armenians,  650;  Unitarians,  55,000 ;  other 
<  Ihristian  denominations,  2,600  ;  -lews,  553,700  ; 
other  non-Christians,  and  persons  of  no  relig- 
ion, 220.  The  ruling  race  of  the  country. 
the  Magyars,  were  a  Mongolian  tribe,  that  took 
possession  of  Hungary  in  894.  Christianity  was 
introduced  under  Duke  Geysa  (972 — 98),  whose 
son  Stephen  was  crowned  king  by  the  Pope.  In 
L526,a  pari  of  the  country  was  conquered  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  remainder  was  annexed  to  A  ustria, 
with  which  country  it  has  been  connected  ever 
since.  In  1849,  it  was  deprived  of  its  ancient 
constitution,  and  converted  into  a  crown  land 
or  province  of  the  Austrian  empire;  but,  in 
L867,  its  constitutional  independence  was  re- 
stored ;  and,  since  that  time.it  bas  formed  one 
of  the  two  main  divisions  of  the  A  ustro- 1 1  un- 
itarian Monarchy,  in  consequence  of  the  numer- 
ous civil  wars,  the  oppression  by  foreign  barba- 
rians, and  the  conflicting  tendencies  of  the  rival 
races  and  religions,  the  progress  of  education  in 
Hungary  bas  been  slow.  The  numerous  German 
tlements  of  the  L 2th  and  I  :;ih  centuries,  even 
in  tfa  '  -t  hours,  never  failed  to  make  provi- 
sion for  the  education  of  their  children;  and  when 
the  majoritj  of  these  settlements,  in  the  Kith 
century,  joined  the  Augsburg  confession,  their 
schools  were  benefited  by  then  closer  connection 
with  the  states  of  Germany.  It  was  thus  that 
the  Cronstadl  gymnasium  was  founded  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  |(iih  century,  thai  gradually 
the  city  schools  in   various  places  were  raised  to 

the  rank  of   gymnasia,  and    that    scarcely  a  com- 


munity of  the  Augsburg  confession  was  without 
a  common  school.  The  same  was  also  true  of 
most  of  the  communities  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  The  elementary  education  of  the  Cath- 
olics in  the  German  settlements,  was  not  so  well 
cared  for  :  but  numerous  gymnasia  were  founded 
by  the  Jesuits  in  the  Hungarian  countries,  which 
grew  quite  rapidly.  Very  little  was  done  for  the 
{  cause  of  education  by  the  government,  until 
Maria  Theresa  appointed  a  commission  on 
schools  and  studies,  in  1774.  The  whole  country 
was  divided  into  nine  districts.  The  provincial 
director,  who  presided  over  a  district,  had  charge 
of  all  the  schools,  with  the  exception  of  the 
national  university,  the  gymnasium  of  Buda, 
and  the  episcopal  lyceums.  In  177^.  the  in- 
spectors of  the  Catholic  common  schools  met  in 
Buda,  and  consulted  on  a  plan,  called  the  pro- 
jectum  Budense,  to  organize  these  schools.  In 
accordance  with  this  plan,  a  normal  school  was 
immediately  established  in  every  district,  and 
common  schools  were  to  be  erected  as  soon  as 
possible  in  every  parish.  In  the  village  schools. 
instruction  was  to  be  confined  to  reading,  writ- 
ing, and  arithmetic,  with  German, if  desired; 

while,  in  the  city  schools,  a  knowledge  of  Ger- 
man was  considered  necessary  for  all  the  scholars. 
The  schools  of  non-Catholics  were  to  be  grad- 
ually incorporated  with  the  system.  In  1780, 
the  empress  gave  to  the  schools  the  property  of 
the  Jesuits,  amounting  to  about  L0,000,000 
florins ;  but,  ovi  ing  to  the  peculiar  circumstances 
which  existed  under  Joseph  II..  this  huge  sum 
did  not  immediately  produce  the  expected  result. 
Joseph  I  [.attempted a  number  of  radical  reforms; 
but   most   of  them   had   to  be   abandoned,  even 

before  his  death.  A  commission,  however,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Reichstag,  drafted  a  new  law. 
which  was  adopted  in  1806.  According  to  this 
law,  every  Catholic  community  was  to  have  a 
national  school,  with  one  or  two  teachers;  while 
7.'!  cities  were  to  have  upper  schools,  with  three 
or  four  teachers.  The  ten  normal  schools  were 
to  serve  at  the  same  time  as  schools  for  teachers. 
The   (ill    gymnasia    were     divided     into    51    full 

gymnasia,  with  six  classes,  and  <i  of  four  classes 

each.  After  the  death  of  Joseph  II.  the  Protest- 
ants refused  aiOSl  determinedly  to  introduce 
this  new  law  into  their  schools,  and  Catholic 
children  were  prohibited  from  attending  Protest- 

anl    schools   without    the    consent  of    the    priest 

A  new  era  began  when,  in  1850,  the  Hungarian 
lands  became  an  integral  part  of  the  Austrian 
monarchy.  Attention  was.  at  first,  given  to  the 
elementary  schools.     New  schools  were  erected. 

the  condition  of  the  teachers  was  improved, 
and    existing   schools    were   enlarged.     Teachers 

were  procured  at  great  expense  from  other  coun- 
tries.     Under    the    newly    appointed    district 

officers,  the   school  attendance  increased  rapidly. 

The  long  interruption  of  school  sessions, generally 
from  March  till  November,  was  abolished;  and 
penmanship, drawing, an  1  musicwere  introduced, 
for  the  first  time,  into  Hungarian  schools.     An 

entirely  new  idea  were  the  Puszta  or  Tanya 
school:.,  which    were  designed  to  furnish  instrue- 


HUNGAET 


437 


tion  to  the  numerous  children  living  on  the 
great  plains  in  houses  far  apart  from  each  other, 
and  whose  parents  were  chiefly  engaged  in  herd- 
ing horses  for  the  nobility.  After  the  re-estab- 
yshment  of  the  Hungarian  independence,  a  new 
school  law  was  promulgated,  in  L8G8,  which  has 
greatly  promoted  the  advance  of  education. — 

Primary  Instruction. —  Education,  according 
to  the  new  law  of  £868,  is  compulsory  for  all 
children  from  the  sixth  to  the  fifteenth  year.  The 
primary  schools  are  divided  into  elementary  and 
higher  people's  schools,  burgher  schools,  and  pre- 
paratory schools  for  teachers.  The  different  relig- 
ious denominations  may  establish  public  schools 
of  their  own,  if  they  comply  with  the  general  re- 
quirement of  the  school  laws.  Private  persons 
or  associations  may  also  establish  elementary  and 
normal  schools,  if  the  teachers  hold  proper  cer- 
tificates. These  schools  may  become  public 
schools  by  complying  with  the  provisions  of  the 
school  laws.  Every  private  school,  however. 
must  conform  to  the  course  of  instruction  pre- 
scribed by  law  for  schools  of  the  same  grade. 
Every  community  in  which  denominational 
schools  exist,  and  in  which  there  are  as  many  as 
30  children  of  other  denominations,  must  pro- 
vide an  elementary  school.  The  elementary 
s  hool  is  composed  of  two  courses. —  a  common 
school  course,  of  six  years,  and  a  review  course, 
of  three  years.  The  school  year  must  comprise, 
in  the  country,  at  least  eight  months,  and  in  the 
cities,  nine  months.  The  course  of  study  com- 
prises religion,  reading,  and  writing,  arithmetic. 
languages,  geography,"  and  history,  natural  phi- 
losophy, natural  history,  music,  gymnastics,  and 
practical  instruction  in  gardening  and  farming. 
Every  child  must  be  instructed  in  his  mother- 
tongue.  Wherever  there  is  a  large  number  of 
people  speaking  different  languages,  teachers  of 
th  >se  languages  must  be  employed.  All  cities 
of  more  than  5,000  inhabitants  must  establish 
at  least  a  higher  people's  school  ;  and,  if  their 
means  suffice,  a  burgher  school.  In  these  schools, 
boys  and  girls  must  be  instructed  separately,  and 
in  their  own  language.  The  course  of  study 
comprises  religion,  penmanship,  and  drawing,  the 
mother-tongue,  the  Hungarian  language,  where 
it  is  not  the  medium  of  instruction,  mathematics, 
natural  history  and  natural  philosophy,  geog- 
raphy and  history,  the  elements  of  agriculture, 
constitutional  history,  book-keeping,  gymnastics, 
and  singing.  In  the  s  ihools  for  girls,  agriculture, 
constitutional  history,  and  gymnastics  are  omit- 
I    I.  needle-work  beeing   taught    instead  of  them. 

In  the  burgher  schools,  the  boys'  course  com- 
prises six  years:  and  the  girls'  course, four  year.;. 
in  addition  to  the  stu  lies  pursued  in  the  higher 
people's  schools,  chemistry,  statistics,  and  the 
elements   of    law    are   taught    in   the   burgher 

1  T 

Bchools.  Iii  some  of  the  larger  schools,  Latin, 
French,  music  and  other  branches  are  taught  as 
Optional  studies.  The  course  in  the  normal 
schools  comprises  three  years.  A  model  training 
school  is  connected  with  every  normal  school. 
The  schools  are  under  the  direct  authority  of 
the   communities,    each   one  of   which   elects  a 


committee   of.    at  least,    nine    members.     The 
whole  country  is  divided  into  school   districts. 
for  each  one  of  which  the  ministry  appoints  an 
inspector,  who  must  superintend  all  the  schools 
in  his  district,  and  visit  them,  at   least,  once  a 
year.     He  sees  that  the  laws  are  properly  en- 
forced, and  makes  an  annual    report  Oil  the  con- 
dition of  the  si  hools  in  his  charge.    Subordinate 
to  the  inspector  is  a  school  councilor.     Teachers. 
are  appointed,  cither  upon  graduating  from  a 
normal  school,  or  upon  passing  a  proper  exam- 
ination.     A  school    law  for    Croatia  was  passed 
by  the    Croatian   diet,  in   1874,  of  which  the 
principal  provisions  are  as  follows:    The  state 
has   the    control   of   the    entire    school   system. 
School  attendance  is  compulsory  and  free.     In- 
struction is  imparted  in  the  <  'roatian  language  ; 
but  other  languages  may  be  used  as  the  medium 
of  instruction,  where  they  are  spoken  by  the 
inhabitants,  if  the  community  supports  its  own 
school,  and  the  inhabitants  are  ignorant  of  the 
<  roatian  language.  In  all  such  schools,  the  study 
of   the    Croatian   language   is  obligatory.     The 
school  age  extends  from  the  eighth  to  the  twelfth 
year  inclusive.       Female   teachers  may  be  ap- 
pointed in  lower  classes  of   the  common  school 
in  case  of  need.     Burgher  schools  for  both  sexes 
are  substituted  in  place  of  the  real  schools  which 
formerly  existed   in  connection  with  the  head 
schools.  Pupils  may  enter  the  teachers' seminal y 
upon  completing  their  fifteenth  year.  The  course 
of  instruction  comprises  three  years. 

In  1873,  there  were,  in  all  the  lands  of  the 
Hungarian  crown,  15,445 schools, of  which  1,542 
were  communal  schools,  and  13.903.  denom- 
inational schools.  In  the  same  year,  there  were 
801  communities  without  any  school  at  all.  and 
the  children  of  which  could  not  even  attend 
neighboring  schools,  on  account  of  distance.  The 
day  schools  were  attended  by  1,174,427  children 
(637,193  boys  and  537,234  girls),  the  review 
schools  by  231.530  (123,512  boys  and  108,018 
girls),  the  higher  people's  schools  by  10,104 
(6,243  boys  and  3.861  girls),  and  the  private 
schools  by  23,534  (10,905  boys  and  12,629  girls), 
and  the  intermediate  schools  by  13,671  hoys. 
making  a  total  of  1,443,266  children  receiving 
instruction.  On  the  other  hand.  678,154  (318,420 
boys  and  359,734  girls),  or  nearly  40  per  cent  of 
the  children  of  school  age,  received  no  instruc- 
tion. The  total  number  of  teachers  in  the  same 
year  was  19,598,  of  whom  15,149  were  licensed. 
The  number  of  normal  schools  was  57  :  of  which 
15  were  state  and  32  denominational  schools  for 
male  teachers,  and  I  state  and  li  denominational 
schools  for  female  teachers.     These  schools  were 

attended  by  2,371  students  (1>77  males  and  494 

females.  The  number  of  teachers  was  510.  and 
the  total  number  of  classes  151.  In  1875,  there 
were  0  higher  people's  schools  for  boys,  with  agri- 
cultural courses:  1  with  a  course  of  gardening 
and  grape  culture,  1  with  a  carving  school,  and 

1  with  a  trades'  school  ;  it  for  both  sexes,  2!> 
burgher   schools   for   boys,   and    8   for  girls.      A 

higher   female  school   iii   Buda-Pesth,  and  two 

state   seminaries   for   female   teachers,  in   Buda- 


-l:;s 


HUNGARY 


HYGIENE 


Pesth  and  in  Raab,  were  established  in  1875. 
Buda-Pesth.,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  had,  in 
1>7.'!,  Til  communal.  2  government,  18  denomi- 
national, and  49  private  schools.  The  school 
population  was  51,532.  The  day  schools  were 
attended  by  27,864,  and  the  review  schools  by 
4,726  pupils,  making  in  all  about  7!)  per  cent  of 
the  school  population.  The  courses  for  adults 
were  attended  by  1,922  pupils,  and  the  trade 
school,  by  1,510  pupils. 

Secondary  Instruction. —  Secondary  instruc- 
tion is  imparted  in  gymnasia  and  real  schools, 
which  correspond  to  the  institutions  of  the  Bame 
name  in  Germany.  In  1872,  there  were  147 
gymnasia,  with  1,842  teachers  and  27,360  stu- 
dents. Of  these.  20,775  were  -Magyars.  2,418 
Germans,  2,195  Roumanians,  and  1,863  Slaves. 
The  number  of  real  schools,  in  the  same  year,  was 
HI.  with  315  instructors  and  5,803  students,  of 
whom  3,815  were  Magyars,  L,530  Germans,  326 
Slaves,  and  115  Roumanians.  The  Hungarian 
language  is  taught  in  all  these  schools.  In  Hun- 
gary  proper,  it  is  the  medium  of  instinct  ion 
in  all  secondary  schools;  though  in  some,  one  or 
more  other  languages  are  also  used  for  some 
branches  of  instruction.  In  Transylvania,  the 
medium  of  instruction  is  German  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  gymnasia  of  Qermannstadt  and  Cron- 
stadt,  and  in  all  schools  belonging  to  the  Evan- 
gelical Church;  Roumanian,  in  the  gymnasia  of 
the  Greek  Church;  and  the  Hungarian  language, 
iii  all  other  schools. 

Superior  Instruction. — There  are  three  uni- 
versities in  Hungary:  in  Buda-Pesth,  in  Klau- 
senburg  (founded  in  1872).  and  in  Agram 
(founded  in  L874).  The  university  of  Buda- 
Pesth  had.  in  the  winter  term  of  1875 — 6,150 
professors  and  2,630  students.  Klausenburghad, 
in  the  same  year,  61  professors  and  417  students. 
In  the  University  of  Agram,  270  students  were 
admitted,  upon  its  opening,  in  1871:  but,  in 
L875  6,  the  number  of  students  was  319,  and 
that  of  professors,  31.  The  universities  of  Hun- 
gary have  substantially  the  same  organization  as 
those  of  Germany  and  of  Austria  proper. 

Special  Instruction.  Hungary  had  the  fol- 
lowing special  schools  in  L875:  A  royal  poly- 
technic institute,  in  Buda-Pesth,  with  57  profess- 
ors and  862  students:    9  royal. and    I  evangelical 

law  academies,  a  commercial  high-school,  in  Buda- 
Pesth,  a  royal  agricultural  academy,  in  Alten- 
burg,  I  other  agricultural  academies,  in  Debrec- 
Zin,  Keszthely,  Kaschau,  and  l\  lauseiiburg.  the 
royal  academy  of  forestry,  in  Schemnitz,  the 
Croatian    school    of  agriculture    and  forestry,  in 

kreii/,.  .">  lower  agricultural  schools.  .'!  ad Is  of 

vine-culture,  a  royal  mining  academy,  in  Schem- 
nitz,  2    lower    milling    schools,    an    academy   of 

music,  in  Buda-Pesth, a  royal  school  for  the  edu- 
cation of  officers  of  the  landwehr  cavalry,  in 
Jaszbereny,  the  Ludovica  Academy  in  Buda- 
Pesth,  for  the  landwehr,  a  preparatory  school,  in 

Gilnz,  and    a    naval    academy    in     Finnic.      See 

Scumio,  Encyclopctdie,  vol.  v.,  s.  v.  Austria; 
Ki.i  s.  Statistik  von  Oesterreich-Ungarn  (1876); 
Brachelli,  Statistische  Skizze  der  Staaten  Eu- 


ropds  (1875) ;  and  Statistische  Skizze  der  oster- 
reichischrungarischen  Monarchic  (1874),  being  a 
supplement  to  Steix  and  Wapp^eus,  Handbuch 
der  Geographie  und  Statistik. 

HYGIENE,  School,  has  reference  to  that 
department  of  school  administration,  which  per- 
tains to  the  preservation  of  physical  health. 
This  is  to  be  distinguished  from  physical  educa- 
tion, which  looks  rather  to  the  special  training 
or  developing  of  the  body;  while  hygienic  prin- 
ciples and  rides  have  for  their  ol  iject  to  preserve 
that  condition  of  health  in  which  all  pupils  are 
supposed  to  enter  school,  and.  by  their  constant 
though  unobtrusive  influence,  to  make  that  con- 
dition permanent.  The  value  of  the  maintenance 
of  physical  health  will  hardly  be  questioned  by 
any  thoughtful  person,  certainly  not  by  any  educa- 
tor ;  for  while  the  mind  does  sometimes,  indeed, 
appear  to  act  independently  of  the  body,  there 
are  numerous  instances  on  record  which  show 
that  not  only  intellectual  inefficiency  is  directly 
traceable  to  ill  health,  but  moral  obliquity  also. 
If  the  effect  of  positive  disease,  therefore,  be- 
comes so  evident  in  specific  instances  as  to  reveal 
this  direct  connection,  the  cases  in  which  that 
connection  is  obscure,  and  the  effect  apparent 
only  in  a  general  way.  must  be  numerous.  Il- 
lustrations of  this  are  not  wanting  in  the  experi- 
ence of  every  observing  person.  So  well  estab- 
lished has  this  connection  become)  and  so  im- 
portant, consequently,  has  the  subject  of  physical 
health  in  education  been  deemed,  that  no  prom- 
inent educational  writer  has  failed  to  notice  it. 

'I  he  subject  of  the  preservation  and  promotion 
of  physical  health  in  the  school  involves  the  fol- 
lowing considerations  :  (1)  the  character  of  the 
site  on  which  the  school  building  is  erected; 
(II)  the  mode  of  constructing  the  building,  as 
well  as  the  location  and  construction  of  the  out- 
buildings.—  water-closets,  etc.;  (Ill)  the  con- 
struction and  arrangement  of  the  class-rooms; 
(IV)  the  size,  number,  and  distribution  of  the 
windows  for  the  admission  of  light;  (V)  the 
mode  of  ventilation  :  |  VI)  the  manner  of  heat- 
ing the  rooms,  and  the  average  temperature 
preserved  in  them  by  artificial  heat:  (VII)  the 

adaptation  of  the  school  furniture  to  the  physical 
wants  and  condition  of  the  children  :  (  \  1 1 1 )  the 
kind  of  discipline  employed,  in  regard  to  hygi- 
enic principles;  (IX]  the  degree  of  attention 
gn  en  to  the  personal  condition  of  the  pupils,  so 
as  to  preserve  cleanliness  and  prevent  the  com- 
munication of  disease :  and  i\i  the  means  af- 
forded for  physical  exercise.  Each  of  these  will 
be  considered  in  its  order,  according  to  the  above 
enumeration, 

I.  Site. —  Mod.  in  sanhary  science,  fortunately, 
has  given  such  particular  attention  to  the  sub- 
jects of  site  and  exposure,  and  has  impressed  the 
public    mind   so   thoroughly    with   the   necessity 

of  their  bealthfulness, thai  only  willful  ignorance 
Or  obstinacy  will,  in  our  day,  permit  a  building 
designed  for  human  occupancy  to  be  placed  in 
a  manifestlj  unhealthy  location.    The  healthful- 

lless  of  a  school  site  depends  Upon  (  1  I  the  char- 
ade]' of  the  soil  ;    (2)  its  elevation;    (,'5j   the  cir- 


HYGIENE 


439 


cnmstances  which  facilitate  or  obstruct  proper 
drainage;  (4)  its  remoteness  from  any  stagnant 
water,  or  marshy  ground,  liable  to  produce  mal- 
arial fevers:  (5)  its  remoteness  from  any  factory 
or  establishment  poisoning  the  air  by  the  issue 

of  deleterious  and  offensive  gases  :  to  which  may 
be  added  (6)  the  amount  of  space  it  affords  for 
play-grounds,  so  as  to  facilitate  physical  exercise. 
While  no  school  board  or  committee  would 
err  so  far  as  to  place  a  school-house  in  a  situa- 
tion decidedly  unfavorable  in  regard  to  any  of 
these  considerations,  there  exist  between  this 
and  a  decidedly  healthy  location,  all  manner  of 
intermediate  situations,  which  call  for  the  exer- 
cise of  good  judgment,  and  even  a  knowledge  of 
medical  and  sanitary  science,  in  deciding  upon 
their  fitness  as  sites  for  schools.  In  the  country, 
the  difficulty  is  usually  simplified  by  the  greater 
opportunities  for  choice,  and  the  undisturbed, 
natural  condition  of  the  ground.  In  cities,  how- 
ever, the  choice  is  necessarily  restricted;  and  the 
best  judgment  will  often  be  at  fault  in  regard  to 
the  nature  of  the  ground,  this  being  frequently 
••made  ground",  /.  >■..  ground  formed  by  bringing 
earth  from  a  distance,  and  depositing  it  over 
spots  originally  low  and  swampy  ;  or  the  filling 
itself  may  be  composed  of  refuse  and  garbage 
which  are  destructive  of  health.  A  scientific 
test  of  such  ground  will  ordinarily  show  a  slow 
oozing  up,  through  the  soil,  of  poisonous  gases. 
.Modern  examinations,  also,  as  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  diphtheria,  fever  and  ague,  and  some 
other  diseases,  show  that  these  usually  follow 
the  lines  of  old  water-courses.  The  leakage  of 
-ewers  and  gas-pipes  is  another  insidious  foe 
which  the  dwellers  in  cities  have  to  encounter. 
The  choice  of  location,  therefore,  should  always 
be  such  as  to  avoid  these  influences  so  hostile  to 
health.  The  soil  should  be,  if  possible,  light  or 
sandy,  or  a  coarse  gravel,  since  clayey  soil  holds 
the  rain,  and  soon  causes  wet  feet,  with  all  their 
accompanying  diseases;  while  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter, decomposed  by  the  sun  and  standing  water, 
frequently  gives  rise  to  consumption,  and  fevers 
of  various  kinds.  If  such  a  soil  must  be  used, 
there  should  be  a  sloping  surface,  or,  if  unavoid- 
ably level,  nothing  short  of  the  most  thorough 
draining  should  be  tolerated. 

II.  Construction  of  School  Building. — The  con- 
struction of  the  school  building  will  depend  on 
the  number  of  pupils  to  be  accommodated  ;  the 
kind  of  school,  as  regards  the  sexes;  and  the 
grade,  —  whether  primary,  grammar,  or  high 
school.  (See  Sttioot.  Hocsk.)  In  regard  to 
water-closets  and  urinals,  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  say,  that  they  should,  for  convenience,  be  as 
near  the  school-house  as  possible,  without  being 
near  enough  to  allow  the  perception  of  any  odor. 
The  approaches  from  the  school-house  should  be 
under  cover,  the  ventilation  and  the  supply  of 
light  should  be  ample.  They  should  also  be  en- 
■  lo    d  from  observation. 

III.  Construction  n,i'l  Arrangement  of  Class 
1!  »»ns. — This  varies  with  the  conditions  under 
which  the  school-house  is  built.    The  rooms,  how- 
ever, should  always  be  constructed  so  as  to  allow 


at  least  108  cubic  feet  of  air  space  to  each  pupil, 
and  9  square  feet  of  floor-space.  The  height  of 
ceiling  recommended  by  the  best  authorities  is 
a  minimum  of  12  feet  and  a  maximum  of  15 
feet,  if  the  room  is  not  very  large.  These  pro- 
visions are  absolutely  necessary  to  furnish  to 
each  pupil  the  amount  of  air  necessary  for  health. 
(See   VENTILATION.) 

IV.  The  Size,  Number,  and  Distribution  of 
the  Windows.  —  On  this  subject,  Currie,  in 
School  Education,  remarks  :  "  The  provision  for 
lighting  a  school  should  have  two  ends  in  view  : 
(1)  a  proper  amount  of  light,  and  (2)  its  just 
distribution.  The  effect  either  of  an  excess  or  a 
deficiency  of  light  is  to  strain  the  eye  and  cause 
a  depression  of  spirits,  especially  as  the  day 
advances.  In  regard  to  distribution,  all  the 
parts  of  the  school  should  be  equally  lighted, 
which  may  be  more  easily  done  with  a  few  ju- 
diciously placed  windows  of  respectable  size  than 
with  a  number  of  smaller,  straggling  apertures. 
Good  ways  of  lighting  a  school  are  these  : 
(1)  Perhaps,  the  best  of  all  is  when  the  light  is 
admitted  from  the  roof,  as  it  is  then  steady, 
equable,  and  free  from  shadow.  (2)  The  win- 
dows may  be  placed  in  the  ends  of  the  school 
room,  or  in  two  adjacent  sides,  so  as  to  admit 
the  light  from  the  pupil's  left.  Where  there 
are  windows  in  front  of  the  classes,  they  should 
be  at  some  distance  from  them,  and  in  every  case 
they  should  be  at  such  height  in  the  walls  as 
to  remove  all  danger  from  drafts  when  they  are 
opened.  School  windows  should  be  of  the  same 
shape  as  ordinary  house  windows  ;  at  any  rate, 
lattice  windows,  with  numerous,  small,  lozenge- 
shaped  panes  of  glass  should  be  avoided,  as  the 
light  transmitted  through  them  is  so  broken  as 
to  be  extremely  fatiguing  to  the  eye.  (3)  Each 
window  should  be  fitted  with  blinds  to  moder- 
ate the  intensity  of  light,  when  necessary,  par- 
ticularly to  exclude  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
If  the  windows  are  used  for  ventilation  as  well 
as  lighting,  the  difficulty  of  using  the  blinds  in 
such  a  case  may  be  obviated  by  having  a  fixed 
Venetian  blind  outside  the  window  at  the  top, 
and  hanging  the  inside  blind  on  a  level  with  the 
bottom  of  it.  (4)  The  tint  of  the  school  walls 
should  neither  be  too  dull,  so  as  to  absorb  the 
light  unduly,  nor  too  glaring,  so  as  to  dazzle  the 
eye  by  reflection.  Of  the  colors  commonly  em- 
ployed ;  namely,  the  white,  the  ocher,  the  stone 
color,  and  the  lightish-brown,  the  last  two  are 
obviously  to  be  preferred."  If  the  lighting  of 
the  school  room  is  from  the  roof,  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  windows  or  sky-lights  should  not 
slope  to  the  south  or  west,  as  the  heat  and  sun- 
light will  be  intolerable  in  hot  weather,  and 
their  regulation  by  blinds  will  be  difficult.  If 
the  fighting,  on  the  other  hand,  is  by  side  win- 
dows, "the  height  of  the  window  sills  from  the 
floor,''  says  Robson,  "should  always  be  con- 
siderable, and  the  heads  near  the  ceiling.  ^luch 
of  the  cheerfulness  of  a  school  room,  especially 
in  a  town,  depends  on  the  amount  of  sky  which 
can  be  seen  from  the  windows.  The  height  of 
the  sills  from  the  floor,  therefore,  should  never 


■Mil 


HYGIENE 


be  less  than  five  feet,  and  may  be  even  nunc 
wrath  advantage.  This  will  enable  the  top  or 
bead  to  be  placed  Dearly,  if  do!  quite,  up  to  the 
ceiling,  and  then  the  upper  stratum  of  vitiated 
.  it-  can  lie  more  readily  removed."  The  impor- 
tance of  this  subject  in  regard  to  health  is  very 
great.  Liebreieh,  in  his  report  to  the  College  of 
Preceptors  of  London  (July,  L872),  attributes 
vera!  diseases  of  the  eye  to  this  cause  alone ; 
and  I>r.  Cohn  asserts  that  of  410  students  ex- 
amined by  him,  only  one-third  possessed  good 
eye-sight,  the  remaining  two-thirds  having  had 
their  sight  injured,  in  his  opinion,  by  the  de- 
ficient lighting  of  the  school  rooms  in  which  they 
studied.  A  rough  calculation,  from  researches 
made  on  the  subject,  gives  200  square  indies  of 
window  glass  as  the  proper  number  for  each 
scholar.  In  the  above  remarks  by  Currie,  the 
left  side  has  been  designated  as  the  one  from 
which  the  light  should  come,  because  this  en- 
sures the  fullest  illumination  of  the  page,  with 
the  least  inconvenience,  and  the  least  injury  to 
the  eye.  When  light  is  admitted  through  the 
front  of  the  room,  the  glare  is  directly  in  the 
face  cither  of  teacher  or  pupils,  they  being  sup- 
posed to  face  e.eli  other.  If  it  falls  from  be- 
hind, the  shadow  of  the  head  is  thrown  directly 
upon  the  page;  if  from  the  right  side,  the 
shadows   of   the   arm    and    hand,   in    the   act    of 

writ  ing,  equally  obscure  it.     The  light,  therefore. 

should  fall  from  the  left  side,  and.  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, from  above.  In  evening  schools,  the  light- 
ing should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  equal  to  that 
by  day.  If  gas  is  used,  the  glass  cylinder  with  a 
reflecting  shade  is  recommended,  for  the  purpose 
of  steadying  the  light  and  making  it  stronger  and 

whiter.  Ground  glass  shades  are  now  generally 
discountenanced,  their  effect  being  to  diffuse  the 
light.     For  general  illuminating  purposes  they 

are  desirable,  as  in  die  parlor  or  concert  room  ; 
but  are  out  of  place  in  the  school  room,  or  in 
any    room    where    the    object    is   to    concentrate 

light  upon  a  particular  spot. 

V.  '/'/%■  Mode  of  Ventilation.    See  Venti- 
i,  ■  r;o.v. 

VI.  Mode  of  Heating,  <url   Temperature. — 

Many  met  hods,  based  upon  ingenious  theories  ;.  i  id 

provoking  heated  discussion,  have  been  adopted 
to  overcome  the  difficulties  attending  this  sub- 
ject; but  it  is,  probably,  not  unfair  to  say  that 
an  end  rely  unobjectionable  heal  ing  apparatus,  as 
regards  health,  has  yet  to  be  devised.  Wood  is, 
of  course,  too  dear  for  general  use.  'The  ordinary 
e.  the  cellar  furnace,  and  all  devices  for 
..arming   air   by    passing    it    over    heated    metal 

urfaces  are   now    entirely  discountenanced,  it 

having  been  discovered  thai  a  highly  poisonous 

is  set  free,  and  passes  through  heated  metal 

as  through  a  .-ie\c.      The  steam  coil,  placed    OUt- 

ide  of  the  school  room  and  heating  a  column  of 

air  which    is   drawn  from    I  he  out  Sli  le.  and.  alter 

heating  b  cends  into  the  room.  has.  of  late,  been 

extensively  used.        At    the   Opposite    end    of    the 

room,  a  grate,  varying  in  size  with  thai  of  the 

room,  is    placed:    the    theory    being    that,  as    the 

haated  an  ascends  in  one  end  of  the  room,  the 


cool    and    foul   air   is   forced  out  at  the  other 

through  the  Hue  of  the  grate,  in  which  a  fire 
is  usually  kept  to  facilitate  the  current.  This 
method,  while  perhaps  the  least  objectionable  of 
any.  has  been  opposed  on  the  ground,  that  by  it 
the  stratum  of  air  nearest  the  ceiling  is  kept 
warmest,  while  that  nearest  the  floor,  which 
should  be  the  wannest,   is  least  so.     To  obviate 

this  difficulty,  it  has  even  been  proposed  to  make 

the  floor  of  stone  and  warm  it  after  the  manner 
of   an   oven.    i.  e.,  by    kindling  a   tire    under   it. 

Whatever  method  is  adopted,  however,  fluctua- 
tions of  temperature  should,  as  much  as  possible, 
be  avoided,  and  the  air  of   the  room   should  be 

kepi  steadily  at  from  65  to  7<»  degrees. 

VII.  Furniture. — Several  diseases  have  been 
traced  to  faultily-constructed  school  furniture. 
chief  among  which  is  curvature  of  the  spine,  with 
the  diseases  consequent  upon  it.  This  is  some- 
times the  result  of  insufficient  lighting ;  but  more 
frequently  it  arises  from  the  Improper  construc- 
tion of  the  desk  and  seat,  or  the  arrangement  of 

them.     (See  School  Fukniti  be.) 

VI I I.  Discipline  and  School  Management. — 

The  methods  of  discipline  which  militate  against 
bodily  health  are  fortunately  growing  less  in 
every  civilized  country. as  more  study  is  given  to 
the  subject  of  education,  it  may  be  said  briefly 
that  whatever  discipline  tends  to  bodily  deteri- 
oration in  any  way  should  be  discountenanced,  as 
the  object  of  discipline  is  to  train,  uol  to  break 
down.  (See  Discipline.)  <>f  the  errors,  under 
the  head  of  school  management,  which  affect 
health  may  be  mentioned  those  which  arise  from 
1 1 )  the  length  of  the  daily  school  session.  These 
crrots  are  frequently  due  to  the  fact  thatcouTses 
of  Study  are  laid  down  first,  with  the  view  of  ac- 
complishing a  certain  result,  and  the  pupils' 
powers  arc  made  to  coii form  to  them.  Ity  this 
inversion  of  the  natural  method,  sessions  of  h'\  ■ 
and  six  hours,  with  only  slight  intermissions,  ate 

sometimes    ordered;    this    can   result   only  in 

physical  injury.  The  reversal  of  this.  i.e. .11  study 

of  the  child's   physical   necessities    first,  and  a 

school  course  based  on  them,  will  insure  the  adop- 
tion of  the  only  sale  and  reasonable  method  con- 
sistent with  health.    This  should  be  so  arranged. 

by  a  judicious  alternation  of  sedentary  occupa- 
tions, physical  exercises,  ami  recesses,  that  no 
"violation  of  the  primary  laws  of  physiology  ".  as 

Prof.  Owen  terms  it.  maybe  possible.  In  a  room 

Supplied  with  proper  hygienic  facilities,  four 
hours  per  day  is  thought  to  be  the  maximum  for 

\  ery  young  pupils,  and  five  hours  tor  older  01 

/'//'■  number,  length,   <<>"!    distribution    of 
ises  must  vary  with  the  different  ages  of  th  1 

children  to  such  an  extent,  that  the  onlv  practi- 
cable guide  for  their  regulation  must  be  found  in 

the  discretion  Of  the  teacher,     it  may  be  said,  in 

general,  however,  that  the  weariness  of  the  pupil. 

which  is  shown  by  his  restlessness  and  want  of 
attention,  furnishes  the  best  indication  of  the 
time  when  t  he  ordinal  v  text  book  studies  should 
be  superseded  by  physical  c xercist  >,  ,,r  by  the  ab- 
solute recreation  of  the  play-ground.  In  tropical 
Climates,  the  middle  of  the   day,    lor    exercise   1 


HYGIENE 


441 


any  kind,  should  be  avoided.  Nature,  however, 
ha*  pointed  this  out  so  unmistakably,  thai  there  is 
little  liability  to  error.  (3)  The  number,  length, 
and  distribution  of  vacations  arc  in  a  general 
way.  governed  by  the  same  consideration  that 
prescribes  the  number,  Length,  and  distribution 
of  recesses;  namely,  the  freshness,  both  mental 
and  physical, of  the  pupil,  with  such  modifications 
as  may  be  suggested  by  climate,  prevailing  con- 
tagious diseases,  or  other  conditions.  The  ten- 
dency, of  late  years,  in  the  I  nited  States,  has 
been  to  begin  the  school  session  about  the  first 
of  September, and  to  continue  it  uninterruptedl) 
— with  a  slight  intermission  of  a  week  during  the 
holidays  —  till  the  following  June  or  July.  By 
this  arrangement,  a  Long,  continuous  vacation  is 
insured  during  the  warmest  season  of  the  year, 
when,  it  is  claimed,  rest  is  most  needed.  It  has 
been  objected  to  this,  and  perhaps  with  reason, 
that  the  heat  of  the  summer  months  renders 
them  unfavorable  for  that  outdoor  exercise  which 
is  most  needed  for  the  recuperation  of  the  system. 
and  that  the  health  of  pupils  would  be  promoted 
rather  by  confining  them  indoors.  As  long, 
however,  as  the  summer  heats  are  avoided  by 
a  flight  to  the  sea-shore  or  the  mountains,  this 
practice  will  probably  prevail  ;  and  though  it 
may  be  said  that  the  poor  of  cities,  who  are  by 
far  the  largest  patrons  of  the  public  schools,  can- 
not afford  to  leave  the  city  for  summer  retreats. 
it  must  be  remembered,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
,  the  greater  prevalence  of  fatal  diseases  in  cities. 
during  the  summer  months,  renders  a  vacation 
desirable  even  in  their  ease.  (4)  The  regulations 
of  the  school  may.  by  their  severity,  seriously 
interfere  with  bodily  health,  by  checking  or 
entirely  repressing  that  activity  which  is  so 
marked  a  characteristic  of  childhood  and  youth. 
Reid,  in  his  Principles  of  Education,  says,'' 
There  is  nothing  in  which  parents  are  often  more 
tyrannical  and  unreasonable  than  in  expecting 
children  to  be  quiet  and  good,  and  give  them 
little  trouble,  when  they  will  not  put  themselves 
to  the  least  trouble  to  find  suitable  occupation 
for  the  active  and  restless  faculties  of  their 
children.  The  trouble  that  a  child  gives  to  those 
in  charge  of  it,  should  very  often  be  viewed  as 
an  effort  of  nature  to  recall  them  to  their  neg- 
lected duty."  The  degree  and  kind  of  restraint, 
exercised  over  pupils,  therefore  deserve  careful 
isideration.  In  this  connection  must  be  con- 
demned all  those  restrictions  which  repress,  for 
any  considerable  time,  that  innate  activity  which 
is  a  necessity  of  the  child's  very  being,  and  the 
repression  of  which,  though  not  Immediately  and 
actively  productive  of  disease,  becomes  passively 
so  by  the  condition  of  atrophy  which  it  tends  to 
produce.  Want  of  exercise  is  frequently  as  in- 
imical to  health  as  excess  of  it.  The  number 
and  length  of  lessons,  also,  by  their  excess  may 
become  physically  injurious.  "With  young  chil- 
dren," Currie  says,  "a  lesson  should  not  average 
in  duration  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and 
on  no  account  exceed  twenty  minutes.  It  is  hard 
enough  to  sustain  the  attention,  even  for  this 
period  j  and  no  child  will  be  able  to  retain  more 


than  we  can  tell  him  within  it.  The  teacher 
should  subdivide  his  lesson  rather  than  trespass 

beyond  this   limit.      Lessons   of   different    kinds, 

i.  e.,  occupying  different  senses,  should  follow 
each  other ;  this  is  a  great  relief.  It  is  absurd 
to  speak  of  these  frequent  changes  as  causing 
loss  of  time".  Excitement  and  overwork,  also, 
should  be  avoided.  The  same  general  directions, 
however,  given  in  regard  to  the  number  ami 
Length  of  recesses,  are  applicable  here.  The  les- 
sons assigned  by  the  teacher  and  studied  in  his 

presence  may  be  easily  directed  ;  but  those  which 

are  pursued  at  home  should  receive  equal  atten- 
tion.    (See  I  Lome  Lessons.) 

I X.  Personal  <  Condition  of  Pupils. — (1)  Clean- 
liness, being  a  necessary  condition  of  health, 
should  be  strcnously  insisted  upon.  Cleanliness 
of  the  person  will  sometimes  be  found,  especially 
in  schools  among  the  very  poor,  to  be  neglected. 
The  danger  of  the  outbreak  of  disease,  or  of  its 
communication  from  this  source,  is  always  great 
in  large  schools;  and,  therefore,  the  frequent 
use  of  the  lavatory,  in  such  cases,  is  necessary. 
Cleanliness  of  clothing  is  no  less  necessary  to 
prevent  the  communication  of  disease.  Realizing 
the  neglect  of  a  proper  care  of  the  clothing, 
natural  to  children  through  thoughtlessness, many 
school  boards  have  made  the  daily  dusting  and 
brushing  of  clothes  by  the  pupils  a  part  of  the 
school  routine.  In  Germany,  this  is  often  in- 
sisted upon,  and  the  necessary  provision  made  at, 
the  expense  of  the  school.  <  lleanliness  of  In  tills 
is  a  no  less  essential  condition  of  good  health, 
and  should  be  watched,  as  far  as  may  be,  and 
enforced  with  a  view  to  the  prevention  of  ill 
health.  (2)  It  frequently  happens  that  diseases, 
more  or  less  contagious  in  their  nature,  break  out 
in  schools,  and  lead  to  the  closing  of  the  schools 
for  a  time,  with  sometimes  more  serious  results. 
In  many  cases,  these  could  have  been  prevented, 
or  confined  to  the  original  ease,  by  a  proper  pre- 
caution on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Ophthalmia, 
hooping-cough,  scrofula,  scarlet  fever,  small-pox, 
and  skin  diseases,  whether  of  the  head  or  the 
body,  are  cases  of  this  kind.  A  slight  knowledge 
of  the  symptoms  should  apprise  an  intelligent 
teacher  of  the  danger  at  once,  and  .secure  the  re- 
moval of  the  case  to  the  home  or  the  hospital* 
(.'{)  Vaccination,  as  a  preventive  of  small-pox, 
should  receive  attention.  The  efficacy  of  this  is 
now  so  thoroughly  established,  that  a,  majority 
of  public  schools  do  not  hesitate  to  employ  it.  not- 
withstanding the  objections  often  urged.  When 
the  disease  becomes  epidemic,  if  the  pupil  has 
never  been  vaccinated,  the  operation  should  take 
place  at  once;  if  he  has,  proof  should  be  required, 
eil  her  in  the  shape  of  marks,  or  a  certificate, 
which  should  establish  three  facts:  that  the 
operation  was  performed  by  a  competent  and 
responsible  person,  that  it  was  effective,  and  that 
it  was  done  recently  enough  to  insure  its  efficacy 
in  averting  disease  at  the  time  the  proof  is  re- 
quired. 

X.  Physical  Exercise. — That  this  is  one  of  the 
most  effective  of  all  agencies  in  preventing  dis- 
ease, is  now  generally  admitted,  though  the  ex- 


442 


IDAHO 


cess  to  which  it  is  often  carried  in  our  day  has, 
for  .some  time,  been  creating  a  reaction  against  it. 
The  phase  of  the  question  which  calls  for  atten- 
tion here,  is  its  use  not  so  much  as  a  means  of 
development,  as  in  promoting  health.  On  this 
account,  one  of  the  most  important  acces- 
sories of  the  school-house  is  the  play-ground. 
Whether  this  is  used  as  a  place  for  continuing 
the  discipline  of  the  school  room,  or  simply  as  a 
spot  where  children  may  be  absolutely  free  to 
pursue  their  games,  its  size,  location,  and  exposure 
should  be  carefully  considered.  If  the  plot  on 
which  the  school-house  stands  is  large,  but  en- 
tirely, or  almost  entirely,  surrounded  by  other 
buildings,  the  planting  of  shade  trees  around  the 
limits  of  the  enclosure  is  recommended,  in  order 
to  give  seclusion.  These  should  never  stand,  how- 
ever, so  near  the  building  as  to  exclude  light,  or 
cause  dampness.  Robson  says  in  regard  to  this. 
"The  play-ground  should  not  be  of  a  straggling. 
inconvenient  form,  but  compact  and  without  re- 
c  sms  or  places  where  children  can  remain  long 
out  of  sight.  A  northerly  or  easterly  as|  >ect  sin  >uli  1 
n.'ver  be  wantonly  provided  when  a  southerly  or 
westerly  one  could  have  been  as  easily  obtained 
by  no  other  outlay  than  that  of  a  little  common 
sense.  A  portion  should  be  covered,  so  that  in 
wet  weather  the  children  may  not  be  compelled 
to  play  in  their  school  rooms.  In  the  case  of  in- 
fant schools, this  covered  portion  is  absolutely  in- 
dispensable, as  already  shown,  because  marching 
forms  so  important  an  element  in  their  prepar- 
atory instruction.  It  can  generally  be  obtained  in 
the  form  of  a  light  shed  open  on  one  side;  but. 
in  some  cases,  and  where  land  is  dear,  it  may 
be  convenient  to  raise  the  boys'  and  girls'  schools 
on  a  low  story  of  eight  to  nine  feet  high,  and 
thus  to  obtain  some  portion  of  the  covered  play- 
ground underneath.  In  such  cases,  care  will  be 
required  to  prevent  a  cold,  drafty  result.  As 
to  the  size  of  play-grounds  for  different  schools, 
it  is  difficult  to  be  precise.  <>n  account  of  their 
more  active  out-dour  games,  requiring  space,  the 
boys  should  undoubtedly  have  the  lion's  share, 
While  the  infants — too  young  to  develop  all  the 
uses  of  a  play-ground  —  will  be  happy  in  one 
much  more  limited.     Perhaps,  a  space  of  about 

twice  the  size  Of  the  school  room  and  class  rooms 
is  necessary  for  the  latter.  Where  land  is  dear. 
and  in   consequence   limited,  one   play-ground 


may  suffice  both  for  the  girls'  school  and  the  in- 
f ants', an  arrangement  being  made  by  the  respec- 
tive mistresses  for  its  use  at  separate  times. 
Without  such  arrangement,  there  is  risk  of  dis- 
order, no  one  being  responsible  for  the  discipline 
of  (ill.  if  there  are  two  infant  schools  or  depart- 
ments on  the  same  site,  the  girls  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  separate  play-ground,  because  then 
the  numbers  are  sure  to  be  too  great  for  one." 
By  what  means  these  play -grounds  should  be 
separated,  is  still  a  matter  of  discussion,  different 
methods  being  employed  in  different  places,  with, 
thus  far,  equally  satisfactory  results. 

In  dismissing  the  subject  of  school  hygiene,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  influence  of  school  life  on 
physical  health,  if  properly  managed,  is  not  only 
not  injurious,  but  positively  beneficial.  This 
might  be  inferred,  a  priori,bom  the  fundament- 
al law  of  existence.  Jt  is  amply  confirmed,  how- 
ever, by  actual  statistics.  Efforts  to  prove  the 
contrary  have  been  made  by  inferences  drawn 
from  false  premises  based  on  over-exertion,  and 
many  erroneous  theories  prejudicial  to  the  cause  of 
education  have  thereby  become  prevalent.  The 
interaction  of  mind  and  b  >dy.  hi  >wever.  is  not  only 
an  established,  but  a  conceded  fact  :  and  just  as 
surely  as  the  body,  by  proper  exercise,  contrib- 
utes to  the  efficiency  of  the  mind,  so  surely  does 
the  mind, by  duly  regulated  action,  contribute  to 
that  of  the  body.  The  annals  of  medical  science 
confirm  this  in  the  most  unmistakable  man- 
ner. The  difficulty  is  to  assign  to  each  its  proper 
a  mi  unit  of  exercise.     On   this   point,   differences 

will  probably  always  exist ;  but  the  foundation 
has  been  carefully  and  substantially  laid  ;  and. 
each  year,  by  increased  interest,  refinement  of 
processes ,  and  patient  investigation,  something 
IS  added  to  our  knowledge  of  this  most  important 
subject,  and  the  probability  of  our  possession  of 
a  school  course  capable  of  accomplishing  the 
gnat  desideratum  of  modern  life — a  true  educa- 
tion- is  more  assured.  —  See  CuRRTJE,  Principles 
andPractice  of  Common-School  Education  |  Kdin. 
and  Lond.);  Robson,  School  Architecture  (Lond., 
L874) ;  P  utkmikim.  Handbuch  der  Sanitdts- 
Polizei,  nach  eigenen  Qntersuchungeu  bearbeitet 
(2  vols..  Berlin,  L858— 9);  Seegel,  Die  Schule 
und  ihr  Einfluss  an/  </>>■  (f'csuui/heil  (1868); 
Passavant,  Ueber  Schidunterricht  ram  drzt- 
lichen  Standpunkte  (1SG8). 


IDAHO  was  organized  as  a  territory  March  ! 
3.,  L863,  being  formed  from  portions  of  Dakota, 
Nebraska,  and  Washington  territories,  and  in- 1 
eluding  then  the  present  territory  of  Montana  and 
nearly  all  of  Wyoming.  Its  present  area  is  86,294 
sq.  m.:  and  its  population, in  1870,  was  L4,999. 

Educational  History.—  Soon  after  the  organ- 
ization of  the  territory,  provision  was  made  foi 
the  support  of  public  schools,  and  a  school  system 

was  established.     In  1866,  the  Dumber  of  pupils 

enrolled  m  the  schools  of   eight    counties  was  re- 
ported as  -I'M,  out  of  a  school  population  of   T'J- 


children,  between  five  and  eighteen  years  of  age. 
The  whole  number  of  children  of  school  age  in 
the  territory  was  estimated  at  that  time  ;is  l.MMl. 
Up  to  1870,  little  progress  had  been  made,  the 
census  returns  showing  only  466  pupils  attend- 
ing the  schools  of  the  territory.    The   whole 

number  of  school  children  in  the  territory,  be- 
tween the  aces  of  live  and  twentv-one.  in  1871, 
was  L.596;  'in  1872,  L.909  ;  in  1873,  3,473;  and 
in  L874,  4,010. 

School  System. — The  school  law  has  been  re- 
peatedly   changed.     That    at    present    (1876)  in 


IDAHO 


IDIOTS 


443 


force  was  passed  in  January,  1875.     Its  leading 
provisions  are  the  following  : — 

The  territorial  controller  is.  ex  officio,  territo- 
rial superintendent  of  public  instruction;  and 
his  duties  are.  tn  exercise  a  general  supervision 
over  the  public  schools  of  the  territory,  to  pre- 
pare blanks  for  reports  of  county  superintend- 
ents, trustees,  teachers,  etc.;  to  apportion  tin- 
school  fund:  and  to  make  a  detailed  report  to 
the  legislative  assembly  at  each  of  its  regular 
sessions;  also  to  present  such  suggestions  as  he 
may  deem  necessary,  in  relation  to  the  construc- 
tion of  school-houses,  the  management  and  sup- 
port of  the  schools,  the  qualifications  of  teachers, 
and  the  promotion  of  the  general  interests  of 
education  throughout  the  territory.  The  other 
officers  who  perforin  duties  directly  connected 
with  education  are  the  county  superintendents 
and  the  trustees  of  schools.  The  auditor  of  each 
county  is.  e.c  officio,  county  superintendent, 
whose  duties  are,  to  apportion  the  public  school 
money  among  the  school  districts,  on  the  first 
Monday  in  March,  and  quarterly  thereafter ;  to 
distribute,  on  behalf  of  the  territorial  superin- 
tendent, blanks,  reports,  etc.,  for  the  use  of  the 
school  trustees,  census  marshals,  and  teachers;  to 
keep  on  rile  reports  from  school  trustees  etc.;  and 
to  make  an  annual  report  to  the  territorial  super- 
intendent, stating  the  number  of  school-houses 
in  each  district  of  his  county,  the  number  of 
children  of  school  age,  the  number  of  pupils  at- 
tending school,  the  number  of  libraries  and  books 
therein,  the  school  books  used,  the  amount  of 
money  paid  for  teachers'  salaries  and  other 
school  purposes ;  to  appoint  trustees  to  fill  va- 
cancies, and  to  organize  new  school  districts  on 
the  application  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  same  ; 
also  to  modify  the  boundaries  of  school  districts ; 
and  to  receive  and  file  all  school  election  returns. 
Three  trustees  of  schools  are  elected  annually  in 
each  district,  who  hold  office  for  the  term  of  one 
year.  Their  powers  and  duties  are  to  employ 
and  remove  teachers,  and  to  fix  the  salaries  of 
the  same ;  to  visit  the  schools  as  often  as  once 
in  each  month  ;  to  take  charge  of  all  the  school- 
property  in  their  respective  districts  ;  by  vote 
of  the  district,  to  convey  by  deed  any  school 
house  or  site,  also  to  purchase  real  estate  for  the 
use  of  the  schools;  to  call  meetings  of  the  in- 
habitants to  decide  upon  the  levy  of  any  special 
tax  that  may  be  required  in  order  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  schools  ;  to  examine  and  license 
teachers ;  and  to  appoint  a  census  marshal  to 
make  the  enumeration  of  the  children  in  the  dis- 
t  rict .  No  books,  papers,  tracts,  or  documents,  of  a 
political,  sectarian,  or  denominational  character 
are  permitted  to  be  used  in  any  of  the  schools. — 
Teachers,  before  receiving  a  certificate  of  license 
from  the  trustees,  must  pass  an  examination  in 
orthography,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, English  grammar,  and  the  history  of  the 
1  nited  States. — The  legal  school  age  is  from 
five  to  eighteen  years. 

School  Statistics. — In  1874.  the  whole  Dumber 
of  school-districts  in  the  territory  was  77:  and 
the  number  of  school- houses,  53.     There  were 


3  libraries,  containing  198  volumes.  The  num- 
ber of  children,  between  five  and  twenty-one  was 
•1,1110;  and  the  school  attendance  was  2.030. 
The  whole  amount  of  money  received  was 
$31,064.33;  and  the  amount  expended,  921,789. 

School  Fund. — All  moneys  accruing  from  the 
sale  of  lands  given  by  Congress  for  school  pur- 
poses, and  all  moneys  appropriated  by  Congress 
for  school  purposes  in  the  territory,  are  to  be 
devoted  to  the  establishment  of  a  university 
or  other  high  school.  Moneys  obtained  by 
Legacy,  donation,  escheats,  etc.,  constitute  an  ir- 
reducible and  indivisible  general  school  fund, 
the  interest  of  which  is  apportioned  among  the 
counties.  The  county  school  fund  is  obtained 
by  a  tax  of  not  less  than  two,  or  more  than 
five,  mills  on  each  dollar  of  taxable  property 
in  every  county.  All  moneys  arising  from  fines 
for  a  breach  of  the  penal  laws  of  the  territory 
are  set  apart  by  the  county  treasurer  as  a  part 
of  the  county  school  fund. 

Measures  were  taken  in  July,  1874,  to  estab- 
lish in  Boise  City  a  university,  to  be  known 
as  the  Idaho  University.  Provision  has  been 
made  for  this  institution  in  the  new  school  law. 

IDIOTS,  Education  of.  The  term  idiots 
is  applied  to  those  who,  in  different  degrees,  are 
deficient  in  intellectual  power  and  activity.  A 
more  general  designation,  however,  of  this  class 
of  unfortunates  is  that  of  ///<■  imherife,  or feeble- 
iii  inded persons;  since  idiocy  is  usually  employed 
to  denote  an  extreme  degree  of  mental  deficiency. 
The  first  attempt,  so  far  as  is  known,  to  in- 
struct idiots  was  made  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
in  the  17th  centmy,  and  by  the  philosopher  Itard, 
the  friend  and  disciple  of  Condillac,  at  the  close 
of  the  18th  century;  but  the  efforts  of  both 
were  limited  to  a  few  isolated  cases,  and  did 
not  lead  to  the  establishment  of  any  perma- 
nent school  for  idiots.  Dr.  Itard  committed  the 
facts  which  he  had  gathered  to  his  pupil  Dr.  Se- 
guin,  who  made  the  study  of  idiocy  a  specialty. 
The  subject  had,  in  the  mean  time,  been  discussed 
by  a  number  of  physicians,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  special  schools  for  idiots  had  been  re- 
commended by  Dr.  Pool  of  Edinburgh  (1819), 
and  Dr.  Belhomme  of  Paris  (1824).  Practical 
attempts,  on  a  small  scale,  had  also  been  made 
at  Salzburg  in  Austria  (1816),  at  the  American 
asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Hartford, 
Ct.  (1818)  ;  at  the  Bicetre,  one  of  the  large 
insane  hospitals  in  Paris  (l8'_'s)  :  at  the  Salpe- 
triere,  another  insane  hospital  at  Paris  (1833); 
by  Dr.  Voisin,  who  organized  a  school  for  idiots 
at  Paris,  in  1833,  and  by  other  philanthropists. 
But  all  these  attempts  were  of  short  duration,  and 
a  firm  basis  was  not  gained  until  the  establish- 
ment of  the  school  of  Dr.  Seguin.  In  1*4*,  Dr. 
Seguin  settled  in  the  United  States,  where  he 
assisted  in  tin'  organization  and  improvement  of 
several  institutions  for  idiot  instruction.  In  1874, 
there  were  three  schools  for  idiots  in  France, — at 
the  Bicetre  and  the  Salpetriere  at  Paris,  and  at 
Clermont,  with  an  aggregate  number  of  85  in- 
mates. In  Belgium,  institutions  for  the  instruction 
of  idiots  are  connected  with  the  insane  asylums 


444 


IDIOTS 


at  Gheel  and  Bruges.  The  Netherlands  have  one 
school  for  idiots,  at  the  Hague,  founded  in  1855, 
with  which,  three  years  later,  a  medical  asylum 
was  connected.  In  Switzerland,  l>r.  <  ruggenbuhl 
opened,  in  L842,  a  school  specially  intended  for 
cretins, on  theAbendberg,  in  the  canton  of  Hern. 
His  pretended  ability  to  cure  cretins  attracted 
for  a  time  great  attention,  but  was,  afterwards 
generally  denounced  as  a  fraud.  In  187  1,  Switzer- 
land had  two  private  schools  for  idiots,  in  the 
cantons  of  Bern  and  Basel,  with  an  aggregate 
number  of  27  inmates.  There  are  similar  schools 
in  the  canton  of  Thurgau  and  in  the  city  of 
Ziirich.  In  the  German  provinces  of  Austria, 
an  attempt  to  establish  a  school  for  idiots  was 
made,  as  early  as  1816,  at  Salzburg,  by  the 
teacher  GuggenmoOS.  A  few  years  later,  twelve 
cretin  children  were  received  at  the  monastery 
of  Admont,  in  Salzburg.  From  1835  to  1  is4T. 
Haldenwang, a  clergyman  of  Wiirtemberg,  main- 
tained at  Wildberg  a  private  institution  for  idiot 
children.  The  governments  of  several  of  the  <  Ser- 
man  states  granted  the  means  for  establishing 
idiot  asylums;  and  Dr.  Kern,  who  had  already,  in 
1 8 12,  begun  to  experiment  in  Eisenach,  succeeded 
in  effecting  remarkable  partial  cures,  and  was 
placed  by  the  Saxon  government  at  the  head 
of  an  excellent  asylum  in  Gohlis,  uear  Leipsic  ; 
while  Sui/r,-/  in  Berlin  (1844),  Krause  in  Halle 
(1840),  Glascheva  Hubertsburg  (1846),  and  Dr. 

KiiSCh,  in   Wurtelllberg,  were    DO  less    SUCCeSSful. 

In   1*71.  Prussia  had  ten  idiot  asylums,  s 

private,  and  some  maintained  by  the  state. 
Sweden  had.  in  L874,  three  schools,  and  Rus- 
sia, school   for  idiots.     In  England,  the  firsl 

efforts  for  the  instruction  of  idjot  children  were 
made  by  some  benevolent  ladies,  in  Lancas- 
ter. Bath,  Ipswich,  and  Brighton.  A  movement 
for  establishing  idiot  asylums  on  a  large  scale 
began  in  L847.  The  institution  at  Earlswood, 
near  Uedhill.  Surrey,  had.  in  L874,  700  inmates; 
other  institutions  are  the  Eastern  County 
Asylum,    Essex     I  lall.  *  'olehester,    the    Western 

Counties  Asylum,  at   Starcross,    near   Exeter, 

the  Midland  Counties  Asylum,  at  Knowle.  anl 
the    Royal    Albert    Asylum,   uear    Lancaster.      A 

private  institution  of  Dr.  Langdon  Down,  at 
Xonnansiielil.  near  London,  is  only  designed  for 

the  wealthy.  All  these  institutions  have  train- 
ing schools  connected  with  them.  Scotland 
has  ;i    national     institution     lor     the    education 

of  imbecile  children,  at    Lasbert,  Stirlingshire, 

with  !M>  pupils.  There  are  also  schools  for  idiots 
iii  Inland,  ('ana  la.  ami  New  South  Wales.  In 
the  United  States,  the  earliest  efforts  t<>  instruct 
idiot  children  were  made,  as  has  already  been 
'i  I.  in  the  I  la  ill  or.  1  asylum  tor  the  deaf  and 
dumb.     Similar   attempts,    but    only    in    isolated 

cases,  were  subsequently  (1838  or  1839)  made  in 
the  Perkins  Institution  for  the  Blind  in  Boston, 
and  in  the  New  fork  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institution. 
The  first  impulse  to  the  establishment  of  special 

Bchoolfl  lor  idiots  ua-  given     I  8  b"i|  by  the  letters 

of  George  Sumner,  describing  his  visit   to  the 

Paris  BCl Is.      Among    the    first    and    foremost 

pro tersoi  i he  cau.se  in  the  United  States,  were 


Dr.  S.  B.  "Woodward,  superintendent  of  the 
hospital  for  the  insane,  at  Worcester,  Mass..  and 
Dr.  Frederick  K.  Backus,  of  Rochester,  X.  Y. 
The  legislatures  of  Massachusetts  and  New  York 
at  once  took  action  in  the  matter,  in  New  York. 
Dr.  Backus,  who  had  been  elected  a  member  of 
the  state  senate,  reported,  in  1846,  a  bill  for  the 
establishment  of  an  idiot  institution:  and,  in 
Massachusetts,  the  legislature  appointed  a  com- 
mission to  investigate  the  condition  of  idiots 
and  report  suitable  measures  for  their  instruc- 
tion. In  accordance  with  the  report  of  the 
commission,  an  experimental  school  was  estab- 
lished at  South  Boston,  in  (  tat.  18  I*,  which  was. 
in  1850,  incorporated  as  the  Massachusetts  School 
for  Idiotic  and  Feeble-Minded  Youth.  It  was, 
trom  its  foundation  until  I876,underthe  direction 
of  Dr.  Howe,  whose  death  occurred  in  that  year. 
The  state  makes  an  annual  appropriation  of 
$16,500  for  its  support,  and  poor  children  are 
admitted  without  chargi  The  states  of  Maine, 
New  I  lanipshire.Ycrinont.and  Rhode  Island  each 
support  a  few  pupils  in  this  institution.  In  New 
York,  the  establishment  of  the  first  school  for  idi- 
ots, which,  in  1 846,  had  been  favorably  reported  by 
Dr.  Backus, was  delayed  until  1851, when  an  ex- 
perimental scl 1  was  opened  at  Albany,  which 

was  subsequently,  as  a  permanent  state  institu- 
tion, transferred  to  Syracuse,  where  a  large  edifice 
Avas  erected  for  its  aceonmiodat ion  at  a  cost  of 
nearly $90,000, with  facilities  for  the  instruction 
and  care  of  1  ."<>  pupils.  Since  then,  it  has 
been  enlarged.  The  school  has  been,  from  the 
first,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  H.  B.  Wilbur, 
who  previously,  from  1848  to  1851,  had  con- 
ducted a  private  school  for  idiots  at  Barre, 
Mass..  which,    after   he  had  accepted   the  call  to 

Albany,  was  carried  on  by  Dr.  George  Brown. 
The  Pennsylvania  Training  School  for  Feeble- 
Minded  Children,  originated  as  a  private  school, 
in  1  852,  at  ( icrniantowu.but  was. in  the  following 
year,  incorporated  under  its  present  name:  and 
in  1857,  after  receiving  a  grant  from  the  state. 
transferred  to  its  present  location  at  Media.  Del- 
aware Co.  The  Ohio  State  Asylum  for  the 
Education  of  Idiotic  and  Imbecile  Youth,  which 
is  w  holly  supported  by  the  state,  was  organized  at 

Columbus,  in  1857,  as  an  experimental  school. 
It  was  permanently  established  in  L864,  when  a 
site,  about  2  miles  from  the  city, was  purchased, 
and  a  building  erected,  in  1868,  affording  ac- 
commodation tor  250  inmates,  but  subsequently 
enlarged.        In     Kentucky,    the     Institution    for 

the  Education  of  Feeble-Minded  Children  and 

Idiots  was   established   in   I860,  at    Frankfort; 

and  in  I  llinois  a  similar   institution,   in    1865,  at 

Jacksonville.  The  Connecticut  School  for  imbe- 
ciles was  established  at   I  akcville.   in  1858.    'I  he 

city  of  New  York  opened,  in  1867,  a  school  t-i 

idiots  in  connection  with  the  idiot  asylum  on 
Randall's  Island.  A  private  school,  which  limits 
the  number  of  its  pupils  to  12.  was  opened  in 

|s;i  ;,t  bavville,  Worcester  Co..  Mass.  The 
report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  I874,gives  the  following  statistics  of  these 

institutions  : 


IDIOTS 


ILLINOIS 


445 


NAMES. 


Connecticut  School  for  Imbeciles 

Illinois  Institution  for  the  Education  of  Feeble-Minded 

Children 

Kentucky   Institution    for    the    Education  of  Feeble 

Minded  Children 

Private  Institution  for  the  Education  of  Feeble-Minded 

Youth  at  Barre,  Mass 

Massachusetts  School  for  Idiotic  and  Feeble-Minded 

Youth 

Hillside  School  for  Backward  and  Peculiar  Children, 

at  Payville,  Mass 

New  York  Asylum  for  Idiots,  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y 

Ohio  State  Asylum   for  Idiots 

Pennsylvania    Training    School  for  Feeble  -  Minded 

Children 


E3" 

3  3  u 


12 

24 
14 
50 
16 

7  to  9 

49 

T4 
05 


Number  of  inmates 


s 


45 

GO 

50 

52 

71 

5 
110 
217 

123 


34 
37 
40 
23 

47 

3 

89 

143 

101 


o 
H 


103 

99 

75 

118 


199 
300 

224 


T*. 


—  n 

a  b 

o  c 


104 

254 

213 

190 

630 

14 
691 

014 

733 


$24,500 
7,500* 


22.GG9 


41,186 

70,283 

59,898 


a 

V 

a, 
x 


$24,500 


40,000 
23,045 


40,902 
03,433 

03,594 


*  Also  $150  per  capita  allowed  by  the  state. 

The  first  efforts  for  the  instruct  ion  of  idiots 
were  made  upon  no  definite  plan,  or  simply  with 
the  view  to  subject  some  philosophical  theory 
to  a  practical  test.  Since  the  establishment  of 
special  schools  for  idiots,  idiocy  is  generally 
viewed  as  a  prolonged  infancy  :  and,  in  all  efforts 
for  the  development  either  of  their  physical  powers 
or  their  mental  faculties,  it  is  deemed  essential 
to  proceed  according  to  the  principles  of  physiol- 
ogy, and  to  conform,  as  strictly  as  possible,  to  the 
teachings  of  nature.  The  physical  education  will, 
of  course,  vary  according  to  the  deficiencies  of 
individuals;  and  the  instruction  will  always,  to 
a  large  extent,  be  conditioned  by  the  health 
of  the  pupils  and  the  progress  of  their  medical 
treatment.  It  is  self-evident,  therefore,  that 
medical  and  educational  skill  must  go  hand  in 
hand  in  the  management  of  schools  for  idiots. 
—  It  has  been  found  that  Froebels  kinder- 
garten occupations  may  easily  be  so  modified 
as  gradually  to  enliven  the  nervous  action  of 
idiot  children,  and  that,  in  general,  playful  occu- 
pations must  be  resorted  to,  so  as  to  make  at  the 
beginning  deep  and  lasting  impressions  on  their 
listless  minds.  Experience  also  shows  that,  under 
proper  treatment,  about  one-third  of  all  idiot 
children  (if  the  cure  be  early  begun)  may  be  ad- 
vanced to  nearly  average  usefulness ;  another 
tliird.to  the  lower  grades  of  intelligence:  and  the 
rest,  to  a  condition  in  which  they  cease  to  be 
a  mere  burden  on  the  family  or  on  society. 
The  largest  of  the  American  schools,  that  of 
Media,  Pa.,  reports  that,  up  to  July  1.,  1872, 
the  improvement  of  its  inmates  had  been  as 
follows:  taught  to  speak.  53;  articulation  im- 
proved, 253  :  taught  to  read.  254,  to  write,  146, 
to  feed  themselves,  61,  to  dress  themselves.  9  1, 
to  walk.  5  ;  gait  improved,  286  :  reformed  from 
bad  habits,  164,  from  destructive  habits,  302; 
accustomed  to  some  employment,  241  ;  epilepsy 
cured,  23;  epilepsy  improved,  78. 

According  to  the  last  census,  the  number  of  idi- 
ots in  the  United  States  was  24,527  :  in  England 
and  Wales,  29,452  :  in  Norway,  2,039.     In  Scot- 


land, the  number  was  estimated  at  3,000;  in  Ire- 
land, at  7.000;  in  the  Netherlands,  at  about  3,000; 
in  Switzerland,  including  the  cretins,  at  3,800. 
In  many  countries,  no  official  enumeration  of 
idiots  is  made.  "Where  the  census  has  been  taken. 
the  figures  are  believed  to  be  too  low,  as  there  are 
many  cases  of  idiocy  which  are  not  recognized  by 
parents  and  relatives. 

The  views  of  Dr.  Seguin  on  the  education  of 
idiots  are  laid  down  in  the  works,  Traitement 
moral,  hygiene  et  education  des  idiots  (Paris. 
1846)  ;  Idiocy  and  its  Treatment  by  the  Physio- 
logical Method  (New  York,  1866),  and  New 
Fads  and  Remarks  concerning  Idiocy  (New 
York,  1870).  See  also  Dr.  Avuks.  Report  on 
the  Education,  of  Imbecile  and  Idiotic  Children, 
(in  vol.  xiii.  of  the  Transactions  of  the  American 
Medical  Association.  1862);  Dr.  Cheyne  Brady. 
The  Training  of  Idiotic  and  Feeble-Minded 
Children  (Dublin,  1864) ;  and  Dr.  Kern's  essay 
on  the  subject,  in  Allgemeine  Zeitschrift  fur 
Psychiatrie,  1857  ;  and  Dr.  L.  P.  Brockett,  in 
Barnard's  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  I.  —  A 
statistical  account  of  all  European  institutions 
for  idiots  may  be  found  in  Eulenmeyer,  Ueber- 
sicht  der  SffenUichen  und  privaten  liven-  und 
Idioten-Anstalten  allcr  oiropdischer  Staaten, 
(1863).  Sec  also  Seguin,  Report  on  Education 
at  the  Vienna  Exhibition  ("Wash.,  1875). 

ILLINOIS.  This  state  formed  a  part  of  the 
North-west  Territory,  organized  in  pursuance  of 
the  ordinance  of  -Inly  13.,  178",  and  including 
the  whole  of  the  public  domain  situated  north 
of  the  Ohio  river.  Out  of  this  territory  were 
successively  formed,  and  admitted  into  the  Amer- 
ican Union,  the  states  of  Ohio  (1802),  Indiana 
(1816),  and  Illinois  (1818)  :  subsequently,  Mich- 
igan (1837),  and  Wisconsin  (1848).  According 
to  the  census  of  1820.  Illinois  had  a  population 
of  55, 21 1 :  in  1870,  its  population  was  reported 
as  2,51.1,096  giving  it  the  fourth  rank  among 
the  states  of  the  Union.  Its  area  is  55,410  square 
miles.  The  number  of  illiterates  10  years  of 
ace  and  upward  was,  at  that  time,  8,38  per  cent 


446 


ILLINOIS 


of  the  whole  population  ;  and  the  proportion  of 
illiterates  among  adults  was  7.16  per  cent  of 
the  males,  and  8.59  per  cent  of  the  females. 

Educational  History.  —  A  law  was  passed 
providing  for  the  establishment  of  public  schools 
in  the  state  as  early  as  L823  ;  and,  the  census  of 
1840  reported  the  number  of  common  Bchoolfl 
as  1241 .  with  •''>  t,876  pupils.  In  1850, the  num- 
ber of  schools  had  increased  to  2. 64] .  and  the 
number  of  pupils,  to  132.324.  The  school  fund, 
at  that  time  was  $(.)3!),7!)!),  derived  from  the 
s;de  of  public  lands,  and  the  surplus  revenue  of 
the  United  States.  On  the  formation  of  the 
state,  one  section  in  each  township  was  appro- 
priated for  the  support  of  schools,  and  after- 
wards an  additional  income  of  3  per  cent  on  the 
actual  proceeds  from  the  sales  of  public  lands 
within  the  state.  One-sixth  of  these  proceeds 
was  appropriated  for  the  support  of  colleges. 
The  office  of  superintendent  of  education  was 
not  created  till  L854;  and.  the  next  year,  a  bill 
was  passed,  providing  that  the  educational  affairs 
of  the  state  should  be  administered  by  the  state 
superintendent,  a  school  commissioner  for  each 
county,  and  a  board  of  education  for  each  town- 
ship. State  funds  were  to  be  distributed  only 
among  those  schools  which  had,  for  at  least 
six  months  in  the  year,  offered  equal  and  free 
instruction  to  all  children  of  the  legal  school 
age.  The  first  state  sn/H'rinte/n/fi/1  was  Xinian 
Edwards  who  was  elected  in  1854  and  served 
till  L856;   W.   II.  Powell  served  from  1856  to 

L858  :  and  again  from  L862  to  1864  ;  the  system 
was  administered  by  Newton  Bateman,  as  state 

superintendent  from  L858  to  L862,  and  aBec 1 

term  from  1864  to  1874,  when  he  was  succ led 

by  S.  .M.  Etter,  the  present  incumbent  (1876). 
The  system,  as  at  present  constituted,  was 
adopted  in  1872.  An  outline  is  given  below.  In 
L874,  a  law  was  passed  prohibiting  all  school 
officers  from  excluding  any  children  from  the 
schools  on  account  of  color.    The  school  law  was 

further  amended  so  as  to  abolish  the  provisional 
teachers' certificate.  A  bill  providing  for  com- 
pulsory education  was  passed  by  the  House,  hut 
defeated  in  the  Senate. 

School  System.  —  Public  education  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  following  school  officers: 
(I)  A  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion:   (2)    County   superintendents    of    schools; 

(3)  Boards  of  township  school  trustees;  |  h  Boards 
of  distrid  scl I  directors.  The  state  super- 
intendent is  chosen  by  popular  vote,  at  a  general 
election,  and  holds  office   for    the    term  of   four 

years,     lie  is  the  executive  head  of  the  system. 

lie  is   under   I Is    ($25,000)    for  the   faithful 

discharge  of  his  ollicial  duties;  and  is  required 
to  keep  an  office  ai  the  Beat  of  government,  and 
i"  receive,  arrange,  preserve,  and  file  all  official 

documents,  and  bold  the  same  in  readiness  to  be 

exhibited  to  the  governor  or  to  any  committee 
ol  the  legislature,     lie  has  the  general  Buper- 

\  ision  Of  the  schools,  and  is  authorized  to  make 
such  rules  as  may  lie  requisite  for  carrying  the 
school  1,-iw  into  effect.  He  has  appellate  juris- 
diction  in  all    controversies  arising  under   the 


school  law.  where  original  jurisdiction  is  vested 
in  the  county  superintendents.  He  is  authorized 
to  grant  state  certificates  authorizing  the  holders 
to  teach  without  further  examination,  in  every 
county  and  school  district  in  the  state,  and 
valid  until  revoked  for  cause.  He  is,  e.r  officio, 
a  member  of  the  state  board  of  education,  to 
which  is  intrusted  the  management  of  the  State 
Normal  University,  the  condition  and  expendi- 
tures of  which  he  is  required  to  report  to  each 
session  of  the  legislature;  and  he  is  also, ex  officio, 
a  member  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  State 
Industrial  I  'niversity. -  ( 'ounty  superintt  ndents 
are  elected  every  four  years.  They  have  the 
custody  of  and  distribute  the  school  moneys  to 
the  several  townships,  visit  and  inspect  the 
schools  in  the  county  at  least  once  in  each  year, 
and  report  their  condition  to  the  state  super- 
intendent. They  are  the  official  advisers  of  all 
the  subordinate  school  officers  and  teachers  of 
their  respective  counties,  and  the  channel  of 
official  communication  between  the  state  depart- 
ment of  education  and  all  local  township  and 
district  school  officers.  They  are.  also,  required 
to  assist  in  the  management  of  teachers'  insti- 
tutes. They,  morever,  examine  and  license 
teachers.  At  least  four  public  examinations 
are  required  to  be  held  every  year  in  each 
county  :  and  the  examination  may  be  conducted 
either  by  the  county  superintendent  in  person, 
or  by  a  board  of  examiners  appointed  by  him. 
Sets  of  questions  are  furnished,  from  time  to 
time,  by  the  state  superintendent,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  these  examinations,  with  general  instruc- 
tions as  to  the  conditions  upon  which  certificates 
of  each  grade  should  be  granted.  In  this  way.  a 
uniform  standard  of  qualifications  is  preserved. 
No   teacher   can   lawfully   be  employed    in  any 

common  school  in  the  state  without  a  certificate 
of  qualification ;  and  no  county  certificate  can 
be  granted  except  upon  "due  examination"  of 

the    candidate    by    the    county    superintendent. 

After  a  certificate  has  been  granted,  it  maybe 

renewed,  at  expiration,  by  the  county  super- 
intendent, or  he  may  require  the  teacher  to  sub- 
mit to  another  examination.  County  super- 
intendents are  also  vested  with  power  to  revoke 
certificates,  at  any  time,  for  immorality,  incom- 
petency, or  any  other  sufficient  cause.  The 
compensation  of  county  superintendents  is  S.">  a 

day  for  services  actually  rendered,  and  3  per 
cent  upon  the  amount  of  sales  of  school  lauds, 
and  upon  real  estate  taken  for  debt,  for  their 
services  in  making  such  sales:  and  a  further 
commission  of  2  per  cent  upon  the  amount  of 
all  sums  distributed,  paid,  or  loaned  out.  by 
them.  —  A  board  of  trustees,  consisting  of  three 

members,  is  elected  in  each  township,  for  a  term 

of  three  years,  one  member  retiring  annually. 
The  trustees  determine  the  number  of  school 

districts  into  which  the  township  is  to  be  divided, 
and  apportion  and  distribute,  semi-annually,  the 

public  school   moneys  among  the  districts  of 

their  respective  townships.  They  are  invested, 
in  their  corporate  capacity,  with  the  title  of  all 
school-houses  and  sites,  and  may  sell  the  same 


ILLINOIS 


44T 


when  it  is  deemed  expedient.  — School  directors 
are  elected,  in  the  same  manner  as  trustees;  .and 
each  board  of  directors  consists  of  three  mem- 
bers, holding  office  for  three  years,  one  new 

member  being  elected  annually.  They  levy  taxes, 
and  are  required  to  establish  and  keep  in  oper- 
ation, for  at  least  six  months  in  each  year,  and 
longer  if  practicable,  a  sufficient  number  of  free 
schools  for  the  proper  accommodation  of  all  the 
children  in  the  district  over  the  age  of  six  and 
under  twenty-one  years.  They  may  adopt  and 
enforce  all  necessary  rules  and  regulations  for 
the  management  of  the  schools,  and  must  visit 
and  inspect  the  same  as  often  as  practicable. 
They  appoint  the  teachers  and  fix  their  salaries, 
and  may  dismiss  them  for  incompetency,  cruelty. 
negligence,  or  immorality.  They  direct  whai 
branches  are  to  be  taught,  and  what  text-book;; 
must  be  used.  —  The  branches  required  to  bo 
taught  are  orthography,  reading,  penmanship, 
arithmetic,  English  grammar,  geography,  and 
the  history  of  the  United  States;  the  law,  how- 
ever, provides  that  other  and  higher  branches 
may  be  taught  than  those  enumerated.  Tins 
permissory  provision  has  led  to  the  establishment 
of  one  or  more  advanced  schools  in  nearly  every 
county  of  the  state,  "  the  vitalizing  influence  of 
which ",  said  Supt.  Bateman,  in  1868,  "is  felt 
through  all  the  subordinate  grades  of  schools.  " 
The  school  age  is  from  6  to  21  years,  and  all 
bona  fide  residents  of  a  school  district,  of  the 
proper  age.  have  the  right  to  attend,  free  of  cost, 
the  public  schools  of  that  district.  Pupils  resi- 
dent in  one  district  cannot  attend  school  in 
another  without  the  written  consent  of  the  di- 
rectors of  both  districts. 

School  Fund.  —  Public  educational  revenues 
are  derived  from  the  iullowing  sources  :  (1)  The 
school fund proper ;  consisting  of  three  per  cent 
of  the  net  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  the  public 
lands  in  the  state,  one-sixth  part  excepted ; 
amounting  to  about  $665,000.  (2)  The  surplus 
revenue  fund,  consisting  of  a  portion  of  the 
money  which  was  received  by  the  state  from  the 
general  government,  under  an  act  of  Congress, 
providing  for  the  distribution  of  the  surplus 
revenue  of  the  United  States,  and  by  law  of 
March  1..  1^>7,  made  a  part  of  the  common- 
school  fund  of  the  state.  (3)  The  college  or 
university  fund,  consisting  of  one-sixth  of  the 
three  per  cent,  or  school  fund  proper.  (4)  The 
seminary  fund,  consisting  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
sales  of  the  "seminary  lands",  donated  to  the 
state  by  the  U.  S.  government,  for  the  purpose 
of  founding  and  maintaining  a  seminary  for  the 
education  of  the  children  of  the  state  ;  all  of 
which  lands  that  remained  unsold  in  L861,  were 
donated,  by  an  act  of  the  legislature,  to  the 
Illinois  Agricultural  College.  This  fund  amounts 
to  about  |60,000.  These  constitute  the  per- 
manent state  school  fund,  the  principal  of  which 
is  loaned  to  the  state,  which  pays  interest  there- 
on at  the  rate  of  six  per  cent.  Besides  these 
sources  of  revenue,  thereare  (5)  the  county  school 
fund,  consisting  of  surplus  moneys  in  the  hands 
of  the  county  school  commissioner ;    (6)    the 


township  fund,  derived  from  the  proceeds  of  the 
sale  of  the  sixteenth  section  in  each  congressional 
district  — said  section  (040  acres)  having  been 
donated  to  each  township  for  school  purposes, 
by  act  of  Congress;  (7)  the  stale  tax  fund,  for- 
merly obtained  by  an  assessment  of  two  mills 
ml  valorem  upon  all  the  taxable  property  of  the 
state:  in  lieu  of  which,  by  act  of  1874,  it  was 
provided  that  one  million  dollars  should  be 
annually  appropriated  out  of  the  state  school 
fund  ;  (8)  the  district  tax  fund,  from  which  the 
largest  amount  of  revenue  is  derived,  consisting 
of  such  variable  supplementary  or  special  amounts 
as  may  be  levied,  from  time  to  time,  by  the  re- 
spective local  boards  of  school  directors,  the 
school  directors  of  every  district  being  required 
by  law  to  levy  annually  such  a  tax  as  will, 
when  added  to  the  public  funds,  be  sufficient  to 
maintain  a  free  school  for  at  least  six  months  in 
each  year.  Pesides  these,  there  is  finally  (9)  a 
fund  derived  from  fines,  forfeitures,  mnl  penal- 
ties, imposed  by,  or  incurred  before,  courts  of 
record,  or  justices  of  the  peace. 

Teachers'  Certificates.  —  Every  teacher  must 
hold  a  regular  certificate  either  of  the  first  or 
second  grade.  Certificates  of  the  first  grade  are 
valid  for  two  years,  and  certify  that  the  holders 
are  qualified  to  teach  orthography,  reading  in 
English,  penmanship,  arithmetic,  English  gram- 
mar, modern  geography,  the  elements  of  the 
natural  sciences,  the  history  of  the  United 
States,  physiology,  and  the  laws  of  health.  Those 
of  the  second  grade  are  valid  for  one  year,  and 
certify  to  an  ability  to  teach  the  same  branches, 
excepting  the  natural  sciences,  physiology,  and 
the  lawsof  health.  The  county  superintendent 
has  discretionary  authority  to  renew  such  certifi- 
cates at  the  expiration  of  the  time  for  which 
they  were  granted,  by  his  endorsement  thereon  ; 
and  may  revoke  the  same,  at  any  time,  for  im- 
morality, incompetency,  or  other  proper  cause. 

Educational  Condition. — The  number  of  school 
districts  in  the  state,  in  1874,  was  11,285,  in  all 
of  which  except  157,  schools  were  sustained  for 
5  months  or  more ;  the  whole  number  of  free 
public  schools  was  11,646,  and  the  number  of 
graded  schools,  7;">4.  The  other  important  statis- 
tical items  are  the  following : 

Number  of  persons  of  school  age,  938,878 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled,  unties,       3,'>0,082 

females,  321,693 

Total  of  pupils  enrolled,  671,775 

Average  daily  attendance,  383,334 

Number  of  teachers,  males,  9,036 

females,  12,093 

Total,  21,129 

Receipts,  from  state  tax,  $1,021,971 

"  "      local  tax,  5,658,183 

Interest  of  school  fund,  etc.  1,213,437 

Total,  *  $7,893,591 

Expenditures,  for  tuition,  1 1 ,63 1 ,622 

Sites  and  Iniildings,  1,009,960 
Other  purposes,       2,221,100 

Total,  "  $7,865,682 

( !i  ist  per  unit  of  school  population,  $5.60 

"        "        of  enrollment,  7.82 

"        "        of  average  attendance,  13.73 


448 


ILLINOIS 


Normal  Instruction. — Professional  instruction 
and  training  are  afforded  to  teachers  in  the  State 
Normal  University,  at  Normal,  and  in  the 
Southern  Illinois  Normal  University,  at  <  'arbon- 
dale.  The  former  was  organized  in  1857  :  it  in- 
cludes both  an  academic  and  a  normal  depart- 
ment. Students  in  the  latter  are  required  to 
sign  a  pledge  to  bi'eome  teachers  in  the  schools 
of  the  state;  and.  on  this  condition,  their  tuition 
is  afforded  gratuitously.  .Male  students  must  be, 
at  least,  17  years  of  age;  and  female  students. 
1  6.  Auxiliary  to  the  normal  department,  is  the 
Model  School,  designed  to  furnish  an  opportu- 
nity for  observation  and  practice  to  those  prepar- 
ing to  be  teachers.  The  academic  department 
consists  of  the  High  School,  which  furnishes  a 
thorough  preparation  for  admission  into  the 
university  or  for  business.  The  High  School  is 
a  department  of  the  Model  School,  which  com- 
prises also  a  Grammar  School  and  a  Primary 
School.  From  the  time  of  its  organization  to 
1875,  this  institution  had  given  instruction  to 
3,258  persons,  of  whom  241  had  completed  the 
course  and  received  diplomas  of  graduation. 
I  hiring  the  same  period,  the  Model  School  in  its 

several  grades,  had  received  about  2,930  pupils, 

of  whom  '22  were  graduates  of  the  High  School. 
About  2.*)  per  cent  of  the  pupils  of  the  Model 
School  became  teachers.  The  Southern  Illinois 
Normal  University  was  opened  in  L874.  It  oc- 
cupies one  of  the  finest  school  edifices  in  the 
United  States.  It  includes,  besides  a  normal 
department  proper,  a  preparatory  department 
and  a  model  school.  The  model  school  is  of  an 
elementary  grade,  giving  instruction  in  the 
branches  usually  taught  in  the  common  schools; 
the  preparatory  department  is  of  the  grade  of  a 
high  school,  with  a  course  of  study  of  three  years. 
The  normal  course,  of  tour  years,  embraces  two 
courses,  -a  classical  and  a  scientific  course;  both, 

however,  make  the  study  of  the  English  language 

and  literature  quite  prominent.  I  hiring  the  last 
year,  opportunity  for  practice  is  afforded  in  the 

preparatory  and  model  schools.  Besides  these  two 
State  institutions,   there   are    two  county  normal 

schools,— the  Cook  County  Normal  School,  at 
ISaglewood,  near  I  Ihicago,  and  the  Peoria  <  'ounty 

Normal  School,  at  Peoria.  Each  of  these  has 
an  organization  similar  to  that  of  the  state  normal 

schools.  There  is  also  a  normal  school  at  <  Ihicago, 
and  a  noimal  department  in  Eureka  College,  al 
Eureka.  Teachers'  institutes  constitute  an  impor- 
tant agency  lor  the  professional  improvement  ol 
those  actually  engaged  in  teaching.    Of  these, in 

L 874,  there  were  held   in   different    parts  of    the 

state  L84,  which  continued  in  the  aggregate  828 

days,  and  were  attended  by   6,713  teachers. 

notary  Instruction. — In  1874,  there  were 

Mr,  public  high  schools  in  the  state.   These] 1 

law  provides  that, on  a  petition  of  50  voters  in 
an\  school  township,  an  election  for  or  against 

a  high  school  may  lie    held    at    tin'    next  ensuing 

election  of  trustees,  and  if  a  majority  of  the 
votes  he  found  to  lie  in  favor  of  a  high  Bchool, 
the  trustees  shall  establish  it.  There  are  very 
many  private  seminaries  for  secondary  instruc- 


tion in  the  state,  including  a  large  number  of 
preparatory  schools,  and  several  business  colleges. 
I  if  the  latter,  in  L874,  there  were  1(J. 

Superior  Instruction. — There  is  a  large  num- 
ber of  universities  and  colleges  in  the  state, 
besides  several  colleges  for  women.  The  name  of 
most  of  the  former  are  given  in  the  following  table: 


NAM  I 


Abingdon 
Pax  ton 

carlinville 

(ai'thage 

Chicago 

Lureka 

Abingdon 

Jacksonville 


Abingdon  College 

Augustaua  College 

Blackburn  University .... 

( 'arthage  College 

( !hicag<  i  University 

Lureka  College 

Hedding  College 

Illinois  CoUege 

Illinois  Wesleyan  I'niv... . 

Knox  College, 

Lincoln  Oniveraity 

Lombard  University 

McKenuree  College 

Monmouth  College Monmouth 

Northwestern  College. ...  Naperville 
Northwestern  University.  Evanston 

Shurtleff  College 

St.  Ignatius  CoUege 

Sit.  Joseph's  Eccles.  Coll 

st.  \  iator's  College 

Westfield  College 

■\Vneaton  College 


Location 


W  hen 

found 

ed 


keligious 

denomina- 
tion 


1853  Disciples 

1863  Lutheran 

i-i;t  Presb. 

1870  Lutheran 

1857  liaptist 

L855  Disciples 

]s:>4  M.  Epis. 

1829  Non-sect. 

Bloomington    1850  Mi  th. 

Galesburg         1841  iTsb.&Cg. 

1867  Cumb.Pr. 

1857  Universal. 
1828  M.  Epis. 

1858  L.  Presb. 
1861  Evang. 
is:,:,  m.  Epis. 
1835  Baptist 
1870  K.  C. 
1861  B.  C. 
1869  K.  C. 
1865  f.  Breth. 

(  ongreg. 


Lincoln 
Galesburg 

Lebanon 


Altou 
I  hirago 
Teutopolis 
Bourb  .Grove 
w.  stfli  Id 
Wheaton 


Technical  mul  Professional  Instruction. — 

The  principal  institution  for  scientific  ami  tech- 
nical instruction  is  the  Illinois  Industrial  Uni- 
versity, at  Urbana,  chartered  in  1867.  It  has 
a  corps  of  25  instructors,  including  professors, 
lecturers,  and  assistants ;  ami.  in  1875,  the  at- 
tendance of  pupils  was  over  400.  It  compri 
four  colleges,  of  (1)  Agriculture;  (2)  Engineer- 
ing, including  a  school  of  architecture ;  (3)  Nat- 
ural Science:  (1)  Literature  and  Science.  Th 
colleges  embrace    L2    subordinate  schools   and 

courses  of  instruction,  including  a  school  of 
domestic  science  ami  art,  a  school  of  commerce, 
and  a  school  of  military  science  ;  also  a  school  of 
wood  engraving,  printing,  telegraphing,  photo- 
o-raiihino',  and  designimr.  <  'andidates  tor  admix- 
Hon  to  the  university  must  hi' at  least  1">  years  of 
age,  of  go  id  moral  character,  and  able  to  pass  an 
examination  in  English  grammar,  geography, 
arithmetic,  algebra,  history  of  the  United  State.-, 
and  natural  science,  'litis  institution  is  endowed 
with  the  national   land  grant,  and  the  amount 

of  its  productive  funds  is  about  $320,000.  The 

Value    of    its   grounds,    buildings,    etc..   is   about 

$640,000.  It  is  well  supplied  with  apparatus, 
ami  has  a  library  of  over  10,000  volumes.  The 
Dlinois  Agricultural  College,  at  Lrvington  "was 
organized  in  1866. 


The  chief  theological  schools  are  the  following  : 

\  \MI. 

Location 

ions 
denomination 

Theol.  Dept  Shurtleff  Col. 

Alton 

Baptist 

do.      do.    Blackburn 

l ' ni\ i  raity 

Carlinville 
( Ihicago 

Presb. 

Union  Theol.  Seminar]  , . 

Baptist 

Chicago  Theol.  Seminary. 

Chioago 

i  long. 

Theol.  Bern,  of  Nortlrw  est. 

( ihicago 

1'rcsb. 

Biblical  Dept.  Eureka  Col. 

Eureka 

Christian 

Evanston 

Meth.  Epis. 

\\  ;u  tborg  Seminary 

Mendota 

Lutheran 

Augustaua  Theol.  Bern... . 

Pazton 

Lutheran 

ILLINOIS    COLLI..;! 


ILLITERACY 


449 


In  these  various  institutions,  in  1874,  there 
were  19  instructors,  L8  endowed  professorships, 
and  290  students.  The  total  amounl  of  product- 
ive funds  was  aboul  $775,000;  and  the  libra- 
ries contained,  in  the  aggregate,  nearly  30,000 
volumes. 

The  law  schools  consist  of  the  law  departments 
of  Illinois  Wesleyan  I  niversity.  and  McKendree 
College,  and  the  Union  College  of  Law.  at 
Chicago.  The  medical  schools  comprise  the 
Chicago  Medical  College  (a  department  of  North- 
western University),  Lush  Medical  College, 
the  Woman's  Hospital  Medical  College,  and  the 
Hahnemann  Medical  College .  at  Chicago. 

Special  Instruction.  —The  Illinois  Institution 
for  the  Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  at 
Jacksonville,  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
important  institutions  for  deaf-mute  instruction 
in  the  United  States.  It  comprises  departments 
for  instruction  in  the  sign  language,  as  well 
as  in  articulation,  or  visible  speech,  and  in  draw- 
ing: also  domestic  and  industrial  departments. 
In  1874,  there  were  nearly  400  pupils  on  the 
rolls  of  the  institution,  and  a  corps  of  ^instruct- 
ors. The  Illinois  Institution  for  the  Education 
of  Feeble-Minded  Children,  at  Jacksonville,  is 
also  a  large  and  important  institution,  founded 
in  1865.  Its  efficiency  is  thoroughly  attested, 
th-'  children  being  instructed  successfully  in  most 
of  the  simple  elementary  branches  of  knowledge. 
besides  being  taught  important  matters  connected 
with  domest  ic  econi  »my  and  practical  occupations. 

Educational  Associations. — The  State  Teach- 
ers' Association,  established  in  1853,  holds  its  con- 
vention annually,  and  is  well  sustained;  besides 
which  there  are  many  other  local  associations, 
in  more  or  less  active  operation.  A  state  asso- 
ciation of  county  superintendents  was  organized 
about  twelve  years  ago,  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
moting the  efficiency  of  county  school  supervision, 
and  securing  a  more  uniform  compliance  with 
the  requirements  of  the  school  law. 

ILLINOIS  COLLEGE,  at  Jacksonville. 
111.,  chartered  in  1835,  is  non-sectarian.  The 
value  of  its  buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus 
is  $190,000  :  the  amount  of  its  productive  funds, 
§135,000.  Tt  has  a  classical  and  a  scientific 
course,  libraries  containing  11,000  volumes,  and 
a  corps  of  9  instructors.  The  cost  of  tuition  is 
per  year.  Connected  with  the  college  are 
the  Whipple  Academy  and  the  Jacksonville 
Business  College.  The  number  of  students,  in 
1875  6,  was  as  follows:  in  the  college.  60;  acade- 
my, 76 ;  business  college,  221.  The  Rev.  Julian 
M.  Sturtevant,  I).  I).,  LL.  D.,  is  (1870)  the  pres- 
ident of  the  college. 

ILLINOIS  WESLEY  AN  UNIVERSITY, 
at  Bloomington,  111.,  founded  in  1850,  is  under 
Mfethodisl  Episcopal  control.  It  has  a  fine  cam- 
pus of  10  acres,  libraries  containing  2,400  vol- 
umes, and  productive  funds  aim  muting  to  S!)< ».  •  »00. 
I  he  value  of  its  buildings, grounds, and  apparatus 
is  $150,000.  Both  sexes  are  admit  till.  A  law 
department  was  organized  in  1*74.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  15  instructors  and  77(J  students 
(546  preparatory  and  2.'?0  collegiate). 
29 


ILLITERACY  (from   the   Latin   iUiteratus, 

unlettered,  i.  ••..  ignorant  of  letters  or  books) 
is  a  term  used  at  present  to  denote  the  in- 
ability to  read  and  write.  The  mere  fact  as  to 
how  many  persons  in  any  community  arc  unable 
to  read  and  write  is  not,  in  itself,  of  very  great 
value;  but,  in  its  relations  to  ignorance  and 
knowledge,  it  is  highly  important,  as  marking 
the  dividing  line  on  one  side  of  which  maybe 
placed  all  those  who  are  hopelessly  consigned  to 
a  total  ignorance  of  books,  and  are,  therefore, 
deprived  of  all  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
their  study  or  perusal  :  and,  on  the  other,  all 
who,  by  means  of  such  knowledge  and  such 
sources  of  information1!  have  been  placed  on  the 
high  road  to  thrift,  skill,  intelligence,  culture, 
virtue,  and  every  other  element  of  the  highest 
civilization.  To  the  individual,  illiteracy  is  a 
most  deplorable  misfortune  :  to  the  community, 
in  proportion  to  its  extent,  it  isan  acknowledged 
bane.  The  principle  of  free  schools  is  derived 
from  a  consideration  of  the  numerous  evils  which 
pi  ipular  ignorance  entails  upon  a  community:  and 
of  this  ignorance  illiteracy  is  the  exponent.  On 
the  same  principle  is  based  all  legislation  for 
compulsory  attendance  at  schools.  These  prin- 
ciples have,  however,  been  called  in  question;  but 
very  rarely.  "Parents'',  it  has  been  said,  "can- 
not justly  be  forced  to  give  their  children  a  certain 
amount  of  education,  unless  it  is  assumed  that 
this  education  is  as  necessary  for  the  mind  as 
food  and  clothing  are  for  the  body".;  and,  of 
course,  this  is  an  assumption  that  cannot  be 
maintained.  But  national  systems  of  education 
have  regard  to  the  good  of  the  community,  not 
merely,  or  chiefly,  to  that  of  the  individual.  The 
want  of  literary  education  is  the  source  of  nu- 
merous ills  to  the  body  politic,  which  legisla- 
tion should  strive  to  remove.  The  statistics 
of  illiteracy  are.  thus,  of  the  greatest  value,  as 
indicating  the  progress  or  retrogression  of  a 
nation  in  the  most  important  elements  of  well- 
being.     (See  Crime  and  Education.) 

A  full  view  of  this  subject  requires  that  the 
attention  should  be  given  to  (I)  the  sources  of  in- 
formation— what  they  are.  and  how  reliable  they 
can  be  made ;  (II)  the  general  facts  obtained 
by  an  investigation  into  the  condition  of  the 
people  in  the  different  countries  of  the  world, 
which,  for  this  purpose,  may  be  distributed  into 
various  groups,  comprehending  the  totally  igno- 
rant barbarous  tribes,  the  extremely  illiterate  p<  >p- 
ulations  of  the  old  despotisms  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  and  those  in  which  only  a  modified 
degree  of  illiteracy  is  still  found  to  exist, — the 
highly  favored  states  of  Europe  and  North  Amer- 
ica; (III)  some  special  facts  regarding  the  compar- 
ative illiteracy  of  (1 )  males  and  females.  (2)  adults 
and  youth,  (3)  the  general  population  and  crimi- 
nals, and  (4)  the  general  population  and  con- 
scripts :  (IVJ  the  relations  of  illiteracy  to  (1)  su- 
perior knowledge,  (2)  common  labor,  (3)  skilled 
labor.  I  I  j  national  power,  1 5)  pauperism,  (6)  crime. 
(7)  honie  and  its  influences,  (8)  higher  civilization 
and  religion;  (V)  the  causes  of  illiteracy; 
I  V  I )    remedies,  and  the  prospects  of  improve- 


450 


ILLITERACY 


ment  by  the  operation  of  various  influences  pecu- 
liar to  modern  civilization. 

I.  As  the  chief  sources  of  information,  depend- 
ence must  be  placed  upon  (1)  ce?isus  reports, 
some  of  which,  especially  such  as  those  of  Italy 
for  1861  and  1871,  are  replete  with  instruction 
on  this  subject ;  but  those  of  the  United  States 
are  the  most  valuable  of  all.  embracing,  as  they 
do,  four  periods,  1840,  1850,  L860,  andl^Tu. 
The  later  ones  are  of  especial  importance,  as 
they  afford  particular  statistics  of  various  classes. 
—  native  and  foreign,  white  and  colored,  adults 
and  youths,  males  and  females.  All  the  facts 
presented  in  the  census  reports  for  1840, -50, -60, 
are  brought  together  and  digested  in  a  paper  on 
Jllilfravif  published  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
U.  S.  Commissioner  <>f  Education  for  1870,  in 
Avhich  the  census  returns  of  these  three  periods 
are  compared.  The  results  of  the  census  of  1870, 
in  this  regard,  are  tabulated  and  compared  in  the 
AnnualReport  of  1871.  ('!)  Government  reports 
on  education,  such  as  those  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education  for  1870 — 4,  and  the  special  Cir- 
culars of  Information  issued  by  the  Rureau, 
contain  a  large  amount  of  information  on  this 
subject,  derived  from  various  sources,  especially 
the  papers  on  Education  and  Labor,  Educa- 
tion and  Crime,  and  Education  and  Pauperism. 
(3)  Import  ant  facts  are  obtained  from  special 
official  reports,  on  Criminals,  Conscripts,  and 
Marriages,  bysomeofthe  Europeangovernments. 

II.  The  first  group,  that  of  wholly  illiterate 
savage  or  barbarous  tribes,  needs  only  to  be  re- 
ferred to,  without  any  enumeration.  Having  no 
books  and  no  written  language,  their  total  igno- 
rance reacts  upon  their  barbarism,  and  perpetu- 
ates the  degradation  which  has  caused  it.  Pass- 
ing to  those  nations  that  have  written  languages 
and  hooks,  there  appears,  first,  a  group  consist- 
ing of  those  which,  descended  from  ancient  des- 
potisms,  have  been  enveloped  in  thick  clouds  of 
Ignorance  from  which  some  of  them  are  only  just 
emerging,  -Turkey.  Egypt,  Persia,  Russia,  and 
(not  long  since)  Greece,  Poland,  Italy  (till  her 
late  revival,  and  even  now  in  her  southern  prov- 
inces), Spain  and  (doubtless)  Portugal,  with 
their  American  colonies.  In  all  these,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  popular  ignorance,  or  illiteracy, 
has   prevailed   up   to  the  present  time.     The 

government  has  neither  provided  for  nor  fos- 
tered universal  education  ;  and  the  political  and 
religious  .-tat  us  of  the  pa  >\  ie  baa  afforded  no  in- 
citements to  any  efforts  of  their  own  in  this 
direction.  Even  in  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
oies,  the  old  spirit  and  habits  inherited  bj 
the  people  have  been  stronger  than  the  desire  for 
liberty,  intelligence,  and  progress.  To  the  group 
ibove  referred  to,  Hungary,  nol  long 
ago,  belonged ;  hut.  of  late,  the  people,  by  their 
energy  and  enthusiasm,  have  made  wonderful 
progress  in  the  march  of  intelligence;  but,  even 

now.  she  remains,  side    liy   side,   with    her  sister 

state  Austria,  in  which,  despite  the  influence  of 
her  intelligent  and  progressive  German  popula- 
tion, one  naif  of  the  inhabitants  remain  in  a  con- 
dition of  illiteracy,     Bj  the  side  of  this  group, 


but  with  a  history,  and  under  conditions,  wide- 
ly different,  stands  India,  one  of  the  most  be- 
nighted of  nations,  having  90  per  cent  of  her 
males,  and  95  per  cent  of  her  whole  population 
(for  letters  are  religiously  and  socially  forbidden 
to  females)  wholly  illiterate  :  and  this,  notwith- 
standing that  she  still  possesses  the  wonderful 
literature  of  her  early  days,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Brahman  caste,  still  devoted  to  learning,  with 
her  wealthy  Parsees  fostering  education,  and  the 
influence  of  her  princely  Mohammedan  conquer- 
ors still  remaining  in  the  religious  schools  con- 
nected  with  the  mosques.  This  fact  shows  to 
what  an  extent  outcast  and  ignorant  masses  tend 
to  depress  and  degrade  the  general  condition  of 
a  people.  The  case  of  the  Mohammedan  coun- 
tries— Turkey,  Persia,  Egypt,  is  quite  peculiar. 
These  people  are  the  successors  of  the  Saracens, 
whose  learning  and  culture  shone  so  brightly. 
while  Europe  was  enveloped  in  the  darkness  of 
the  middle  ages,  and  who  contributed  so  largely 
to  the  sources  of  modern  civilization,  and  gave 
to  it  such  an  impetus.- — China  maybe  referred 
to,  as  presenting  a  somewhat  singular  phase  of 
illiteracy,  her  political  system  holding  out  the 
strongest  inducements  to  education  and  learning 
to  the  males,  while  the  females  are  very  generally 
kept  in  a  condition  of  illiteracy.  (See  China.) 
This  is  one  of  the  results  of  Confucianism,  which, 
while  it  accords  to  the  matron  the  highest  re- 
spect, has  treated  the  subject  of  female  education 
(instruction  in  letters  and  books)  with  entire  in- 
difference. China,  therefore,  as  far  as  the  free- 
dom of  her  male  population  from  illiteracy  is 
concerned,  would  take  a  high  rank  among  edu- 
cated nations  :  but.  as  her  women  are  untaught, 
she  must  be  placed  with  those  who  are  half  in 
darkness.  —  Japan  would  come  in  here,  side  by 
side  with  China,  whose  religion  and  philosophy, 
sacred  hooks,  with  their  language  anil  literature. 

and  peculiar  alphabetic  characters,  she  adopted 
long  ago,  introduced  into  her  schools,  and  taught 
to  the  masses  of  her  people.  But  she  has  done 
more  than  China,  she  has  added  a  simpler  (syl- 
labic) writing  of  her  own  [Jcalakana);  and.  what 
is  far  more,  she  has  taughl  her  women  as  well 
as  her  men.  The  Japanese  cannot  be  considered 
an  illiterate  nation.  The  number  of  persons, 
who  cannot  read  or  write,  is  comparatively 
small,  even  the  most  degraded  classes  being 
often  able  to  write  the  kalakana,  and  to  read 

the  books  printed  in  that  style;  so  that  her  illit- 
erate population  is  set  down  a1  no  more  than  10 

percent.  (See  Japan.)  In  a  distinct  group  may 
be  placed  Prance,  Belgium,  England,  and  Ire- 
land, about  one  third  of  their  people  being  un- 
able to  read  or  write.  The  proportion  in  Ire- 
land may  be  somewhat  larger;  but,  in  that 
country,  the  people  have  received  from  the 
priesthood  some  instruction  in  letters  beyond 
what  the  government  has  provided  for  them,  lu 
these  four  countries,  the  spirit  of  progreSB 
has  had  to   contend  against    many   of    the  saiua 

influences  that  have  kept  down  the  people  of  tha 
more  benighted  countries  of  Europe  already  con- 
sidered.    Next  in  order  of  advance,  comes  t ha 


ILLITERACY 


451 


American  Union,  with  its  20  per  cent  of  illiter- 
ates.— The  Netherlands,  Germany  proper,  Den- 
mark, Norway  and  Sweden,  and  perhaps  Switzer- 
land, are  entitled  to  the  distinction  of  showing 
the  smallest  amount  of  illiteracy.  (See  Table.) 
III.  The  diversity  of  social  customs  and  na- 
tional institutions  leads  to  corresponding  differ- 
ences in  the  condition  of  various  classes;  and 
the  degree  of  illiteracy  found  to  exist  in  these, 
respectively,  presents  a  basis  for  very  important 
considerations  in  relation  to  the  expediency  of 
particular  legislative  measures.  Hence,  the  im- 
portance of  ascertaining  the  comparative  illiter- 
acy of  youth  and  adults,  males  and  females  (sex 
illiteracy),  white  and  colored  (race  illiteracy), 
etc.  The  statistical  facts  in  regard  to  those  points 
are  very  imperfect  ;  but  many,  that  are  quite 
reliable,  are  exceedingly  instructive.  Thus,  ac- 
cording to  the  U.  S.  census  of  1870,  of  every 
]  ,000  persons  of  the  population,  10  years  old  and 
upward,  14f>  were  illiterate;  of  adults,  94;  of 
youth  (from  10  to  21  years  of  age),  52.  In  Ger- 
many, the  census  of  1871  reports  91  per  cent  of 
men,  and  1~>  per  cent  of  women,  unable  to  read 
and  write.  In  Scotland,  11  per  cent  of  men,  and 
21  per  cent  of  women  could  not  read  or  write 
at  marriage.  In  Bavaria,  only  7  per  cent  of  the 
recruits  were  illiterate ;  in  Germany,  howrever, 
the  mass  of  the  illiteracy  is  in  the  north-eastern 
provinces  of  Posen  and  Prussia  proper,  among  a 
people  foreign  to  the  language  and  institutions 
of  the  German  nation;  while,  in  most  of  the  Ger- 
man states,  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is  very 
small  —  in  some,  less  than  one  per  cent.  In 
France,  the  census  of  1872  showed  27  per  cent 
of  illiterate  males  and  33  per  cent  of  illiterate 
females;  while  the  census  of  Spain  (1SG0)  showed 
69  per  cent  of  males  and  91  per  cent  of  females. 
Italy,  in  1861,  was  reported  as  having  GO  per  cent 
of  illiterate  male  adults  and  68  per  cent  of  il- 
literate male  youths  (from  12  to  18  years  of  age). 
In  the  city  of  Xew  York,  the  census  of  1870  re- 
ported, out  of  the  total  population  of  942,292, 
14,974  male  adults  and  36,810  female  adults,  as 
unable  to  write;  while  of  male  youths  (from  10  to 
21), there  were  only  3,088, aud  of  female  youths, 
4,929,  unable  to  write.  This  close  correspond- 
ence in  the  one  case,  with  the  large  discrepancy 
in  the  other,  is  a  very  suggestive  fact,  pointing 
as  it  does  to  the  effect  of  foreign  immigration,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  to  the  influence  of  a  great 
common-school  system,  on  the  other.  The  aver- 
age of  illiterates  in  Belgium  is  30  per  cent ;  and 
in  Great  Britain  and  France,  it  is  considerably 
below  50  per  cent;  while,  in  Belgium,  the 
percentage  of  illiterate  criminals  (1855)  was  57 
per  cent,  in  France  (1871)  it  was  41  per  cent. 
A  comparison,  based  on  full  and  accurate  sta- 
tistics, of  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  among  the 
adults  of  a  population,  with  the  percentage  of 
illiteracy  among  adult  criminals,  would  demon- 
strate, with  great  force  and  clearness,  the  effect 
of  education  upon  crime.  (See  Chimb  and  Edu- 
cation*.) The  percentage  of  illiteracy  among  con- 
scripts, in  any  country,  affords  a  means  of  as- 
certaining the  general  condition  of  a  people  in 


this  respect,  inasmuch  as  inquiries  in  regard  to  it 
■  are  generally  conducted  with  considerable  care. 

IV.  The  various  points  considered  in  this  di- 
vision of  the  subject  cannot  be  treated  upon  a 
basis  of  statistics;  but,  theoretically,  or  by  apri- 
'  ori  reasoning,  it  may  be  satisfactorily  shown 
that  the  advancement  of  a  people  in  every  de- 
partment of  learning,  science,  art.  artistic  and 
industrial  labor,  depends  on  the  diffusion  of  in- 
telligence, and  the  means  of  intelligence — read- 
ing and  writing,  among  all  classes  of  the  com- 
munity. Illiteracy  is  an  exponent  of  ignorance  ; 
and  "  what  bodily  disease,"  says  commissioner 
Eaton  [Report  gfU.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
1871), ''has  ever  wrought  the  terrible  evils  to 
society  that  come  from  ignorance,  whose  children 
are  destitution  and  crime?  The  children  whom 
society,  the  church,  and  the  school  fail  to  educate, 
learn  in  the  streets,  and  from  countless  teachers 
of  vice,  aided  by  those  grim  masters,  hunger  and 
want,  the  malign  arts  that  render  the  property 
of  our  households,  the  virtue  of  our  women,  and 
the  health  and  happiness  of  our  people  insecure." 

Y.  The  causes  of  illiteracy,  in  nations  that 
have  already  reached  the  condition  of  civilization, 
are  various ;  among  them  may  be  mentioned 
(1)  absolutism,  in  government,  basing  itself  up- 
on the  principle  of  "divine  right"  instead  of  the 
will  of  the  people,  or  in  religion,  depriving  the 
people  of  all  freedom  of  thought ;  as  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  a  people  controlled  by  a  despotic 
power  —  monarchy  or  hierarchy  —  are,  usually, 
largely  illiterate,  the  riding  class,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  priests  in  Egypt,  and  the  Druids  of 
Britain,  engrossing  all  knowdedge,  and  shutting 
up  its  avenues  against  the  people;  (2)  caste,  aris- 
tocracy, or  class  distinctions  fixed  as  institutions, 
must  necessarily  promote  illiteracy,  for  a  similar 
reason ;  as  must  also  (3)  restrictions  upon '  the 
right  of  suffrage,  shutting  out  any  large  class  of 
the  community  from  its  exercise;  and,  even 
when  the  institutions  of  society  are  free,  and 
public  schools  are  abundant,  frequently,  legisla- 
tive compulsion  may  be  required,  as  an  inter- 
mediate step  to  promote  the  acceptance,  on  the 
part  of  ignorant  or  vicious  parents,  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  education  for  their  children  ;  and 
therefore,  (4)  the  absence  of  compulsory  attend- 
ance lairs  may  be  a  cause  of  illiteracy.  (See 
(  'omitlsory  Education.) 

A' I.  Improvement  in  regard  to  the  diffusion 
of  learning  must  come  from  the  operation  of  ju- 
dicious measures  designed  to  remove  the  causes 
of  illiteracy  above  referred  to.  The  general  ac- 
ceptance by  civilized  nations,  at  the  present  time,, 
of  the  principle  of  popular  or  state  education,  as 
the  only  stable  foundation  of  national  prosperi- 
ty, with  the  vast  augmentation  of  the  means  of 
communication,  through  the  varied  applications 
of  steam  and  electricity,  must  gradually  but 
surely  diminish  among  every  people  the  ratio  of 
illiteracy.  Evidence  of  a  strong  tendency  in  this 
direction  is  shown  by  every  succeeding  census  in 
the  great  and  progressive  nations  of  the  world. 

The  following  tables  present  the  statistics  of 
illiteracy  in  different  countries. 


452 


ILLITERACY 


Table  I. 
Ratio  of  Illiteracy  to  Population. 

[Countries  marked  *  are  nearly  free  from  illiteracy ; 
in  those  marked  f ,  the  ratio  of  "illiteracy  is  very  large 
but  not  delinitely  ascertained.] 


Cotntries 


Argentine  Republic 

Austria  conscripts  

Bavaria  "  

Belgium 

Brazil 

China 

Denmark 

Egypt 

England 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Hawaii 

Hungary 

[ndia 

Ireland  (criminals) 

Italy 

Japan 

Mexico 

Netherlands    conscripts) . 

Norway 

Poland 

Portugal 

Russia 

Scotland  (criminals; 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey ,. 

United  States 


Percent  of  Illiteracy 


Earlier 
date 


8 

42 


55 
99 

78 
23 

99 
88 

23 


Recent 

statistics 


83 

49 

7 

30 

5f0 

* 

t 
33 
33 

12 
82 
* 

61 
95 
46 
73 
10 
93 
18 
* 

91 

t 
91 
21 

80 

* 
* 


Table  II. — Illiteracy  in  the  United  States. 

[Censuses  of  1840,  -50,  and  -60  reported  those  who 
could  not  read  and  write;  that  of  ls;o,  those  who  could 
not  read  and  those  who  could  nd  write.] 

[r  means  cannot  read  ;   «*,  cannot  write.] 


1 1  n  ■ 

Per 

Race 

Age 

of 
census 

Numbers 

cent 

'  20  and  over 

1840 

1,650.478 

22 

■  1       tt          u 

I860 

;  901 

23 

tt      fl         If 

1860 

8,012  280 

20 

All  Classes  -j 

21     " 

1870 

3,716,196 

20w 

10     "       " 

" 

6,658,144 

20it> 

14         tt               If 

tt 

4.:. '.'8, 084 

16,- 

.  10  to  21.... 

tt 

1,942,948 

20to 

'  20  and  over 

1840 

679,316 

9 

••     ••       " 

1860 

1,112,019 

11 

Whites  4 

U        tt            it 

I860 

1,181,918 

9 

21     "        " 

1870 

L.894,688 

12io 

.  10  to  21.... 

II 

957,228 

llw 

'  20  and  over 

1840 

1,071,162 

100 

(i    tt       tt 

I860 

1,485,882 

92 

Colored  < 

tt    n       tt 

I860 

1,830,412 

92 

21     " 

L870 

1,820,608 

82w 

10  to  21.... 

II 

986,726 

76m 

Foreign-born  1 
most  of      i 

20  and  over 

u       ..           .. 

1850 
I860 

204,753 
973 

15 
16 

them  whites) 

21     "       «' 
10    " 

1870 

tt 

677,600 

777,873 

15w 

I 

20  and  over 

1850 

2,293,148 

24 

Native-born  -i 

*t    it       a 

1860 

2,649,367 

•Jl 

White  and 

•ji     •• 

1870 

8,037,696 

22m 

colored)       ' 

10    "       " 

4,880,271 

21w 

| 

20  and  over 

1850 

808,024 

10 

Native  White 



1860 

810...4  1 

8 

1 

21     ••       " 

1870 

1,217 

lOw 

Table  III. 

Illiteracy  as  compared  with  various  Degrees 
of  Education. 


u 


Countries 


O 


France 

'•       military 

"      (civil,  males 

"       civil,  females] 

"      (adults    

minors,  6— 20  years). 

Spain   men 

"        women 

both 

United  States  ,aged  10  i:  over 

'  Belgium 


1851 
1856 
1859 
1861 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1864 
1867 

Germany 1851—52 

Italy.... 1869 

Netherlands 1846—58 

1859—62 

1868—69 

1870 


France . 


Date 

of 

census 

or 
report 


1866 

II 
II 
II 

1872 

■I 

1860 

II 

1870 


Switzerland 

Appenzell  Int.    read  

"        writ.-   ..  . 

Ext.    read 

*'  "       write 

Basel   all  read  fluently  . . 

"       write  

Bern      read  

"        (write) 

Soleure  (write  1 

ZUrich  u  rite 


f  Belgium . 


England  &  Wales    ma 

"        '*       •'        females 
"       (both  .  .. 

Ireland   males 

(females) 

(both) 

Scotland  (males   

"  females    

"         (both  

France 


r. 
c 

'.V 

u 


Italy  i'gaUey-slavt-s 

(prisoners-  males 

"         females 

both) 

Conde'd  minors   males  . . . 
"  ••  females;. 

"  "        both) 

"    lyr.or  more  (males 

'    females 

"      "      "      "   both  ... 

Minors  in  custody  (males  . 

"        ••       ••       females] 

««  •'         "         both  .  .. 

United  States  5SSB£ 


Per  cent 


1850 

1855 

1871—72 


1872 
1871—72 


1868 
1861 

1  862 
1868 
1871 
1871 


(adult>  .. 
(minors 
(adults  . 
(minors 


N.T.  news  boys 


1854—66 
1867—70 

1871— 75 
1850—59 

■I 

I860  -tv.< 

II 

1829—74 
1866—76 


3 
3 
2 
1 

55 
57 
31 
39 

:;4 
89 

57 
46 
20 
24 
■-•1 
14 
39 
40 
:is 
41 
66 

39 
53 
4:; 
41 
58 

44 

74 

67 
69 
16 
8 
18 


1841- 


17 

24 
81 
16 
24 

17 
■J  4 
•JO 
17 


2S 


11 

9 

10 

13 

10 

13 

4 

5 

5 

4 

11 
9 

7 
7 
5 
6 
6 
3 
2 
20 
4 
2 
2 
2 

39 

36 

4 

6 

11 


18 

17 

29 
26 
64 
59 
63 
14 
21 
17 
63 
63 
61 
39 
44 
45 
42 
41 
12 
15 
27 
16 

7 
14 

8 

1 

1 

38 

Is 

36 

19 

15 

18 

7 

15 
19 
13 
16 
16 
28 


IMACI  NATION 


453 


IMAGINATION,  Culture  of.  Imagina- 
tion is  the  power  by  which  conceptions,  origi- 
nally formed  from  the  perception  of  Datura]  ob- 
jects or  their  representatives,  are  reproduced  in 
a  fictitious  combination  which  resembles  the 
natural.  This  faculty,  existing  as  it  does,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  in  every  mind,  and  enter- 
ing to  some  extent  into  almost  every  mental  act, 
must  be  placed  among  the  few  great  powers  of 
the  mind  which  demand  careful  cultivation. 
The  influence  of  the  imagination  is  equally  felt 
in  moral  and  intellectual  action.  By  its  aid,  the 
man  of  science,  recombinine  the  elements  gath- 
ered  by  an  observation  of  the  visible  world 
around  him.  projects  his  thought  into  the  unseen 
universe,  and  determines  the  existence  of  condi- 
tions which  knowledge  alone  could  never  detect, 
but  which  observation  serves  only  to  confirm. 
Through  the  influence  of  imagination  alone,  the 
record  of  the  past  becomes  a  guide  and  a  warn- 
ing to  the  present.  Thus,  the  hand  of  charity 
is  opened  to  relieve  necessities  which  the  active 
exercise  of  this  faculty  picture's  to  us  as  existing 
in  the  homes  of  want  and  misery.  The  every- 
day thought  of  the  boor,  and  the  rare  flight  of 
the  man  of  genius  are  alike  indebted  to  its  aid. 
The  universality  of  its  presence,  therefore,  and 
the  danger  attending  its  unregulated  develop- 
ment, constitute  its  peculiar  claim  to  attention 
at  the  hands  of  the  educator.  Notwithstanding 
this,  however,  the  need  of  a  systematic  cultiva- 
tion of  the  imaginative  faculty  seldom  receives 
practical  recognition.  This  is  owing  somewhat 
to  the  fact  that  the  want  which  would  be  pro- 
duce 1  by  its  total  neglect,  is  partly  met  byits  in- 
direct and  irregular  cultivation  in  the  studies  of 
any  ordinary  school  course;  but  more  to  the 
hidden  nature  of  its  action,  and  the  want  of 
that  subtle  discernment  necessary  in  the  teacher 
to  detect  its  influence  in  the  mental  operations 
of  the  pupil.  A  knowledge  of  its  power  and 
of  the  consequent  need  of  its  cultivation  is  de- 
rived almost  entirely  from  our  own  experience. 
The  extent,  therefore,  to  which  it  influences  or 
controls  the  judgment,  is  appreciable  only  in  our 
own  case,  and  in  that  only  approximately  ;  and, 
hence,  an  analysis  of  its  effect  on  the  thought  or 
actions  of  others  becomes  a  matter  of  extreme 
difficulty.  The  neglect  of  its  cultivation  in  the 
ordinary  school  curriculum  is  productive  of  re- 
sults hardly  less  pernicious  than  its  abuse  by  un- 
due stimulation;  for,  while  by  the  latter  the 
judgment  and  reason  are  subordinated,  and  the 
mind  is  turned  from  tire  consideration  of  the 
practical,  ami  concentrated  too  exclusively  upon 
the  ideal,  thus  enveloping  the  daily  concerns  of 
life  in  a  kind  of  mental  mirage,  which  results  in 
disappointment  and  discouragement  when  the 
cloud  is  dispersed  ;  by  the  former,  the  dull,  mat- 
ter-of-fact phase  of  existence  acquires  undue 
prominence,  to  the  suppression  of  all  sentiment 
and  that  love  of  the  beautiful  which  cheers  and 
helps  us  to  find,  even  in  the  commonest  aspects 
and  the  least  fortunate  circumstances  of  life, 
reason  for  admiration  and  gratitude.  These  con- 
siderations should  secure  for  it  careful  attention. 


The  development  of  the  imaginative  faculty 
begins  at  a  very  early  period.  The  conscious- 
ness, on  the  part  of  the  child,  of  objects  ex- 
ternal to  itself,  constitutes  perception.  This  is 
very  soon  followed  by  conception,  which  con- 
in  taking  from  the  object  perceived  a  men- 
tal picture  capable  of  reproduction  at  pleasure, 
in  the  absence  of  the  original.  This  latter  may 
be  called  the  first  act  of  the  imagination — the 
Storing  of  the  mind  with  materials  for  future 
use.  Simultaneously  with  this,  or  only  shortly 
after,  occurs  the  naming  of  these  materials — 
the  association  of  thoughts  with  words,  with  a 
view  to  their  expression  as  language.  (Set'  [IN- 
TELLECT! al  Em  cation.)  Thus  far,  the  action 
of  the  imagination  depends  upon  the  percep- 
tion of  actual  objects.  It  now  remains  for  the 
imagination  to  use  the  materials  already  pro- 
vided,  by  discarding  the  actual  object,  and  form- 
ing partly  by  the  aid  of  words  as  symbols  of 
general  ideas,  aii  ideal  picture;  or,  independ- 
ently of  words,  and  by  its  own  act.  creating 
for  itself  scenes  and  images  not  less  vivid  than 
their  tangible  representatives.  The. work  of  the 
imagination,  therefore,  is  complementary  to  that 
of  observation.  The  order  is,  (1)  perception, 
(2)  conception,  (."')  imagination.  The  action  of 
the  latter  is  presupposed  by  that  of  the  two 
former.  Knowledge  alone — the  mere  storing 
of  the  mind  with  facts  and  conceptions — would 
be  of  little  value  without  the  vivifying  power 
of  imagination.  Its  function  is  to  lift  the 
mind  from  the  contemplation  of  the  actual,  and 
cany  it  beyond  the  field  of  mere  observation, 
into  those  ideal  regions  where  the  tangible  has 
no  existence,  or  where  its  existence  cannot  be 
actually  verified. — In  the  cultivation  of  the  fac- 
ulty of  imagination,  several  methods  are  open 
to  the  teacher,  the  most  common  of  which  are 
pictures,  oral  narratives,  and  reading,  or  combi- 
nations of  these.  In  all,  the  attention  is  the 
principal  object  to  be  secured  ;  since  thus  only 
can  a  vivid  mental  picture  be  formed,  and  any 
other  is  worst;  than  useless.  The  picture  is,  of 
course,  the  surest  instrument  for  accomplishing 
this  result,  since  it  is  a  direct  appeal  to  the  eye 
— the  earliest  and  most  powerful  agent  by  which 
knowledge  is  obtained.  It  is  desirable,  there- 
fore, that  the  picture  should  be  clearly  drawn  or 
painted,  and  in  as  simple  or  elementary  a  form 
as  is  consistent  with  the  idea  of  completeness. 
A  few  salient  features,  therefore,  are  all  that  are 
necessary  for  this  purpose  ;  since  fine  gradations 
of  color  or  shading  can  be  observed  only  at  the 
expense  of  the  general  impression.  In  oral  nar- 
rative, the  degree  to  which  the  clearness  of  the 
general  impression  is  produced,  depends  entirely 
upon  tip-  teacher.  A  warm,  sympathetic  nat- 
ure is  here  the  only  qualification.  By  it,  he  is 
enabled  to  place  himself  on  the  pupil's  level,  to 
enter  into  his  thoughts, and  by  the  use  of  figures 
and  illustrations  familiar  to  youthful  minds,  to 
produce  a  correct  and  precise  mental  image. 
Any  other  disposition  than  this  is  a  decided  dis- 
qualification for  the  cultivation  of  the  imagina- 
tion by  this  method.     Where  the  picture  and 


454 


IMAGINATION 


IMITATION 


the  oral  narrative  are  used  together,  the  former 
should  not  be  exhibited  till  after  the  description. 
It  should  then  be  produced  to  re-inforce  the  de- 
scription and  give  it  greater  clearness;  but,  if 
it  is  exhibited  before  that  time,  the  attention  is 
drawn  to  it  at  once,  to  the  neglect  of  the  nar- 
rative. Pictures  which  are  to  be  used  for  the 
purpose  of  illustration,  should,  if  possible,  be 
new  to  the  pupil  in  order  to  produce  their  best 
effect.  *  >f  the  methods  mentioned,  however,  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  imaginative  faculty,  read- 
ing is  not  only  the  most  common,  but  is,  in  most 
cases,  indispensable.  The  requisites  in  this  ease. 
however,  are  still  the  same.  The  object  being 
always  to  fix  the  attention  ;is  powerfully  as  pos- 
sible upon  a  mental  picture,  the  style  should  be 
simple  and  clear,  but  graphic  and  forcible, 
abounding  in  concrete  terms,  not  in  abstract 
phrases,  and  appealing  to  the  experience  of  the 
pupil,  ami  awakening  his  sympathies.  An  ex- 
cellent test  of  the  clearness  of  the  mental  picture 
formed  is  that  of  recalling  at  the  end  of  the 
ling,  the  scenes,  inei  lenls,  and  actors  in  the 
order  of  their  introduction  or  occurrence.  Al- 
most every  branch  pursued  in  the  ordinary 
school  or  college  course  affords  some  opportunity 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  imaginative  faculty. 
but  special  fields  for  its  most  active  exercise  are 

found  in  geography,  history,  and  poetry.    S e 

departments  of  natural  science  may  also  afford 

ision  for  its  activity.  The  condition  of  the 
eartli  in  prehistoric  time,  its  chemical,  geolog- 
ical,  and  meteorological  constitution,  the  plants 
and  animals  that  grew  or  moved  upon  its  sur- 
face, together  with  its  relation  past, present,  and 
future,  with  other  worlds,  afford  Bcope  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  most  lively  imagination.  The  his- 
tory of  the  human  race,  also,  is  tilled  with  scenes 
and  incidents  of  which,  if  skillfully  presented. 
the  mind  of  the  pupil  will  never  tire.  Even  in 
the  teaching  of  subjects  usually  considered  dry 
and  uninteresting,  there  is  field  for  the  exercise 
of  this  faculty.  Grammar,  mathematics,  polit- 
ical economy,  and  logic,  if  illustrated  by  a  teacher 
of  active  fancy,  can  be  freed,  in  large  measure, 
from  the  abstract  nature  which  is  supposed 
to  be  essential  to  them,  and  which  renders 
them  ordinarily  so  uninviting.  In  regard  to 
the  use  of  fiction  as  an  agent  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  imagination,  much  discussion  has 
arisen,  the  objection  usually  urged  being  that  its 

effecl  18  to  Stimulate    this   faculty  unduly.      This 
is  probably  true  of  one  class  only;    namely,  tho  B 

in  whose  mimls  the  imaginative  faculty  exists 

by  nature    in    an  abnormal  degree.       Where  this 

power  is  deficient, it  will  hardly  be  said  that  the 

perusal  Of   works  of   fiction  can  do  more  than  to 

develop  the  faculty,  so  as  to  bring  it  into  pro- 
portion with   the  other  mental  powers;   while 

the  probability  is,  that    the    result   will  fall  short 
of   this.      In    the  remaining  class,  those  in  w  hoin 

this  faculty  exists  in  a  normal  proportion,  the 
evil  result  of  stimulation  produced  by  the  read- 
i  ig  of  works  of  action,  has,  perhaps,  been  over 
rated.  The  reading  alone  can  only  Berve  to  fill 
the   mind  with  high  ideals— the   harm   result 


has  probably  been  produced  by  neglecting  to 
provide  the  necessary  means  or  occasions  for  an 
active  exercise  of  the  high  and  generous  sen- 
timents and  resolves  thus  aroused.  If  we  read 
continually  of  suffering,  but  never  give  alms, 
habit  soon  causes  us  to  accommodate  ourselves  to 
this  condition  as  the  natural  one,  and  the  mental 
excitement  ceases  to  seek  any  outward,  active 
expression.  This,  probably,  is  the  explanation 
of  the  anomaly  sometimes  noticed  in  the  his- 
tories of  eminent  writers,  that  their  works  are 
tilled  with  sentiment  and  tenderness,  while  their 
lives  were  mean  and  despicable.  The  result  here 
is  owing  to  that  half  education  which  rouses 
the  sympathies,  and  then  neglects  to  provide 
for  their  exercise.  But  this  abuse  of  the  true 
method  can  hardly  be  considered  a  condemna- 
tion of  the  method  itself.  An  experienced  edu- 
cator says  on  the  subject  of  the  general  culture 
of  the  imagination:  "1  much  fear,  neither 
teachers  nor  scholars  are  sufficiently  impressed 
with  the  importance  of  a  proper  training  of  this 
faculty.  Some  there  may  be  who  despise  it  al- 
together, as  bavins  to  do  with  fiction  rather 
than  with  fact,  and  of  no  value  to  the  severe 
Student  who  wishes  to  acquire  exact  knowledge. 
But  this  is  not  the  case.  It  is  a  well  known  fact 
that  the  highest  class  of  scientific  men  have  be<  a 
led  to  their  most  important  discoveries  by  the 
quickening  power  of  a  suggestive  imagination, 
of  this  tlie  poet  Goethe's  original  observations 

in  botany  and  03teology  may  serve  as  an  apt 
illustration.  Imagination,  therefore,  is  the  enemy 
of  science  only  when  it  acts  without  reason, that 
is,  arbitrarily  and  whimsically;  with  reason,  it 
is  often  the  best  and  most  indispensable  of  allies." 
(See  Fiction.) 

IMITATION.  The  possession  of  this  im- 
portant faculty,  and  the  desire  to  exercise  it, 
constitute  two  essential  elements  of  all  human 
progress,  from  childhood  to  maturity,  and 
even  beyond — as  long,  indeed,  as  the  effort  at 
self  improvement  is  kept  up — a  vast  majority  of 
the  human  race  are  employed  merely  in  imitat- 
ing the  models  that  have  been  set  up  by  individ- 
ual genius,  or  by  the  accumulated  wisdom  and 
taste  of  ages  ;  and  their  success  in  life  is  greater  or 
according  to  the  accuracy  of  their  imitation. 
Especially  during  childhood  and  youth,  is  this 
faculty  brought  into  active  play.  It  is  the  nec- 
essary accompaniment  and  basis  of  instruction, 
the  Btepping-stone  to  all  excellence.  I  leing  of  so 
great  importance,  therefore,  in  nearly  every  de- 
partment of  education,  it  should  receive  the 
ial  attention  of  the  teacher.-   The  conditions 

of  success  in  imitation  are  chiefly  two  :  (1)  ac- 
curate observation,  and  (2)  a  retentive  memory. 
Probably  few  have  noticed  how  slightly  the 
faculty  of  observation  18  usually  exercised.  This. 
however,  may  lie  easily  illustrated.  Of  twenty 
persons   listening  to  a  speaker   whose   voice  has 

some  peculiar  tone  or  inflection,  it  will  probably 
be  found  that  only  half  a  dozen  or  perhaps  even 
I  as  will  notice  it.  unless  it  is  very  marked;  and 
of  these,  only  two  or  three  v\ill  be  able  to  re- 
produce  it  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.     J  low 


INCENTIVES 


INDIA 


455 


often  do  men  differ  as  to  the  form  or  color  of 
some  feature  in  the  face  of  an  acquaintance! 
For  example)  let  a  draughtsman,  whose  attention 

has  not  previously  been  specially  called  to  the 
object,  he  asked  to  draw  a  rose-leaf.  The  prob- 
ability is.  that  he  will  confess  his  inability  to  do 
so,  though  he  would  recognize  a  rose-bush  with- 
out difficulty.  Instances  might  be  multiplied  of 
the  loose,  general  way  in  which  this  faculty  is 
used,  the  result  of  which  is,  that  only  an  indef- 
inite impression  is  left  on  the  mind,  instead 
of  an  accurate  picture.  (See  Attention.)  If  it 
be  granted  then,  that  mere  imitation,  when 
uncultivated,  cannot  be  depended  on,  it  will 
probably  not  be  denied  that  a  good  memory, 
and,  in  most  cases,  a  certain  degree  of  mechan- 
ical skill,  are  necessary,  when  it  is  cultivated, 
to  produce  the  best  results.  It  only  remains, 
therefore,  to  point  out  a  few  of  the  studies 
and  pursuits  in  which  imitation  is  the  chief  in- 
strument, and  to  indicate  some  of  the  methods 
by  which  it  may  be  made  most  efficient.  Among 
the  first,  may  be  enumerated  writing, map-draw- 
ing, as  now  generally  used  in  teaching  geography, 
and  nearly  all  the  arts  ;  among  them,  drawing, 
with  all  the  professions  that  immediately  depend 
upon  it.  as  surveying,  civil  engineering,  mechan- 
ics, architecture,  together  with  all  the  natural 
sciences  in  the  teaching  of  which,  sensible  objects 
are  to  be  represented.  In  learning  to  speak  a 
foreign  language,  also,  a  direct  appeal  is  made  to 
the  faculty  of  imitation.  Among  the  methods 
used  for  producing  efficiency  in  imitation,  the 
kindergarten  system  is  of  great  value  for  insur- 
ing steadiness  of  hand  and  accuracy  of  eye.  (See 
Kindergarten'.)  The  usual  school  exercises  of 
reading,  declamation,  dialogues,  etc.,  are  more  or 
less  successful,  according  to  the  closeness  with 
which  the  feelings  and  expressions  of  imaginary 
persons  are  imitated.  Proficiency  in  classical 
■composition,  also,  is  promoted,  in  many  colleges 
and  universities,  by  placing  before  students  orig- 
inal models  for  imitation.  The  value  of  this 
faculty,  in  moral  education,  can  hardly  be  over- 
stated, that  most  powerfid  of  all  educators — 
■example — depending  to  a  great  extent  on  imita- 
tion for  its  efficiency.     (See  Example.) 

INCENTIVES,  School,  consist  of  rewards 
of  various  kinds,  offered  to  pupils  for  progress 
in  study  and  good  behavior;  such  as  "good 
tickets",  certificates  of  merit,  books,  and  other 
things  awarded  as  premiums  for  excellence 
■either  in  proficiency  or  conduct.  Besides  these, 
various  expedients  arc  resorted  to  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exciting  emulation,  which  are  also  to  be 
classed  among  school  incentives  ;  such  as  giving 
public  praise,  awarding  merit  marks,  putting 
the  names  of  meritorious  pupils  upon  a  roU  of 
honor,  which  is  suitably  embellished  and  framed, 
and  hung  in  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  school- 
room. The  dismissal  of  pupils  from  school 
previous  to  the  usual  time  is  also  to  be  placed 
among  the  same  class  of  incentives.  To  this, 
however,  strong  objection  has  been  made,  inas- 
much as  it  seems  to  imply  that  attendance  at 
school  is  burdensome  and  grievous,  whereas  it 


should  be  made  pleasant  and  attractive.  The 
efficacy  of  this  incentive  as  every  teacher  knows, 
is  very  great,  because  it  appeals  to  the  natural 
activity  of  the  child,  upon  which  the  confinement 
of  school  cannot  but  operate  as  a  restraint,  how- 
ever well  it  may  be  administered;  and  experience 
has  demonstrated  that  an  occasional  relief  from 
this  confinement  does  not,  on  the  whole,  weaken 
the  pupil's  attachment  to  school.  All  such  in- 
centives, it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  are  of  a 
secondary  nature;  and  the  educator  should  al- 
ways exercise  care  that  their  influence  should 
not  be  so  exerted  as  to  impair  the  force  of  higher 
and  more  enduring  motives  to  good  conduct. 
(Sec  Rewards.) 

INDIA,  a  country  in  Asia,  at  present  under 
British  rule,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  French 
and  Portuguese  colonies.  rl  he  term  India  is 
sometimes  also  applied  in  a  wider  sense,  embra- 
cing those  countries  known  by  the  name  of 
Hindoostan  and  Farther  India.  In  this  article, 
we  treat  of  that  part  only  which  is  known  as 
British  In  ilia.  '1  he  area  of  the  country  under 
the  direct  rule  of  the  British  government  is 
904,049  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
1 90,563,048.  The  native  states,  which,  although 
governed  by  native  princes,  are  still  more  or  less 
subject  to  British  influence,  have  an  area  of 
546,695  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
-ls,2(>7,910,  making  the  total  area  of  British  In- 
dia 1,450,744  square  miles,  and  the  aggregate 
population  238,830,958.  The  principal  religions 
in  British  India  (as  far  as  it  is  directly  under 
British  rule),  according  to  the  last  census  (com- 
pleted in  1872),  were  represented  as  follows: 
Hindoos,  139,248,000;  Mohammedans,  40,883,- 
000  ;  Buddhists,  2,833,000  ;  Christians,  897,000  ; 
Sikhs,  1,174.000;  other  creeds,  5,102,000;  of 
unknown  religion,  425,000.  The  number  of  Chris- 
tians, according  to  missionary  reports,  is  how- 
ever, considerably  larger.  The  Protestants  claim 
a  native  population  of  more  than  250,000 ;  and 
the  Roman  Catholics,  according  to  a  statement 
prepared  in  1870  for  the  Vatican  Council, 
1, 070,000.  The  Parsees  are  one  of  the  least 
numerous  sects,  but  they  constitute  one  of  the 
most  intelligent  portions  of  the  native  popula- 
tion. The  best  known  among  the  sects  of  recent 
origin  is  the  Brahmo-Samaj,  founded  about 
L830.  It  is  a  kind  of  rationalistic  development 
of  Brahman  and  Christian  doctrines,  and  admits 
into  its  canon  of  sacred  books  such  portions  of 
the  Vedas  and  the  Bible,  as  are  merely  theistic 
and  not  miraculous.  It  chiefly  exists  in  the  large 
cities,  and  its  members  take  an  active  interest  in 
all  educational  movements. 

But  little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  In- 
dia. It  was,  in  the  6th  century  1!.  ( '.,  invaded  by 
the  Persian  king  Darius,  and  in  the  4th  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great;  but  the  connection  thus  es- 
tablished with  the  countries  of  western  Asia  and 
Europe  soon  ceased,  and  India  relapsed  into  its 
secluded  position.  The  invasion  of  the  country 
by  Mohammedans  began  in  the  8th  century  A.  D., 
and,  since  that  time,  large  portions  of  India  con- 
tinued under  Mohammedan  rule,  until  finally 


456 


INDIA 


oompelled  to  yield  to  the  advancing  power  of 
some  of  tin'  European  nations.  The  first  of  these 
who  obtained  territorial  possessions  in  India,  were 
the  Portuguese,  who,  early  in  the  16th  century, 
established  their  rule  by  seizing  some  of  the  forts 
on  the  western  coast.  The  English  East  India 
Company,  after  obtaining  permission  from  the 
Mogul  emperor,  established  its  first  factory  in 
L613,  and  gradually  extended  its  power,  until  at 
last  nearly  the  whole  of  India  was  united  under 
its  rule.  In  L858,  the  East  India  Company  trans- 
ferred all  its  possessions  to  the  British  Crown; 
and,  in  1876,  the  queen  of  England  assumed  the 
official  title  of  Empress  of  India. 

I.  Ancient  India. — India,  like  China,  Persia, 
and  Egypt,  possesses  one  of  the  most  ancient  of 
civilizations.  The  education  of  children  consisted 
chiefly  in  training  them  as  members  of  one  of 
the  castes  into  which  the  people  were  divided. 
There  were  four  principal  castes:  the  Brahmans 
or  priests,  the  Kshatrivas  or  warriors,  the  Vais- 
yas  or  merchants,  and  the  Sudras  or  laborers, 
composed  mainly  of  the  conquered  people.  Be- 
low th,'   Sudras   was  a  still  more   degraded  class. 

known  as  Pariahs  or  outcasts.  Every  native  of 
India  bel  mge  1  to  one  or  other  of  these  castes,  and 
all  children  were  brought  up  Btrictly  within  their 
own.  The  tirst  instruction  embraced  teachings 
and  warnings  bh  I    by   the   necessities  of 

daily  life,  in  order  thus  to  teach  the  children 
to  imitate  the  good.  <  hi  the  subs  qu  nt  education 
the  priests  had  the  most  powerful  influence. 
They  were  the  sole  teachers.  Women  and  the 
fourth  caste  were  excluded  from  all  education. 
Elementary  instruction  embraced  only  reading. 
writing,  and  arithmetic.  A  teacher  with  a  staff 
and  with  an  assistant  holding  the  switch,  gave 

■  ©  © 

instruction  to  boys  sitting  around  him  under  the 
trees.  In  arithmetic,  only  the  elements  were 
taught  :  while  writing,  which  was  closely  con- 
nected with  instruction  in  reading,  was  first  prac- 
ticed in  the  sam I.  then  on  palm  leaves  with  an 
iron  pencil,  and  finally  on  platane  leaves  with  ink. 
One  child  showed  it  to  another,  and  one  heard 
the  other  recite.    Particular  attention  was  paid 

to  the  higher  schools  of  the  Brahmans;    and  the 

educational  laws,   which  are  treated  quite  ex- 
haustively in  the  law  books,  have  reference  al- 
most exclusively  to  the  Brahmans.  In  the  learned 
schools  in  Benares,  in  Trizioon,  an  1  in  the  Nud 
deah,  the  exoterics,  to  whom  also  members  of 

the  second  and  third  caste  belonged,  were  in- 
structed in  grammar,  prosody,  and  mathematics; 
and  the  esoterics,  in  poetry,  history,  philosophy, 
astronomy,  medicine,  and    law.     The    pupil   was 

for  live  years  only  a  hearer;  after  that  time  he 
Was  permitted  to  express  his  thoughts  and 
doubte    to    the   teacher,  and   to    take    part   in  the 

disputations.  The  whole  course  comprised  from 

12  to  20  years,  during   which    time   the  scholar 

lived  with  the  teacher.  No  regular  compensa- 
tion was  received   by  the  teacher, as  to  doso 

Would  he  considered  shameful,  hut  presents  were 
given  as  a  reinuiieratiim.  The  reading  of  the 
\  edas  was  considered  the  highest  instruction 
of  the  Brahmans,  and  was  connected  with  various 


ceremonies.    India  possesses  no  theory  of  peda 

:    but,  instead  of  the  dry.  prosaic  collection 

of  rules  of  the  <  Ihinese.we  find  here  some  deep  ped- 
agogical sayings  in  the  pleasing  garb  of  poetry, 
and  particularly  in  the  form  of  failles.  The  old- 
est of  the  collections  of  fables,  the  Pantchatan- 
tra,  was  written  in  the  5th  century  of  out- 
present  era.  and  has  been  translated  into  almost 
every  modern  language.  It  contains  numerous, 
short  sayings,  extolling  the  advantages  of  educa- 
tion.—  A  new  religion,  Buddhism,  sprung  from 
Brahmanism;  but  although  it  had  its  origin  in 

©  © 

India,  it  was  forced  to  retreat  before  the  old  relig- 
ion, and  spread  particularly  over  China,  Farther 
India.  .Mongolia.  Japan,  and  other  countries  of 
eastern  Asia.  The  chief  aim  of  the  Buddhists  is 
to  improve  the  moral  life.  For  this  purpose  ten 
commandments  have  been  laid  down,  containing, 
besides  some  excellent  moral  principles,  rules  for 
good  behavior.  Buddhism  ignores  the  cases. 
though  it  does  not  absolutely  prohibit  them.  The 
clergy  wen'  made  the  basis  of  Buddhistic  society; 

whereas,  in  other  creeds,  the  laity  were  the  basis 
on  which  the  hierarchy  reposed.  Though  this 
creed  has  always  been  one  of  the  most  extensive 
in  the  number  of  its  followcrs.it  ha.-  contributed 
little  to  the  progress  of  education.  On  education 
in  ancient  India,  see  Schmidt,  Geschichte  der 
Padagogik,  vol.  i. 

II.  Modern  India. — Doth  the  Catholic  and 
the  Protestant  missionaries  who  went  to  India. 
established  schools  for  tin  education  of  the  na- 
tives, but  they  reached  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  native  population.  By  the  natives  them- 
selves nothing  was  done  to  improve  the  system 
of  education  and  instruction.  The  bast  India 
Company  had  not  founded  a  single  school  until 

I  T'.'.'i.    In  that  year,  Wilberforce  moved,  in  the 

I  louse  of    Commons,  to  send   schoolteachers   to 

India,  in  order  to  superintend  the  instruction  of 

the  people:  hut  the  India  House  denounced  the 
plan  as  detrimental  to  the   continuance   of  their 

rule.  In  L81 3,  parliament  granted  $10,000  an- 
nually for  educational  purposes;  hut  the  money 
was  spent  for  the  promotion  of  literary  studies, 
rather  than  for  education.  In  1848,  the  lieu- 
tenant governor  of  Agra  brought  forward  a 
Scheme  to  give  a  school  to  every  village  of  at 
least  one  hundred   families.      After  three   years' 

discussion  the  court  of  directors  of  the  East 

India  <  'onipany  accepted  the  groundwork  of  the 
plan;  and  orders  were  issued  that  a  school  should 

he  provided  for  every  circle  of  Tillages,  called 
Huttcabundee,  and  that  the  teachers  should  he 
paid    by   a    tax    of    two   per  cent    on    the    land 

revenue,  'the  plan  has  been  gradually  developed; 

and  government   schools  now  exist,  in  regular 

gradation,  from    those   which  give   the  humbli 

elementary   instruction  to  the  highest   colleges; 

and  the  best  pupils  of  one  grade  are  able  to  pass 
through  the  other  grades  by  means  of  scholar- 
ships. To  complete  the  system,  a  university  was 
established,  in  ISeT.at   each   of   the   three   pn 

dency  capitals,  '  lalcutta,  Bombay, and  Madras. on 

the  model  of  the   London  I'llivei-sity.  for  holding 

examinations  and  conferring  degrees.    The  gov- 


INDIA 


INDIANA 


467 


eminent  institutions  are  intended  to  serve  as 
models,  to  be  gradually  superseded  by  schools 
supported  on  the  grant-in-aid-system — a  system 
based  on  the  principle  of  perfecl  religious  neu- 
trality, and  i»n  regular  rules  adapted  to  the  cir- 
oumstances  of  each  province.  Normal  schools 
exist  in  each  province  tor  the  training  of  teachers. 
The  medium  of  education,  in  the  elementary 
schools  for  the  masses,  is  the  vernacular  lan- 
guages, into  which  are  translated  the  best  ele- 
mentary English  treatises.  The  study  of  the  clas- 
sical languages  of  India  is,  however,  still  main- 
tained. The  English  language  is  taught  in  the 
Anglo-vernacular  schools  and  colleges  for  the 
education  of  the  upper  and  middle  classes  of 
society.  The  governing  agency  of  this  system 
consists  of  a  director  of  public  instruction  in 
each  province,  aided  by  a  staff  of  inspectors. 
The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  schools 
and  colleges  belonging  to,  aided  or  maintained 
by,  the  government  in  British  India,  with  the 
average  number  of  pupils  attending  them,  the 
amount  expended  by  the  government,  and  the 
gross  expenditure  on  account  of  instruction  dur- 
ing the  years  1862,  1867,  and  1871  : 


Year 


Number  of 
educational 

institutions 


Average 

attend- 
ance 


Amouni  ex- 
pended by 

the  gov't 


total  ex- 
penditures 
from  all 
sources 


1862 13,219  .r.0,762       £248,330      £2s4,07G 

1867 2H.I-:  658,834        401,378        T.")5,518 

lsTl 25,147  799,622        C4U.724     1,019,418 

Counting  in  the  indigenous  schools,  the  whole 
number  of  schools  of  British  India  (exclusive  of 
the  native  states  and  Burma)  amounted,  in 
1872,  to  40,700  ;  and  the  number  of  scholars,  to 
1,280,914.  The  schools  which  have  been  improved 
up  to  the  government  standard  are  divided  as  fol- 
lows :  Lower-class  schools,  middle-class  schools, 
high  schools,  normal  schools,  special  schools,  col- 
leges, anil  universities. — The  number  of  middle- 
class  schools,  in  1871.  was  2,873  (for  boys 
2,740,  for  girls  133),  with  158,728  pupils  (boys 
151,656;  girls  7.072).  The  number  of  high  schools 
was  273.  with  47.572  pupils;  of  these  only  one 
school  was  for  girls.  The  number  of  normal 
schools  was  104  (S7  for  males,  17  for  females) 
with  4,346  students  (4.080  male  and  266  female). 
The  number  of  general  colleges,  in  1 871 ,  was  4  1. 
of  which  24  were  government  colleges,  and  20 
private  and  aided  colleges.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents in  the  government  colleges  was  1,854;  and 
in  the  private  colleges,  2,1 40.  making  a  total  of 
44  colleges,  with  3,994  students.  Besides  the  gen- 
eral colleges,  there  were  10  law  colleges,  with 
684  students;  5  colleges  of  medicine,  with  893 
Students;  4  colleges  of  civil  engineering,  with  549 
students.  Of  other  special  schools,  there  were  .'! 
schools  of  design  and  decorative  art :  one  at  Cal- 
cutta (with  50  students);  one  at  Madras  ;  and  one 
at  Bombay  (with  90  students), besides  the  David 
Sassoon  Industrial  .School  at  Bombay,  with  101 
students.  The  progress  of  the  three  universities 
at  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay, from  the  time 
of  their  foundation,  in  1857,  to  1871,  is  shown 
by  the  following  table  : 


e  \  I  e  I    IT A 

MADRAS 

BOMBAT 

Year 

dates 

Candi- 
dates 

i ' 

Candi- 
dates 

Passed 

1857 
I860 

1866 

IsTI 

214 

808 

1,350 

2,877 

1(12 
414 
629 

1,(101 

4  1(1 
1,701 

8 

93 

564 

41 

52 

555 

1,153 

36 

229 

231 

Female  education,  which  had  been  almost  en- 
tirely neglected,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
country,  received  a  strong  impulse,  in  1866, 
from  an  English  Unitarian  lady,  Miss  Carpenter, 
who  arrived  in  Bombay  in  that  year.  After 
making  a  tour  of  Guzerat,  and  holding  several 
meetings  in  Surat,  she  proceeded  to  Madras, 
where  she  enlisted  the  warm  sympathy  and  co- 
operation of  Lord  Napier,  the  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor of  that  province.  Upon  arriving  in  Cal- 
cutta she  convened  a  large  meeting,  which  was 
attended  by  most  of  the  prominent  government 
officials.  She  succeeded  in  awakening  an  inter- 
est in  female  education  ;  and.  under  her  direc- 
tion, a  number  of  female  schools,  and  also  ragged 
schools,  were  established.  For  an  account  of  the 
progress  of  education  in  India,  see  the  official 
Statement  of  tie  Moral  and  Material  Progress 
of  India,  published  annually;  also  the  several 
volumes  of  the  Annual  American  Cyclopaedia; 
and  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner*  of 
Education,  for  1873. 

INDIANA,  at  first  a  part  of  the  North-west 
Territory,  afterwards  formed  a  part  of  Indiana 
Territory,  organized  July  4.,  1800.  In  1805, 
Michigan  was  set  off  from  it;  and,  in  1809,  Illi- 
nois, leaving  the  territorial  limits  the  same  as 
those  of  the  state  at  present.  Indiana  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  a  state,  Dec.  11.,  18]  (i. 
Its  area  is  33,809 square  miles;  and  its  popula- 
tion, in  Im7<>.  was  1,680,637,  giving  it  the  sixth 
rank  among  the  United  States. 

Educational  History. — The  duty  of  the  state 
to  educate  its  children  was  early  recognized  in 
Indiana.  The  constitution  adopted  in  1816 
declared  the  general  diffusion  of  learning  and 
knowledge  through  a  community  to  be  essential 
to  the  preservation  of  a  free  government,  and 
made  it  the  duty  of  the  general  assembly,  at 
the  earliest  practicable  moment,  to  provide  a 
law  for  a  general  system  of  education.  It  was 
not  until  the  adoption  of  the  new  constitution, 
in  1851,  which  made  it  the  duty  of  the  genera] 
assembly  to  "encourage,  by  all  suitable  means, 
moral,  intellectual,  scientific,  and  agricultural 
improvement,  and  to  provide  by  law  for  a 
general  and  uniform  system  of  common  schools, 
wherein  tuition  shall  be  without  charge  and 
equally  open  to  all,"  and  which  provided  for  the 
election  of  a  state1  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, that  we  have  any  permanent  record 
of  the  condition  and  progress  of  the  public 
schools.  The  act  to  provide  for  a  "  general  and 
uniform  system  of  common  schools"  was  passed 
dune  14.,  1  S">2  ;  but.  although  in  force  after  its 
publication  and  distribution,  it  did  not  become 
practically  operative  until  the  first  Monday  of 
April,  1853.     This  was  owing  to  a  discrepancy 


458 


INDIANA 


between  the  school  law  and  the  township  law,  so 
that  no  school  officers  for  the  township  could  be 
elected  until  the  time  for  the  regular  election 
of  the  township  trustees,  in  April.  This  law 
provided  for  the  consolidation  and  equalization 
of  the  school  funds,  and  for  the  organization  of 
school  corporations  by  civil  townships  instead  of 
by  districts,  and  also  gave  the  people  the  power 
to  assess  special  township  tuxes,  for  the  build- 
ing of  school-houses  and  for  the  continuance  of 
schools  after  the  public  funds  were  expended. 
"William  C.  Larrabee  was  the  first  person  elected 
to  fill  the  office  of  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction. He  inaugurated  the  system,  and  at 
this  time  served  two  years  from  November  8., 
]  852.  Caleb  Mills  took  the  office  November  8., 
1854,  and  served  until  February,  1857.  He 
distributed  the  libraries  bought  with  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  tax  levied  for  that  purpose,  among 
the  townships  of  the  state.  He  was  succeeded 
by  William  ('.  Larrabee,  who  was  again  elected 
superintendent,  and  served  for  two  years,  from 
the  second  Tuesday  of  February,  1857.  During 
his  administration,  he  made  many  important 
recommendations  to  the  legislature,  in  regard  to 
the  time  of  receiving  reports  and  of  apportion- 
ing the  revenue.  Samuel  L.  Rugg,  his  successor, 
served  two  years,  from  the  second  Monday  of 
February,  1859.  In  his  term  of  office,  he  in- 
vestigated the  condition  of  the  school  funds,  and 
considered  plans  for  their  more  profitable  man- 
agement. Miles  J.  Fletcher  took  the  office  of 
state  superintendent,  February  1  1..  L861.  In  the 
Spring  of  1862,  he  was  killed  in  a  railway  ac- 
cident, and  Samuel  K.  lloshour,  D.D.,  by  ex- 
ecutive appointment,  filled  the  vacancy  from 
May  29.,  1872  until  his  successor  was  elected 
and  qualified.  Samuel  L.  Rugg  was  again 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years,  commencing 
November  21.,  1862;  but,  owing  to  an  amend- 
ment in  the  school  law,  changing  the  time  of  as- 
suming  the  duties  of  the  office,  he  held  over  until 
March  15.,  1865.  George  W.  I  loss  succeeded, 
March  12.,  1865,  serving  for  a  term  of  two  years. 
lie  administered  the  new  school  law,  and  replen- 
ished the  township  libraries.  Deing  elected  for 
a  second  term,  he  held  office  until  October,  1868, 
when,  by  reason  of  his  resignation,  the  newly 
tleeted  officer,  Barnabas  (1.  llobbs  was  appointed 
to  fill  out  the  term.  I  hiring  the  term  of  office 
of  Mr.  llobbs,  the  Normal  School  was  opened, 
January  6.,  L870.  Milton  B.  Hopkins  took  the 
office,  March  15.,  1871,  for  a  term  of  two  years. 
Through  his  instrumentality,  a  law  was  pa 
abolishing  the  office  of  county  examiner  and 
creating  that  of  county  superintendent.  Mr.  Sop- 
kins  entered  upon  the  duties  of  a  second  term, 

March  15.,  1873,  bu1  did  not  live  out  this  term. 
He  died  in  August,  L874;  and  his  son.  Alexander 
0.  Hopkins,  by  executive  appointment,  tilled  the 
vacancy,  from  August  20.,  i.874,  until  March  15., 

1875,  when  dames  II.  Smart,  the  present  incum- 
bent, entered  upon  the  duties  of  the  office.  Six 
of  these  superintendents  are  now  living. 

School  System.    The  school  officers oi  the  state 
are  the  directors  of  the  districts  into  which  the 


townships  are  divided,  the  trustees  of  townships, 
members  of  boards  of  school  trustees  in  incor- 
porated towns  and  cities,  county  superintendents, 
members  of  the  state  board  of  education,  and 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
The  directors  of  school  districts  act  under  the 
authority  of  the  township  trustees,  and  exercise 
quite  limited  powers.  They  preside  at  school 
meetings,  take  charge  of  the  school  property, 
and  perform  other  duties  under  the  direction  of 
the  trustees.  Voters  at  school  meetings  may 
designate  other  branches  than  those  required  by 
the  school  law.  which  they  wish  to  be  taught  in 
their  respective  districts.  They  may  request  a 
trustee  to  remove  a  teacher,  and  they  may  peti- 
tion him  in  regard  to  the  repairing  or  removal 
of  a  school-house.  Township  trustees  are  elected 
by  the  people  biennially  and  are  the  school 
trustees  for  their  respective  townships.  It  is 
their  duty  to  take  charge  of  the  schools,  employ 
teachers,  build  school  houses,  provide  furniture, 
apparatus,  etc.,  take  the  enumeration  of  the 
school  children,  and  to  cause  to  be  held,  month- 
ly, township  institutes  for  the  instruction  of  the 
teachers.  They  may  also  provide  township 
graded  schools  and  arrange  for  admission  into 
them  from  the  other  departments.  The  school 
boards  of  cities  and  towns  consist  of  three  mem- 
bers in  each.  Those  in  cities  are  appointed  by 
the  common  council,  for  three  years,  one  mem- 
ber being  appointed  annually,  in  dune.  Those 
in  towns  are  appointed  by  the  civil  trustees  of 
the  town,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  city  trustees 
are  ajipointed.  School  matters  in  cities  and 
towns  are  more  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  school 
trustees,  than  in  townships,  inasmuch  as  the 
law  does  not  provide  for  school  meetings  in  the 
former.  The  law  permits  school  boards  of  cities 
and  towns  to  employ  superintendents  for  their 
respective  corporations.  The  county  superin- 
tendent is  appointed  by  the  township  trustees, 
biennially,  in  June  ;  and  he  must  have  had 
two  years'  successful  experience  in  teaching. 
It  is  his  duty  to  examine  all  applicants  for 
license  to  teach.  These  examinations  are  held 
on  the  last  Saturday  of  each  month.  The 
branches  required  by  law  are  orthography,  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  English 
grammar,  physiology,  and  United  States  history. 
It  is  his  duty  to  visit  the  schools  of  the  county 
at  least  once  each  year,  to  attend  township 
institutes  at  least  once  each  month,  to  hold  a 
county  institute  annually,  and  to  receive  reports 
from  school  trustees  ami  collate  the  same,  and 
forward  them  to  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  lie  may  also  hear  and  determine 
appeals  from  the  decisions  of  township  trustees, 
in  sundry  minor  matters;  ami  finally,  he  has  the 
general  superintendence  of  the  schools  in  his 
county,  except  in  cities  and  towns  in  which 
superintendents  may  have  been  employed.  The 
state  board  of  education  consists  of  the  state 
superintendent,  who  is,  ex  officio,  president;  the 
governor;  the  presidents  of  the  state  university, 

the    normal    School,    and     Purdue    I'niversity; 
and    the    superintendents  of   the    three    largest 


INDIANA 


459 


cities  of  the  state.  The  board  meets  as  often  as 
occasion  may  require.  It  appoints  the  trustees 
of  the  state  university  and  the  official  visitors 
of  the  normal  school.    It  prepares  printed  lists 

of  questions  which  are  sent  out  to  the  county 
superintendents  monthly,  and  which  are  by  them 
submitted  to  the  teachers  who  apply  for  licenses. 

The  state  board  is  also  empowered  to  grant 
to  teachers  of  high  character  and  standing,  state 
licenses  which  are  valid  for  life.  The  board 
takes  cognizance  of  such  other  educational  mat- 
ters as  may  properly  come  before  it,  and  makes 
such  recommendations  to  subordinate  officers 
and  to  the  legislature  as  it  may  deem  advisable. 
The  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
is  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  state,  at 
a  general  election,  for  a  term  of  two  years.  lie 
is  charged  with  the  administration  of  the  system 
of  public  instruction  and  with  the  general  super- 
intendence of  the  business  relating  to  the  com- 
mon schools  of  the  state,  and  of  the  school  funds 
and  revenues  appropriated  for  their  support.  It 
is  his  duty  to  render  an  opinion,  in  writing,  to 
any  school  officer  so  desiring,  in  regard  to  the 
administration  or  construction  of  the  school  law. 
He  must  also  visit  every  county  in  the  state  and 
examine  the  auditor's  books  and  records,  relative 
to  the  school  funds,  revenues,  etc.  He  must 
confer  with  the  school  officers,  and  make  public- 
addresses  as  occasion  may  require. 

School  Fund. — There  are  two  sources  of  rev- 
enue for  the  support  of  the  public  schools : 
(1)  the  interest  on  the  school  funds,  and  (2)  the 
proceeds  of  the  tax  levied  by  the  state  and  by 
local  authorities.  The  school  funds  are  divided 
into  two  classes  :  (1)  The  common-school  fund, 
the  sources  of  which  are  the  surplus  revenue 
fund,  the  saline  fund,  the  bank  tax  fund,  the 
county  seminary  funds,  fines  assessed  for  breaches 
of  the  penal  laws  of  the  state,  all  forfeitures 
which  may  accrue,  all  escheated  lands  and  es- 
tates, the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  the  swamp 
lauds,  granted  to  the  state  of  Indiana  by  the 
act  of  Congress  of  1850,  and  the  fund  arising 
from  the  114th  section  of  the  charter  of  the  State 
Bank  of  Indiana;  (2)  The  congressional  town- 
ship fund,  which  is  derived  from  the  sale  of  the 
1 6th  section,  in  each  township,  set  apart  to  the 
townships,  by  Congress,  for  school  purposes.  The 
common-school  fund  amounts  to  $0,313,247, 
and  the  congressional  township  fund  amounts  to 
$2,398,072,  making  the  total  school  fund  of  the 
state  -'-.711,319.  These  funds  can  never  be 
diminished,  and  the  proceeds  of  them  must  be 
used  for  tuition  purposes  only. 

School  Taxes.  —  The  state  levies  annually  a 
tax  of  16  cents  on  each  one  hundred  dollars, 
which,  with  the  proceeds  of  the  common-school 
fund,  is  apportioned  to  the  various  school  dis- 
tricts, in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  in  each.  The  local 
authorities  have  also  the  right  to  levy  a  local 
school  tax  of  25  cents  on  each  one  hundred  dol- 
lars, which  must  be  expended  in  the  township, 
town,  or  city,  in  which  it  is  levied.  They  have 
also  the  right  to  levy  a  local  tax  of  50  cents  on 


each  one  hundred  dollars,  to  be  used  in  purchas- 
ing grounds,  building  school-houses,  and  supply- 
ing t lie  necessary  furniture  and  apparatus.  In 
addition  to  all  this,  tin-  civil  authorities  in  cities 
and  towns  have  the  right  to  issue  bonds  to  pro- 
vide for  the  payment  of  debts  contracted  in  the 
purchase  of  grounds  and  the  erection  of  build- 
ings thereon  by  school  authorities.  There  can 
be  only  $50,000  worth  of  these  bonds  in  cir- 
culation at  any  one  time;  and,  when  issued, 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  civil  authorities  to  pro- 
vide for  their  payment,  by  the  levy  of  a  spe- 
cial tax  therefor,  provided  that  said  tax  shall 
not  exceed,  in  any  one  year,  more  than  50  cents 
on  each  one  hundred  dollars.  The  total  amount 
of  school  tax  possible  in  cities  and  towns,  in  any 
one  year,  under  the  law  of  the  state,  is  as 
follows : 

State  tax  on  each  $100 $0.10;  on  each  poll,  $0.50 

Local  tuition  tax  oneach  $100  0.25  "  "  0.50 
"  special  "  "  "  0.50  "  "  1.00 
"      bond      "        "         "      0.50        "        "        1.00 

Total  amount SI.  11 $3.00 

In  townships  the  limit  is  $1.16. 

Educational  Condition. —  The  total  number 
of  district  schools  in  the  state  is  9,230  ;  of  city 
systems,  40 ;  of  town  systems,  202 ;  and  the 
number  of  school-houses  is  9,307.  The  number 
of  township  and  district  graded  schools  is  390  ; 
of  ungraded  schools,  8,940.  The  estimated  value 
of  school  property  is  $10,870,338.  The  follow- 
ing are  additional  items  of  the  school  statistics 
for  1875—0  : 

School  population,  white  males,  310,514 

white  females,        317,434 

Total  white,  657,945 

colored  males,  4,940 

colored  females,         4,S48 

Total  colored,  9,788 

Total  school  population. . . .    6G7,73<i 
Number  of  pupils  enrolled,  whites,       495,711 

colored,         6,651 

Total  enrollment 502,305 

Average  daily  attendance,  estimated  at 315,000 

Number  of  teachers,  male  and  female 13,133 

Number  of  female  teachers,  estimated  at....       6,500 

School  fund $8,799,191 

Total  receipts. 4,!Us,879 

Expenditures  for  tuition '2,s:;o,747 

Normal  Instruction . — The  State  Normal  Schooi 
at  Terre  Haute,  established  in  1870,  occupies 
one  of  the  finest  school  buildings  in  the  state. 
The  faculty  of  the  institution  embraces  9  in- 
structors, including  the  president ;  while  4  otheiv 
are  employed  in  the  model  schools  connected 
with  it.  The  number  of  students,  from  Jan., 
1 873,  to  Dec.  1874,  was  over  401 ,  of  whom  187 
were  males,  and  214,  females.  The  whole  num- 
ber of  persons  that  had  received  instruction  in 
this  school,  from  1870  to  1875,  was  855.  Two 
courses  of  study  arc  pursued:  one  elementary, 
including  the  branches  required  to  be  taught  in 
the  common  schools,  with  instruction  in  the  the- 
ory and  practice  of  teaching;  and  the  other  ad- 
vanced, including  all  the  subjects  taught  in  the 


4G0 


IN  1>I  AX  A 


INDIANA  ASBURY  UNIVERSITY 


high  schools  of  the  state,  and  designed  to  pre- 
pare teachers  for  employment  in  these  schools. 
In  the  latter  course,  special  prominence  is  given 
to  the  study  of  languages,  especially  French  and 
and  German.  The  Northern  Indiana  Normal 
School,  at  Valparaiso,  organized  in  1873,  is  a 
private  institution.  —  Teachers'  institutes  con- 
stitute, in  this  state,  a  very  important  instru- 
mentality for  the  professional  instruction  of 
teachers.  The  several  county  superintendents 
are  required  to  hold  a  county  teachers'  institute 
at  least  once  a  year  in  each  county;  besides 
which,  at  least  one  Saturday  in  each  month, 
while  the  public  schools  are  in  session,  is  re- 
quired to  be  devoted  to  township  institutes.  In 
1875,  the  number  of  county  institutes  held  was 
91 ;  and  of  township  institutes,  4,080. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  number  of  pu- 
pils in  the  21  approved  high  schools  in  the  state 
was  reported,  in  1874,  as  13,342  ;  the  number 
of  teachers  employed  was  350,  of  whom  223 
were  males,  and  L27  females.  These  schools  are 
so  organized  as  to  be  preparatory  schools  to  the 
state  university.  No  uniform  course  of  study 
is  prescribe!  1 ;  but  the  candidates  for  admission 
to  the  university,  in  1871.  were  examined  in 
geography,  English  grammar  and  sentential 
analysis,  geometry,  and  Latin,  including  Caesar 
and  Virgil.  In  a  table  appended  to  the  state 
report  for  1874,  9  private  or  denominational  in- 
stitutions for  secondary  instruction  are  enumer- 
ated, having,  in  the  aggregate,  810  students  in 
the  academic  classes,  and  547  in  the  preparatory 
departments.  Several  private  schools  and  acad- 
emies of  this  grade  reported  to  the  U.  S.  Bu- 
reau of  Education,  in  1871.  There  were,  at  that 
time,  also,  10  business  colleges,  with  31  teachers 
and  1,097  pupils.  The  courses  of  study  in  these 
schools  ranged  from  6  months  to  5  years. 

Superior  Instruction. — First  among  the  insti- 
tutions of  this  grade,  stands  the  Indiana  Uni- 
versity (q.  v.),  at  Bloomington,  which  is  closely 
connected  with  the  school  systems  of  the  state 
by  an  arrangement  which  admits  to  the  fresh- 
man class,  without  further  examination,  all 
graduates  of  high  schools  approved  by  the  state 
board  of  education,  who  present  certificates  that 
they  have  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in 
the  preparatory  course  of  study.  Other  institu- 
tions for  superior  instruction  are  given  in  the 
following  table  : 


When 

Religious 

NAME 

Location 

found- 

deni imita- 

ed 

tion 

Concordia  College. . .. 

Fori  Wayne 

1839 

F.v.  Lnth. 

Richmond 

is;,  7 

Friends 

Ft.  Wayne  I 

Wayne 

1846 

M.  Epis. 

Franklin  College 

tin 

1844 

tist 

Sanover 

1837 

Presb. 

HartavUle  University 

Harts1 

I860 

i     Bretta. 

Indiana  Anbury  i'ni\ . 

i  hreencast  Le 

1833 

M .  Epis, 

Moore  b  n 

Moore's  Kill 

M    1  pis. 

N.  W.  ('Ill'; 

[ndianapolia 

1  367 

ChritUan 

Ki.l;;r\  llle 

1867 

F.  w.  Bap. 

aventure's  Coll, 

Terre  Haute 

1873 

it.  c. 

st.  Bfelnrad's  i 

St.  Mfiurad 

1861 

R.  C. 

Union  <  ihrlatlan  <  loll 

Blerom 

Christian 

I'niv.  of  N"t  re  Dame, 

Notre  Dame 

184  2 

K.  C. 

I'rawfurdsville 

1832 

Presb. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — 
Purdue  University,  at  Lafayette,  is  an  industrial 
university,  and  embraces  schools  of  agriculture, 
mechanics,  mining  and  engineering,  industrial 
art,  and  military  science  ;  besides  this,  there  is 
the  Terre  Haute  School  of  Industrial  Science,  at 
Terre  Haute.  The  schools  of  law  are  the  law 
department  of  the  Indiana  University,  and  the 
law  school  of  the  North  western  Christian  Uni- 
versity ;  and  the  medical  schools  are  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  Indiana,  the  In- 
diana Medical  College,  connected  with  the  In- 
diana University,  and  the  Medical  College  of 
Evansville. 

Special  Instruction. — This  department  of  edu- 
cation is  represented  by  the  Indiana  Institution 
for  Educating  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  at  Indianap- 
olis, which,  in  1874,  had  15  instructors  and 
333  students;  and  the  Indiana  Institute  for  the 
Blind,  at  Indianapolis,  which,  in  K^74 — 5.  had 
109  pupils,  and  a  corps  of  instructors  including 
a  superintendent,  5  teachers  in  the  literary  de- 
partment. 3  in  the  industrial,  and  3  in  the  mu- 
sical, besides  4  household  officers. 

Educational  Libraries. — The  total  number  of 
volumes  in  the  various  educational  libraries  of 
the  state  is  reported  as  357,545 ;  of  which  the 
township  libraries  contained  253,545  volumes. 
the  city  libraries  were  estimated  to  contain 
50,000  volumes,  and  the  college  libraries.  54,000 
volumes.  The  law  does  not.  at  present,  provide 
for  a  general  tax  for  the  support  of  public  libra- 
ries ;  but  it  permits  the  founding  of  binary  as- 
sociations, and  authorizes  the  common  councils 
of  cities  to  take  stock  in  such  associations,  and 
levy  the  annual  tax  of  2  cents  on  each  §100  in 
support  of  the  same. 

Educational  Journals. — The  only  educational 
journal  published  in  the  state  is  The  Indian. i 
School  Journal,  the  official  organ  of  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction.  Tlie 
Northern  Indiana  Teacher  was  formerly  pub- 
lished at  South  Bend. 

INDIANA  ASBURY  UNIVERSITY, 
at  (ireencastle,  Ind.,  commenced  in  1832,  and 
chartered  in  L837,  is  under  Methodist  Episcopal 
control.  The  first  class  graduated  in  1840.  It 
has  an  endowment  of  8180,000,  and  property  to 
the  value  of  ^150,000.  Tuition  is  free.  The  li- 
braries contain  about  10,000  vol  nines.  The  institu- 
tion has  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus 
and  a  cabinet  of  minerals  and  fossils.  Both  St 
are  admitted.  The  regular  courses  are  the  clas- 
sical  and  philosophical,  but  an  elective  eon 
may  be  pursued.  Opportunity  is  afforded  for 
normal  instruction. ami  there  is  a  Biblical  course 
tor  theological  students.  Indiana  Medical  » 'ol- 
lege  is,  by  recent  action  of  the  proper  author- 
ities, made  the  medical  department  of  Asbury 
University.  The  medical  Bchool  is  located  at 
Indianapolis,  and  has  !•  professors  and  (>  lect- 
urers. There  is  also  a  preparatory  department 
In  L875  6,  there  were  12  instructors,  509  stu- 
dents (256  collegiate  and  253  preparatory),  and 
565  alumni.  The  presidents  of  the  university 
have  been  as  follows:   Bishop  Matthew  Simpson, 


INDIANA    UNIVERSITY 


INDIANS 


llil 


D.D.,1839  I-;  the  Elev.  LucienW.  Deny,  D.D., 
L849  -54;  the  Rev.Danie]  Cuny.D.D.,  1854—7) 
Bishop  Thomas  Bowman,  D.D..  LL.D.,  1858—72; 
the  Rev.  Reuben  Andrus,  D.  D..  L872 — 5;  and  the 
Rev.  Alexander  Martin.  D.  D..  the  present  in- 
cumbent, appointed  in  L875. 

INDIANA  UNIVERSITY,  at  Blooming- 
ton.  1  in L.  was  chartered  as  a  college  in  I  si's, 
and  as  a  university, in  L839.  It  is  non-sectarian, 
being  under  state  control.  It  has  two  tine 
buildings,  a  library  of  over  6,000  volumes,  a 
chemical  laboratory,  a  museum  containing  fos- 
sils, minerals,  zoological  specimens,  etc.,  and  pro- 
ductive funds  to  the  amount  of  #1 1  iUHH>;  besides 
which  it  receives  annual  appropriations  from  the 
state.  The  value  of  its  buildings,  grounds,  and  ap- 
paratus is  $200,000.  Both  sexes  are  admitted. 
I  tesides  the  preparatory  and  the  collegiate  depart- 
ment, the  latter  having  a  classical  and  a  scien- 
tific course,  there  is  a  department  for  the  study 
of  law.  The  medical  department  was  discon- 
tinued in  L876.  The  number  of  instructors  and 
students  in  the  various  departments  of  the  in- 
stitution, in  1876,  was  as  follows: 

Departments  Instructors  Students 

Preparatory  4  142 

10  132 


Collegiate 
Law 


36 


Total  16  310 

The   Rev.  Lemuel  Moss,  D.  D.,  is  (1876)   the 
president. 

INDIANS,  American.  The  earliest  at- 
tempt at  the  civilization  of  the  American  In- 
dians was  made  by  the  Spanish  government, 
in  Mexico  and  South  America,  at  the  time  of 
their  conquest,  when  the  sons  of  chiefs  and 
princes  in  Mexico  and  Pern  were  educated,  and 
endowed  with  the  rank  of  Spanish  nobles.  Many 
families  in  Spain,  to  this  day,  boast  of  their 
Mexican  or  Peruvian  descent.  Their  further 
education  was  conducted  through  the  agency  of 
missions,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  were  those 
of  Paraguay.  The  education  of  the  North 
American  Indians  was  begun,  also,  by  Catholic 
missionaries  in  Canada  and  Louisiana,  Florida. 
Mexico,  and  California.  It  has  been  participated 
in  gradually  by  other  denominations,  and  has 
followed  the  line  of  the  frontier  to  the  present 
time — the  religious  character  of  the  instruction 
imparted  being  gradually  eliminated  as  the  sepa- 
ration of  church  and  state  approached  com- 
pletion. The  Puritans,  at  an  early  date,  estab- 
lished missions  at  Nantucket  and  Martha's 
Vineyard,  at  Newtown  and  Plymouth,  Mass.. 
and  in  Connecticut,  the  laborers  principally  be- 
ing the  Mayhews,  Eliot,  Cotton,  and  Sargeant. 
The  famous  Indian  Bible  of  Eliol  was  prepared 
by  him  for  the  instruction  of  converts.  The  In- 
dian School  of  Dr.  Wheelock,  now  Dartmouth 
College,  and  Harvard  University,  at  the  time  of 
Hs  foundation,  gave  instruction  to  Indians,  the 
latter  with  the  intention  of  using  them  as  teachers 
of  their  own  race.     Only  one  Indian,  however, 

has  ever  graduated  then Caleb  <  'heeshahteau- 

muck,  in  1665.     The  Brainerds,  who  labored  in 


Xew  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  the  Moravians, 
among  the  Delawares,and  the  Society  of  Friends, 
have  all  produced  results  more  or  less  important. 
Nearly  all  of  the  large  Protestant  denominations 
have  labored  in  this  field,  either  separately  or 
through  associations  organized  for  this  special 
purpose.  The  Episcopalians  established  an 
Oneida  mission ;  and,  the  Methodists,  in  1819, 
founded  missions  among  the  Wyandots, 
Iroquois,  Creeks,  Ottawas,  Shawnees,  Dakotas, 
and  the  Indians  of  Oregon.  The  Southern 
Methodists,  the  Presbyterians,  in  1837,  the 
American  Missionary  Association,  American 
Indian  Missionary  Association,  Baptist  Home 
Missionary  Society,  and  the  Southern  Baptists 
have  also  established  missions  and  done  effective 
work.  The  Catholics,  also,  have  not  been  be- 
hindhand in  their  efforts  to  educate  the  savages 
of  North  America.  Their  missionaries,  Le 
Jeune,  Lalemant,  Brebgeuf,  and  Marquette  were 
pioneers  in  the  work;  and  their  labors,  extending 
from  Canada  along  the  frontier  to  Texas,  form 
an  exciting  story  of  devotion  and  self-sacrifice. 
In  the  United  States,  the  Indians  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  according  to  their  surroundings 
and  consequent  mode  of  life;  namely,  (1)  those 
who  are  closely  and  entirely  surrounded  by 
whites  ;  (2)  the  wild  Indians  of  the  plains,  who  still 
adhere  to  their  nomadic  mode  of  life  ;  and  (3)  an 
intermediate  class  having  the  whites  on  one 
side  and  the  wild  tribes  on  the  other.  It  is  in 
this  last  class  only  that  the  experiment  of  civil- 
ization is  operative,  the  reclaiming  of  the  first 
class  being  considered  accomplished,  and  that  of 
the  second  class,  impracticable.  The  following 
figures  are  taken  from  the  report  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1874: 

Number  of  Indians  in  the  United  States,  ex- 
clusive of  those  in  Alaska .  .    275,003 

Number  of  school  buildings  upon  Indian  res- 
ervations     . .  232 

Number  of  schools  upon  Indian  reservations  345 

Number   of  scholars:    males  5,707;  females 

5,161 10,95s 

Number  of  teachers 407 

Number  of    Indians  who   can   read:   adults, 

1 ,392,  youths  2,616 4,00S 

Number  of  Indians  who  have  learned  to  read 

during  the  year 961 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing,  that  the 
proportion  of  scholars,  among  the  Indians,  is 
about  1  in  every  2G.  Of  those  in  New  York, 
I  I  lH.outof  a  total  of  5,1  L0,  attend  school.  These 
Indians,  of  course,  being  few  in  number  and 
every-where  surrounded  by  civilization,  have  un- 
usual advantages  over  their  brethren  of  the  Far 
West.  The  total  number  of  Indians  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  excluding  those  of  New  York,  is 
1 8,505  ;  scholars,  2,599,  or  about  1  in  7.  It  is  in 
the  Indian  Territory,  however,  that  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  interesting  attempts  at  education 
have  been  made.  (See  Indian  Territory.)  The 
prospect  of  the  education  and  final  civilization 
of  the  Indians  brought  under  the  charge  of  the 
agencies,  is  considered  promising;  though  the 
want  of  funds,  and  the  difficulty  the  Indians 
have  to  encounter  in  learning  a  strange  language. 
have    thus   far    retarded   their  progress.     The 


462 


INDIAN   TERRITORY 


INDIVIDUALITY 


number  of  Indians  in  British  America  is  esti- 
mated at  150,000.  For  information  in  regard  to 
them,  see  the  articles  on  the  several  British 
provinces  of  North  America. 

INDIAN  TERRITORY,  an  unorganized 
portion  of  the  United  States,  embracing  an  area 
of  68,901  square  miles.  In  1870,  the  population 
was  stated  at  68,152,  of  whom  2,409  were 
whites,  6,378  colored, and  59,367  Indians;  of  the 
latter,  24,967  were  living  on  reservations,  the 
nomadic  Indians  being  estimated  at  34.400. 
Indian  Territory  was  set  apart  by  the  act  of 
Congress,  passed  June  30.,  1 834,  for  the  regula- 
tion of  trade  and  intercourse  with  the  Indians. 
This  act  declared  that  "all  that  part  of  the 
United  States  west  of  the  Mississippi  and  not 
within  the  states  of  Missouri  and  Louisiana,  or 
the  territory  of  Arkansas",  should  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  act  be  considered  the  Indian  country. 
This  vast  tract  formed  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  Louisiana  purchase  of  1 803  ;  but  the  Indian 
territory  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  for- 
mation of  states  and  territories  out  of  it ;  so  that, 
at  present,  it  is  comparatively  of  small  extent. 

Educational  Condition.  —  Indian  Territory 
comprises  six  agencies  and  thirty-six  different 
nations  and  tribes,  numbering  (according  to  the 
report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  1874)  over  76,000  persons.  The  total  num- 
ber of  schools,  in  1874,  was  1  72,  with  177  build- 
ings, 189  teachers,  and  4.727  pupils.  The  four 
principal  nations  of  the  territory  (under  the  care 
of  the  Union  Agency)  are  the  Cherokees,  re- 
ported as  numbering  17,217  persons  (including 
1,300  colored) ,  the  Seminoles,  2,433;  the  Creeks, 
about  13,000  (including  2,000  colored) ;  and  the 
( 'hoctaws  and  ( 'hickasaws  (confederated),  22,000. 
These  nations  occupy  a  territory  that  has,  in  the 
aggregate,  an  area  of  28,000,000  acres,  of  which 
about  L 50,000  are  under  cultivation.  Bach  na- 
tions has  its  own  school  system,  including  .super- 
intendents, school  board,  etc.  The  Cherokees 
are  the  most  advanced.  Their  system  embraces 
a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  elected  by 
the  national  council  for  a  term  of  two  years;  and 
a  board  of  education,  consisting  of  four  members 
including  the  superintendent,  who  is  a  member 
ex  officio.  It  is  empowered  to  establish  rules 
and  regulation*  for  the  management  of  the 
schools,  and  to  prescribe  the  text  books  to  be 
used.  The  common  schools  are  divided  into 
three  grades:  primary,  intermediate,  and  gram- 
mar schools.  The  school  year  consists  of  nine 
months    and    a    half.    Commencing   On    the    lirst 

Monday  in  March,  and  is  divided  into  two  terms 

of  twenty  weeks  each.  The  regular  school  day 
i-  -i\  hours;  but  for  pupils  under  eight  years  of 
age,    it    is   only    four  hours.     The  school   age    is 

from  6  to  is.     All  teachers  are  required  to  be 

examined  and  licensed  by  the  board  of  education. 
There  are  '.'<  school  districts,  each  having 8  BChool 

commissioner,  who  has  the  general  management 
and  Supervision  of  all  the  schools  in  his  district  ; 
but  an  appeal  from  his  decisions    may    be    taken 

to  the  board  of  education.     In  L874,  there  were 

in    the     Cherokee     nation,     68     schools,   taught 


]  chiefly  by  natives,  in  their  vernacular,  but  also 
learning  English.  The  number  cf  pupils  enrolled 
:  in  these  schools  was  estimated  at  2,500  ;  and  the 
|  average  attendance,  at  2,000.  The  school  fund 
amounted  to  §2,909,113,  upon  which  the  annual 
interest  was  SI  61.889.  —  The  Choctaws  and 
Chickasaws,  numbering  about  22,000,  in  1874, 
had  67  day  schools,  chiefly  boarding-schools,  at 
which  the  estimated  attendance  was  1.650.  The 
<  neks  had  31  schools,  with  750  pupils;  and  the 
Seminoles.  5  schools,  with  about  120  pupils.  — 
The  Cherokees  maintain  a  female  seminary,  with 
about  70  pupils ;  also  an  orphan  asylum,  pro- 
viding for  about  100  children.  Mission  schools 
are  supported  in  the  other  agencies,  as  follows  : 
Quapaw  Agency,  3  mission  schools  (on  the  in- 
dustrial plan)  and  one  day  school,  with  a  total 
enrollment  of  232  pupils  ;  Sac  and  Fox  Agency, 
a  manual-labor  school,  with  28  pupils,  and  the 
Shawnee  day  school,  with  20  pupils ;  Osage 
Agency,  a  manual  labor  school,  with  90  pu- 
pils, a  mission  school,  with  35  pupils,  a  day 
school  for  the  Kaws,  with  54  pupils,  and  a 
boarding-school ;  Wichita  Agency,  2  schools,  one 
a  day  school,  and  the  other  a  boarding-school, 
whole  attendance  111  pupils ;  Kiowa  Agency, 
2  boarding-schools,  having  84  pupils.  —  See 
Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
1-74. 

INDIVIDUALITY,  that  distinction  of 
character  which  is  produced  by  mental  or  moral 
peculiarities.  The  value  of  this  element  of 
character,  in  the  affairs  of  life,  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  Coethe  considered  that  its  pres- 
ervation and  development  should  be  the  sole 
end  of  a  true  education  ;  and  Mill  declares  that 
it  is  the  great  want  of  our  time.  Its  rarity, 
however,  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  lev- 
eling tendency  of  the  age  in  which  we  live.  The 
average  experience  of  the  world  at  any  period, 
is  embodied  in  the  prevailing  customs  of  that 
period.  In  that  sphere,  the  great  bulk  of  the 
world's  activities  move  with  unthinking  regu- 
larity,— the  force  of  education  making  it  natural, 
and  absorption  in  the  struggle  tor  existence 
allowing  no  time  tor  any  thought  of  change.  The 
increase  of  facilities  for  the  spread  of  knowledge, 
also,  adds  directly  to  the  coercive  power  of 
public  opinion  by  extending  its  sway  :  and, 
while  it  enlarges  the  sphere  of  custom  renders 
its  influence  more  uniform  and  more  difficult 
to  be  opposed.  Vet  its  boundaries  must  be 
steadily  extended,  or  life  degenerates  into  mere 
routine.    To  the  man  of  individuality,  whether 

as  artist,  poet,  preacher,  philosopher,  or  thinker 
of  any  kind,  is  committed  the  task  of  enlarging 

that  sphere,  and  setting  up  new  ideals.     In  daily 

lite  also,  a  thousand  emergencies  arise,  demand- 
ing instant  ad  ion  tor  w  Inch  experience  furnishes 
no  guide.  The  ordinary  mind  is  paralyzed, 
and  turns  instinctively  to  the  man  of  genius,  or 
exceptional  power,  for  guidance.  Individuality 
thus  becomes  the  pioneer  of  progress.     When 

we  remember,  further,  that  individuality  fur- 
nishes the  common  ground  on  which  genius  and 
insanity  meet    and  that  its  cultivation,  according 


INDIVIDUALITY 


463 


as  it  is  proper  or  improper,  may  minister  in  a 
hundred  ways  to  the  happiness  and  well-being  of 
the  individual  and  the  race,  or  to  untold  misery 
for  the  one.  and  loss  to  the  other,  its  claim  for 
consideration  in  any  educational  scheme  will  not 
probably  he  denied.  Unfortunately,  however, 
the  difficulty  of  properly  treating  it  is  com- 
mensurate with  its  importance,  the  consider- 
ation of  it  going,  as  it  does,  to  the  very  root  of 
every  system  of  education.  All  educational  plans 
presuppose  uniformity  in  the  minds  of  the 
children  to  be  subjected  to  their  influence.  Their 
fundamental  principles,  being  only  conclusions 
drawn  from  the  observation  of  a  large  number 
of  individual  instances,  necessarily  employ  them- 
selves with  the  resemblances  to  be  found  among 
those  instances,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  differ- 
ences. The  question  always  is,  "Under  given 
circumstances,  how  would  a  majority  of  minds 
act  ?".  little  attention  being  paid  to  the  minority. 
And  the  larger  the  majority,  the  more  readily  is 
the  conclusion  drawn  from  their  uniform  action 
accepted  as  a  rule,  and  the  less  likelihood  is 
there  that  any  attention  will  be  paid  to  the  in- 
significant minority.  Yet  it  is  in  this  minority, 
that  the  minds  possessed  of  decided  individuality 
will  be  found.  In  many  cases,  no  doubt,  private 
instruction  would  produce  more  satisfactory  re- 
sults in  developing  exceptional  powers;  but  cir- 
cumstances frequently  do  not  admit  of  this,  and 
the  teacher,  in  that  case,  must  endeavor  to  sup- 
ply the  deficiency,  as  far  as  possible,  by  special 
attention.  For  that  highest  from  of  individuality, 
called  genius,  the  ordinary  school  system  can, 
probably,  do  little  in  the  way  of  direction,  its 
very  nature  leading  it  to  reject  all  external 
guidance  ;  it  is  a  law  unto  itself.  (See  Genius.) 
But  for  that  great  army  of  thinkers  and  work- 
ers whose  peculiar  fitness  for  special  pursuits 
is  early  manifested,  and  whose  earnestness  and 
patient  labor,  in  a  thousand  varied  ways,  are 
daily  enlarging  the  domain  of  knowledge,  the 
advantage  of  a  well-digested  course  of  study  and 
moral  training  can  hardly  be  questioned.  One 
of  the  most  effective  aids  for  resisting  the  tend- 
ency to  reduce  all  minds  to  uniformity,  and  for 
giving  to  individuality  its  due  prominence,  con- 
sists in  keeping  constantly  in  mind  the  mod- 
ern idea  of  education  ;  namely,  that  it  is  a 
development  from  within  of  capacities  there 
existing.  The  mind  is  not  a  vessel  into  which 
knowledge  is  to  be  poured  till  it  is  full,  but  a 
plant  on  which  education  is  to  act,  as  the  sun 
and  rain  act.  drawing  out  and  expanding  it  into 
leaf,  flower,  and  fruit,  according  to  the  plan  mi 
which  it  is  constructed.  And  just  as  the  gar- 
dener places  different  plants  in  different  soils. 
and  subjects  them  to  varying  amounts  of  sun- 
shine and  moisture,  expecting  diversity  of  results, 
and  recognizing  in  that  diversity  his  success,  so 

the  teacher,  while  subjecting  all  to  the  sa 

general  treatment,  as  the  gardener  does,  should 
seek  to  vary  his  methods,  in  order  to  accom- 
modate them  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  pupils 
under  his  care.  The  first  step  to  this  end  must 
be  a  determination  of  what  those  peculiarities 


are.  In  this  search,  many  circumstances  may 
temporarily  mislead  him.  In  his  first  day's  ac- 
quaintance with  a  pupil,  for  instance,  he  may 
fancy  he  discovers  in  him  a  natural  aptitude  for 
a  particular  study;  which  a  longer  acquaintance 
will  show  to  be  due  to  some  slight  previous 
training  in  that  study —  in  which  case  the  apt- 
itude will  entirely  disappear  as  soon  as  he  has 
reached  the  end  of  his  fortuitous  knowledge; 
or  he  may  discover,  toward  some  particular 
branch,  a  disinclination  which  is  only  the  natural 
disgust  or  reaction  of  the  mind  on  account  of 
the  too  early  presentment  of  that  branch  to  his 
immature  powers;  or,  in  a  third  case,  an  incli- 
nation may  be  shown,  which  is  produced  solely 
by  some  poetical  aspect  of  the  study,  due  to 
early  experience  or  association,  and  has  no  con- 
nection with  the  essential  nature  of  that  study. 
A  boy,  in  this  way,  for  instance,  might  show  a 
quasi-love  for  botany  from  having  been  brought 
up  among  flowers,  the  forms  and  colors  of  which 
appealed  powerfully  to  his  love  of  beauty  ;  or  a 
similar  love  of  astronomy  or  microscopy  from 
having  had  the  run  of  an  observatory  or  an  opti- 
cian's shop.  But  no  teacher  of  discernment  will 
long  be  deceived  by  such  superficial  knowledge 
or  inclination,  if  opportunities  for  examination 
are  afforded  him.  A  more  dangerous  misap- 
prehension, however,  exists  frequently  in  regard 
to  moral  powers.  This  often  happens  in  cases  of 
what  may  be  called  negative  individuality  — 
cases  in  which  the  faculties  necessary  for  the 
future  well-being,  instead  of  being  abnormally 
developed,  seem  to  be  entirely  wanting.  These 
mistakes,  unfortunately,  are  common,  and  are 
attended  with  the  gravest  consequences.  An 
obtrusive  show  of  virtue  rouses  suspicion  at 
once,  and  leads  to  detection;  but  the  want  of  it 
is,  in  many  cases,  easy  of  concealment,  and, 
escaping  notice,  escapes,  also,  correction,  and  the 
error  appears  later  in  life,  bringing  disgrace  and 
ruin.  1  Hshonesty,  both  in  word  and  deed,  is  one 
of  the  commonest  of  these  defects  of  character. 
Tyrannical  government  in  childhood  and  early 
youth  is  the  fruitful  parent  of  this  evil.  Self- 
preservation,  the  strongest  instinct  of  its  nature, 
leads  the  child  to  the  use  of  deception  as  a 
shield  from  punishment ;  and  it  uses  it  the  more 
readily  because  it  cannot  understand  the  base- 
ness of  it. 

Having  determined  the  pupil's  distinguish- 
ing trait,  the  treatment  should  lie  a  partial  cul- 
tivation of  the  prominent  faculty,  with  a  special 
cultivation  of  the  others.  An  entire  suppression 
of  this  ruling  faculty  would  result  in  disgust 
with  the  enforced  attention  given  to  the  others; 
while  an  exclusive  cultivation  of  it  —  which 
is  almost  always  the  result,  when  the  pupil  is 
allowed  to  '■follow  his  inclination" — would  end 
only  in  one-sidedness,  or  want  of  balance.  As 
the  constant  disposition  of  the  pupil,  under  the 
treatment  here  prescribed,  would  be  to  neglect 
the  distasteful  studies  for  the  favored  one,  the 
efforts  of  the  teacher  should  be  exerted  to  make 
the  former  as  attractive  as  possible,  by  con- 
stant references  to  the  latter  by  way  of  illustra- 


464 


INDO-GERMANIC  LANGUAGES 


tion.  By  a  skillful  teacher,  this  may  be  done  to 
a  greater  extent  than  might  at  first  appear.  A 
judicious  system  of  rewards,  also,  might  be  de- 
vised, to  favor  proficiency  in  the  Studies  likely 
to  be  neglected.  In  the  elaboration  of  the 
plan,  specific  rules  will  be  of  little  use.  The 
highly  developed  faculties,  mental  and  moral, 
exist  in  such  varied  combination,  and  the  daily 
circumstances  and  influences  surround  and 
govern  in  such  a  way,  as  to  make  of  each  case, 
a  complicated  problem,  requiring  special  study. 
The  general  plan,  therefore,  can  only  be  indi- 
cated, and  its  fulfillment  committed  to  the 
discretion  of  the  teacher.  In  it,  he  will  find 
ample  field  for  the  exercise  of  his  skill  and  in- 
genuity. His  genius  for  teaching  will  be  no- 
where more  apparent.  -  In  addition  to  the 
case  of  negative  individuality,  there  is  another, 

which  may  be  called  that  of  general  negative 
individuality,  in  which  the  faculties  are  evenly 
developed,  but  are  all  below  the  average.  This 
condition  is  equivalent,  in  its  results,  to  that  of 
a  mind  with  faculties  of  normal  strength,  too 
evenly  developed,  the  resulting  character,  in 
both  cases,  being  one  of  mediocrity,  which  mani- 
fests itself  in  a  general  want  of  decision  or  in- 
firmity of  purpose.  Such  characters  are  never 
them  in  the  presence  of  a  superior  mind. 

Their  negative  virtue  becomes  as  injurious  as 
positive  vice;  for.  as  all  men  are  compelled  con- 
stantly, under  stress  of  daily  circumstances,  to 
act,  the  action  of  such  persons  is  never  their  own, 
but  is  merely  a  reflection  of  that  of  the  more 

powerful  minds   by  whom    they  are  surrounded. 

The  demagogue  and  the  quack  find  in  such 
characters  their  pliant  instruments.  This  result, 
therefore,  should  be  carefully  guarded  against,  in 
every  country  especially,  where  political  power 
in  the  hands  of  the  masses  ifl  great  or  increasing. 
The  teacher's  duty,  in  this  case,  is  perhaps  the 
most  difficult  of  all.  it  being  nothing  less  than 
the  creation  of  individuality.  This  object,  how- 
ever, is  worthy  of  his  highest  efforts,  since  the 
element  he  is  endeavoring  to  evoke  is  the  most 
valuable  of  all  the  products  of  a  true  education 
—  the  personal  quality  whose  moral  aspect  is 
Self-respect,  as  well  as  self-reliance,  and  which 
constitutes  the  surest  basis  for  a,  correct  lite, 
whether  as    an   individual   or  a    citizen.     (See 

<  'll  LB  UTTER,   I  )I8CERNMKNT  OF.) 

INDO-GERMANIC  LANGUAGES.  The 
name  Tndo- Germanic  is  applied  to  a  large  num- 
ber of   languages   which   comparative    philology 

has  proved  t<»  he  of  a  common  origin.  It  was 
chosen  t . »  indicate  what  was  believed  to  he  the 
eastern  (India)  and  the  west  em  (t  lermany)  bound- 
ary of  the  extent  of  these  languages.      Since  thi' 

<  'chic  has  been  recognized  as  belonging  to  the 
family,   the    name    is    no    longer    adequate,   and 

other  names,  as  Aryan.  Indo-European,  Japhetic, 
Banskritic,  have  been  proposed  and  sometimes 
used  instead  of  it;  but  still  fndo-Germanic  is 
the  name  generally  preferred  by  writers  on  the 

Bubject.  'The  Indo-Germanic  languages,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  consent  of  all  prominent 
Writers   on    the   subject,   embrace    the   following 


branches  :  ( 1  )  <  iermanic  or  Teutonic  ;  (2)  Slavic  : 
f3)  LithuaniC;  (1;  Celtic  (Irish  etc);  (5)  Italic 
i  Latin  etc.)  :  (6)  Greek;  (7)  Iranian  or  Persian; 
Sanskritic  or  Indian.  Some  writers  add  an 
Illvrian  branch,  of  which  the  modern  Albanian 

is  regarded  as  a  relic  :  others  divide  somewhat 
differently,  regarding  the  Slavic  and  Lithuanian 
not  as  two  different  branches,  but  as  only  one 
branch;  but  they  all  agree  as  to  the  affinity  of 
the  eight  branches  which  have  been  enumerated. 
From  the  time  when  Cyrus  founded  the  Persian 
empire  until  the  present  day,  nearly  all  the  lead- 
ing civilized  nations  of  the  globe  have  spoken 
[ndo-Germanic  languages,  and  to-day  these  lan- 
guage's are  the  vehicle  of  thought  for  nearly 
all  Europe  (the  only  exceptions  being  the  Turk- 
ish, the  Hungarian,  the  Finnish, and  the  Basque 
languages),  for  the  entire  civilized  population  of 
America  and  Australia,  and  for  the  larger  por- 
tion of  Asia.  The  comparative  study  of  the 
[ndo-Germanic  languages  has  casta  great  deal 
of  light  upon  all  the  languages  which  are  taught 
in  the  English-speaking  world — the  vernacular, 
the  classical,  and  the  foreign.  Not  only  does 
this  study  convey  a  clearer  view  than  was  for- 
merly attainable  ot  the  peculiar  kinship  existing 
between  all  these  languages,  but.  especially  by 
the  aid  of  the  Sanskrit,  explains  many  points 
which  were  formerly  obscure,  and  enables  the 
student  to  trace  the  origin  and  gradual  growth 
of  mostof  the  grammatical  forms.  Theinfiuence 
is  most  apparent  in  the  Latin  and  the  Greek, 
the  relations  of  which  to  the  family  have  been 
best  set  forth  by  Corssen  [Laieinische  Sprat 
and  G.  Curtius  (Griechische  Etymologie).  The 
standard  grammars  of  these  languages,  especially 
those  written  during  the  last  twenty  years,  have 
generally  been  benefited  by  the  results  of  com- 
parative philology;  and  teachers  who  understand 
the  chief  Indo-Germanic  languages  find  it  easy. 
without  any  need  of  additional  time,  to  com- 
bine with  instruction  in  Latin  and  Greek,  a 
rudimentary  knowledge  of  the  lndo-(  iennanic 
system.      And  it  is  safe  to  say.  that,  henceforth, 

it  will  he   impossible  for  any  grammarian  to 

Surpass,  or   even    to   equal,  the    best    Latin   and 

Greek  grammars  now  in  use.  unless  lie  possesses 

a  good  know  ledge  of  the  relation  of  the  Classic 
to  other  lndo-<  lei-manic  languages,  and  especially 
to  Sanskrit. —  The  study  of  English  in  the 
lower  grades  of  instruction  has  been  indirectly 
benefited  by  the  progress  of  these  researches, 
because  to  them  we  are  largely  indebted  lot  a 
more  intelligent  class  of  teachers,  and  a  much 
superior  class  of  text  books.  In  the  more  ad- 
vanced grades  of  instruction,  the  course  of 
studio  can  be  so  arranged  —  and  notable  at- 
tempts have  recently  been  made  in  this  direc- 
tion as  to  embrace  an  introduction  of  the  stu- 
dent to  a  rudimentary  acquaintance  with  some 
of  the  chid'  results  ot  I ndo-( iermanic  philology. 
(See  English,  Stud's  op.)  Mote  detailed  infor- 
mation on  this  subject  may  be  found  in  .Max 
Midler's,  anil  in  \V.  I  >.  Whitney's  Lectures 
mi  Languages.  Comparative  grammars  of  the 
Indo-Germanic  languages  have  been  written  by 


INDUCTIVE   METHOD 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS 


4G5 


Bopp,  Schleicher,  and  Rapp ;  a  dictionary,  by 
Fick.  A  collection  of  comparative  grammars  on 
the  eight  branches  of  the  [ndo-Germanic  lan- 
guages was  begun  in  1876  (Bibliothek  indo- 
germanischer  ( i  n  nnmatiken,  Leipsic),  and  will 
embrace    (1)  Indian    Grammar,    by   Whitney; 

(2)  Iranian     Grammar,      by     Iliibschmann  ; 

(3)  Greek  Grammar,  by  Meyer;  (4)  Italic 
Grammar  (embracing  Latin,  etc.)  by  Biicheler  ; 
(6)  German  Grammar,  by  Sievers;  (6)  Irish 
(Celtic)  Grammar,  by  Windish  ;  (7)  Lithuanian 
Grammar,  by  Leskien  ;  (8)  Slavic  Grammar,  by 
Leskien.  An  introductory  volume  by  E.  Sievers 
contains  the  Outlines  of  Phonetic  Physiology 
{Qrundsiige  der  Lautphysiologie)  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  the  phonology  of  the 
Lido-Germanic  languages. 

INDUCTIVE  METHOD,  in  education,  is 
but  another  name  for  the  developing  method 
(q.  v.).  It  is  so  called  because  it  is  based  upon 
the  principle  of  logical  induction,  or  the  process 
of  deriving  general  principles  from  an  observa- 
tion and  comparison  of  individual  facts.  Instead 
of  teaching  definitions,  principles,  and  rules  ar- 
bitrarily, and  illustrating  them  by  facts,  the 
teacher  who  uses  the  inductive  method,  calls  the 
attention  of  the  pupil  to  a  sufficient  number  of 
the  facts  to  enable  him  to  find  the  principle  or 
rule  for  himself.  The  learning  of  the  definition, 
which,  in  the  deductive  method,  is  the  first  thing 
to  be  done,  in  the  inductive  method,  is  the  last 
step  in  the  process.  Most  text-book6*  follow  the 
deductive  method  ;  but  the  most  effective  ele- 
mentary instruction  is  inductive. 

INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS.  The  term 
industrial  education  is  used  to  designate  the 
training  of  pupils,  not  only  in  the  common 
branches  of  instruction,  but  in  certain  industrial 
or  business  pursuits.  An  industrial  school,  in 
the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  denotes  any  school 
for  teaching  one  or  several  branches  of  industry ; 
but  the  special  schools  of  this  kind,  and,  in  par- 
ticular, those  of  a  higher  grade,  are  more  gener- 
ally comprised  under  the  name  of  technical 
schools  (see  Technical  Education);  and  the 
name  industrial  school  is  usually  restricted  to 
a  school  for  neglected  children,  in  which  training 
in  manual  labor  or  industrial  pursuits  constitutes 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  plan  of  education. 
The  common  schools,  however,  sometimes  have 
classes,  in  which  children  are  instructed  in  cer- 
tain industrial  pursuits.  The  idea  of  providing 
for  the  instruction  of  children  in  manual  labor 
appears  to  have  originated  in  the  desire  to  enable 
poor  children  to  earn  as  early  as  possible  their 
daily  bread.  In  England,  Chief  Justice  Hale  rec- 
ommended, about  1676,  to  parliament  to  estab- 
lish in  every  parish  an  industrial  school.  In 
1 705,  Locke  laid  before  the  English  parliament  a 
plan  to  counteract  the  spread  of  pauperism,  and 
to  this  end,  proposed  the  establishment,  in  each 
parish,  of  labor  schools  in  which  the  children  of 
tin-  poor,  from  3  to  14  years  of  age,  were  to  find 
lodging,  board,  support,  and  occupation.  Parlia- 
ment, however,  rejected  the  bill  which  embodied 
this  idea,  and  a  similar  attempt  made,  in  1796,  by 

30 


Pitt,  equally  failed.  In  Italy,  canon  Odescalchi 
founded,  in  1686,  a  great  charitable  institution 
under  the  name  Ospizio  apostolico  di  San 
Michele,  which,  besides  other  departments,  con- 
tained an  industrial  school  for  both  boys  and 
girls.  The  girls  were  instructed  in  needle-work  ; 
and  a  number  of  workshops  were  fitted  up  for 
the  boys,  among  which  they  were  at  liberty  to 
choose.  This  example  was  followed  by  many  other 
institutions,  and  the  instruction  of  girls  in  house- 
work and  needle-work,  and  of  the  boys  in  some 
mechanical  trade,  became  a  general  feature  of  the 
Italian  orphan  and  foundling  asylums.  The  first 
practical  attempt,  in  Germany,  was  made  by 
A.  H.  Francke,  who  introduced  in  his  pceda- 
gogium  instruction  in  turning  and  glass-grinding. 
An  attempt  made  by  Hecker,the  founder  of  the 
first  real  school,  to  train  his  pupils  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  mulberry-trees  and  the  rearing  of  silk- 
worms, was  abandoned  soon  after  his  death.  The 
Austrian  educator  Kmdermann  conceived  the 
idea  of  introducing  industrial  instruction  into 
the  common  school,  and  succeeded,  hi  the  course 
of  a  few  years,  in  organizing  industrial  schools  in 
more  than  200  places.  The  proposition  that 
all  children  should  receive  at  school  instruction 
in  manual  labor,  as  well  as  in  book  learning, 
found  an  influential  supporter  in  the  philoso- 
pher Kant,  and  the  scheme  of  national  educa- 
tion proposed  by  Fichte  likewise  combined 
learning  with  labor.  Pestalozzi  also  endeavored 
to  train  his  pupils  in  various  industrial  arts 
as  well  as  in  books ;  and  his  ideas  were  more 
fully  carried  out  by  Fellenberg,  and  especially 
by  Wehrli.  Salzmann,  in  the  famous  insti- 
tution of  Schnepfenthal,  gave  to  his  pupils, 
outside  of  the  regular  school  hours,  manual 
work  in  the  garden  and  field — exercises  in  turn- 
ing and  planing,  in  basket-making,  and  other  oc- 
cupations of  a  similar  character.  In  Wurteni- 
berg,  the  government  took  great  interest  in  the 
labor  school,  and  ordered  that  schools  of  this 
kind  shoidd  be  organized  in  connection  with 
every  common  school,  and  that  all  the  girls 
should  be  instructed,  during  three  or  four  hours 
a  week,  in  needle-work.  In  several  other  states  of 
Germany,  as  well  as  in  Sweden,  Belgium,  and 
other  countries,  courses  in  industrial  education 
have  been  arranged  on  a  large  scale,  in  close 
connection  with  the  common  schools;  and  the 
children  are  trained  not  only  for  the  common 
pursuits  of  life,  but  for  the  special  branches  of 
industry  prevailing  in  their  particular  locality. 
The  idea  that  the  pupils  of  common  schools 
should  be  trained  in  industrial  occupations  was 
also  conceived  by  Froebel,  the  founder  of  the 
Kindergarten  ;  and  one  of  his  most  enthusiastic 
adherents,  Georgens,  endeavored  to  develop  this 
idea  theoretically,  as  well  as  practically.  The 
German  teachers'  convocation  to  which  an  elab- 
orate plan  for  embodying  manual  labor  with 
the  course  of  instruction  in  common  schools  was 
submitted,  refused  to  commit  itself  in  favor  of 
any  such  scheme  ;  but  it  adopted  a  declaration 
that  the  question,  what  kinds  of  labor  shoidd  be 
admitted  into  the  course  of  instruction,  how  they 


46  G 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS 


should  be  organized,  and  in  what  order  they 
should  follow  one  another,  is  one  of  the  great 
educational  questions  of  the  day. — One  branch 
of  industrial  pursuits,  needle-work,  has  at  prest  at 
been  almost  universally  introduced  into  the 
common  schools  of  Germany  and  other  coun- 
ii  ies.  Two  afternoons  In  each  week  are  set  apart 
for  the  instruction  of  uiils,  by  a  competent  per- 
son, in  the  art  of  sewing,  the  pupils  beginning 
as  early  as  six  years  of  age,  at  first  using 
paper.  They  are  also  taught  to  knit,  eaeli  girl 
furnishing  her  own  material  and  beeping  the 
product  of  her  labor.  When  they  have  learned 
to  hem,  the  next  step  is  mending.  From  plain 
sewing,  mending,  and  knitting,  the  pupil  ad- 
vances to  fine  needle-work,  tatting,  and  crochet- 
ing. Some  of  the  tapestry  work  of  the  older 
pupils  is  often  so  beautiful  in  design  and  so 
artistic  in  execution  as  to  challenge  general  ad- 
miration. "  (See  J.  F.  Myers,  in  the  Report  <;/' 
the  U.S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  L873.) 

In  England,  before  any  grant  is  made  to  an 
elementary  school,  the  educational  department 
must  be  satisfied  that  the  girls  in  the  day  school 
are  taught  plain  needle-work  and  cutting  out,  as 
a  part  of  the  ordinary  course  of  instruction. 
Plain  needle-work  is  understood  to  inclu  le  darn- 
ing,  mending,   marking,  and  knitting;  but  no 

■y  work  of  any  kind  can  be  done  in  school 
hours.  In  the  United  States.  .Massachusetts  has 
given  the  greatest  attention  to  this  subject.  A 
report  of  the  committee  on  industrial  schools, 
made  to  the  board  of  education,  in  L873,  recom- 
mends that  sewing,  which  is  now  taught  in  three 
classes  of  the  girls'  grammar  schools.be  carried 
forward  into  all  the  classes,  by  a  gradual  and 
progressive  change,  which  is  not  to  interfere 
with  the  pupils'  intellectual  culture  and  training. 
Tli  y  proposed,  also,  that,  as  instruction  in  e 
ing  was  thus  extended  in  the  number  of  cla 
to  which  it  was  imparted,  it  should  be  enlarged 
in  the  h  er  and  practical  value  of  th  • 
work  performed,  and  that,  certainly  in  the  first 
and  second,  and  perhaps  in  the  third  clas 
instruction  should  be  given  in  cutting,  shap- 
ing, fitting,  and  completely  making  girls'  and 
ladies'  garments,  the  requisite  materials  for 
this  instruction  to  be  furnished  by  the  city, 
under    the    supervision  of  the  committee    on 

Hints.     The   city   superinten  lenl    of    l'i 
dence,  R.  L,  stated  in  his  report  for  L873  —1874, 
I  ipartment  in  the  schools  of 
ity  was  producing  the   happiest    results. 

Nearly  COO   children,   he   reported,    were   tan-lit 
every    week    to    use  skillfully   their    needle,  and 
more  than  100  girls  who  received,  in  the  public 
usively,  instruction  in  the  use  of  the 
lie,  wei  |,  earning  from  $  I  to  %\  2  a 

week.  Iii  private  female  institutions,  needle- 
work as  a  branch  of  instruction,  has  been  quite 
rally  introduced,  and  has  come  to  be  looked 
upon  as  an  indispensable  requisite  in  the  course 
of  instruction.  As  regards  the  male  departments, 

of  public  schools,  the   introduction  of   industrial 

drawing  into  all  schools  is  now  Btrongly  urged 

by  many  educators.     The  legislatures  of  Massa- 


chusetts and  New  York  have  taken  the  lead  in 
this  question,  and  ordered  its  introduction  into 
all  the  common  schools  of  the  respective  states. 
i See    Ain-KnrcATioN,    and    DRAWING.) 

Special  attention  to  industrial  occupations  is 
given  in  most  of  the  orphan  asylums,  and  in  re- 
formatory and  charitable  schools.  These  schools 
must  not  only  give  to  their  pupils  the  instruction 
w  Inch  other  children  receive  at  school,  but  they  are 
expected  to  furnish,  at  the  same  time,  a  substitute 
for  home  education,  and  to  prepare  their  pupils, 
in  the  best  possible  way,  to  earn  their  daily 
bread  when  the  time  of  their  discharge  from  the 

school  arrives.  It  is.  therefore,  not  only  desir- 
able but  indispensable  for  a  school  of  this  kind 
to  provide  for  industrial  instruction.  It  is  grati- 
fying to  learn,  from  the  annual  reports  of  the 
r.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  that  the 
number  of  orphan  asylums  which  have  opened, 
or  have  arranged  to  open,  an  industrial  de- 
partment, is  increasing.  The  importance  of  this 
subject  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  upon  the 
attention  of  all  who  found,  support,  patronize, 
superintend. or  conduct  institutions  of  this  kind. 
For  the  girls,  house  work  and  sewing  commend 
themselves,  at  first  sight,  as  the  most  appropriate 
branches;  for  the  boys,  the  instruction  should 
consist  in  preparing  them  for  some  industrial 
occupation  in  life.  The  extent  and  the  variety 
of  this  instruction  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the 
resources  of  the  institution.  The  most  extensive 
industrial  training  given  in  any  charitable  insti- 
tution, as  far  as  is  known,  is  in  Girard  College 
Philadelphia.  In  1864,  a  chair  of  industrial 
science  was  established,  embracing  the  practical 

and  theoretic  teaching  of  various  handicrafts. 
The  branches  of  labor  in  the  work  room  thus  pro- 
vided for  were  type-setting,  printing,  bookbind- 
ing, type-founding,  stereotyping,  turning,  car- 
pentering, daguerreotyping,  photography,  elec- 
trotyping,  electroplating,  and  practical  instruc- 
tion in  the  operation  of  the  electric  telegraph. 
Shoe-making  has  been  taughl  and  successfully 
carried  on  since  1871.  (See  Orphan  Asylums, 
and  Reform  Schools.) 

The  great  importance  of  industrial  education 
in  evening  schools  is  too  evident   to  need  any 

discussion.       The    technical     instruction    which 

the  immense  majority  of  mechanics  receive  is 
insufficient :  and  their  success  in  life  depends,  to 
a  greal  extent. on  their  subsequent  self  education. 
Any  aid  which  can  be  given  to  them  iii  their 
efforts  to  improve  their  education,  is.  therefore, 
of  incalculable  benefit.  How  well  this  is  under- 
stood and  appreciated  by  them  is  clearly  indi- 
cated by  the    large   atteinlai.ee    at    such   evening 

schools  as  afford  the  desired  instruction.  (See 
Evening  Schools.)  On  the  industrial  schools  of 
Germany,  see  Scbmidun,  Oeffentliche  Kino 
TndustrieanstaUen  (1824).  The  principal  works 
in  which  this  union  of  industrial  classes  with 
common  schools  is  urged,  are  by  Fkikhkiui, 
Die  Erziehung  eur  Arbeit  (1852),  and  Geor- 
oen8,  Oeqenwartder  VoBcsschule  (1857).  See  also 
Dot  u,  Kindergarten  und  VbUcsschule  (1876);  0. 
B.  Stetson,  Technical  Edttccdion  (Boston,  1876), 


INDUSTRY 


INSTRUCTION 


4G7 


INDUSTRY  is  a  quality  or  hain't  upon  the 

value  of  which  it  is  scarcely  requisite  to  insist 
in  an  educational  work  ;  since  its  absolute  neces- 
sity as  a  condition  of  success  in  every  walk  of 
life  is  almost  undisputed.  For  though  there 
have   been   eminent    men.  who  might  declare,  as 

Montaigne  did,  that  laziness  was  oneof  the  ruling 
qualities  of  their  minds,  it  will  he  found,  proba- 
bly, on  examination,  that  their  want  of  exert  ion 
was  supplemented  by  great  natural  parts,  which, 

in  a  measure,  rendered  that  exertion  unneces- 
sary. It  will,  probably,  he  granted  also  that, 
witli  more  continuous  application,  theii  success 
would  have  been  far  great  r.  The  number  of 
such  men,  moreover,  is  exceedingly  small,  and 
they  were  never  the  champions  of  the  cause  they 
adopted.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  the  con- 
current testimony  of  men  eminent  in  ev(  ry  de- 
partment of  knowledge,  and  in  all  ages,  as  to  the 
exceeding  importance  of  industry  both  as  an  in- 
tellectual and  a  moral  agent.  The  definition  of 
the  word,  in  fact,  as  it  is  commonly  used,  is  its 
own  best  recommendation,  i.  e.,  the  disposition 
to  keep  one's  self  employed  in  some  useful  work. 
Industry  is  thus  nearly  synonymous  with  dili- 
gence (q.  v.);  but  the  latter  is  rather  dependent 
upon  the   feelings,   the   former,  upon   the  con- 

nce.  The  great  importance  of  industry  be- 
ing acknowledged,  it  only  remains  to  consider 
the  method  by  which  an  industrious  habit  may 
be  fostered.  Though  industry  is  frequently  a 
matter  of  temperament,  or  merely  an  indica- 
tion of  bodily  health,  there  are  many  cases  in 
which  the  want  of  it  cannot  be  explained  by 
reference  to  either  of  these  causes.  Usually. 
children  are  active  enough;  though,  during 
their  earliest  years,  their  activity  takes  tin  form 
of  play.  Nature  seems  to  have  pointed  this  out 
as  the  most  promising  avenue  through  which  the 
mentally  indolent  child  may  be  approached,  so 
as  to  direct  its  energies  into  the  right  channel. 
By  associating  with  it,   in  its  recreations,  sug- 

ting  new  ones  which  involve  some  pleasing 
mental  exercise,  and  thus  bridging  over  the  gap 
which  separates  play  from  work,  and  making  it 
narrower  or  less  abrupt,  the  judicious  teacher 
may  rouse  the  dormant  faculties  and  implant 
industrious  habits,  where,  at  first,  this  might 
have  seemed  impossible.  This  is  the  key  to  the 
kindergarten  system.  It  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  an  indolent  habit  of  mind  is  sometimes  the 

lit  of  discouragement  arising  from  a  too 
early  p  m  of  mental  pursuits  to  faculties 

not  yet  sufficiently  d  I  to  undertake  th  im. 

Frequently  the  child  falls  into  an  indolent  habit 
from  the  fact  that  it  cannot  choose  out  of  many 
things  which  one  to  do.  or.  doing  a  little  only  of 
iplishes  nothing  of  consequence— a 
condition  equivalent  to  indolence.  The  method 
here  should  1>-  a  daily  routine,  in  which  the 
teacher  shoul  1  work  with  the  pupil,  giving  thus 
the  powerful  stimulus  of  his  example,  to  instill 
into  the  pupil's  mind  ideas  of  order,  method,  and 
constancy  of  exertion.  In  forming  the  indus- 
trious habit,  the  school  room  has  immense  ad- 
vantages over  the  home  circle  as  it  usually  exists, 


from  the  fact  that  no  distracting  cause  can  prop- 
erly be  allowed  to  enter;  and  because,  too,  all 
its  exercises,  lessons,  and  tasks  imply  the  need 
of  continuous  application  ami  exertion,  without 
regard  to  the  momentary  inclinations  of  the 
pupil.  The  implanting  of  (his  single  habit. 
firmly  in  the  pupil's  mind  is,  doubtless,  one  of 
the  most  important  results  of  both  home  train- 
ing and  school  education. 

INFANT  SCHOOLS.    See  Kixdkkgartkn. 

INSPECTION,  School.     See  Supervision. 

INSTITUTES,  Teachers'.    See  Teachers' 
Institutes. 

INSTRUCTION  (Lat.  instructio)  is  the  com- 
munication of  knowledge.  Education  trains  the 
powers  of  the  individual,  in  order  that  he 
may  attain  to  the  perfection  of  his  being;  in- 
struction supplies  him  with  something  that  is 
objective  or  external.  Instruction  has  specially 
to  do  with  the  intellectual  development  of  the 
child,  and  is  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the 
educator,  which  he  can  wield -with  the  greatest 
precision  and  in  the  most  skillful  manner.  He 
may  attempt  to  act  on  the  feelings  and  the  vo- 
litions ;  but  so  obscure  are  the  operations  of  the 
soul  in  these  regions,  that  he  may  produce  ex- 
actly the  opposite  effect  to  that  which  he  in- 
tended, hut  when  he  communicates  knowledge, 
he  knows  that,  if  the  pupil  is  capable  and  atten- 
tive, he  will  receive  exactly  that  which  it  is  in- 
tended he  should  receive.  Moreover,  knowledge 
stands  in  close  relation  to  the  feelings  and  voli- 
tions ;  and,  accordingly,  the  teacher  enrploys  it 
for  the  purpose  of  influencing  and  directing 
these.  Thus,  it  comes  to  pass  that  instruction 
occupies  the  largest  part  in  the  work  of  educa- 
tion, and  constitutes  that  portion  which  can  be 
undertaken  and  provided  for  by  a  community, 
since  it  can  be  delegated  by  a  parent  to  a  regu- 
larly trained  teacher  with  the  best  results.  In- 
struction is  putting  something  into  the  mind  ; 
education  is  strengthening  and  developing  the 
powers  of  the  mind.  Tt  is  plain  that  a  teacher 
should  put  nothing  into  the  mind  which  does 
not  train  and  develop  its  powers ;  but  as  it  is 
possible  to  do  so,  and  as  this  frequently  takes 
place,  instruction  is  to  be  divided  into  educative 
and  non-educative  ;  and  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant questions  which  a  teacher  can  investigate, 
is  the  nature  of  educative  instruction.  There 
are  three  qualities  which  attach  to  all  educative 
instruction:  (1)  Instruction,  to  be  educative, 
must  follow  the  natural  laws  of  the  intellectual 
development  of  man.  Man's  intellectual  life  be- 
gins in  tin'  exercise  of  the  senses,  lie  accumu- 
lates a  large  number  of  individual  observations 
In  these  observations,  like  gathers  to  like.  A 
child  looks  at  a  tree;  and  the  \nv  produces  an 

impression  on  his  mind.     The   next  day.  he  » 

another  tree;  and  the  resemblances  in  this  tree 
strike  his  mind, and  recall  the  former  impression. 
The  two  impressions  thus  unite,  and  form  a 
stronger  impression  than  either  separately. 
( >ther  impressions  of  a  similar  nature  unite,  un- 
til the  child  forms  a  definite  notion  of  a  tree. 
The   child  is  thus   gathering   into   unities   the 


468 


INSTRUCTION 


various  impressions  which  he  is  continually 
forming  ;  and  this  process  continues.  He  learns 
the  individual  first,  and  groups  his  observations. 
Thus  instruction,  to  be  educative,  must  always 
proceed  from  the  individual  to  the  general,  from 
the  concrete  to  the  abstract.  There  is  no  re- 
versal of  this  process  in  education  ;  but  the 
process  is  often  reversed  in  instruction  with 
baneful  effect.  To  the  teacher,  the  general  truth 
contains  the  sum  of  all  the  particulars,  and  he 
thinks  he  gives  to  the  child  this  general  truth 
with  all  its  contents,  when  he  urges  it  upon  him, 
makes  him  commit  it  to  memory,  and  frequently 
recalls  it  to  his  mind ;  but  the  fact  is,  that  the 
child  learns  the  general  truth  without  the  con- 
tents, lie  has  the  shell  without  the  kernel. 
The  result  is,  either  that  the  truth  lies  dormant 
until  experience  gives  him  the  particulars,  and 
he  may  then  recall  the  truth,  or  that  the  child 
is  lulled  into  the  belief  that  he  has  learned 
something  when  he  really  knows  nothing,  and 
his  mind  is  prevented  from  stepping  forward  in 
that  direction,  by  the  belief  that  he  knows  the 
truth  already.  Furthermore,  this  non-educative 
instruction  loses  a  great  opportunity.  If  the 
child  is  allowed  tune,  and  is  supplied  with  a 
sufficient  number  of  individual  instances,  he  is 
sure  to  make  the  generalization  himself.  Noth- 
ing imprints  the  truth  more  permanently  than 
the  discovery  of  it  for  himself,  and  nothing 
brings  into  play  all  the  powers  of  the  soul  more 
healthily  than  the  discovery  of  a  truth.  The 
teacher  must,  therefore,  always  proceed  from 
the  concrete  to  the  abstract ;  but,  in  employ- 
ing this  method,  he  must  exercise  very  great 
patience.  Generalization  is  a  slow  process, 
somewhat  uncertain  in  time.  The  child  seems 
to  be  just  reaching  the  truth,  but  he  turns  away 
with  a  bound,  and  he  may  take  sonic  time  more 
to  master  it  completely.  Or  he  may,  one  day, 
have  a  glimpse  of  it.  and  the  next,  it  has  vat  - 
ished.  Hut,  however  slow  or  uncertain  the 
process  may  be,  it  is  the  only  tndy  educative 
mode  of  giving  instruction.  The  teacher,  like 
Socrates,  is  a  maieutic  artist, and  lie  must  watch 
carefully  over  the  birth  of  a  truth,  not  forcing 
nature,  but  giving  nature  every  help  that  she 
will  willingly  receive.  (2)  Educative  instruc- 
tion arrests  the  attention  and  awaken*  the  inter- 
est of  the  pupil.  The  rule  implied  in  this  state- 
ment may  be  expressed  in  the  words,  that  the 
teacher  must  attach  the  new  matter  to  the  old 
by  a  natural  conned  ion.  that  he  must  pass  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  subject  of  at- 
tention is  one  that  cannot,  be  discussed  here. 
W  c  can  note  only  how  it  is  to  be  secured.  The 
PUpil  must    be   on   good   terms  with  his  teacher. 

Where  there  is  antagonism,  there  can  be   no 

satisfactory  attention.  The  pupil  may,  indeed, 
attend  through  fear;  but  fear  is  a  weakening 
force  ;  and  the  result  is,  to  associate  in  his  mind, 
with  the  subject  comprehended,  feelings  of  dis- 
like and  disgUBt,  so  that,  at  the  end,  there   is  no 

interest  in  the  subject,  but,  on  the  contrary,  a 
wish  that  be  may  never  have  to  do  with  it  again. 

Then,  the  teacher  must   carefully  consider  the 


state  of  the  pupil's  mind,  when  he  commences. 
Probably,  he  has  come  from  the  play-ground. 
His  mind  is  occupied  with  some  occurrence  thai 
has  taken  place  there,  and  his  mind  will  remain 
occupied  with  it  the  whole  hour,  if  the  teacher 
does  not  employ  means  to  displace  it.  Some 
little  time  should  be  given  to  the  pupil  to  calm 
down;  and  then,  when  he  is  prepared  to  listen. 
the  teacher  should  start  with  something  that  the 
pupil  knows  well  and  feels  an  interest  in,  and 
from  that  gradually  work  his  way  to  the  new 
matter  which  he  has  to  communicate.  There- 
suit  of  his  teaching  should  be,  that  the  child 
has  a  stronger  interest  in  the  subject  than  he 
had  before.  To  rouse  this  interest,  the  teacher 
has  to  remember  that  every  intellectual  activity 
is  closely  connected  with  corresponding  feelings 
and  exertions,  and  the  teacher  succeeds  when  he 
makes  his  intellectual  propositions  awaken  the 
appropriate  feelings  and  exertions.  (3)  Educa- 
tive instruction  always  keeps  in  view  the  prin- 
cipal aim  and  end  of  education.  It  always 
works  for  a  purpose.  The  object  is  not  to  cram 
the  pupil  with  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge, 
to  give  him  an  hour's  dose  of  information,  with- 
out regard  to  his  whole  being.  It  deliberately 
asks  whether  the  information  which  is  to  be 
imparted,  will  fit  into  the  harmonious  devel- 
opment of  the  child's  powers.  It  will,  therefore, 
proportion  the  amount  given  to  the  healthy 
evolution  of  the  child's  nature.  It  will  not  look 
to  the  greatest  success  in  the  particular  depart- 
ment, but  to  the  greatest  success  compatible 
with  the  healthy  action  of  all  the  child's  powers. 
It  is  not  necessary,  in  an  article  like  this,  to 
go  further  into  the  questions  to  which  the  sub- 
ject of  instruction  gives  rise.  They  are  treated 
in  separate  articles.  We  may,  however,  take  a 
general  view  of  them:  (1)  We  should  have  to 
treat  of  the  subjects  of  instruction.  These  may 
be  divided  into  those  that  relate  to  nature,  those 
that  relate  to  man,  and  those  that  relate  to  God. 
The  first  gives  us  the  natural  sciences, — a  knowl- 
edge of  the  earth  in  its  present  state,  geology, 
botany,  zoology  .  physics,  including  astronomy  and 
chemistry.  Then  come  the  abstract  Bubjecte 
arising  out  of  these:  the  science  of  numbers 

and  of  magnitude,  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  g - 

etry.  Nexl  follows  the  knowledge  that  relates 
toman:  physiology, psychology,  and  sociology; 

but  the  latter  sciences  cannot  he  taught  scientif- 
ically to  children.  The  main  facts  arc  made 
known  concretely  in  literature,  and  therefore 
the  pupil  learns  languages. —  his  own.  modern 
languages,  and  ancient  languages.  Education 
insists  i  hat  these  should  ultimately,  and  as  soon 

as  possible,  pass  from  being  mere  studies  of  words 

to  he  a  means  of  acquainting  the  pupil  with  the 

feelings,  thoughts,  and  desires  of  great  and  good 
men.  past  and  present.  Closely  connected  with 
languages  is  the  study  of  history  ;  and  allied  to 
history  end  intermediate  between  the  first  and 

Second  Classes  of  study,  is  geography,—  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  earth  as  it  has  influenced  man  and 
been  used  by  him.  The  third  class  of  subjects 
relate  to  religion;  but  this  is  closely  allied  to  the 


INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION 


469 


second,  and,  indeed,  falls  properly  under  it ;  f<  >r 
it  is  the  knowledge  of  man's  relations  to  God, 
(2)  We  should  have  to  inquire  into  the  educative 
value  of  all  these  studies,  but  this  inquiry  belongs 
to  the  special  articles.  Bere  it  has  to  bo  remarked, 
that  none  of  the  subjects  must  be  entirely  omit- 
ted. The  mind  of  man  must  not  be  deliberately 
made  one-sided.  The  multiplication  of  interest 
is  one  of  the  great  objects  of  education.  (3)  We 
should  have  to  inquire  into  the  methods  of  edu- 
cation ;  and  (4)  into  the  organization,  private 
and  public,  necessary  to  render  instruction  effec- 
tive. All  these  subjects  are  discussed  in  the 
ordinary  manuals  on  instruction.  Educative 
instruction  has  been  made  the  subject  of  special 
investigation  by  T.  Ziller,  in  his  Gfrundfegung 
zur  Lehre  ram  erziehenden  Unterricht.  Nam 
Hirer  u'issenschaftlichen  und  praktisch-reforma- 
torischen  Seite  eniwickell  (Leipsic,  1865).  —  See 
also  Rosenkranz,  Pedagogics  as  a  System,  trans, 
by  A.  C.  Bracket*  (St.  Louis,  1872). 

INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION.  The 
term  intellect  (Latin,  intellectus,  from  inter,  be- 
tween, and  legere,  to  gather,  or  collect)  is  used 
to  denote  the  faculty  or  faculties  by  which  man 
knows,  in  distinction  from  those  of  sensibility 
and  will.  In  the  formation  of  the  human 
character,  the  culture  of  the  intellect  is  of  sub- 
ordinate importance  to  that  of  the  other  two 
mental  functions,  —  the  proper  order  in  this 
regard  being  (1)  will,  (2)  sensibility,  (3)  intellect ; 
for  the  intellect  is  only  an  instrument,  the  use  of 
which  must  depend  upon  the  natural  strength 
and  educational  training  of  the  other  elements 
of  human  character.  There  is,  however,  without 
doubt,  a  reflex  action  of  sound  intellectual  cult- 
ure, by  means  of  which  the  propensities  and 
tastes  of  an  individual  are  ennobled,  and  lus 
moral  sense  strengthened.  In  order  to  direct 
the  education  of  the  intellect,  it  is  necessaiy  to 
understand  its  operations  and  the  mode  of  its 
growth  from  infancy  to  mature  age  ;  the  processes 
by  which  its  powers  may  be  guided,  stimulated, 
and  improved,  and  the  agencies  by  means  of 
which  this  improvement,  or  culture,  is  to  be  ef- 
fected. The  human  mind  acts,  as  it  were,  by 
separate  faculties ;  it  appears  to  possess  distinct 
powers.  These  faculties,  or  powers,  are  without 
doubt,  intimately  associated.  They  are  but 
functions  of  a  single  agent ;  but  they  are  func- 
tions distinct,  both  in  their  mode  of  operation 
and  in  the  objects  upon  which  fchey  arc  exercised. 
To  form  an  idea  from  a  present  object  of  sen- 
sation is  obviously  distinct  from  recalling  that 
idea  when  the  object  is  no  longer  present.  This 
again  differs  essentially  from  the  suggestion  of 
one  idea  by  the  presence  of  another  in  some  way 
associated  with  it.  Again,  to  create  from  the 
simple  impressions  derived  from  natural  objects 
an  original  picture,  or  series  of  pictures,  such  as 
those  of  Hogarth  on  canvas,  or  of  Bunyan,  in 
written  composition,  is  certainly  a  very  different 
process  from  the  selection  and  combination  of 
elementaiy  propositions  so  as  to  derive  from 
them  an  original  principle,  or  truth.  The  mind 
Js,  nevertheless,  a  unit;  and  all  its  operations,  of 


however  diverse  a  character,  may  be  conceived 
to  depend,  directly  or  indirectly,  upon  some 
rudimenta!  process  ;  but  nothing  would  be  gained 

practically  by  such  a  procedure  ;  and,  therefore, 
we  may  properly  conform  to  the  common  usage  in 
this  regard,  ami  consider  the  intellect  as  com- 
prehending many  distinct  faculties,  wdiich.  of 
course,  cannot  be  cultivated  and  strengthened  by 
the  teacher  without   a  sufficient  knowledge  of 
their  respective  spheres  of  action,  their  modes  of 
operation,  and  the  objects  upon  which  they  are 
specially  exercised.  These  have  been  conveniently 
classified  and  designated  as  follows:      (1)   The 
acquisitive  faculties,  including  consciousness  and 
sense-perception  ;  (2)  The  representative/acuities, 
including  conception,  association,  memory,  and 
imagination;    (3)  The  elaboraiive faculties,  in- 
cluding, comparison,  abstraction,  generalization, 
judgment,  and  reason. — The  senses,  those  avenues 
of  communication  with  the  external  world,  are 
first  to  be  considered,  since  probably  ideas,  at 
first,  spring  from  sensation,  which  appears  to  be 
the  primitive  stimulus  of  activity  in  the  whole 
animal  kingdom.     (See  Senses.)    It  is,  however, 
in  no  other  way  connected  wTith  the  mind  than 
as  the  means  of  supplying   the  material   upon 
which  the  first  mental  operations  are  performed ; 
and  when  this  material  is  afforded,  the  mind,  as 
an  entirely  independent  agent,  may  or  may  not 
act  upon  it,  this  act  being  controlled  by  what  is 
called  attention  (q.  v.),  which  is  only  a  condition 
of  activity  assumed  by  the  mind  in  regard  to  any 
of  the  objects  of  sensation  or  consciousness.  When 
sensation   and  attention    exist    simultaneously, 
there  must  result  what  is  called  perception,  sen- 
sation being  simply  the  effect  produced  by  ex- 
ternal objects  upon  the  bodily  organs,  and  per- 
ception the  act  of  the  mind  in  becoming  cog- 
nizant of  it  as  preceding  from  some  cause  ex- 
traneous to  itself.     The  product  of  these  two 
acts,  constituting  what  is  called  sense-perception, 
would  be  only  momentary,  or  would  last  only 
during  the  presence  of  the  object  perceived,  but 
for  the  existence  of  a  faculty  by  which  the  mind 
retains  impressions   thus  made,  recalls    them, 
voluntarily  or  involuntarily,  and  thus  is  enabled 
to  make  them  the  subject  of  independent  mental 
action.     These  impressions,  and  in  an   especial 
manner  those    made    through    the  medium  of 
sight,  become  in  this  way  a  part  of  the  mind; 
they  are  imprinted  upon  its  very  texture,  as  it 
were,  like  pictures  upon  the  photographic  glass. 
Hence  the  name   ideas  (from  the   Creek  word 
Idelv,  to  see).     This  faculty  is  called  conception 
(q.  v.).     It  requires  the  most  careful  cultivation 
in  childhood  and  youth ;  since  it   alone  enables 
the  mind  to  store  up  the  materials  of  knowledge 
and  thought  in  its  wonderful   and  mysterious 
repository.     The  intellect  of  childhood  is  chiefly 
employed  in  the  exercise  of  it  —  in  storing  up 
ideas,  and  gathering  materials  out  of  which  to 
produce  its  subsequent  creations,  whether  these 
are  the  fantastic   pictures  of   fancy,  the  more 
regular  combinations   of    imagination,    or    the 
sequences  of  ratiocination.    Whatever,  therefore, 
hinders  tins  process,  shrivels  the  mind  and  stunts 


470 


INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION' 


'.')  it  would  be  powerless  to  control  the 
which  the  conceptions  would   presenl 


its  growth.  Its  vitality  dies  out  fur  want  of  ex- 
ercise, and  torpor  takes  the  place  of  elasticity 
and  vigorous  life.  This  is,  therefore,  one  of  the 
first  faculties  to  be  addressed  in  education.  Its 
activity  is  to  be  fostered  by  supplying  it  with 
abundant  food — -  objects  on  which  it  may  be 
exercised,  and  lan<nia<j;e  designed  to  bring  into 
clear  mental  view  the  concept  ions  already  ac- 
quired. —  The  next  mental  process  to  be  con- 
tadered  is  association.  In  the  first  stages  of  the 
mind's  growth,  there  exists  but  little  power  of 
combination,  certainly  none  of  logical  com- 
bination ;  but  there  is  an  elementary  principle 
of  intellection  by   which    ideas   tend  to  become 

linked  together  according  to  certain  relations; 
this  is  called  association  (q.  v.).  Perhaps,  the 
most  important  of  the  elementary  associations 
established  in  regard  to  the  conceptions  is  that 
of  words  or  nam  sswith  the  conceptions  of  objects 
which  they  are  thus  made  to  represent.  This  is, 
without  doubt,  one  of  the  earliest,  as  well  as  one 
of  the  most  rudimental,  of  the  mind's  combi- 
nations. The  association  itself,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  is  all  thai  isarbitrary;  sine/  it  is  not 
words  themselves  thai  are  associated  with  the 
conceptions  of  the  objects,  hut  conceptions  of  the 
spoken  words,  formed  through  the  medium  of 
hearing.  What  is  meant  by  asserting  that  the 
association  alone  isarbitrary,    is  that   the  Spoken 

word,  as  an  actual  sense-perception,  is  retained 

and  recalled  by  conception,  and  is,   therefore,   no 

more  arbitrary  than  any  other  idea;  but  having 
no  intrinsic  relation  to  the  conception  for  which 
it  is  to  stand,  it  is  associated  with  it  arbitrarily, 
that  is,  by  repeatedly  bringing  the  two  conceptions 
together,  in  accordance  with  that  law  of  mental 
action  by  which  ideas  repeatedly  brought  into 
connection  suggest  each  other.  -  Without  the 
association  of  words  with  ideas,  the  mind  could 
advance  but  a  very  few  steps  in  its  development  ; 
because,  (1)  it  would  be  unable  to  receive  any 
stimulus  by  communicating  with  any  other 
minds ; 
order  ii 

themselves  to  the  mind,  or  to  divest  them  of  the 
vagueness  of  revery  or  dreaming;  and  (3)  no  proc- 
ess of  thought  or  reasoning  could  be  carried  on 
withoui  the  assistance  of  language.  Thisneed 
of  words  is  illustrate  1  by  the  efforts  of  children 
to  talk,  an  I  call  things  by  cam  is,  long  b  (fore  the 
power  of  articulation  exists,  thus  showing  that, 
although  they  are  unable  to  employ  word 
the  expression  of  ideas,  the  mind  is  constantly 
making  use  of  them  in  carrying  on  its  rudimental 
operations.  It  is  an  importanl  law  thai  con- 
ceptions are  more  strongly  associated  when  their 
corresponding  perceptions  have  been  associated. 
Thus,  suppose  it  is  desired  to  teach  a  child  the 
meaning  of  the  word  ship ;  in  other  words,  to  as- 
sociate in  his  mind  the  spoken  word  ship  with 
the  conception  of  the  ship,  so  that  the  one  will 
always  Buggesl  the  other.  If  he  has  never 
a  ship,  nothing  but  the  actual  perception  will 

Bllffice,  and  he  must   be    taken  where    one  may  be 

a  -t uallv  seen  ;  but  if  he  ha  Be  sn  the  objed 
withoui  Learning  its  name,  the  conception  may 


be  recalled  to  his  mind  either  by  questioning 
him  or  by  showing  him  a  picture  of  it.  Without 
doing  this,  the  word  ship  may  be  repeated  to 
him,  and  he  may  pronounce  it  any  number  of 
times,  without  learning  any  thing,  since  it  would 
be  presenting  to  his  mind  a  sign  without  showing 
what  it  signifies.  In  elementary  instruction,  this 
error  is  quite  often  committed. 

It  is  important  to  consider  upon  what  funda- 
mental or  primary  notion  the  mind  proceeds  in 
establishing  the  arbitrary  association  between 
things  and  their  names;  that  is, between  concep- 
tions which  intrinsically  have  no  relation  to 
each  other.  A  slighl  observation  will  ascertain 
that  the  mind  very  early  requires  the  notion  of 
names  as  representatives  of  things,  and  thus 
comprehends  the  relation  existing  between  a  sign 
and  the  thing  signified]  not  that  this  notion  is 
made  an  object  of  actual  consciousness  or  reflec- 
tion, but  that  it  is  intuitively  recognized  by  the 
mind,  and  is  practically  employed  by  the  child 
in  making  known  its  wants  or  expressing  its  feel- 
in---.  The  question,  "Wha1  is  it '.'"so  often  heard 
from  the  lips  of  a  young  child  on  seeing  a  new 
object,  appears  generally  to  have  reference  only 
to  this  notion.  The  child  perceives  the  need  of 
affixing  a  name  to  the  object  in  order  that  it 
may  become  a  definite  conception,  as  well  as  be 
prepared  for  expression  ;  and  when  a  name  is 
given,  however  arbitrary  or  unintelligible,  the 
inquiry  proceeds  no  further,  the  child  appearing 
entirely  satisfied.  It  is  only  when  the  mind  has 
le  more  progress  in  development  and  has  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  other  relation.-,,  that  this 
question  can  possibly  have  any  other  import. 
Very  much  of  the  early  development  of  a  child's 
mind  thus  consists  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
words,  but.  let  it  be  carefully  observed, of  words 
only  as  representatives  of  actual  conceptions. 
In  this  way.  the  knowledge  of  things,  and  the 
knowledge  of  words,  increase  pari  passu,  and 
the  mind  is  prepared  for  operations  of  a  more 
advanced  character;  since  it  is  only  by  symboliz- 
ing individual  conceptions,  that  generalization 
can  take  place,  thai  is,  that  individuals  can  be 
conceived  with  reference  exclusively  to  certain 
qualities  which  they  possess  in  common,  and 
thus  be  8  I  in  classes.     This  office  of  lan- 

guage has  been  explained  in  the  fo  low  inc.-  man- 
ner by  a  very  acute  writer  (II.  L.  Mansel)  :  "In- 
tuitive generalization  consists  in  directing  the 
attention,  voluntarily  or  involuntarily,  to  the 
common  features  of  saveral  objects  presented  to 
us,  neglecting  or  nol  perceiving  those  qualities 
which  art'  pecuhar  to  each.  It  is  nol  a  distinct 
cognition  of  the  class  as  a  <  lass,  nor  of  the  indi- 
viduals as  individuals;  but  a  confused  perception 
of  both  together.  To  form  a  complete  cognition 
of  the  imli\  idual,  I  must,  by  the  aid  of  imagina- 
tion, supply  those  distinctive  features  which  I 
am  unable  clearly  to  perceive.  To  form  a  com- 
plete cognition  of  the  class,  I  must  separate  the 
common  attributes  from  their  connection  with  a 
definite  time  and  place.    Bui  how  are  attributes. 

apart  from  their  juxtaposition  in  space,  to  be  so 
tnected  together,  as  to  constitute  a  single  ob- 


INTELLECTUAL   EDUCATION 


17  1 


ject  ?  The  bead  and  trunk  and  limba  of  an  indi- 
vidual man  are  connected  together  by  continuity 
iii  space,  and  by  thai  continuity  constitute  a 
whole  of  intuition,  whether  distinctly  recognized 
in  that  relation  or  not.  J  low  are  the  attributes 
of  mankind  in  general  to  be  separated  from 
their  position  in  space. and  yet  so  united  together 
as  to  constitute  a  whole  of  thought?  To  effecl 
this  we  must  call  in  the  aid  of  language.  The 
word  is  to  thought  what  space  is  to  perception. 
It  constitutes  the  connecting  link  between  va- 
rious attributes — the  frame,  as  it  were,  in  which 
they  are  set  —  and  thus  furnishes  the  means 
by  which  the  features  characteristic  of  a  class 
may  he  viewed  apart  from  the  individuals  in 
which  they  are  intuitively  perceived,  and  com 
bined  into  a  complex  notion  or  concept."  In  re- 
gard to  tlie  same  point,  Whately  remarks,  in  Ele- 
ments  of  Logic :  "The  majority  of  men  would 
probably  say,  if  asked,  that  the  use  of  language 
is  peculiar  to  man  ;  and  that  its  office  is  to  ex- 
press to  one  another  our  thoughts  and  feelings, 
1  hit  neither  of  these  is  strictly  true.  Brutes  do 
possess,  in  some  degree,  the  power  of  being  taught 
to  understand  what  is  said  to  them,  and  some  of 
them  even  to  utter  sounds  expressive  of  what  is 
passing  within  them.  But  they  all  seem  to  be 
incapable  of  another  very  important  use  of  lan- 
guage which  does  characterize  man  ;  namely,  the 
employment  of  common  terms  (general  terms) 
formed  by  abstraction,  as  instruments  of thought] 
by  which  alone  a  train  of  reasoning  may  be  car- 
ried on.  And  accordingly  a  deaf-mute,  before  he 
has  been  taught  a  language  —  either  the  finger- 
language  or  reading  —  cannot  carry  on  a  train 
of  reasoning,  any  more  than  a  brute.  lie  differs 
indeed  from  a  brute,  in  possessing  the  mental 
capability  of  employing  language  ;  but  he  can 
no  more  make  use  of  that  capability  till  he  is 
in  possession  of  some  system  of  arbitrary  general 
signs,  than  a  person  born  blind  from  cataract 
can  make  use  of  his  capacity. of  seeing,  till  the 
cataract  is  removed." 

Next  to  the  association  of  things  with  words 
as  their  representatives,  is  that  founded  upon  a 
perception  of  resemblance  in  the  objects  from 
which  conceptions  are  derived.  This,  it  will  be 
perceived  from  what  has  already  been  adduced, 
takes  place  prior  to  generalization,  to  which  it 
directly  lea  Is.  There  is,  probably,  no  relation  so 
obvious  to  a  child  as  that  of  resemblance  or  anal- 
ogy, and  noin>  that  affords  so  much  employ- 
ment to  its  mind,  or  that  affects7  it  with  more 
pleasurable  emotions.  This  is  particularly  the 
with  the  relation  of  analogy  when  found  to 
exist  between  objects  quite  dissimilar.  The  facil- 
ity and  readiness  with  which  very  young  chil- 
dren discern  resemblances,  whether  they  are 
founded  upon  form,  color,  or  structure,  indicate 
a  natural  aptitude  of  the  mind  to  perceive  the 
varieties  of  these  qualities  in  different  objects, — 
of  these  qualities  especially,  because  they  are 
addressed  to  the  sight,  which  of  all  the  senses 
gives  rise  to  the  most  vivid  conceptions.  The 
varieties  of  color  (tints),  form.  etc..  generally 
have  no  designations  in   the  child's   mind  —  no 


symbols  in  language ;  and.  therefore,  cannot  be 

made  distinct  objects  of  conception  or  id'  con- 
SCiousneSS  ;   and.  in  the  earliest  stages  of    mental 

development,  this  is  not  required  to  enable  the 

mind  to  carry  on  its  rudiniental  processes.  Very 
young  children  can  learn  to  classify  objects  with 
respect  to  their  resemblances  in  form,  color,  etc  ; 
and  to  require  them  to  do  this,  is  one  of  the  best 
exercises  that  can  be  employed  to  aid  the  devel- 
opment of  their  minds.  The  readiness  with 
which  children  apply  the  same   name   to   objects 

having  only  a  general  resemblance  to  each  other 
in  form,  color,  or  structure,  is  another  proof  of 
this  characteristic  of  the  human  mind.  "  Chil- 
dren," says  Aristotle,  "at  first  call  every  man 
father, and  every  woman  mother,  but  afterwards 
they  distinguish  one  person  from  another."  The 
perception  of  resemblance  is.  thus,  prior  to  that 
of  difference,  and,  apparently,  for  a  very  good 
reason  :  since,  if  the  reverse  were  the  ease,  the 
mind,  instead  of  requiring  immediately  words  as 
the  representatives  of  classes,  would  need  a  word 
for  every  object  of  perception,  and  thus  could 
make  no  advancement  in  developing  the  higher 
facidties.  This  was  the  doctrine  of  Pestalozzi, 
and  a  basic  principle  of  his  system.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  very  great  diversities  in  objects  ex- 
cite the  attention  more  readily  than  correspond- 
ing resemblances,  just  as  rapid  transitions  from 
one  color  to  another,  from  intense  darkness  to 
a  brilliant  illumination,  etc.,  produce  activity  in 
the  perceptive  faculties  ;  and  hence,  the  employ- 
ment of  such  processes  in  the  education  of  those 
mentally  deficient ;  but  where  any  two  objects 
are  placed  before  a  child,  of  which  the  points  of 
resemblance  and  of  difference  are  equally  ob- 
vious to  the  developed  and  mature  mind,  the 
child  will  intuitively  notice  the  former  before 
he  will  the  latter.  The  constitution  of  the  mind 
seems  to  necessitate  this.  Objects  which  are 
very  unlike  may,  indeed,  have  some  points  of 
resemblance  which  escape  the  notice  of  a  child, 
and  which,  therefore,  the  teacher  will  need  to 
point  out  so  as  to  assist  in  their  discovery,  and, 
in  this  way,  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  observa- 
tion. The  whole  structure  of  the  intellect  as  a 
thinking  and  reasoning  apparatus  seems  to  be 
based  on  the  ready  recognition  of  likeness  and 
analogy  in  the  various  objects  presented  to  the 
s.  Isaac  Taylor  remarks,  in  Home  Educa- 
cation:  -The  sense  of  resemblance  runs  before 
the  power  of  discriminating  or  designating  dif- 
:  hence,  it  happens  that  by  the  infant 
and  the  savage  the  names  of  individuals  are  ex- 
tended to  species,  and  the  names  of  species  to 
genera."  '-Thus,'"  as  Manse!  remarks,  -by  the 
ail  of  language,  our  first  abstractions  are,  in 
fact,  given  to  us  already  made;  as  we  learn  to 
give  the  same  name  to  various  individuals  pre- 
sented to  us  under  slight,  and  at  first  unnoticed 
circumstances  of  distinction.  The  name  is  thus 
applied  to  different  objects  long  before  we 
learn  to  analyze  the  growing  powers  of  speech 
and  thought,  to  ask  What  we  mean  by  each 
several  instance  of  its  application,  and  to  cor- 
rect and   fix  the  significance  of   words  at  firsts 


4?2 


INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION 


used  vaguely  and  obscurely."  The  association 
of  the  conceptions  as  dependent  upon  an  obser- 
vation of  resemblance,  has  been  called  intuitive 
generalization ;  since  it  does  not  consciously 
follow  any  process  of  abstraction,  because,  from 
the  failure  of  the  undeveloped  mind  to  notice 
distinctions  and  differences,  no  such  process  is 
needed  for  the  purpose.  For  example,  a  child 
sees  a  book  for  the  first  time,  and  learns  its 
name,  book;  now,  on  seeing  another  book,  how- 
ever different  from  the  first  in  size,  color,  etc..  he 
invariably  applies  to  it  the  term  book,  by  the 
perception  of  analogy  leading  on  to  intuitive 
generalization.  Common  names  are,  therefore, 
first  learned,  and  particular  or  proper  nanus 
only  given  to  such  objects  as  are  constantly  pre- 
sented to  the  mind ;  since,  by  being  thus  more 
intimately  known,  their  distinctive  peculiarities 
are  more  clearly  discerned,  this  discernment 
leading  to  an  individualization,  as  the  next  Btep 
in  the  growth  or  development  of  the  mind.  The 
operation  of  the  sense  of  analogy  is  seen  in  the 
use  of  figurative,  or  more  definitely,  tropical 
language ;  and  its  rudimental  character  is  illus- 
trated by  the  fact  that  children  and  savages  are 
particularly  prone  to  the  use  of  this  language. 
Indeed,  as  before  remarked,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
intense  mental  pleasures  of  the  child  to  trace 
analogies  in  objects  of  considerable  diversity  in 
general  appearance,  and  to  apply  such  meta- 
phorical terms  as  will  forcibly  express  them. 
This  again  adds  very  greatly  to  a  child's  power 
of  expression,  since,  without  the  perception  of 
these  analogies  in  objects,  every  variation  would 
require  some  specific  term,  metaphorical  names 
ceasing  to  have  any  meaning  whatever.  This 
characteristic  of  a  chilli's  mind  gives  to  the  in- 
telligent teacher  considerable  resources  for  il- 
lustration, particularly  in  the  use  of  words  and 
their  application  to  the  objects  which  they  rep- 
resent. Thus,  the  term  cape  would  be  much 
better  understood  if  its  exact  literal  import  were 
explained,  and  the  analogy  exhibited  between 
the  head  and  a  cape,  or  headland.  It  is  unfort- 
unate that  SO  few  compound  or  derivative  words 
in  English  are  formed  from  the  simple  words  of 
the  language  itself,  and  that  recourse  has  been 
had  to  BO  great  an  extent  to  the  LatlH  and 
Greek  languages  for  a  supply  of  such  roots: 
since,  in  consequence  of  this,  most  of  the  words 

of  the  language  are  necessarily  taught  as  arbi- 
tr.iiy  terms,  which,  otherwise,  would  be  the 
means  of  stimulating  mental  activity  in  the 
Learner.    A  striking  contrast  has  very  often  been 

made,  in  this  respect,   between    the  English   and 

German  languages,  such  terms  as  Regenschirm 
(umbrella),  Sonnenschirm  (parasol),  aandschuh 
(glove),  Fingerhui  (thimble), rinsinigeti  (absorb), 
afurchsichtig  (transparent),  etc.,  illustrating  very 
clearly  the  tact  referred  to.    This  peculiarity  of 

a  language,  in  drawing  almost  exclusively  from 
its  own  primitive  words  the  materials  for  the 
construction  of  complex  epithets,  is  also  \er\ 
prominent  in  the  <  Ireek  language,  and  constitutes 
one  of  its  excellencies.  Where  it  exists,  it  must 
afford  great  facility  in  education,  and  must  form 


the  basis  for  processes  which  are  impracticable 
where  a  language,  such  as  the  English,  is  to  be 
employed,  which  derives  nearly  all  of  itsabstract 
and  scientific  terms  from  languages  not  merely 
foreign  but  entirely  out  of  use.  The  growth  of 
mind  in  its  relation  to  language  has  been  here 
dwelt  upon  at  some  length  because  of  its  im- 
portance as  a  source  of  practical  knowledge  to 
every  teacher  who  makes  the  study  of  mind  the 
basis  of  his  operations.  Arbitrary  rules  may  be 
laid  down,  and  applied  ;  but  the  scientific  teacher 
who  investigates  the  foundation  of  these  rules  in 
the  principles  of  intellectual  science  will  best 
know  how  to  adopt  his  methods  to  the  diversified 
exigencies  of  his  work.  Association  as  an  ele- 
mentary function  of  mind,  is  dependent  upon  a 
variety  of  circumstances  other  than  those  enu- 
merated; as  time,  place,  cause  and  effect,  and 
design.  These  are,  however,  of  secondary  im- 
portance for  the  study  of  the  educator. — The 
peculiar  functions  of  the  representative  faculties, 
memory  and  imagination  should  receive  a  care- 
ful study,  since  they  underlie  many  of  the  most 
important  processes  which  he  is  called  upon  to 
direct.  (See  Imagination, and  Memory.)  The  elab- 
orative  faculties,  comparison,  abstraction,  and 
generalization,  have  already  been  referred  to  in 
illation  to  the  rudimental  stage  of  their  opera- 
tion;  in  the  higher  grades  of  instruction,  they  find 
constant  exercise  in  the  studies  of  mathematics 
and  natural  science,  which  form  a  part  of  the  cur- 
riculum of  eveiy  high  school,  college,  and  univer- 
sity. Judgment  and  reason  pass  through  a  grada- 
tion of  development  from  the  most  elementary  to 
the  highest  stages  of  education. — Such  is  the  field 
which  a  discussion  of  the  principles  of  intellectual 
education  embraces.  In  the  practical  application 
of  these  principles,  the  teacher  is  to  be  guided  not 
only  by  a  knowledge  of  the  general  functions  of 
mind  and  their  development, but  by  all  the  pecu- 
liarities of  individual  endowment  which  he  may 
be  able  to  discern.  (See  I  Hakai  her,  Discernment 
■  I  .  He  is  to  permit  the  mind  to  expand  by  its 
i>\\  n  intrinsic  activities,  only  interposing  restrain- 
ing  or  stimulating  agencies  when  and  where  he 
finds  a  tendency  to  abnormal  or  morbid  growth. 
There  are,  however,  special  methods  of  opera- 
tion in  intellectual  education,  partaking  more  of 
a  positive  character,  by  means  of  which  the 
teacher  is  directly  to  impart  knowledge  —  to 
communicate  information  ;  and,  thus,  is  opened 

up  a  consideration  nol  only  of  the  mind  to  be 

cultivated,  but  of  the  branches  of  knowledge  to 
be  taught,  in  relation  to  the  several  faculties 
which  they  tend  to  cultivate.  (See  [nsTBUCTION.) 
In  this  connection,  and  by   the  use  of  the  Same 

guiding  principles,  the  proper  order  of  presenting 
these  studies  must  be  considered  and  ascertained, 

this  order  being  correlated  with  the  natural  order 
in  which  the  intellectual  faculties  are  developed. 
(See  Ooubsb  of  Instruction.)     The  final  result 

of  this  department  of  education  should  be.  to 
enable  the  individual,  in  all  the  circumstances  of 
life,  to  exercise  with  efficiency  and  address  the 
various  intellectual  faculties  with  which  he  hafl 
been  endowed.      (See  OuLTUBE.) 


INTEREST 


IOWA 


473 


INTEREST.  To  awaken  an  interest  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils  in  the  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion should  always  In-  a  prominent  object  of  the 
teacher's  efforts,  since  it  is  an  indispensable  con- 
dition of  all  true  success.  Antecedently,  the 
TOUng pupil  feels  QO  interest  in  the  school  studies: 
he  neither  appreciates  their  importance  nor  has 
any  desire  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  subjects 
of  which  they  treat.  But  the  skillful  teacher 
knows  how  to  stimulate  curiosity,  and  to  impress 
Upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  idea  that  he  is 
acquiring  knowledge,  and  thus  to  awaken  an 
interest  in  the  processes  of  instruction.  When 
these  processes  are  appropriate  and  natural,  the 
pupil's  interest  is  easily  sustained  ;  and  it  will  be 
generally  found  that  a  flagging  interest  is  due 
either  to  previous  defective  training  or  to  the 
endeavor  to  teach  subjects  for  which  the  pupil's 
mind  is  not  prepared.  It  is  a  psychological 
axiom  that  the  mind  has  no  less  appetite  for 
knowledge  of  the  right  kind,  than  exists  physic- 
ally for  proper  food  to  nourish  the  body.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  office  of  educational  science  to  de- 
termine the  kind  of  mental  food  proper  for  every 
age.  and  how  it  should  be  prepared  so  as  to 
stimulate,  while  it  satisfies,  the  mental  appetite. 
There  should  also  be  individual  adaptation,  the 
teacher  giving  whatever  attention  may  be  neces- 
sary to  the  special  inclinations,  tastes,  and  capaci- 
ties of  his  pupils.     (See  Attention.) 

INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS  are  schools 
'of  a  grade  between  primary  schools  and  grammar 
schools,  or  between  elementary  schools  and  high 
schools.  Such  schools  generally  constitute  an 
important  part  of  the  graded  school  system. 
Schools  of  a  grade  between  elementary  schools 
(in  German.  Elementarschide),  and  colleges  and 
universities,  are  often  called  middle  schools  (Ger- 
man. Mittelschule). 

INTERROGATION,  or  the  Interrogative 
Method,  is  an  indispensable  means  of  conducting 
most  processes  of  instruction,  particularly  those 
of  an  elementary  grade.  Its  office  is  either 
(1)  tentative,  or  (2)  illustrative.  As  a  tentative 
process,  the  teacher  uses  it  to  determine  the 
quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  knowledge  which 
the  pupil  has  attained.  Thus,  in  hearing  recita- 
tions, the  teacher,  by  means  of  questions,  ascer- 
tains how  much  of  the  lesson  previously  assigned, 
the  pupil  has  learned,  and  with  what  accuracy 
it  has  been  learned ;  and  on  the  kind  of  questions 
asked,  as  well  as  on  the  manner  of  asking  them, 
depends  the  degree  of  skill  and  effectiveness  of 
this  important  part  of  the  teacher's  work.  The 
same  is  true,  also,  of  the  conducting  of  exami- 
nations by  school  inspectors  or  superintendents. 
The  process  of  questioning  is  also  tentative  when 
used  as  preliminary  to  a  course  of  instruction, 
in  order  to  determine  the  amount  of  information, 
or  the  kind  of  ideas,  already  acquired  by  the 
pupil,  either  directly  relating  to  the  subject  or 
remotely  connected  with  it,  and  constituting  the 
elementary  conceptions  upon  which  it  is  to  be 
based.  Instruction  on  every  subject  needs  such 
preliminary  questioning. — Interrogation  is  illus- 
trative when  it  is  used  as  a  direct  means  of  in- 


struction, in  order  to  induce  the  pupil  to  combine 
his  ideas  in  such  a  way  that  he  may  be  led  to  a 
clear  conception  of  the  truth.  This  was  the  proc- 
ess used  by  Socrates  in  giving  instruction  :  and 
heiiee.it  is  often  called  theSocratie  method.  Great 
skill  can  be  exercised  by  the  teacher  in  the  use  of 
interrogation  for  this  purpose  :  indeed,  the  art  of 
questioning  (catechetics)  becomes  a  special  de- 
partment of  the  work  of  teaching,  and  has  been 
so  treated.  Rules  can  scarcely  be  given  for  its 
attainment ;  but  it  may  briefly  be  said  that  it 
depends  upon  (1)  a  thorough  training  of  the 
analytic  faculty  of  the  teacher,  (2)  such  a  minute 
and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be 
taught  as  will  enable  him  to  resolve  it  into  its 
elementary  principles,  (3)  a  full  appreciation  of 
the  pupils  condition  of  mind,  both  as  to  ca- 
pacity and  degree  of  attainment,  and  (4)  sufficient 
practice  in  interrogation  to  produce  facility  in 
framing  questions  of  every  kind  and  form.  Where 
these  conditions  exist,  the  questions  asked  will 
be  an  effective  means  of  making  every  subject 
clear  to  the  learner's  mind.  (See  Catechetical 
Method.) 

INTUITIVE  METHOD.  See  Object 
Teaching,  and  Pestalozzi. 

IOWA,  originally  a  part  of  the  vast  Louisiana 
purchase  of  1803,  was  included  in  the  territory 
of  Iowa,  organized  in  1838,  which  extended 
math  from  the  state  of  Missouri  to  the  British 
line,  and  was  bounded  on  the  east  and  west, 
respectively,  by  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri 
rivers.  It  was  admitted  into  the  Union,  with 
its  present  limits,  in  1846.  Its  area  is  55,045 
square  miles  ;  and  its  population,  in  1870.  was 
1.194,020;  but,  in  1873,  it  was  reported  as 
1,251,333. 

Educational  History. — In  1833,  the  date  of 
the  first  permanent  settlement  of  Dubuque,  a 
school-house  was  built  in  that  towm,  which,  it  is 
claimed,  was  the  first  built  in  the  state.  It  was 
erected  by  funds  contributed  by  the  enterprising 
lead-miners.  During  the  next  six  years,  other 
schools  were  opened  in  various  parts  of  the  state. 
In  1839,  the  territorial  legislature  passed  a  law 
for  the  establishment  of  public  schools,  provid- 
ing that  "there  shall  be  established  a  common 
school,  or  schools,  in  each  of  the  counties  of  the 
territory,  which  shall  be  open  and  free  for  every 
class  of  white  citizens  between  the  ages  of  5  and 
21  years."  It  also  provided  for  the  formation 
of  school  districts,  each  to  be  governed  by  a 
board  of  three  trustees,  whose  duties  were  to  ex- 
amine and  employ  teachers,  superintend  the 
schools,  and  collect  and  disburse  the  school 
I  moneys.  In  1840,  the  legislative  assembly  en- 
i  acted  a  much  more  comprehensive  law  for  the 
establishment  of  a  common-school  system,  mak- 
ing ample  provision  for  free  public  schools.  In 
the  U.S.  census  of  1840, very  few  schools,  either 
private  or  public,  were  reported :  an  academy, 
in  Scott  county,  with  25  pupils,  and  03  common 
schools,  with  1,500  pupils.  In  Jan.,  1841,  the 
office  of  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was 
created ;  and  Dr.  William  Reynolds,  a  teacher  at 
Iowa  City,  was  appointed  to   the  place.     The, 


474 


IOWA 


office  was,  however,  abolished  Febr.  17.,  1842  ; 
but,  by  the  first  constitution  of  Iowa,  the  general 
assembly  was  required  to  provide  for  the  election 
of  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  who 
should  hold  office  for  three  years.  Since  that 
time,  the  office  has  been  filled  successively  by  the 
following  state  superintendents:— 3 axae&  Har- 
lan, from  18-47 — 8  ;  Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr., 
from  1848 — 54;  James  D.  Kails,  from  1854 — 7; 
Joseph  C.  Stone,  for  one  month ;  Maturin  L. 
Fisher,  from  June  1857  to  Dec.  1858,  when  the 
state  board  of  education  abolished  the  office, 
assigning  its  duties  to  the  secretary  of  the  board. 
Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr.,  was  elected  secretary, 
and  served  till  1863,  when  he  resigned  to  enter 
the  U.  S.  military  service.  During  a  portion  of 
that  year,  the  duties  of  the  office  were  performed 
by  H.  A.  W iltse,  who  was  succeeded,  in  1863, 
by  Oran  Faville.  The  office  of  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  was  revived  March  23.,  L864, 
and  Oran  Faville  was  elected  to  th  •  position,  in 
which  he  remained  till  March  1..  L867.  His  suc- 
cessors  were  D.  Franklin  Wells,  from  March, 
]  867,  till  his  decease,  in  Nov.  1868;  Abraham  S. 
Kissed,  from  Jan.  L869  to  Jan.  1.,  1872;  and 
Alonzo  Abernethy,  from  Jan.  1.,  1872  to  the 
present  time  (1876).  When  Iowa  was  admitted 
into  the  Union,  it  contained  about  400  school 
districts.  The  number, however, rapidly  imreas- 
e  1,  amounting,  in  1  8  19,  to  1,000,  and  in  1850,  to 
1.200.  In  1857,  the  state  board  of  education  as- 
sumed control  of  the  educational  interests  of  the 
state.  The  number  of  school  districts,  at  that 
time,  had  increased  to  3,265;  but,  difficulties 
having  arisen  in  the  practical  working  of  the 
system,  an  act  was  passed  in  1858,  by  which 
the  school  districts  were  made  co-extensive  witli 
the  civil  townships,  and  "each  incorporated  city 
or  town,  including  the  territory  annexed  thereto 
for  school  purposes,  and  which  contains  not  less 
than  L000  inhabitants,"  was  created  a  separate 
school  district.  The  number  of  districts  was 
thus  reduced  to  less  than  '.'00.  By  this  arrange- 
ment, although  it  met  with  considerable  opposi- 
tions,  the  system  was  rendered  less  complex,  and 
there  was  a  saving  of  831,000  in  the  expendi- 
tures. In  1858,  a  law  was  enacted,  providing 
that  any  city  or  incorporated  town,  including 
th  •  territory  annexed  thereto  for  school  purpo 
might  constitute  a  school  district,  by  vote  of  a 
majority  of  the  electors  residing  (herein.  In 
1860,  this  was  extended  to  unincorporated  towns 
and  villages  of  not  less  than  300  inhabitants  ; 
and,  in  L866,  to  any  city  or  sub-district  contain- 
ing not  less  than  200.  Xoi  withstanding  the 
dissatisfaction  caused  by  the  sub-district  system, 
■which  led  to  special  legislation  in  1867  and 
1872,  the  system   was    not    abandoned;   and. 

cording  to  tic  report  of  State  Superintendent 
Abernethy,  for  1ST.".,  from  April,  1^72.  to  Sept. 
L5.,  1st:;,  L19  district  townships,  containing  901 
sub-districts,  were  reported  as  having  completed 
ii  I 'pendent  organizations.  From  Sept.,  L873,to 
a.,  L875,  about  L 60  additional  district  town- 
ships adopted  the  independent  district  system. 
thus  increasing  the  number  of  independent  dis- 


tricts by  more  than  1,000.  The  state  board  of 
education,  provided  for  by  the  constitution 
adopted  Sept.,  Ib57,  consisted  of  the  governor, 
lieutenant  governor,  and  one  member  elected 
from  each  judicial  district  in  the  state.  The  term 
of  office  was  four  years,  and  the  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor was  the  president  of  the  board.  To  this 
body  were  committed  the  entire  interests  of  the 
common  school  system.  The  first  board  was 
elected  Oct  12.,  1858.  In  1864,  the  General  As- 
sembly abolished  the  board,  and  reorganized  the 
school  system.  Subsequent  legislation  also  modi- 
fied it  in  some  particulars. 

School  System. — The  system,  at  present,  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  following  officers :  (1)  a 
stute  superintendent,  elected  for  two  years; 
(2)  county  superintendents,  also  elected  for  two 
years;  (3)  township  boards  of  directors,  con- 
sisting of  three  or  more  sub-directors  for  each 
township,  who  have  the  management  of  the 
township  school  fund;  and  {■[)  a  sub-director 
for  each  sub-district,  for  the  local  management 
of  the  school.  By  the  school  law  of  1874,  the 
county  superintendent  is  required  to  visit  each 
school  in  the  county  at  least  once  in  each  term, 
spending  one  half  day  at  each  visit.  In  order  to 
systematize  and  preserve  the  results  of  these 
visitations,  the  state  superintendent  furnishes 
each  county  superintendent  with  a  blank  con- 
taining the  subjects  most  important  to  be  in- 
quired into;  and  these  blanks  when  filled  af- 
ford information  to  be  incorporated  in  the  state 
superintendents  annual  report.  These  subjects 
are.  (1 )  the  condition  of  the  Bchool-houses, furni- 
ture, and  out-buildings ;  (2)  the  discipline  and 
classification  of  the  school,  and  the  mode  of  con- 
ducting recitations;  and  (3)  the  form  and  mode 
of  keeping  the  daily  register.  The  county  super- 
intendent is  empowered  to  examine  applicants 
for  teachers'  certificates  and  to  issue  the  same  to 
those  found  qualified  to  teach  orthography,  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  English 
grammar,  upon  satisfactory  evidence  of  their 
-^oil  moral  character.  The  number  of  applicants 
thus  examined  in  1875,  was  20,195;  and  the 
number  of  certificates  awarded  was  16.452;  of 
which  4,797  were  of  the  1st  grade  ;  7,959, of  the 
second  :  3,333,  of  the  3rd;  and  363,  professional 
certificates. 

The  school  -  is  derived  from  several 

sources:  (I)  A  teachers' fund  ;  (11)  A  school- 
house  found ;  (III)  A  contingent  fund. — 1.  The 
hers'  fund  is  derived  from.  (1)  the  interest 
on  the  permanent  school  fund  of  the  state,  ac- 
cruing from  the  sale  of  school  lands  appropriated 
by  Congress  for  this  purpose;  (2)  a  county  school 
tax  of  not  less  than  one  mill  nor  more  than 
three  mills  on   the   dollar,   levied    by  the   board 

of  supervisors  on  the   taxable  property  of  the 

county;  (3)  such  additional  tax  on  the  property 

of  the  district,  determined  by  the  boards  of 
directors,  as  may  be  needed  to  support  the 
schools  for  six  months  or  longer,  if  so  determined. 
II.  The  school-house  fund  is  derived  from  a  tax 
for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  sites  and  erecting 
school  houses.     111.  The  contingent  fund  is  ob- 


IOWA 


475 


tained  by  a  tax,  determined  by  the  board  of  direc- I 
tors,  sufficient  to  provide  for  pent,  fuel,  repairs, 
and  all  other  current  expenses  required  to  keep 
the  school  in  operation.  The  permanent  school 
fund  is  derived  from  the  following  sources: 
(1)  Five  percent  upon  the  net  proceeds  of  the 
public  lands  of  the  state;  (2 1  The  proceeds  of 
the  sales  of  500,000  acres  of  land  granted  by 
act  of  Congress,  Sept.  -I..  1841;  (3)  The  pro- 
ceeds of  all  sales  of  intestate  estates,  which 
escheat  to  the  state;  (4)  The  proceeds  of  the 
sales  of  the  sixteenth  section  in  each  township, 
or  lands  selected  in  lieu  thereof.  The  aggregate 
amount  of  the  permanent  fund,  in  L875,  was 
$3,098,497.  The  school  moneys  are  distributed 
among  the  districts  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  children  of  school  age  —  between  5  and  2L 
years     tv-i  ling  therein. 

Educational  Condition. —  According  to  the 
report  of  the  state  superintendent  for  1874—5, 
there  were  in  the  state  1,134  district  townships, 
comprising  7,062  sub-districts;  and  2,536  inde- 
p  indent  districts,  thus  making,  in  all,  3,(170  school 
districts  in  the  state.  The  whole  number  of 
common  schools  was  0,610,  of  which  only  407 
were  graded  schools.  The  average  time  of  keep- 
ing school  during  the  year  was  6.8  months.  Other 
items  of  statistics  are  given  below  : 

No.  of  children  of  school  age,  males,    274,849 

females,  258,722 


Number  of  children  enrolled, 
Average  daily  attendance, 
Number  of  teachers, 


Total, 


males,        (5,500 
females,  11,645 


;,,n,:;,;,7i 

3S4,012 
225,415 


Total,  18,145 

Average  monthly  compensation,    males,  $36.68 

females,         $'2<.:;t 
Receipts,  $5,035,497.65 

Expenditures,  for  tuition,       £2,o98,439.81 
"  other  purposes,    2,007,309.58 

Total,  $4,C>0.->, 749.39 

Normal  Instruction. — The  establishment  of 
schools  for  the  instruction  of  teachers  has  not 
met,  as  yet.  with  the  success  attained  inmost 
other  states.  In  1848,  a  law  was  passed  by 
which  three  normal  schools  were  to  be  estab- 
lish'1  in  different  parts  of  the  state,  which  was 
divided  into  three  districts  for  that  purpose.  For 
each  district,  a  board  of  seven  trustees  was  ap- 
pointed, with  power  to  provide  suitable  build- 
ings, employ  teachers,  and  exercise  a  general 
supervision  over  the  schools.  The  sum  of  $500 
was  appropriated  annually,  to  each  school  for  the 
payment  of  teachers,  the  purchase  of  apparatus, 
etc.,  provided  the  people  in  each  district  should 
subscribe  an  equal  sum  for  the  erection  of  the 
buildings.  Theexpected  pecuniary  ail.  however, 
not  being  furnished,  the  schools  which  had  been 
commenced  were,  in  a  short  time,  discontinued. 
In  1858,  a  normal  department  was  established 
in  the  state  university,  ami  continued  until  1872, 
when  it  was  consolidated,  in  the  main,  with  the 
academic  department.  Since  then,  a  chair  of 
didactics  has  been  maintained  in  the  university 
for  the  purpose  of  affording  special   instruction 


to  those  who  may  design  to  become  teachers. 
There  is  also  a  normal  department  in  Whittier 
College,  Salem. 

Normal  institutes  constitute  the  chief  instru- 
mentality for  the  professional  improvement  of 
teachers  in  this  state.  In  1874, the  General  As- 
sembly enacted  a  law  providing  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  teachers  by  the  annual  holding  of  an 
institute  in  each  county.  The  provision  for  the 
regular  instruci  ion  of  teachers  ha\  bag  thus  taken 
definite  shape,  and  the  necessity  of  uniformity 
in  that  instruction  having  become  apparent,  a 
course  of  study  with  a  daily  order  of  exercises, 
was  prepared  by  the  state  superintendent,  and 
was  adopted  at  once.  The  general  interest 
aroused  by  these  meetings  is  illustrated  by  the 
following  statement.  In  the  year  1  ^74,  institutes 
were  held  in  89  counties  ;  35  continued  in  ses- 
sion 4  weeks  ;  2C>,  3  weeks  :  'JO.  2  weeks ;  and  8, 
one  week.  Although  attention  on  the  part  of 
teachers  was  voluntary,  the  number  present 
amounted  to  7,000.  In  1875.  it  was  still  larger. 
The  funds  requisite  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
these  institutes  are,  in  the  main,  contributed  by 
the  teachers  themselves,  being  derived,  (1)  from 
the  fee  of  one  dollar  paid  by  each  person  on 
receiving  a  teacher's  certificate,  (2)  from  the  reg- 
istration fee  of  one  dollar  at  the  institute,  and 
(3)  from  the  state  appropriation  of  $50  for  each 
institute.  The  sum  obtained  from  these  sources 
has,  in  some  cases,  been  augmented  by  limited 
county  appropriations. 

Secondary  Instruction. — In  1858,  a  law  was 
passed,  providing  that  the  board  of  presidents  of 
school  districts  in  any  county  might  determine 
wdiether  a  county  high  school  should  be  estab- 
lished, and  required  them,  if  they  determined 
to  establish  such  school,  to  elect  nine  trustees 
who,  together  with  the  county  superintendent, 
should  constitute  a  board  of  high- school  trustees, 
with  power  to  lease  or  erect  a  building,  and  take 
entire  charge  of  it ;  also  to  draw  from  the 
county  treasury  $3000  a  year  for  six  years,  and 
$1000  annually  thereafter,  for  the  maintenance 
of  such  school.  This  provision,  however,  though 
earnestly  advocated  by  some,  was  not  taken  ad- 
vantage of,  the  majority  considering  it  prema- 
ture in  respect  to  both  the  wants  of  the  state  and 
its  financial  ability.  Only  one  school,  that  at 
Albion,  was  established  under  this  law.  'lie's 
was  continued  about  two  years,  when  the  funds 
expected  from  the  state  treasury  not  being  sup- 
plied, it  was  discontinued,  and  the  building  was 
sold.  Two  attempts  have  since  been  made  to 
re-enact  this  law  in  its  essential  features,  but 
without  success.  In  1*74.  the  people  of  Guthrie 
county  decided  to  establish  a  high  school,  and 
this,  according  to  the  present  state  superintend- 
ent  (1876),  will  soon  be  ill  operation. 

In  the  state  superintendent's  report  for  1875, 
there  are  included  returns  from  112  private 
academies,  seminaries,  high  schools,  business  col- 
leges,  select  schools,  etc..  which  show  an  enroll- 
ment of  10,757  pupils,  taught  by  '<1  i  instructors. 
In  the  preparatory  schools  of  the  various  colleges 
of  the  state,  there  are  about  3,000  students,  pur- 


476 


IOWA 


IOWA  STATE   UNIVERSITY 


suing  the  usual  branches  assigned  for  secondary 
institutions. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  Iowa  State  Uni- 
versity (q-v.),  at  Iowa  City,  is  the  principal  in- 
stitution for  superior  instruction,  endowed  or 
aided  by  the  state.  Other  institutions  of  this 
grade  and  character  are  included  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


NAME 

Location 

When 

found 

ed 

Religious 
[enomina- 

tion 

Burlington  University... 
Central  Univ.  of  Iowa 

Burlington 

Mt.  Vernon 

PeUa 

Mt. Pleasant 

Humboldt 

(iriunell 

Mt.  Pleasant 

Decorah 

Oskaloosa 

Oskaloosa 

Indianola 

Tabor 

Fayette 

Des  Moines 

Salem 

West.  Coll. 

1852 
1867 

1854 
1873 

lSC'.l 

1848 
1855 
1861 
1856 
1873 

Baptist 
M.  Epis. 
Baptist 
M.  Epis. 

Iowa  Wesleyan  University 
Norwegian  Lutheran  Coll. 

Penn  College 

Non-sect. 

Congreg. 

M.  Epis. 

Lutheran 

Christian 

Friends 

Simpson  Centenary  Coll. . 

Tabor  College 

Upper  Iowa  University. . . 
University  of  Des  Moines 
Whittier  College 

1867  |M.  Epis. 
1866  'Cougreg. 
1855   M.  Epis. 
1866   Baptist 

1868  Friends 

1856  U.  Breth. 

Technical  and  Professional  Instruction.  — 
The  State  Agricultural  ( 'ollege,  at  Ames,  is  en- 
dowed with  the  proceeds  of  the  congressional 
land  grant.  Two  experiments  have  been  made 
in  this  institution,  and  are  considered  success- 
ful: the  union  of  manual  labor  with  intellectual 
development,  and  the  co-education  of  the  sexes. 
The  course  of  instruction  is  for  four  years, 
and  comprises  civil,  mechanical,  and  mining  en- 
gineering, agriculture,  horticulture,  stock  raising. 
architecture,  military  tactics. and  general  science 
and  literature.  The  institutions  of  this  class, 
for  theological  instruction,  are  the  Theological 
Department  of  Iowa  Wesleyan  University,  the 
German  Presbyterian  Theological  School  of  the 
North-west,  and  the  Swedish  Lutheran  Mission 
Institute.  The  law  schools  of  the  state  consist 
of  the  law  departments,  respectively,  of  the  state 
university,  the  Iowa  Wesleyan  University,  and 
Simpson  Centenary  College.  The  chief  medical 
schools  are  the  medical  department  of  the  state 
university,  and  the  <  'ollege  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  at  Keokuk. 

Special  Instruction.  —  The  chief  institutions 
for  special  instruction  are  the  Iowa  Institution  for 
the  Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,a1  I  'ouncil 
Bluffs,  and  the  Iowa  Stale  <  'ollege  tor  the  Blind. 
at  Vinton.     Besides  these,  there  are  two  state 

reform  schools,  one  at  Kldora  and  the  other  at 
Salem.  At  Davenport  and  at  Cedar  Palls,  there 
is  a  state  soldiers'  orphan  home. 

"Educational  Journals.  -  The  first  publica- 
tion in  Iowa  devoted  to  the  interests  of  schools 
w;ls  a  monthly,  commenced  at  Dubuque,  in 
January,  L853,  under  the  title  of  the  District 
School  journal  of  Education  for  the  State  of 

Iowa.     This  name    was  afterwards    changed   to 

The  Iowa  Journal  of  Education.  It  was  sus- 
pendedinl856.     In  January,  L857,  a  monthly 

entitled  The  Voice  of  Iowa  was  commenced  at 
C,il;ir  Rapids,  and  was  made  the  organ  of  t In- 
state teachers'  association.  It  was,  however,  soon 


suspended.  The  Literary  Advertiser  and  Public 
School  Advocate  was  published  from  May.  Is59, 
to  October,  1860.  In  July  of  the  latter  year. 
The  Iowa  School  Journals  monthly  of  16  pages. 
was  started  at  I  >es  Moines,  and  has  been  continued 
up  to  the  present  time  (1876).  An  important  in- 
fluence is  attributed  to  it  in  connection  with  the 
schools  and  educational  system  of  the  state.  The 
Iowa  Instructor  was  commenced  in  ls5!)  ;  after- 
wards united  with  the  Journal,  and.  in  1872, 
consolidated  with  The  Manual,  a  monthly,  com- 
menced August  1.,  1871.  In  January.  1S74, 
Tlie  Common  School  was  started  at  Davenport, 
but  in  1875,  it  was  united  with  the  Iowa 
School  Journal. 

IOWA  COLLEGE,  at  Grinnell,  Iowa,  was 
established  at  Davenport,  in  1847,  and  was  re- 
moved to  Grinnell  in  1860.  It  was  founded  by 
Congregationalists  and  Presbyterians  (who  with- 
drew in  1852), but  is  without  any  sectarian  or  ec- 
clesiastical control.  Its  productive  funds  amount 
to  about  $90,000.  It  has  libraries  containing 
about  6,000  volumes,  a  museum  of  natural  his- 
tory, chemical,  philosophical,  and  astronomical 
apparatus,  etc  The  cost  of  tuition  ranges  from 
$15  to  $22  per  year,  with  music,  drawing,  and 
painting  as  extras.  Aid  is  furnished  to  needy 
students.  The  studies  are  arranged  in  the  follow- 
ing departments:  (1)  Normal  and  Knglish  de- 
partment, furnishing  all  "  English  studies."  or 
preparation  for  teaching;  (2)  Academy  course,  of 
two  years,  preparatory  to  the  College  and  Ladies' 
courses  ;  (3)  Ladies'  course,  of  four  years,  chiefly 
consisting  of  college  studies,  like  that  of  the  best 
Eastern  seminaries;  (1)  College  course,  of  four, 
years,  for  both  sexes.  This  is  either  classical  orsci- 
entitic.each  including  modern  languages,  and  the 
latter,  some  post  graduate  studies. — In  L875-  6, 
there  were  IT  instructors  and  4  lecturers  (in  all 
the  dej >a ft ments) , and  H37  students  :  post-gradu- 
ate 4;  college  course.  45  :  ladies'  course, 40  :  acad- 
emy course,  1^8;  normal  and  English  depart- 
lneiit.  171.  Seventeen  states  and  forty  count  ic- of 
Iowa  were  represented  by  its  students  in  1-75, 
and  there  is  an  increasing  attendance  from  the 
eastern  and  middle  states.  The  Rev.  George  P. 
Magoun,  D.D.,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed 
in  i  862,  has  been  the  only  president. 

IOWA,  State  "University  of,  at  Iowa  City, 
was  chartered  in  L857,and  organized  in  I860.    It 

is  noti  sectarian.  It  has  productive  funds  to  the 
amount  of  Sl'L'O.OOO  :  and  the  value  of  its  build* 
ings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is  8250,000.  Bi- 
ennial appropriations  are  made  by  the  legislature. 
It  has  an  astronomical  observatory,  laboratory, 
and  cabinets.  The  college  library  contains  be- 
tween 6,000  and  7,000  volumes ;  the  law  library, 

2, 500  volumes.  The  academical  department,  he- 
sides  preparatory  classes,  has  four  regular  courses; 

namely,  classical,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bach- 
elor of  Arts:  philosophical  and  scientific,  leading 

to  the  degree  of  Uachelorof  Philosophy:  and<i\il 

engineering,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Civil  En- 
gineer. Both  sexes  are  admitted,  and  tuition  is 
free.  The  law  department  was  established,  as  the 
Iowa  Law  School,  at   Des  Moines,  in  1865,  and 


IOWA  WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY 


IRELAND 


477 


was  united  with  the  university  in  1808.  The 
medical  department  was  established  in  1868.  In 
1874  —5,  the  academic  department  had  21  in- 
structors and  423  students  ;  the  law  department 
had  4  instructors  and  L06  students;  and  the  med- 
ical department,  13  instructors  and  94  students. 
The  Rev.  George  Thatcher,  D.D.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

IOWA  WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY, 
at  Mt.  Pleasant,  Iowa,  was  chartered  in  1855, 
growing  out  of  the  Mt.  Pleasant  Collegiate  In- 
stitute, established  some  years  before.  It  is  open 
to  both  sexes,  and  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It  has  an  endow- 
ment of  $63,000.  The  libraries  contain  about 
3.000  volumes.  The  university  comprises  5  de- 
partments: namely,  of  liberal  arts,  with  classical 
and  scientific  courses,  of  four  years  each,  and  a 

Ereparatory  course  of  two  years  ;  of  theology;  of 
t\v ;  of  pharmacy  and  anatomy ;  and  of  tech- 
nology. In  1874 — 5,  there  were  15  regular  in- 
structors and  217  students  in  all  the  depart- 
ments. A  normal  department  has  lately  been 
organized.  German  College  (q.  v.) ,  though  dis- 
tinct from  the  university  in  government,  is  in- 
timately connected  with  it  in  instruction.  The 
presidents  of  the  university  have  been  as  follows: 
Rev.  L.  W.  Berry,  D.  D. ;  Henry  Jas.  Harlan; 
Rev.  Charles  Elliott,  D.  D. ;  Rev.  G.  B.  Jocelyn; 
Rev.  Charles  Holmes,  D.D.;  Rev.  John  Wheeler; 
Rev.  Jno.  Spaulding,  Ph.  D.,  the  present  incum- 
h.-nt  (1876). 

IRELAND,  an  island  which  forms  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Kritain  and  Ireland,  having  an  area  of  32,531 
sq.  in.,  and  a  population,  in  1871,  of  5,402,759. 

Educational  History. — Annals  that  have  con- 
siderable claim  to  authenticity  ascribe  to  the 
people  of  Ireland  a  remarkable  progress  in  educa- 
tion at  a  very  early  period.  Thus,  it  is  said,  that 
<  fllav  Fola.  who  reigned  about  900  B.  C,  founded 
in  Tara  schools  of  philosophy,  astronomy,  history, 
poetry,  and  medicine,  and  that  these  institutions 
were  encouraged  by  his  successors,  during  many 
centuries.  In  the  5th  century,  A.D.,  after  its  con- 
version to  Christianity,  Ireland  was  greatly  cel- 
ebrated not  only  for  its  religious  zeal  (hence  called 
in  Aula  sanctorum,  isle  of  saints)  but  for  its  in- 
stitutions of  learning.  After  the  conflicts  with 
the  Saxons  and  Danes,  the  victorious  king  Brian 
Boru,  among  other  efforts  to  improve  the  con- 
dition of  his  people,  founded  schools  and  pro- 
moted education.  After  the  conquest  of  Ireland 
oy  the  English,  the  first  recognition  on  the  part 
of  parliament  of  the  expediency  of  providing  the 
means  of  education  for  the  Irish  people,  was  the 
BCf  of  28  Henry  VIII.,  to  establish  parochial 
schools.  In  1570,  an  act  was  passed  instituting 
a  free  school  in  every  diocese.  In  1  60S,  -James  I. 
commenced  the  establishment  of  Royal  Free 
Schools.  Various  statutes  were  passed  on  this 
subject  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  II.,  William  III., 
and  the  first  three  Georges;  but  the  main  ob- 
j  set  seems  to  have  been  to  proselytize  the  people 
to  the  Protestant  faith.  The  Charter  Schools, 
partly  supported  by  parliamentary  grants,  had 


the  same  object.  The  bad  effects  of  a  policy  so 
obnoxious  to  the  Catholics,  induced  the  parlia- 
mentary commission,  in  1812,  to  state,  in  their 
report,  that  no  scheme  of  education  should  be 
undertaken  in  Ireland  which  attempted  "to  in- 
fluence or  disturb  the  peculiar  religious  tenets  of 
any  sect  or  denomination  of  Christians."  Par- 
liament, for  a  time,  endeavored  to  apply  the 
principle  by  distributing  its  grants  to  the  Kildare 
Society  ;  but  the  plan  failed,  as  the  society  en- 
forced the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in  all  its 
schools.  The  letter  of  Mr.  Stanley,  chief  secre- 
tary of  Ireland  (afterwards  Lord  Derby),  to  the 
Lord  Lieutenant,  written  in  1831,  forms  the 
charter  of  the  Irish  National  System.  The  new 
system  was  based  on  the  plan  of  "  a  combined 
literary  and  separate  religious  education,"  and  was 
committed  to  a  board  of  7  members  of  different 
religious  opinions.  Public  aid  was  granted  on 
condition  that  the  repairs  of  the  school,  the 
salary  of  the  master,  and  half  the  cost  of  school 
requisites  should  be  locally  provided.  The 
extent  to  which  the  economical  condition  of 
Ireland  interfered  with  the  financial  proposals 
of  the  board,  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact 
that,  even  in  1874,  while  the  board  paid  in 
aid  of  schools  nearly  £433,000,  the  local  aid 
amounted  to  less  than  £80,000.  The  promise 
of  a  national  and  non-sectarian  system  was  not 
fulfilled  in  the  action  of  the  board,  as  it  per- 
mitted religious  instruction  to  be  intermingled 
with  the  secular,  and  issued  textbooks  of  a  dis- 
tinctively religious  character.  The  policy,  as 
first  announced,  was  accepted  by  the  Catholics, 
but  strenuously  opposed  by  the  clergy  and  laity 
of  the  Established  Church,  and  by  the  Presby- 
terians of  Ulster.  At  the  close  of  1833,  the 
number  of  National  Schools  in  operation  was 
789,  having  107,042  pupils  enrolled  ;  at  the  close 
of  1839,  the  former  had  increased  to  1,581,  and 
the  latter,  to  192,971.  In  the  latter  year,  ex- 
planations were  made  by  the  board  which  satis- 
fied the  Presbyterians,  who  had  made  various 
objections  to  the  system,  in  regard  to  the  ar- 
rangements for  religious  instruction,  and  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  Bible  during  school  hours.  The 
board  declared  these  points  of  objection  to  be 
conceded,  but  without  any  change  of  its  rules. 
This  new  rendering  of  the  rules  was  followed 
by  an  extension  of  the  system.  In  1841,  there 
were  2,237  schools,  and  281,849  pupils.  Shortly 
after  this,  the  Catholic  hierarchy  manifested 
a  strong  desire  to  acquire  the  control  of*  such 
of  the  National  Schools  as  contained  any  chil- 
dren of  their  own  persuasion  ;  and  the  Synod  of 
Thurles,  which  met  in  1^50,  while  giving  no 
definite  judgment  on  the  National  System,  de- 
clared that  "  the  separate  education  of  the  Cath- 
olic youth  is,  by  all  means,  to  be  preferred  to  it." 
The  more  aggressive  spirit  manifested  by  the 
Catholics  against  the  National  System  during 
the  past  twenty-five  years,  has  led  the  board, 
from  time  to  time,  to  adopt  conciliatory  meas- 
ures ;  such  as  the  repeated  changes  in  the  con- 
science clause,  with  the  view  of  preventing  the 
alleged  proselytizing  tendencies  of    Protestant 


473 


IRELAND 


schools ;  the  special  regulations  in  favor  of  con- 
venl  schools  ;  the  increased  proportion  accorded 
to  Catholic  representation  in  the  hoard,  which 
has  been  incseased  from  two  to  seven,  in  1831, 
to  five  in  fourteen,  in  1851,  and  to  ten  in  twenty, 
in  L861  ;  and  the  endowment  of  schools,  under 
Catholic  management,  in  the  neighborhood  of, 
and  as  rivals  to,  the  Model  Schools,  which  are 
the  special  objects  of  denominational  hostility. 
These  proceedings  were  strongly  opposed,  espe- 
cially by  the  Presbyterians,  who  are  the  warmest 
supporters  of  the  National  System  :  and  it  must 
be  acknowledged  that  they  have  failed  in  their 
object.  No  Roman  Catholic  dignitary  has  sat 
in  the  board  since  L863,  and  the  most  recent  ex- 
pression of  Catholic  feeling  on  the  subject  has 
been  the  formation,  in  Dublin,  of  a  Catholic 
Union  of  clergy  and  gentry  to  promote  the 
establishment  of  denominationalism  in  the  entire 
education  of  Ireland.  The  popular  feeling,  how- 
ever, seems,  as  a  rule,  to  be  in  favor  of  united 
education. 

National  System. — Aid  is  granted  to  two 
classes  of  schools ;  those  vested  in  the  commis- 
sioners, or  in  trustees  ;  and  non-vested,  being  the 
property  of  private  individuals.  All  National 
Schools  receive  pecuniary  aid  in  salaries  to 
teachers,  results' fees,  a,n  I  books,  and  the  benefits 
of  inspection  and  training.  Vested  Schools  alone 
receive  building  grants.  National  Schools  com- 
prise  M>/-/  Schools  (District  and  Minor),  which 
are  wholly  built  and  supported  by  parliament, 
are  under  the  exclusive  management  of  the 
board,  ami  are  intended  to  promote  united  edu- 
cation, to  exhibit  the  most  improved  methods  of 
instruction,  and  to  educate  young  persons  for 
the  office  of  teacher;  Agricultural  Schools,  with 
farms  and  gardens,  which  are  devoted  to  the 
illustration  and  introduction  of  the  most  ap- 
proved systems  of  husbandry  and  tillage,  and 
which  are  divided  into  four  classes:  (I)  First 
Class  Agricultural  Schools,  subdivided  into  (1) 
those  under  the  management  of  the  board,  and 

(2)  those  under  local  management;  (II)  Or- 
dinary Schools,  subdivided  into  (3)  those  with 
farms,  and  (1)  those  with  gardens;  Cont 
Schools,  which  receive  aid  as  Non- Vested 
Scho  (la,  and  in  which  the  members  of  the  com- 
munity may  a  t  as  literary  teachers;  Work-ho 
Schools,  an  1  Schools  ait  i  tied  to  prisons,  asylums, 
etc.     School  houses  are  not  to  be  employed  as 

the  Stated  places  of  divine  worship  of  any  relig- 
ious community,  nor  for  the  transaction  of  any 

political  business ;  and  no  emblems  of  dei - 

mational  ch  ir  i  iter  are  to  be  exhibited  in  them 
during  the  h  >ura  of  united  instruction,  [n Vested 

Schools,  such  pastors  or  other  persons  as  shall  be 

approved  of  by  the  guardians  of  the  children, 
shall  have  access  to  them  in  the  school  room  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  them  instruction  there: 
in  Non-Vested  Schools,  it  is  for  the  patrons  and 
managers  to  determine  what  religious  Instruc- 
tion Email  he  given  in   the  school  room.    The 

Eat  ions  and     managers  of    all    National  Schools 
ave  the  rigtri   to  permit   the  Holy  Scriptures 
(either  in  the  authorized  or  in  the  Pouay  version) 


to  be  read  at  the  times  set  apart  for  religious  in- 
struction.— The  local  government  of  the  schools 
is  vested  in  local  patrons  or  managers,  who  can 
appoint  and  dismiss  teachers,  under  certain  re- 
strictions. Inspectors  visit  their  schools  at  least 
three  times  a  year,  communicate  to  the  local 
managers  their  criticisms  and  suggestions,  and 
report  fully  the  results  of  their  inspection  to  the 
Hoard.  All  National-School  teachers  are  divided 
into  the  following  classes  :  principals,  assistants, 
junior  literary  assistants,  work-mistresses,  and 
teachers  of  industrial  departments.  There  an; 
also  three  classes  of  Monitors,  whose  term  of 
service  is  three  years,  and  whose  rate  of  compi  li- 
gation ranees  from  £4  to  £18  per  annum. — 'I  he 
only  training  establishment  for  teachers  hi  con- 
nection with  the  Board  is  the  Institution,  in 
.Marlborough  Street.  Dublin,  which  was  opened 
January  L5.,  1838.  It  is  capable  of  accommodat- 
ing about  100  masters  and  75  mistresses,  who 
are  divided  into  three  classes  :  (1)  the  Cencral  or 
Ordinary  Class,  composed  of  teachers  of  National 
Schools,  who  have  been  recommended  by  the  in- 
spectors ;  (2)  the  Special  or  Extra  Training  (lass 
composed  chiefly  of  teachers  who  have  been 
selected  from  the  General  Class  for  additional 
training;  and  (3)  the  Extra  Class,  composed  of  a 
limited  number  of  respectable  and  well-informed 
young  persons  who  wish  to  qualify  themselves  to 


ing  are  allowed  their  traveling  expenses,  are 
provided  with  free  board  and  lodging,  receive  a 
small  weekly  gratuity,  and  also  their  class  salary 
subject  to  a  deduction  of  £15  per  annum  for  a 
substitute.  Teachers  are  classified  of  the  1st, 
2d,  and  3d  class,  and  promotion  from  one  to  the 
other  is  regulated  partly  by  examination,  and 
partly  by  the  efficiency  of  their  schools.  Male 
teachers  of  the  1st  class  receive  £58  a  year:  of 
the  3d  class,  £32.  Female  teachers  of  the  1st 
receive  £48;  and  of  the  3d  class,  £25.  The 
National  School  Teachers  Act  (1875)  was  de- 
signed to  supplement  the  incomes  of  the  teach- 
ers by  granting  state  aid  corresponding  to  local 
contributions.  The  latter,  however, only  amount- 
ed to  £32,055  instead  of  £60,000,  as  was  con- 
templated. National  teachers  receive,  in  addition 
to  their  class  salaries,  the  total  amount  of  results' 
fees  earned  in  the  schools,  which  are  paid  accord- 
ing to  a  fixed  programme.  Thus  for  children 
i  I  to  6  years  of  age)  who  know  the  alphabet, 
and  can  spell  and  read  words  of  two  letters,  the 
fee  is  3s.  each;  for  reading  in  the  First  Class,  2s^ 
etc.    The  whole  number  of  classes  is  six.  besides 

the  infants'  class.  These  classes  arc  Dumbei  I 
from  I  upward  to  6,  the  5th  and  6th  being  each 
divided  into  a  first  and  a  second  stage.  The  com- 
mon branches  of  instruction,  including  grammar, 

rraphy,  and  needle-work,  are  taught. 

Educational  Condition  (National  System). — ■ 
On  the  elst  of  December,  L875,  there  were  7,267 
National  Schools  in  operation  (Ulster,  2.7.'i~ ; 
Munster,  1,822;  Leinster,  L,551 ;  Connaught, 
1,157).  The  Vested  Schools  numbered  2,105; 
the  Non-Vested,  5,162.  The  number  of  chil- 
dren who  attended  sonic  part   of  the  year  ]H7.">, 


IRELAND 


4TU 


was  1.011,700;  the  number  on  the  rolls,  on  the 
Last  day  of  the  month  immediately  preceding 
the  animal  examination,  was  577,54]  ;  and  the 
average  daily  attendance  was  389,961.  Of  the 
children  taught  during  the  year.  79.2  per  cent 
were  Roman  Catholic  children.  The  Model 
Softools,  in  operation  during'  L875,  were  29: 
in  Dublin,  3;  and.  in  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. 2(>.  The  average  attendance  of  pupils  was 
8,229,  out  of  an  enrollment  of  16,601,  in- 
cluding 4,989  Catholics,  4,7-17  Presbyterians, 
5,673  Episcopalians,  and  1,282  of  other  persua- 
sions. The  number  of  Work-house  Schools  un- 
der the  board  was  L 56,  with  L3.835  pupils  en- 
rolled, and  an  average  daily  attendance  of  7,14.'!. 
The  total  number  of  students  admitted  into  the 
Training  Establishment  was  294,  of  whom  150 
completed  their  training  within  the  year. — The 
number  of  teachers  under  the  board  was  as  fol- 
lows :  principals,  7,067  (males,  4,371;  females, 
12 .»'»'. 1 1 1  j  ;  assistants,  3,037  (males,  713;  females, 
2,324)  ;  junior  literary  and  industrial  assistants, 
177  :  work-mistresses,  325.  The  total  amount  of 
payments  to  teachers  of  every  kind  made  from  all 
sources  during  the  year  ending  March  31.,  1870, 
was  £491.00 1.4s.  The  entire  sum  locally  contrib- 
uted for  education,  in  1875,  was  £H4,8G0,  4s.  9d. 
In  1875,  there  were  21  First-Class  Agricultural 
Schools,  under  the  exclusive  management  of  the 
board,  and  11  under  local  management.  The  num- 
ber of  school  farms  was  228. — In  1874 — 5,  the 
evening  schools  numbered  138,  with  10,343  pu- 
pils on  the  rolls,  and  4,250  in  average  attendance. 
There  were  22  industrial  schools,  with  1,565  pu- 
pils enrolled,  and  1,307  in  average  attendance. 

Other  Educational  Agencies. — The  Church 
Education  Society,  founded  in  Dublin,  in  1839, 
as  a  protest  against  the  National  School  Board, 
for  a  time  gathered  in  a  large  number  of  pupils. 
In  1867,  it  had  1,451  schools,  with  63,549  pupils. 
Since  then,  these  numbers  have  declined  ;  many 
of  its  schools  have  been  transferred  to  Diocesan 
Educational  Boards.  The  Kildare- Place  training 
and  model  schools  are  usually  attended  by  about 
50  students,  males  and  females. — The  lustitute 
of  Christian  Brothers  (It.  C.)  founded  in  Water- 
ford,  in  1802,  for  the  education  of  poor  children, 
in  1876,  had  291  schools,  and  31,878  pupils  en- 
rolled. The  Incorporated  Society  in  Dublin  for 
promoting  English  Protestant  schools  in  Ireland 
holds  a  large  amount  of  landed  and  other  prop- 
erty, having  an  income  of  £8,000  a  year.  It  has 
8  boarding  institutions,  G  for  boys  and  2  for 
girls,  besides  10  day  schools. — The  other  classes 
of  schools  named  in  the  Commissioners'  Report 
of  1868  are:  Irish  Church  Mission,  attended  by 
1,726  pupils;  Island  and  Coast  Society,  by  L59; 
Wesleyan,  by  720;  Presbyterian,  by  409;  Society 
of  Friends,  by  117;  Religious  Orders  of  .Mens 
•ols,  by  706;  Miscellaneous,  by  954.  The 
total  number  of  private  schools  was  1,165,  of 
which  690  were  assisted  by  endowments. — The 
Sunday  School  Society  for  Inland  was  founded 
in  1809.  On  the  1st  of  January,  L876,  there  were, 
in  connection  with  it,  2,342  schools,  attended  by 
184,580  scholars,  and  10,500  gratuitous  teachers. 


Secondary  and  Superior  Instruction. — The 
chief  educational  institution  is  the  University  of 
Trinity  College,  in  Dublin,  founded  in  1501.  In. 
its  original  charter,  Queen  Elizabeth  nominated 

a  provost,  three  fellows,  and  three  scholars,  to 
constitute,  with  their  successors  a  body  corpo- 
rate. The  number  of  members  has  since  then 
been  increased;  and,  in  1876,  consisted  of  a 
provost.  7  senior  fellows,  26  junior  fellows,  and 
70  scholars.  The  system  of  instruction  is  super- 
intended by  the  fellows,  together  with  a  number 
of  professors  (35,  in  1876).  Students,  after  an 
examination  in  Creek,  Latin, arithmetic,  English 
composition,  history,  and  geography,  are  ad- 
mitted as  fellow  commoners, pensioners,  or  sizars, 
which  last  class  is  limited  to  30.  and  is  partially 
maintained  out  of  the  college  funds.  The  courso 
of  instruction  extends  over  four  years.  A  med- 
ical school  is  attached  to  the  university,  to  which 
lias  lately  been  added  a  school  of  engineering. 
The  college  has  a  library  of  160,000  volumes; 
and  its  income,  in  1873,  was  £01.321.  The 
average  number  of  students  on  the  books 
of  Trinity  *  'ollege  is  1 ,100.— In  1845,  an  act  was 
passed  by  Parliament  for  establishing  new  col- 
leges in  Ireland,  and  three  colleges,  called  Queen's 
Colleges  were,  in  1849,  established  under  t  Iii.-i 
act, — at  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Calway.  In  1850, 
the  Queen's  University  in  Ireland  was  founded 
at  Dublin,  with  power  to  confer  degrees  on  the 
students  of  the  three  Queen's  Colleges.  The 
number  of  students  attending  the  colleges,  iu 
ls74 — 5,  was  783. — The  Roman  Catholic  uni- 
versity of  Dublin  was  organized  by  the  Catholic 
bishops  of  Ireland,  in  185-4,  and  depends  for  its 
maintenance  wholly  upon  the  voluntary  con- 
tributions of  the  Roman  Catholic  people  of 
Ireland.  It  has  five  faculties,  —  theology,  law, 
medicine,  philosophy  and  science,  and  letters.  A 
number  of  Catholic  colleges  have  been  affiliated 
with  the  university. — A  Presbyterian  institu- 
tion, Magee  College,  was  opened  in  Londonderry, 
in  18G5 ;  a  Methodist  College,  in  Belfast,  in 
1868. 

Special  ami  Professional  Instruction. — The 
Royal  College  of  Science  for  Ireland  was  estab- 
lished in  1867,  and  is  intended  to  supply  a  com- 
plete course  of  instruction  in  mining,  agriculture, 
engineering,  and  manufactures. —  Maynooth  <  'ol- 
lege, a  Catholic  seminary  for  candidates  for  the 
1  hood,  was  founded  in  1705.  .Ml  Hallows 
College,  near  Dublin,  is  intended  to  train  mis- 
sionaries for  tin;  Catholic  Church.  The  Pres- 
|  :  I    ©logical  school  (the  Ceneral 

■iubly's  Colic;  i  elfast. — The  higher  edu- 

m  of  women,  in  Ireland,  has  been  neglected; 
but  recently, amongst  otl  Following  Ld 

tutions  have  been  established:  The  Queen's  In- 
stitute, Dublin,  opened,  in  1861,  "for  the  employ- 
ment of  educated  women."  the  educational 
classes  being  modeled  on  those  of  Cheltenham 
< 'ollege:  Alexandra  College.  Dublin,  on  the  plan 
of  Queen's  College,  London;  and  the  Ladies' Col- 
legiate School,  Belfast,  opened  in  1850.  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  Queen's  C diversity  hold 
examinations  for  girls  aud  women. 


480 


ITALIAN  LANGUAGE 


ITALIAN  LANGUAGE.  The  Italian 
language  has  no  claims  commensurate  with  those 
of  the  German  or  the  French,  to  a  place  in  any 
regular  course  of  instruction  the  object  of  which  is 
general  culture,  and  which,  to  that  end,  embraces 
the  study  of  one  or  two  modern  languages.  Its 
value  for  this  purpose  has  not,  however,  been 
without  advocates.  Thus  L.  Gantter,  the  author 
of  the  article  on  the  Italian  language,  in  Schmid's 
Encyclopadie  (vol.  in.) ,  in  discussing  the  relative 
importance  of  the  principal  modern  languages 
for  the  German  gymnasia,  from  an  educational 
point  of  view,  assigns  the  first  place  to  English, 
the  second  to  Italian,  and  the  third  to  French  ; 
and  he  appeals  to  Goethe,  Niebuhr,  Raumer, 
Gregorovius,  and  many  other  celebrities,  to  prove 
that  the  educational  impulse  which  may  reason- 
ably be  expected  from  a  study  of  the  Italian 
language  and  literature,  would  prove  stronger 
and  more  conducive  to  a  general  development  of 
the  mental  faculties  than  that  received  from 
the  study  of  French.  This  view,  however,  has 
found  but  few  adherents  ;  and,  except  in  Aus- 
tria, where,  from  practical  and  business  consii  1<  r- 
ations,  the  study  of  Italian  is  more  extensively 
pursued  than  in  any  other  country,  precedence 
in  the  study  of  modern  languages  is  given  to 
English,  German,  and  French.  Italian  has,  how- 
ever, special  importance  for  all  students  of  music, 
vocal  and  instrumental,  as  well  as  for  students 
of  the  fine  arts.  Music,  in  every  country  of  the 
world,  uses  to  a  large  extent  technical  expres- 
sions borrowed  from  the  Italian;  the  Italian  opera 
is  exceedingly  popular  in  every  large  city  of  the 
civilized  world,  and  there  is  no  student  of  the  fine 
arts  who  is  not  anxious  to  complete  his  study  of 
art  in  Italy.  These  considerations  have  not 
only  created  a  demand  for  instruction  in  Italian, 
but  they  are  sufficiently  important  to  recom- 
mend to  students  of  music  and  of  the  fine  arts 
a  much  more  general  study  of  this  beautiful 
language  than  is  to  be  met  with  at  present ;  and 
it  is  to  be  regretted  that  universities,  colleges, 
acai lei nies,  and  especially  female  institutions  of 
a  higher  grade,  do  not,  more  frequently  than  is 
the  case  at  present,  afford  to  their  pupils  an  op- 
portunity to  learn  this  language. 

The  Italian  language  is  one  of  the  so-called 
Romanic  languages  (q.  v.),  and  arose  fi-om  the 
Latin  in  a  way  similar  to  that  of  the  French. 
The  new  language  was  designated, to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Latin, lingua  vulgaris  [vdlgan  i.and 

fri  at ly  varied  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
tante,  in  his  work  De  vulgnri  eloquio,  enumer- 
ated fourteen  dialects,  all  of  which,  the  Floren- 
tine not  excepted,  he  declared  to  l>e  ansuited  for 
the  literature  of  Italy.  The  written  language 
was  in  the  main  fixed,  as  it  now  is,  by  Dante, 
Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio,— all  Tuscans  and  Flor- 
entines; and  Italian  literature  attained  its  golden 
age  at  an  earlier  period  than  any  other  literature 

01  i lern    Europe.     The   Italian   language  is 

spoken   by  almost   the  entire  population  01  the 

kingdom  of  [taly,  in  the  two  little  states  of  Mo- 
naco and  San  Marino,  on  the  island  of  Corsica, 
in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Ticino,  and  several  com- 


munes of  the  cantons  Grisons  and  Yalais,  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Tyrol,  in  Triest  and  other  cit- 
ies of  Istria  and  Dalmatia,  and  in  the  Hungarian 
free  city  of  Fiume.  The  entire  territory  in  which 
the  language  is  spoken  contains,  probably,  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  28  millions. 

The  Italian  language  is  celebrated  for  its  eu- 
phony, though  many  linguists  prefer  the  Span- 
ish in  this  respect.  1  he  smooth  and  melodious 
character  of  the  former  is  due,  to  a  large  extent,  to 
an  extraordinary  predominance  of  vowels,  every 
indigenous  word  of  the  language,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  only  five  (il,in,  am.  -non,  per) ,  ending  in  a 
vowel  sound.  This  euphony  is  somewhat  marred 
by  the  exuberance  of  the  vowel  i,  which,  in  the  ter- 
mination of  Italian  words,  has  outgrown  all  just 
proportions — as  much  so  as  the  German  e.  The 
pronunciation  is  very  simple,  as  almost  every 
sound  is  represented  by  only  one  letter  or  combi- 
nation  of  letters.  It  has  no  silent  letters,  and  each 
of  the  vowels  has  only  one  sound,  long  or  short ; 
these  sounds,  in  the  main,  correspond  to  those 
of  the  German  vowels.  The  letters  k,  w,  y,  and  x 
are  not  found  in  the  Italian  alphabet ;  and  for 
the  ph  and  th,  occurring  in  the  words  of  Greek 
origin,  it  has  substituted  the  letters/"  and  t.  Like 
the  French,  it  has  lost  the  case-endings  in  the 
declension  of  nouns,  and  has  introduced  from 
the  language  of  the  Teutonic  conquerors  the  def- 
inite article,  the  use  of  the  personal  pronoun  be- 
fore the  verb,  and  the  auxiliary  verb.  It  exceeds 
the  French  in  the  richness  of  its  augmentatives 
and  diminutives,  in  the  greater  varieties  of  the 
accents  which  may  affect  one  of  the  last  four  syl- 
lables of  the  word,  in  its  greater  freedom  of  in- 
version, and  in  its  freer  and  bolder  phraseology. 
In  a  lexical  point  of  view,  the  Italian  bears  a 
more  striking  resemblance,  than  either  French, 
Spanish,  or  Portuguese,  to  the  common  mother 
of  these  languages,  the  Latin. 

The  special  motives  which,  in  a  majority  of 
cases,  led  to  a  study  of  this  language,  naturally 
Buggest  a  method  of  instruction  different  from 
that  pursued  in  the  teaching  of  French  and  Ger- 
man.   The  beauty  of  the  language,  which  is  re- 
jected in  its  structure  and  pronunciation,  and 
which  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the  lofty 
position  which  Italian  art  has  attained  in  the 
history  of  civilization,  should  be  pointed  out 
with  special   care.    Exercises  in  grammar  and 
translation  will  require  comparatively  little  at- 
tention;   for  not   only  is  the  structure  of  the 
language    unusually   simple   and   easy,   but  its 
st'.dv  is  hardly  ever  begun  until,  in  addition 
to  the  vernacular,  the  knowledge  of  some  other 
language  has   been    acquired.    All  the  greater 
prominence,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  given 
to  the  practice  of  conversation  ;  for  only  in  this 
way  will  the  pupil  fully  realize  the  superiority 
of  the  language  in  point  of   beauty  and  eu- 
phony, and  prepare  himself  for  a  visit  to  the 
country  which,  more  than  any  other,  captivates 
the   affections  of   every    artist.     The  literature 
of  Italy  scarcely  admits  of  a  comparison  with 
thai    of   Germany  or   France;  but  the  golden 
age  of  Italian  literature  presents  names  which 


ITALIAN    LANGUAGE 


ITALY 


-isi 


will  never  fail  to  recommend  the  study  of  the 
Italian  language  to  advanced  scholars.  Dante 
ranks  wit li  Homer,  Virgil,  Milton,  and  Goethe, 
as  one  of  the  greatest  poets  of  the  world, 
whom  all  civilized  nations  will  always  ad- 
mire ;  and  Italian  would  be  studied,  if  it  were 
only  to  read  the  Hi  rum  Commedia.  And 
l>ante  is  by  no  means  the  only  great  represent- 
ative of  Italian  literature.  Jn  the  middle  ages. 
Italy  stood  for  a  time  at  the  head  of  modern 
civilization  (see  Italy)  :  and,  though  it  has  been 
unable  to  maintain  this  place,  the  literary  world 
will  never  cease  to  admire  Petrarch,  Boccaccio 
Ariosto,  Tasso,  and  Maechiavelli.  As  the  ability 
to  read  this  language  is  acquired  by  most 
students  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  and  as 
the  interest  tlfey  take  in  Italian  literature  will 
chiefly  center  in  the  great  names  just  men- 
tioned, the  intelligent  teacher  will,  as  soon  as  it 
is  practicable,  begin  with  the  reading  of  one  of 
these  authors.  As  the  poets  use  a  great  many 
licenses  in  the  alteration,  addition,  and  omission 
of  sounds,  and  also  a  multitude  of  exclusively 
poetic  words,  it  is  best  for  the  student  to  be- 
gin with  a  prose  writer;  and  Maechiavelli  s  II 
Principe  or  Istorie  Florentine,  in  which  the 
style  is  as  elegant  as  it  is  plain,  will  rarely  fail 
to  interest  and  satisfy  him.  In  the  more  recent 
periods  of  Italian  literature,  the  writers  Goldoni, 
Gozzi.  Alfieri,  Foscolo,  Manzoni,  Leopardi,  Sil- 
vio Pellico,  Xiccolini  have  gained  a  well-deserved 
celebrity:  and  especially  Manzoni's  I Promessi 
Sposi,  and  Pellico's  Le mie  Prigioni have  become 
favorite  books  of  Italian  students. 

The  Italians  are  greatly  behind  many  other 
nations  in  the  philological  study  of  their  lan- 
guage. Buomniattei's  grammar  Delhi  lingua 
toscana  (1648),  which  was  adopted  by  the  Aeca- 
demiu  della  Crusca,  only  treats  of  letters,  nouns, 
and  articles.  The  first  complete  and  systematic 
grammar,  which  has  served  as  the  basis  of  nearly 
all  modern  works,  is  the  Regale  ed  osservazioni, 
by  Corticelli  (1785).  In  Germany,  a  good  his- 
torical mammar  of  the  Italian  language  has  been 
written  by  Blanc  (1844);  and,  in  Italy,  Fesavento 
has  recently  published  a  valuable  comparative 
view  of  Latin  and  Italian,  under  the  titles  Melodo 
Comparative).  In  the  English  language,  gram- 
mars of,  and  guides  to,  the  Italian  language  have 
been  published  according  to  Alms,  Monteith's, 
and  Ollendorff's  methods,  and  by  Biaggi,  Cuore, 
Fontana,  Foresti,  Sauer,  Thiimn,  Toscani,  Ver- 
gani,  Weale,  and  others. — Tins  lexical  literature 
began  with  the  meager  dictionary  of  Minerbi 
(1535).  The  first  edition  of  the  famous  Vooa- 
irio  degli  Accademici  della  Crusca,  limited 
to  the  Tuscan  dialect,  appeared  in  1602;  the 
fifth  revised  edition  was  begun  in  1843.  The 
first  dictionary  embracing  within  its  scope  all 
the  Italian  dialects  was  by  Alberti  (6  vols., 
1797 — 180.")).  Other  dictionaries  of  this  kind 
are  the  Jjizionario  della  lingua  italiana, 
published  at  Fologua  (7  vols.,  1819—26);  the 
works  by  Mortara,  Bellini,  Codagni,  and  Mai- 
nardi  (8  vols.,  1845— 56) ;  those  by  Tommaseo 
and  Bellini  (1864) ;  Carena  (12  vols.,  1851—3) ; 
31 


and  Trinchera  (2  vols.,  1864).     Italian-English 

dictionaries  have  been  published  by  Gragiia, 
James  and  Grassi,  Meadows,  Millhonse,  Robert, 
Weale,  Wessely,  and  others. — There  are  Italian 
readers  for  English-speaking  students  by  Foresti, 
Roemer,  and  others.— The  principal  historians 
of  Italian  literature  are  Tirabosehi  (14  vols., 
1772 — 83,  and  many  editions  since);  Guinguene 
(1811—19);  Maffei  (1834);  Cimoprelli  (1845); 
Emiliano  Giudici  (1851);  Malpaga  (1855). 

ITALY,  a  kingdom  of  Europe,  having  an 
area  of  114,409  square  miles,  and  a  population, 
in  1 870,  of  26,801 ,1 54.  Almost  the  entire  pop- 
ulation speak  the  Italian  language,  and  belong 
to  the  Catholic  Church.  From  the  downfall  of 
the  I  Ionian  Empire,  until  1870,  when  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  remnant  of  the  Fa  pal  dominions 
completed  the  modern  kingdom  of  Italy,  the 
country  was  but  rarely,  and  only  for  a  short 
time,  united  under  one  ruler.  Generally,  it  was 
broken  up  into  a  number  of  small  states,  only 
connected  with  each  other  by  the  bond  of  a  com- 
mon language.  In  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  Italy  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of 
Sardinia  and  the  Two  Sicilies,  the  grand-duchy 
of  Tuscany,  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Modena,  and 
Lucca,  the  Papal  States,  and  the  Lombardo- 
Yenetian  kingdom,  the  latter  remaining  with 
Austria.  In  1859,  all  these  states,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  apart  of  the  Fapal  States  and  Venetia, 
were  annexed  by  the  king  of  Sardinia,  who 
then  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Italy.  Venetia 
was  added  in  1866,  and  the  Fapal  States  in  1870. 
United  Italy  now  occupies  the  tenth  place  among 
the  nations  of  the  earth,  in  regard  to  population, 
and  the  thirtieth  in  regard  to  area. 

Educational  History. — After  the  destruction 
of  the  Roman  Empire  by  Odoacer,  in  476,  edu- 
cation in  Italy  was  for  a  long  time  at  a  low  ebb. 
The  Ostrogoths,  who,  in  493,  overthrew  the  rule 
i  >f  ( kloacer,  were  the  most  intelligent  among  the 
<  Herman  tribes,  and  showed  themselves  receptive 
of  literary  impulses  ;  but,  unfortunately,  their 
rule  did  not  last  long  enough  to  test  their  pro- 
ductive power  in  the  field  of  education.  Their 
king,  Theodoric  the  Great,  who  is  said  to  have 
spoken  four  languages,  placed  at  the  head  of  his 
government  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  the 
age,  Cassiodorus,  who  founded  a  theological 
school,  which  was  to  connect  the  remnants  of  the 
civilization  of  the  1  tomans  and  Greeks  with 
( 'hristian  theology,  and  which  served  as  a  model 
for  the  theological  schools  of  the  middle  ages. 
Having,  at  the  age  of  70, retired  to  the  monastery 
which  he  had  founded,  he  not  only  taught  the 
monks  to  devote  themselves  to  the  copying  of  an- 
cient manuscripts,  but,  by  arranging  the  branches 
of  a  liberal  education  into  the  trivium  and 
//u<tdririum,h.edrew  up  a  programme  of  instruc- 
tion, which  was  adopted  throughout  the  middle 
ages,  and  long  after.  Another  statesman  in  the 
service  of  Theodoric,  Boethius,  was  a  still  greater 
scholar  than  Cassiodorus  ;  and,  by  his  translations 
of  several  of  the  works  of  Aristotle,  as  well  as 
by  his  own  works  De  musica  and  De  consola- 
tione   philosopkice,  exerted  a  far-reaching  in- 


482 


ITALY 


fluence  upon  the  entire  civilization  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  became,  jointly  with  Oassiodorus,  the 
founder  of  the  educational  system  of  the  scho- 
lastics (q.  v.).  The  reign  of  the  Ostrogoth ic  kings 
is  also  noted  for  the  foundation  of  the  Benedic- 
tines (q.  v.),  whose  schools,  for  centuries,  were 
among  the  few  places  of  refuge  for  the  friends 
of  education  and  civilization.  Under  the  re- 
established rule  of  the  Greek  emperor,  as  well 
as  under  that  of  the  Lombards,  little  was  done 
for  education.  Pope  Gregory  I.  was  a  patron  of 
schools  ;  but,  for  several  centuries  after  his  death, 
Italy  had  no  one  who,  as  a  scholar  and  teacher, 
can  be  compared  with  Bede  and  Alcuin.  The 
elevation  of  Gerbert,  the  greatest  scholar  of  the 
age,  to  the  papal  throne,  under  the  name  of 
Sylvester  II.,  awakened  new  interest  in  scien- 
tific studies  ;  and  the  great  increase  of  power 
which  the  papacy  attained  through  the  energy 
of  Gregory  VII.  and  his  successors,  excited 
among  the  young  Italian  clergy  an  emulation  for 
distinction  which  led  to  considerable  progress  in 
literature  and  education.  In  the  12th  century, 
Italy  became  the  birthplace  of  the  modern .  uni- 
versities. These  institutions  arose  as  free  asso- 
ciations of  scholars  who  did  not  belong  to  the 
clergy,  and  were  only  bound  together  by  their 
common  devotion  to  science.  The  growth  of  the 
universities  was  rapid  ;  so  that,  after  an  existence 
of  half  a  century,  the  law  faculty  of  Bologna 
was  attended  by  over  12,000  students.  The 
medical  school  of  Salerno  also  became  one  of 
the  most  famous  schools  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
was  attended  by  students  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  In  these  two  schools,  Bologna  and 
Salerno,  we  see  for  the  first  time  in  the  middle 
ages  a  free  secular  science  develop  itself  inde- 
pendent of  the  church  and  of  clerical  influence. 
Besides  giving  to  Europe  its  first  universities, 
Italy  also  took  the  lead  in  the  revival  of  classical 
studies.  Dante  and  Petrarch,  both  ardent  ad- 
mirers of  the  intellectual  greatness  of  classic 
antiquity,  became  the  founders  of  the  first  golden 
age  of  Italian  literature,  which  was  the  first 
among  the  literatures  of  Europe  to  attain  a  high 
degree  of  excellence.  A  number  of  teachers, 
proceeding  from  this  school,  traveled  from  city 
to  city,  in  order  to  instruct  all  those  desirous  of 
learning.  The  first  of  these  traveling;  teachers 
was  Giovanni  Malpaghino,  a  pupil  of  Petrarch, 
who  counted  among  his  pupils  most  of  the  learned 
men,  who,  in  the  beginning  of  the  1 5th  century, 
raised  the  Roman  classics  from  the  obscurity 
which  had  for  so  long  a  time  surrounded  them. 
Emmanuel  Chrysoloras,  a  learned  Greek,  was  the 
first  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  language  and 
literature  of  Lis  native  country,  which  he  taught 
in  Florence,  Milan,  Venice,  and  Rome.  With 
the  arrival  of  the  learned  Greeks  in  Italy,  after 
the  overthrow  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  the 
study  of  the  Greek  language  received  a  fresh  im- 
pulse, and  a  knowledge  of  that  language  was 
considered  necessary  to  a  complete  education. 
During  this  time,  the  republics  and  princes  of 
Italy  vied  with  each  other  in  protecting  and  pro- 
moting the  cause  of  education.     This  was  espe- 


cially the  case  at  Florence,  where  the  family  of 
the  Medici,  particularly  Cosimo  and  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  patronized  science  and  art  with  an  en- 
thusiasm which  has  rarely  been  equaled  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  Among  the  many  Floren- 
tine representatives  of  classical  learning,  were 
Tommaso  Parentucelli,  afterward  Pope  Nicho- 
las X.,  Niccolo  de'  Niccoli,  Gemisthius,  Plethon, 
Marsilius  Ficinus,  and  Pico  of  Mirandola.  In  i 
Venice,  science  was  cultivated  rather  by  single 
individuals  than  by  the  state.  In  Naples,  king 
Alfonso  gathered  around  him  a  number  of  learned 
men,  among  whom  the  names  of  Lorenzo  della 
Valle  and  Antonio  degli  Beccadelli  are  best 
known.  In  Milan,  Francisco  Sforza  was  an  active 
promoter  of  the  sciences ;  while  the  lesser  courts 
of  Mantua,  Padua,  and  Ferrara  also  had  a  num- 
ber of  men  eminent  in  literature  and  science. 
The  popes  also  called  to  their  courts  distinguished 
scholars,  among  whom  Mafeus  Vegius  occupied 
a  prominent  position  as  a  writer  on  education. 
With  the  election  of  Tommaso  Parentucelli  to 
the  papal  chair,  Rome  became  the  principal  seat 
of  classical  learning.  Under  his  successors  learn- 
ing rapidly  declined,  until  Leo  X.,  again  raised  it 
to  a  higher  position.  The  principal  scholars  of 
this  period  were  Cardinal  Bembo  and  Petrus 
Pomponatius.  Italian  learning  from  the  14th 
to  the  beginning  of  the  lGth  century,  consti- 
tutes an  important  epoch  in  the  general 
history  of  education.  It  put  an  end  to  scho- 
lasticism, and  prepared  the  way  for  the  schol- 
arship of  Germany.  Its  general  features  are 
thus  characterized  by  Raumer  in  his  History  of 
Pedagogy:  "The  learning  of  the  middle  ages, 
the  scholastic  especially,  gave  place,  by  degrees, 
to  the  classical.  The  Italians  became  enthusiastic 
in  their  awakened  love  for  the  old  Roman 
authors,  in  whom  they  recognized  their  an- 
cestors ;  and  their  understanding  of  the  Greek 
classics  was  promoted  by  native  Greek  teachers. 
After  they  were  enabled  to  read  Plato,  a  pas- 
sionate love  of  the  beautiful  arose  within  them, 
and  likewise  a  corresponding  abhorrence  of  tho 
hideousness  of  scholasticism,  which  based  itself 
upon  Aristotle  ;  but,  when  they  studied  Aris- 
totle in  the  original,  and  learned  how  entirely 
different  he  is  from  the  Aristotle  of  tho 
scholastics,  the  authority  of  the  latter  began 
at  once  to  decline.  Yet  the  classical  philologists, 
with  the  exception  of  Dante  and  Picus. 
overlook  the  depth,  and  the  earnest  love  of 
truth  which  characterized  the  more  eminent  of 
the  scholastics.  And  moreover,  there  were  many 
among  them  who  became  so  foolishly  enamored 
of  the  beauty  of  the  classical  form,  whether  in 
prose  or  in  poetiy,  that  they  imagined  their  own 
externally  correct  imitations  of  the  ancients  to 
possess  a  worth  intrinsically  equal  to  their  mod- 
els; while  such  imitations,  on  a  close  inspection, 
often  proved  to  be  but  hollow  and  delusive  phan- 
toms without  either  life  or  spirit.  After  the 
elevation  of  the  Italian  language  into  the 
vernacular,  it  gradually  supplanted  the  Latin, 
which,  in  the  middle  ages,  had  been  treated  as 
the  vernacular,  and  as  such  was  subjected  to  the 


ITALY 


483 


varying  caprice  of  writers.  The  ancient  classics, 
Cicero  especially,  then  became  models  for  imita- 
tion, but  an  imitation  mostly  of  a  lifeless  and  ser- 
vile sort.  Only  a  very  few,  Laurentius  Yalla.  for 
instance,  applied  their  philological  attainments  to 
New  Testament  exegesis.  Toward  the  Hebrew 
tongue  and  the  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testament  a 
great  and  decided  repugnance  was  manifested.  The 
severe  and  sacred  earnestness  of  the  Old  Testament 
frowned  harshly  upon  every  phase  of  pagan  Epi- 
cureanism ;  while  the  latter  manifested  no  desire 
to  become  acquainted  with  its  own  depravity. 
Pagan  sentiments,  a  pagan  life,  and  writings 
imbued  with  paganism,  were  characteristics  of 
Italian  scholars,  and  these  were  often  united  to  an 
orthodox  faith  and  a  pious  enthusiasm — united 
too,  it  may  be,  innocently,  since  the  examples  in 
the  teachings  of  the  clergy  were  such  as  to  drown 
and  deaden  the  voice  of  conscience.  Against  the 
lamentable  corruption  of  the  church,  both  in  its 
head  and  its  members,  the  greater  part  arravc  I 
themselves — a  few,  like  Dante,  with  holy  zeal,  but 
the  greater  part,  only  with  mocking  satire.  Such, 
in  brief,  was  the  character  of  those  Italian  philol- 
ogists to  whom  our  attention  has  been  directed. 
And  these  men  exerted  a  vast  influence  upon  the 
learning  of  the  Germans  and  Dutch.  Rudolphus 
Agricipla.Reuchlin.Rei'-iomontanus,  Erasmus. and 
many  other  distinguished  scholars  went  to  Italy 
to  perfect  themselves.  The  Italians  became  their 
patterns;  upon  these  they  modeled  themselves;  to 
equal  them,  or  if  possible  to  surpass  them,  was 
their  highest  aim."  In  the  course  of  the  Kith 
century,  Italy  gradually  lost  her  reputation  as  the 
foremost  cultivator  of  classical  studies.  Though 
she  still  produced  men  like  Ariosto  and  Tasso. 
Giordano  Bruno  and  Galileo  Galilei,  the  character 
of  her  schools  degenerated.  Only  in  the  province 
of  fine  arts  Italy  continued  to  be  the  teacher 
of  the  civilized  world ;  and  music  in  particular 
was.  in  this  ami  the  following  centuries,  chiefly 
indebted  to  Italy  for  its  progress.  After  the 
foundation  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits, the  higher 
schools  in  the  larger  portion  of  the  Italian  states 
passed  gradually  under  their  control ;  and,  for  a 
long  time,  the  higher  classes  of  the  nation  may 
be  said  to  have  been  educated  by  the  Jesuits. 
(See  Jesuits.)  —  The  first  of  the  Italian  states 
to  abolish  the  supervision  of  the  schools  by  the 
church  was  Sardinia.  In  1720,  it  withdrew  the 
supervision  of  secondary  schools  from  the  relig- 
ious orders,  and  provided  that  teachers  of  this 
class  of  schools  should  be  educated  in  a  college 
connected  with  a  university.  In  1772,  a  decree 
was  published  which  provided  for  primary 
schools.  The  French  occupation  gave  a  decided 
impulse  to  education,  and  primary  schools  were 
established  in  every  town.  Upon  the  restora- 
tion of  the  old  government,  in  1814,  the  laws 
passed  during  the  French  rule  were  abolished; 
and.  although,  in  1821,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
re-establish  common  schools,  no  decided  progress 
was  made,  until,  in  1844,  a  normal  school  for 
teachers  was  established  in  Turin.  A  law  was 
passed  in  1 818.  and  revised  in  1857,  which  sought 
to  raise  the  schools  of  Sardinia  to  a  level  with 


those  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  other  coun- 
tries. The  other  Italian  states  were  all  provided 
with  schools,  but  in  none  of  them  was  much  at- 
tention paid  to  the  education  of  the  people ;  and 
their  educational  condition  was  generally  admit- 
ted to  be  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  most  other 
ICuropean  couutries.  Only  in  Lombardo-Yenetia 
had  the  school  system  of  the  Austrian  em- 
pire been  successfully  introduced,  and  produced 
satisfactory  results.  Upon  the  creation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  in  1 850 ,  a  school  law  was  passed, 
which  introduced  the  system  of  Sardinia  into  the 
annexed  provinces.  Since  that  time,  the  schools 
have  progressed  slowly,  but  steadily  :  and  it  has 
been  the  aim  of  the  government  to  break  as 
much  as  possible  the  influence  of  the  church  in 
educational  matters.  An  official  report  pub- 
lished in  1866  [Statistwa  di  Regno  <f  Italia. — 
Isbruzione  pvbblica  e  private,  Firenze,  18(56) 
states  that,  owing  to  the  extraordinary  efforts 
made  by  the  government,  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  public  schools,  in  1863,  amounted  to 
4,363,  and,  in  1864,  to  4.354;  and  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  pupils,  in  1863,  to  235,210, 
and,  in  1864.  to  135,887.  Nevertheless,  much 
remains  to  be  done;  for,  in  1874,  there  were  in 
Italy  only  70  pupils  in  the  public  schools  to  ev- 
ery 1,000  inhabitants;  while,  in  Switzerland, 
there  were  155  ;  in  Germany,  152  ;  in  Denmark, 
135  ;  and  in  France,  131. 

Instruction  in  all  the  grades  is  regulated  by 
the  law  of  Nov.  13.,  185!),  which  was  amended 
by  the  decrees  of  Sept.  22..  and  Nov.  21.,  1867. 
The  department  of  education,  according  to  the 
law  of  L859,  is  presided  over  by  a  minister  of 
public  instruction,  who  is  assisted  by  a  secretary 
general,  a  supreme  council  of  public  instruction, 
and  a  Legal  counselor.  The  department  is  divided 
into  three  divisions,  each  with  its  own  chief  ;  and 
these  again  are  subdivided  into  two  sections,  each 
with  its  own  superintendent. — The  first  division 
is  the  financial  and  economical,  which  has  charge 
of  the  funds  devoted  to  public  instruction.  The 
second  has  charge  of  the  fine  arts,  antiquities, 
public  libraries  not  connected  with  universities, 
the  public  archives,  etc.  The  third  division 
superintends. the  instruction  given  in  the  univer- 
sities and  tlie  special  schools.  Secondary,  as  well 
as  primary  instruction,  instead  of  forming  a 
separate  division,  has  a  central  superintendent, 
who  has  entire  charge  of  both  departments  of  in- 
struction. A  supreme  council  of  public  instruc- 
tion, consisting  of  fourteen  ordinary  and  seven 
extraordinary  members,  is  constituted  under  the 
presidency  of  the  minister.  This  council  must 
be  consulted  on  new  educational  laws,  on  con- 
tests between  school  authorities,  on  applications 
for  professorships,  and  on  offenses  committed  by 
j>rofessors  of  normal  and  secondary  schools;  it  may 
propose  new  educational  laws  to  the  minister  ;  it 
examines  text-books,  passes  judgment  on  students 
suspended  by  their  rectors,  and  presents  every  five 
years  a  report  to  the  minister  of  instruction,  on 
the  condition  of  all  the  branches  of  education. 
By  the  law  of  1859.  three  general  inspectors  were 
appointed, — one  for  superior,  one  for  secondary, 


484 


ITALY 


and  one  for  primary,  Bpecial,  and  normal  in- 
struction. Each  one  of  the  69  provinces  of  the 
kingdom  has,  for  its  highest  school  authority,  a 
school  board,  consisting  of  the  prefect  a-  presi- 
dent, the  superintendent  as  vice-president,  and 
six  councilors,  two  of  whom  are  appointed  by 
the  ministry,  two  by  the  provincial  deputation, 
and  two  by  the  magistrate  of  the  principal  city. 
The  members  appointed  by  the  elective  councils 
hold  their  office  for  three  years,  but  can  be  re- 
appointed. They  depend  upon  the  prefed  who 
is  entrusted  with  the  general  direction  of  all  the 
schools,  public  as  well  as  private,  and  upon  tbe 
superintendent  of  the  province,  who  has  the 
care  of  all  the  schools  in  bis  district;  while  the 

school  hoard  enforces  the  laws  and  rules  relative 
to  the  primary,  secondary,  and  normal  schools  of 

the  province.  The  board  also  orders  extraordinary 
inspections  of  the  schools:  and.  in  urgent  cases, 
has  the  power  to  close  them,  but  must  immedi- 
ately notify  the  minister  of  the  fact. 

Primary  Instruction.  —  Primary  instruction 
is  compulsory  throughout  Italy. according  to  the 
law  of  L859.  The  school  age  is  from  6  to  14 
years;  and  all  parents  neglecting  to  send  their 
children  between  these  ages  to  school,  are  liable 
to  a  fine.    The  course  oi  instruction  comprises 

four  years.    The  schools  are  composed  of  a  lower 

and  a  higher  grade,  each  of  two  classes.  In  the 
former  are  taught,  religion,  reading,  writing,  ill 
mentary  arithmetic,  the  elements  of  the  metrical 
■in.  and  the  Italian  language.  In  the  higher 
grade,  in  addition  to  the  studies  of  the  lower,are 
taught  composition,  penmanship,  book-keeping, 
elementary  geography,  the  national  history,  and 
elementary  science.  Schools  of  the  lower  grade, 
one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  must  be  main- 
tained by  every  commune. although  the  minister 
may  give  permission  for  two  communes  to  unite. 

if  they  are  too  poor  to  support  separate  schools. 
Schools  of  the  higher  grade  must  be  established 
in  all  towns  with  more  than  HUM)  inhabitants. 
Communes  of  less  than  500  inhabitants  must 
provide  a  mixed  school  for  both  sexes,  if  there 
are  50  children  of  school  age.  The  school  term 
extends  from  Oct  l"».  to  Aug.  15.     Examina- 

tlOns    both  oral  and   written  are   held   every   six 

months,  and  are  directed  by  the  municipal  super- 
intendent, unless  state  ollicials  interpose.  Cer- 
tificates are  granted  promoting  the  candidate-, 
and  prizes  are  given  to  the  most  deserving.  The 

iiersons  conducting  the  examinations  are.  for  the 
OWer  classes,  the  teachers  of   the  classes,  and  for 

the  next  higher, as  well  as  for  the  highest  grades, 
the  class  teachers  and  two  other  teachers  of  the 
sam<  or  a  lower  grade.  Religious  examinations 
arc  ci  mil  in -ted  by  the  clergy,  but  are  obligatory  for 
B an  <  'atholie  children  only.    Every  examiner 

can  add  ten  marks  to  the  results  of  the  written 
and  oral  examinations,  on  account  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  pupil  during  the  year.  Six  marks  con- 
stitute the  standard  of  approbation.  Male  teachers 

musl  l"  eighteen,  and  female  teachers  seventeen 
year- old.  Having  passed  the  necessary  exami- 
nation, they  are  appointed  for  three  years,  and 
Unless  notified  six  months  before   the  expiration 


of  their  term,  are  considered  re-appointed.  Teach- 
er- may  punish  their  scholars  by  admonition, 
a  note  of  censure  in  the  school  registers,  separa- 
tion from  their  comrades,  or  suspension,  of  which 
the  parents  must  be  informed.  Harsh  and  of- 
fensive words,  corporal  punishment,  and  extra 
lessons  as  penalties  are  forbidden.  Suspension 
for  a  week  or  expulsion  can  be  inflicted  by  the 
municipal  superintendent  :  but  each  case  of  ex- 
pulsion must  be  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
mayor,  and  must  be  approved  by  him.  The  min- 
imum salaries  paid  to  teachers  in  cities  are  900 
and  7(H)  lire  (!  lira  =  $0.19.3)  for  the  higher 
and  lower  grades  respectively,  and  600  and  500 
lire  in  the  country.  A  fund  to  provide  pen- 
aions  for  teachers  in  their  old  age  has  been  estab- 
lished, to  which  teachers  contribute  two  and  one- 
half  percent  of  their  salaries,  and  from  which 
pensions  equal  to  their  salaries,  are  paid  to  all 
who  have  reached  the  age  of  fifty-live,  and  have 
taught  for  thirty  years.  A  pension  equal  to  one- 
third  of  their  salaries  is  granted  to  those  who 
are  incapacitated  after  fifteen  years  of  service. 
Widows  of  teachers  receive  pensions  as  long  as 
they  remain  unmarried.  A  private  school  may 
be  kept  by  any  citizen  who  possesses  the  neces- 
sary diploma  and  a  certificate  of  good  morals. 
A  written  request  fur  permission  to  open  such  a 

Bchool  must  be  presented  toa  district  school  in- 
spector, who  may  refuse  it.  if  he  sees  fit.  He 
has  also  the  power  to  visit  and  inspect  all  pri vat e 
schools,  and  make  such  changes  in  their  arrange- 
ment as  may  seem  necessary.  In  urgent  cases  he 
can  close  the  schools.  No  text-books  are  pre- 
scribed for  pri\  ate  schools,  but  the  government 
can  prohibit  Buch  books  as  it  may  deem  offensive. 
Besides  the  public  and  private  day  schools  t! 

are  also  evening  schools  for  adults  of  both  sexes. 

and  Sunday  improvement  schools.  The  number 
of  public  day  schools,  in  1872,  was  34,213;  of 
which  L 8,243  were  for  boys  :  l'_'.T.'!li,  for  girls; 
and  3,238,  with  mixed  classes.  In  addition  to 
these  there  were  9,167  private  day  schools,  mak- 
ing the  total  number  of  primary  schools  43,380. 

These  scl Is  are  distributed  very  unequally  in 

the  northern  and  southern  portions  of  Italy. 
Thus,  in  the  northern  province  of  Novara,  there 
is  a  school    for  every  368  inhabitants,  and  in 

Tin  in  one  for  every  355  inhabitants;   while  the 

southern  province  of  Basilicata  has  only  one 
school  for  1,304  inhabitants,  and  Calabria,  one 
for  1,400.  The  number  of  evening  schools  w;us, 
in  tin  same  year.  9,809,  and  of  the  Sunday  im- 
provement schools,  1,743.  Adding  these  to  the 
43,380  schools  as  above,  we  have  about  58,000 
Bchools  affording  primary  instruction.  The  num- 
ber of  pupils  in  the  day  Bchools,  in  the  school 
year  lsTI  —2,  was  L ,745,467,  of  whom  1,553,389 
were  in    the   public   school-,  and    192,078  in  the 

private  bc! Is.  This  number,  L,745<476,  re- 
presents the  largest  attendance  during  the  year, 
which  generally  occurs  in  the  beginning  of  win- 
ter :  during  the  summer  months,  the  attendance 

fell  off  to  [,242,053.     The    number  of   pupils  in 

the  evening  schools  for  adults  was  375,947,  and 
in   the    Sunday    improvement    schools    153,585. 


ITALY 


485 


The  Dumber  of  teachers  in  the  primary  Bchools, 
in  L872,  was  23,479  males  and  20,028  females, 
making  a  total  of  43,507.  In  L873,  there  were 
42,1  L8  schools  (34,781  public,  7,337  private)  with 
44,430  teachers  (of  whom  9,329  wen'  priests)  and 
L,797,596  scholars  (993,120  boys,  and  804,476 
girls).  In  L874,  there  were  12,920 schools (35,583 
public,  7,337  private),  with  45,596  teachers  (8,927 
priests),  and  1,836,381  pupils  (1,009,020  boysand 
827,361  girjs).  In  1874,  the  government  spent, 
for  elementary  instruction,  232,1  \.2lire;  the  prov- 
inces, 129,665  lire;  the  communes,  22,067,133 
lire:  and  other  bodies,  61 1,727  lire.  The  normal 
schools  are  governed  by  the  laws  of  June  24., 
L860,  and  Nov.'.)..  L861,  and  the  course  of  study 
comprises  three  years.  The  first  two  years  are 
devoted  to  a  preparation  for  teaching  in  the  lower 
grades;  and.  in  the  last  year,  the  teacher  is  pre- 
pared for  the  higher  grades.  The  course  of  study 
comprises  religion  and  morality,  pedagogy,  the 
Italian  language,  exercises  in  composition,  arith- 
metic.geometry,  and  book-keeping,  the  rudiments 
of  natural  history  and  natural  philosophy,  pen- 
manship, drawing,  music,  and  the  principles  of 
hygiene.  For  admission  to  the  normal  school, 
boys  must  have  completed  their  sixteenth,  and 
girls  their  fifteenth  year.  A  model  primary 
school  is  connected  with  almost  every  normal 
school,  in  which  on  certain  days  the  students  of 
the  normal  schools  are  permitted  to  teach  under 
the  direction  of  the  professor  of  pedagogy.  Nor- 
mal schools  are  of  three  classes:  those  supported 
(1)  by  the  government,  (2)  by  the  provinces,  and 
(3)  by  private  persons.  The  number  of  normal 
schools,  in  1872,  was  L25,  of  which  48  (23  for 
boysand  25  for  girls)  were  supported  by  the  state, 
21  (11  for  boys,  10  for  girls),  by  the  provinces, 
and  56  (13  for  boys  and  43  for  girls)  were  private 
institutions.  The  number  of  students  in  the  same 
year  was  6,130,  and  the  number  of  teachers  845. 
A  higher  school  for  girls  was  founded  in  1861  in 
Milan;  as  it  was  found  that  a  large  number  of 
girls  attended  the  normal  schools  without  any  in- 
tention of  becoming  teachers,  but  with  the  sole 
object  of  receiving  a  higher  education.  The  favor 
with  which  this  school  was  received,  and  the  suc- 
cess which  it  met,  induced  other  cities  to  provide 
similar  schools.  The  course  of  study  comprises 
ethics,  the  Italian  language  and  literature,  hy- 
giene, the  natural  sciences,  geography, history,  the 
French  lanirua<>e  and  literature,  arithmetic,  book- 
keeping,  penmanship,  gymnastics,  and  needle- 
work. Besides  these  studies,  which  are  obligatory 
for  all  the  schools,  some  have  also  introduced  the 
study  of  German  and  English.  The  course  of  in- 
struction comprises  three  years  in  all  the  schools 
except  in  Milan,  where  it  is  four  years,  in  order 
that  more  attention  may  be  paid  to  natural 
science.  The  school  in  .Milan  was  for  a  time  free; 
but,  as  it  was  seen  in  other  cities  that  a  fee 
could  be  required  without  detriment  to  the 
school,  a  charge  of  50  /in-  was  made,  which  is 
the  usual  fee  in  the  other  cities.  The  conditions 
of  admission  are  an  age  of  12  years,  graduation 
from  the  primary  schools,  and  the  passing  of 
an  examination.  The  number  of  schools,  in  1872, 


was  8;  ami  the  average  number  of  pupils,  50, 
The  largest  number  (12  1 )  of  pupils  was  in  \l  ilan, 
and  the  lowest  number  (33), in  Padua.    Besides 

these  schools,    there  are   other    high    schools    for 

girls,  which  hoard  either  all  or  a  part  of  their 

pupils.  These  schools  may  he  divided  into  five 
elapses:  (I)  Those  schools  which  depend  im- 
mediately upon  the  government.  These  are  six 
iii  number  and  board  all  their  pupils.  Thecourse 
of  study  comprises,  besides  the  studies  pursued 

in  the  high  schools  for  girls,  music,  dancing,  for- 
eign languages,  etc.  (2)  Those  schools,  which  are 
under  the  direction  of  the  government,  but  do 

not  receive  any  aid  from  it.    These  are  similar  to 

those  of  the  tirst  class.  (3)  The  schools  [conser- 
VOtori)  of  Tuscany.  These  were  founded  by 
U'opold  I.,  towards  the  end  of  the  18th  cent- 
ury, who  endowed  them  with  the  properly  of 
supressed  monasteries,  and  who  gave  the  instruc- 
tion into  tlu'  hands  of  lay  sisters  (an  association 
of  pious  ladies  who  have  an  organization  similar 
to  that  of  convents),  with  whom  it  still  remains. 
(4)  The  schools  of  St.  Mary,  in  Sicily,  which 
were  founded  in  1  72(1,  and  received  the  canonical 
institution  in  1735;  they  were  thus  recognized  as 
ecclesiastical  corporations.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  century,  however,  several  of  these  institutions 
were  reorganized  by  the  state  as  lay  corpora- 
tions. (5)  The  schools  connected  with  convents, 
which,  after  the  suppression  of  the  convents, 
continued  to  exist  under  the  general  association 
law.  The  total  number  of  schools  of  these  five 
classes  was,  in  1872,  570  with  2,723  teachers,  and 
17jl 58  boarding  and  12,937  day  scholars.  The 
expenses  amounted  to  1,285,514  lire. 

Secondary  instruction. — Secondary  instruction 
in  Italy  is  of  two  distinct  kinds. — classical  and 
technical.  The  former  is  provided  for  in  the 
gymnasia  and  the  lyceums,  and  the  latter  in  the 
technical  schools.  The  classical  course  comprises 
eight  years,  of  which  the  first  five  belong  to  the 
gymnasium,  and  the  last  three  to  the  lyceum. 
The  course  of  study  in  the  gymnasia  is  as  fol- 
lows:  Latin  is  taught  10  hours  per  week  in  the 
three  lower,  and  6  hours  in  the  two  higher  classes; 
Italian,  7  hours  in  the  three  lower  classes,  5  in 
the  fourth,  and  5  in  the  fifth  class;  geography, 

3  hours  in  the  three  lower  classes;  arithmetic, 
1  hour  in  the  three  lower,  and  3  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  classes;    (ireek,   5  hours :  and  history, 

4  hours  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  classes.  Every 
gymnasium  has  six  ordinary  professors;  that  is, 
each  one  of  the  five  classes  has  one  professor  for 
the  literary  instruction,  while  the  sixth  professor 
teaches  mathematics  only.  The  instruction  in 
the  lyceums  is  divided  among  seven  professors, 
and 'comprises  the  following  studies :  Italian, 
6  hours  in  the  tirst.  and  4  in  the  second  class; 
Latin  and  (ireek,  5  hours  in  all  three  classes  ; 
history,  ~\  hours  in  the  tirst.  and  -L.  in  the  second 
class;  mathematics,  6  hours  in  the  tirst  and 
second,  and  2 j  hours  in  the  third  class;  philos- 
ophy, 4 }  hours  in  the  second  and  third  classes; 
natural  philosophy  and  physical  geography,  5,  and 
natural  philosophy,  9  hours  in  the  third  class. 
The  programme  and  the  course  of  study  are  de- 


486 


ITALY 


termined  by  the  ministry  of  education,  and  are 
adapted  by  the  faculty  to  inch  individual  gynv 
nasium  and  lyceum.  After  finishing  the  course 
in  the  gymnasium  or  in  the  lyceum,  the  pupil 
must  pass  an  examination  for  graduation.  The 
provincial  gymnasia  and  lyceums  may  conduct 
their  nun  examinations  for  graduation, if  they 
conform  in  their  course  of  studies  to  that  of  the 
royal  schools;  while  the  private  institutions  of 
this  class  must  send  their  pupils  to  the  royal 
schools  to  be  examined  for  graduation.  The  gym- 
nasia arc  governed  by  a  director,  and  the  lyceums 
by  a  president.  The  only  provinces  not  having 
any  secondary  schools  are  Pesaro  ami  (Jrosseto, 
while  Milan  and  Venice  have  three.  In  1ST  I — 5, 
there  were, supported  by  th  ■  state.  L03  gymnasia. 
with  9,296  pupils ;  and  80  lyceums,  with  5,132 
pupils. 

Technical  instruction  in  Lombardy  was  pro- 
vided for  by  the  Austrian  law  of  1818;  but 
it  was  not  given  until  L851,  when  the  scuolerecdi 
were  founded,  each  consisting  of  six  classes,  of 
which  three  formed  the  lower,  and  three  the 
higher  course.  In  the  other  provinces  of  Italy, 
with  the  exception  of  Piedmont,  there  were  no 
guch  schools  previous  to  the  unification.  There 
were,  however,  similar  schools  supported  by  the 
municipalities,  or  private  schools  governed  by 
different  laws.  There  arc  at  the  present  time, 
technical  sohools  in  all  the  provinces  of  the 
kiagdom,  in  some,  belonging  bo  the  state,  and 

in  others,  to  the  towns.  The  government  has 
its   own    schools    in    [Jpper    Italy,    the    Marches, 

Umbria,  Rome,  and  Sicily,  in  which  provinces, 

however,  there  are  also  schools  belonging  to  the 
tow  ns;  while  in  Kinilia.  Tuscany,  and  Naples, they 
belong  exclusively  to  the  towns.    One  half  of  the 

expenses  of  the  stale  technical  schools,  with  the 
exception  of  those  in  Sicily,  is  borne  by  the  com- 
munes. In  the  technical  schools  belonging  to 
the  towns,  the  government  has  the  right  of  in- 
ep  sction  only.  In  consequence  of  the  two  grades 
into  which  the  real  schools  of  Piedmont  and 
Lombardy  were  divided,  the  law  of  1859  pro- 
vided tor  the  erection  of  two  schools  of  different 
grades,  each  Comprising  three  years'   instruction, 

(vhich  the  lower  school  is  called  sc  uola  tecnica, 
and  the  higher  istituto  tecnico.  By  a  decree  of 
No  28.,    L861 .   the  supervision   of   the 

technical  institutes  was  transferred  from  the 
ministry  of  education  to  that  of  agriculture. 
commerce,  and  industry.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  technical  schools  comprises  the  Italian 
language,  French,  drawing,  penmanship,  the 
rudiments  of  history  and  geography,  algebra, 
geometry, commercial  arithmetic, and  book-ke  p 
ing.  A  supplementary  course  of  one  year  was 
a  Ided  in  1871,  in  which  only  such  subjects  were 
t  Lughi  as  were  deemed  requisite  to  supply  the 
knowledge  accessary  in  difrerenl  vocations.  This 
.a  tempi  succeeded  admirably,  wherever  it  was 

i  ilro  luce  I.     The  technical  schools  are  under  the 
b  'i  ity    of   a  director,  w  bos  !    annual   sale 

2,000  lire;  while  the  professors  receive  from  L,100 
t  .  'J. oiii)  Ure  each,  according  to  the  cla  is  ami  the 
grade  they  teach.    For  several  years  instruction 


in  the  technical  schools  was  free,  as  they  were 
particularly  intended  to  benefit  the  poorer  classes; 
but  as  the  better  classes  also  sent  xheir  children 
to  these  schools,  the  same  fees  were  introduced 
as  in  the  gymnasia.  The  number  of  state  tech- 
nical schools,  in  1869,  was  55,  with  5,571  stu- 
dents and  "2!»7  hearers.  The  number  of  com- 
munal schools  that  are  managed  in  strict  accord- 
ance' with  rules  governing  the  state  institutions 
was  72,  with  4,594  students  and  hearers;  and 
the  communal  schools  directed  in  systems  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  state  were  138  in  number, 
with  1,409  students  and  hearers.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  63  royal  technical  schools,  with  6,498 
students.  The  technical  institutes,  which  were 
first  established  in  Turin.  Venice, and  Milan,  were 
originally  reorganizations  of  the  technical  schools 
in  those  cin'cs:  but.  in  consequence  of  their  use- 
fulness,  i  hey  rapidly  increased.  According  to 
the  course  of  study  of  1872,  they  are  composed 
of  five  divisions:  the  physical  and  mathematical, 
tlu'  industrial,  the  commercial,  the  agricultural, 
ami  the  administrative.  To  be  admitted  to  a 
technical  institute,  the  student  must  possess  a 
certificate  of  graduation  from  a  technical  school, 
i  r  show  that  he  is  proficient  in  the  studies  taught 
there,  and  must  pass  an  examination  in  various 
branches.  The  number  of  institutes, in  L872,was 
72,  of  which  .'!'.»  belonged  to  the  state,  and  33  to 
the  provinces,  communes,  or  private  persons.  The 
number  of  teachers,  including  the  presidents  and 
the  professors,  was  881  ;  and  thi'  number  of 
.students  and  hearers.  4,562.  The  number  of  in- 
stitutes, in  1875,  was  74.  In  order  to  promote 
secondary  instruction  and  to  accommodate  such 
families  as  have  QO  schools  in  their  own  towns, 
tiie  government  supports  26  institutes  in  which 
the  students  arc  boarded. 

Superior  Instruction. — There  are.  at  present, 
17  universities  supported  by  the  state,  of  which 
8  (in  Bologna,  Naples.  Padua.  Palermo.  Pavia, 
Pisa,  Rome,  and  Turin)  are  first-class,  and  9 
(in  Cagliari,  Catania.  Genoa,  Macerata,  Sassari, 
Sienna.  Messina,  Modena.and  Parma  i  are  second- 
class,  universities.  Besides  these,  there  were  4 
universities  fin  Camerino,  Ferrara,  Perugia, and 
Qrbino),  which  are  supported  by  the  respective 

pro*  bices.  In  order  to  be  admitted  as  a  student 
i  a  university,  an  examination  is  necessary.be- 
sides  a  certificate  of  graduation  from  a  lyceum. 
In  addition  to  the  regular  students,  there  are 
hearers,  who  do  not  require  an  examination,  but 
only  a  certificate  from  a  lyceum.  The  number  ot 
professors,   and    students,    including   hearers,  in 

1874  5,  was  as  follows :  Bologna,  81  profesBOiB 
and  557  students;  Padua,  52  prof essors  and  1,217 
students:  Palermo,  78  professors  and  34 o  stu- 
dents:   Pavia,  51    professors   and    619  students; 

Pisa.  < "•  T  professors  and  532  students:    Pome,  81 

professors  and  470  students ;  Turin,  74  profess- 
ors and  1  :2'X2  students  :  Cagliari,  40  professors 
ami  id  students;  Catania,  10  professors  and  ll'l 
students:  Genoa,  19  professors  and  112  students; 

Macerata.  15  professors  and  L06  Btudents;  Mes- 
sina. 15  professors  and  94  students:  Modena.  '>•'* 
professors  and  278  students  ;    Parma.  12  profess- 


JACOBS 


JACOTOT 


487 


>>rs  iii nl  205  students:  Sassari,  25  professors 
ami  <ii>  students;  and  Siena,  28  professors  and 
L13  students;  for  Naples,  which  has  L18  profes- 
sors, it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  number  of  stu- 
dents,  as  any  oatiye  of  the  Neapolitan  provinces 
may  attend  the  university,  upon  obtaining  per- 
mission from  t lie  rector.  The  Dumber  of  stu- 
dents examined  in  1869,  was  1,775.  The  num- 
ber of  students  in  the  four  provincial  universi- 
ties, in  1874  5,  was  264.  The  largest  of  these, 
IVrrara,  had  88,  and  the  smallest,  ( 'amerino.  .'51 
students.  In  addition  to  the  universities,  there 
is  an  institute  for  higher  studies  [Isiituto  di 
stiidi  supervtri  pratici  e  di  perfezionamento)  in 
Florence,  which  comprises  three  sections, — the 
philosophical  and  philological,  the  medico-surgic- 
al, and  that  of  natural  sciences.  It  was  founded 
as  a  university  in  1348,  and,  in  1S74 — 5,  had  4 (J 
teachers  and  176  students. 

Special  Instruction. — Besides  the  engineers' 
schools  established  in  connection  with  the  uni- 
versities of  Rome,  Padua,  and  Palermo,  there 
were  the  following  technical  high  schools  in  1 875: 
The  engineers'  school  in  Naples,  with  L5  teach- 
ers and  222  students :  the  higher  technical  in- 
stitute in  Milan,  with  .'57  teachers  and  189  stu- 
dents ;  the  engineers' school  and  the  industrial 
museum  in  Turin, with  IS  teachers  and  185  stu- 
dents, and  5  teachers  and  128  students,  respect- 
ively.    Other  special  schools  are  as  follows  :  The 


Seminario  vaticano,  the  Collegio  rornano,  the 
CoUegio  urbano,  for  missionaries,  ami  the  Col- 
legio di  San  Tommaso  d 'Aquino,  for  Dominican 
monks,  in  Rome;  the  literary  academy,  in  Milan, 
with  1 5  professors  and  41  students  (1875);  a 
higher  school  in  San  Marino;  numerous  Catholic 
theological  seminaries  and  colleges,  a  theological 
school,  for  the  Waldensians,  in  Turin  ;  Jewish 
theological  schools,  in  Leghorn  and  Padua  ;  three 
schools  of  veterinary  science  ;  two  an  haeological 
schools,  in  Pompeii  and  Home:  L  3  law  schools, 
besides  those  established  in  connection  with  the 
universities;  the  commercial  school  in  Venice ; 
23  nautical  schools;  the  higher  royal  agricult- 
ural schools  in  Milan  ami  Portici,  the  provin- 
cial agricultural  institutes  in  Caserta  and  Man- 
tua, the  agricultural  courses  in  nine  universities, 
ami  the  school  of  forestry  near  Florence;  the 
mining  schools  in  Caltanisetta  and  Agordo,  and 
the  special  school  for  the  production  ami  treat- 
ment of  marble  in  Carrara;  25  schools  of  tine 
arts  ;  numerous  conservatories,  schools,  and  in- 
stitutes of  music  ;  the  military  schools  in  Turin, 
Modena.  Naples.  Milan.  Florence,  Farina,  and 
Pinerolo,  and  the  naval  school,  with  two  di- 
visions, in  Naples  and  Spezia. — See  Mai.fatti, 
Italien  fin  Sohmto,  Encychpadie,  vol.  x.)  ;  for 
full  statistical  information,  see  the  official  publi- 
cation of  the  Ministry  of  Fducation,and  the  offi- 
cial work,  Italia  economica  (Rome,  1873). 


JACOBS,  Christian  Friedrich.  Wilhelm, 

an  eminent  Greek  scholar  of  Uermany,  born  at 
<  totha,  Oct.  6.,  1 764;  died  March  30..  J  847.  He 
•was  appointed  professor  in  the  gymnasium  of 
Gotha,  in  1785  ;  and,  in  ls07,  accepted  a  call  to 
Munich  to  take  the  place  of  professor  of  ancient 
literature  in  the  lyceum.and  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Science,  in  1810,  he  returned  to  Gotha, 
where  he  was  appointed  librarian  in  chief.  Jacobs 
is  the  author  of  several  popular  Greek  and  Latin 
readers,  which  are  still  extensively  used,  and  have 
been  frequently  imitated  and  translated  into  a 
number  of  other  languages  (  Elementarbuch  del- 
griechischen  Sprache,  vol.  i..  1805;  21st  edition, 
revised  by  J.  Classen,  1875  ;  vol.  4.,  1811  ;  La- 
teinisches  Elementarbuch,  1815,  in  .'!  vols.,  also 
revised  by  J.  Classen).  With  Post  he  founded 
the  Bibliotheca  Qraeca,  a  collective  edition  of 
Creek  authors  with  Latin  notes  (1826,  seq.). 
■Jacobs  was  one  of  the  most  enthusiastic  admirers 
■of  Greek  civilization,  and,  in  a  large  number  of 
essays  and  popular  works,  endeavored  to  awaken 
among  the  educated  classes  of  Germany  an  un- 
derstanding of.  ami  an  interest  in,  the  spirit  of 
Greek  antiquity.  He  published  a  collection  of 
his  addresses  and  essays  under  the  name  Vcr- 
migchte  Schriften  (8  vols.,  1823—44).  His  fa- 
mous address  Ueberdie  Et'ziehung  der  Gviechen 
zur  Sittlichkeit  (translated  into  English  by  Pres- 
ident Felton),  which  he  delivered  in  Munich  in 
1808,  is  still  in  high  repute  as  a  brilliant  essay 
on  education  among  the  ancient  Q  reeks. 


JACOTOT,  Joseph,  a  French  educator,  born 
in  Dijon,  March  4.,  1770;  died  in  Paris,  July 
30.,  1840.  He  was  made  professor  of  Latin  and 
Greek,  at  Dijon,  about  1789,  and,  in  1790,  was 
appointed  by  Napoleon  to  the  chair  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  normal  school,  and  shortly  after- 
wards became  secretary  to  the  minister  of  war 
and  director  oPthe  polytechnic  school.  In  1792, 
he  joined  the  army  as  captain  of  artillery,  and 
as  such  participated  in  the  Belgian  campaign. 
He  afterwards  returned  to  his  native  place, 
where  he  was  at  first  professor  of  mathematics, 
and  afterwards  of  Roman  law.  11  is  espousal  of 
the  cause  of  Napoleon  compelled  him,  upon  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  to  leave  France, 
which  he  did  in  1815.  taking  refuge  in  Belgium, 
where  he  supported  himself  for  a  time  by  private 
teaching.  In  1818,  he  was  appointed  lecturer 
on  French  literature  in  the  University  of  Lou- 
vain,  and  afterwards  director  of  the  Military 
Normal  School.  He  returned  to  France  in  1830, 
passed  seven  years  in  Valenciennes,  and,  in  1838, 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  died  in  comparative 
Deglect.  It  was  during  his  residence  in  Belgium, 
while  attempting  to  teach,  in  French,  classes  the 
members  of  which  spoke  only  Flemish  and  Dutch, 
that  the  novel  idea  of  overcoming  this  and  simi- 
lar difficulties,  by  a  method  peculiarly  his  own, 
first  dawned  upon  him— a  method  which  he 
afterwards  expanded,  and  applied  successfully  to 
all  studies.  The  central  idea  of  the  universal 
method,  as  it  has  been  called,  rests  upon  the  in- 


488 


JACOTOT 


JAPAN 


timate  correlation  of  all  knowledge.  In  other 
words,  a  single  fact,  known  thoroughly,  at  first 
by  careful  observation,  and,  afterwards,  by 
long  and  repeated  contemplation,  becomes  the 
spur,  if  not  the  actual  key.  t<>  the  acquisition  of 
other  facts.  In  this  way.  starting  from  a  single 
truth  as  a  center,  the  mind  is  led  to  extend,  in 
many  ways,  the  circle  of  its  conquests,  till  the 
whole  domain  of  knowle  Ige  is  included.  It  will 
lie  seen  at  once  that  this  system  requires  un- 
usually close  attention  and  concentration  of 
mind  on  the  part  of  the  pupil — two  elements 
which  can  only  be  secured  by  a  very  great  de- 
gree of  enthusiasm  and  magnetic  influence  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  cause  of  the  won- 
derful success  achieved  by  it,  in  Jacotot's  prac- 
tice, was,  that  it  compels  the  pupil  to  exercise  his 
own  powers  thoroughly  —in  other  words,  that  it 
is  in  entire  accordance  with  the  essential  nature 
of  all  education,  i.  e.,  the  developing  of  in- 
nate power.  His  method  of  procedure  in  in- 
structing his  class  at  Louvain  in  the  French 
language  was  to  provide  each  pupil  with  a  copy 
of  I'Vneli >n's  TelSmaque,  having  the  French  on 
one  page  and  the  I  ditch  translation  on  the  other. 
\\  itli  no  aid  from  the  teacher,  the  pupil  was  re- 
quired to  puzzle  out  the  meaning  of  the  text. 
ami  to  recite  it  in  French,  no  matter  how  bar- 
barous the  translation,  at  first,  might  lie.  This 
method  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  Hamil- 
ton. (See  Hamilton,  James.)  It  has  also  the  de- 
fects of  the  I  [amiltonian  method,  the  know  ledge 
of  a  language  so  acquired  being  enough  for  prac- 
tical purposes, but  not  sufficient  for  a  critical  or 
scholarly  acquaintance  with  it.  His  method  of 
teaching  reading  was  the  following:  The  teacher 
takes  a  book,  and  opening  it  at  any  place. 
points  out  the  tirst  word,  pronouncing  it.  and 
requiring  the  class  to  repeat  it.  The  next  word 
is  then  pronounced  with  the  tirst.  the  class  re- 
peating as  before;  then  the  third  word,  in  the 
same  manner,  and  so  on.  In  this  way.  when 
each  word  in  a  sentence  has.  by  frequent  repeti- 
tion, become  known  by  sight,  the  pupil  is  re- 
quired to  find  these  words  wherever  they  occur 
on  the  page.  The  words  of  the  sentence  are 
then  divided  up  into  syllables,  and  these  syllables 

are  searched  for  on  the  page  by  the  pupil, 
a-  the  words  were  before.  Ihe  same  is  done 
with  the  letters.  When  the  pupil  has  become 
perfectly  familiar  with  the  sentence,  he  is  taught 
to  write  by  placing  before  him  the  same  sentence 
in  script,  and  requiring  him  to  copy  it.  His 
attention  is  then  directed  to  each  word  separate- 
ly, that  he  may  note  in  just  what  respect  the 
copy  differs  from  the  original,  and  correct  it. 
The  tea, ■her  corrects  nothing  himself,  but  by 
his  questions  calls  special  attention  to  the  poinl 
needing  correction,  and  requires  the  pupil  to 
change  it.     In  this  way,  by  constanl  repetition 

ami  sell  help,  the    pupil   educates    himself.      The 

great  Buccess  achieved  by  Jacotot,  led  t<>  his 
enunciation  of  several  maxims  which  took  the 

shape  of  startling  paradoxes,  reflecting  rather 
the  exultation  of  an  enthusiastic  nature  over  a 
great     discovery,    than    the    calm,    dispassionate 


spirit  of  the  careful  annunciator  of  a  new  truth. 
These   maxims  arc:    ••All   human   beings  are 

equally  capable  of  learning:"  "Every  one  can 
teach  :  and,  moreover,  can  teach  that  which  he 
does  not  know  himself;"  and'* All  is  in  all," 
bach  of  these  maxims,  while  contradictory  on 
its  face,  contains  a  germ  of  truth,  which,  only 
by  the  aid  of  robust  imaginative  power  and  spe- 
cial pleading,  may  be  so  amplified  as  to  cover 
the  broad  tield  comprehended  by  the  text.  In 
the  practical  application  of  his  system.  .Jacotot's 
directions  are  :  Learn  some  one  thing  thorough- 
ly, mill  refer  •  very  thing  to  that.  To  this  end. 
the  pupil  must  repeat,  reflect,  and  verify.  Jaco- 
tot's chief  educational  works  are  Enseignement 
universel:  Langue  matemelle  (Louvain.  \^l'l)  : 
Musique,  dessin  et  peinture  (1  .^24)  :  Mathima- 
tiques  (1828);  and  various  articles  in  t$ie  Journal 
de  I 'emancipation  inteUectueUe,  a  periodical  es- 
tablished by  himself  for  the  advocacy  of  his 
peculiar  views. — See  Quick,  Essays  <m  Educa- 
tional Reformers  (Cincinnati.  L874). 

JAPAN.  The  em] lire  of  Japan  [Dai  Nikon 
KoJcu,  or  Dai  Nippon ;  Chinese.  Jipun,  mean- 
ing Sun-root)  comprises  the  four  large  islands 
Hondo  (main  island),  Kiushiu.  Shikoku,  and 
Ve/.o.the  bill  Kiuand  Knrile  (Chishima)  groups, 
and  nearly  4,000  small  islands,  many  of  which 
an-  but  reefs.  The  entire  area  is  I  15,500  Bq.  m.; 
the  population,  by  government  census  of  1.^74, 
was  reported  as  33,300,675,  of  whom  nearly  one- 
half  were  of  the  agricultural  class,  ltiT.onii  Liu 
Kiuans.  and  about  20,000  Ainos  in  Ye/.o  and  the 
Kuriles.  The  indigenous,  also  the  state  or  offi- 
cial, religion  is  Shinto  (way  or  doctrine  of  the 
gods.  /.  c,  theology).  The  census  of  1874  re- 
ported L28.123 shrines  and  76,1 1'.'  officials.  SJtinto 
is  now  being  greatly  modernized  and  modified 
by  contact  with  the  ideas  of  Christendom.    Bud* 

dhism  was  introduced  from  Corea.  in  552  A.  1>. 
After  nine  centuries  of  propagation,  it  became 
the  popular  religion,  which  it  still  is.  There  are 
nine  great,  and   over  twenty  subordinate  sects. 

'I  he  census  of  L872  reported  98,914  temples  and 

monasteries.  75,925  priests  and  monks. and  9,621 
nuns  :  in  till  *_M  1 ,846  religieux  of  both  sexes,  in- 
cluding students  and  families  of  bonzes.  (  hristi- 
anitv  max  also  be  considered  one  of  the  relig- 
10ns  of  Japan.    There  are  now    (1876)  ten  native 

churches,  with  over  1,000  members,  a  theological 
seminary,  day  and  Sunday  schools  for  both  sexes, 

and  an  incipient  Christian  literature. 

Japan  was  anciently  inhabited,  in  the  southern 
part,  by  a  mixed  race  sprung  tii on  the  waifs 
brought  by  the  Kuro  Shiwo  from  southern 
Asia  and  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The  Ainos 
occupied  the  central  and  northern  portions. 
Neither  of  these  races  e\ ei  possessed  any  writing 
or  rcci  in  Is.  so  far  as  is  known.  In  660  B.  ('..a 
conquering  race  landed  in  south-eastern  Kiushiu, 

and  advancing  northward,  subdued  the  natives, 
and  tixed  their  capital  near  Kioto,  in  central 
Japan.    In  the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian 

era.  in  a  great  battle  near  Morioka  the  Hast- 
ings of  Japan      the  Ainos  were  entirely  defeated. 

The  remnant  tied  across  the  straits  ox  Tsugaru 


JAPAN 


and  have  remained  in  a  state  of  pure  savagery. 
By  the  fusion  of  the  aboriginal  and  conquering 
races,  with  the  occasional  addition  of  Malay. 
Oorean,  and  Chinese  blood,  the  modern  coufc- 
posite  Japanese  race  has  been  produced. 

The  national  history  is  mainly  thai  ofeduca- 
tionaiul  development.  The  conquerors  knew  the 
use  of  metals  ami  agriculture, and  composed  odes, 
prayers,  ami  poetic  sentiments, but  had  m>  letters 
or  writings.  The  ancient  political  system  was 
feudalism,  the  mikado  being  suzerain,  and  the 
lands  being  held  on  the  tenure  of  military  service. 
In  285  A.  1)..  after  the  conquest  of  southern  Corea, 
by  the  empress-regent  Jingu,  Wani,  a  Corean, 
came  to  the  Japanese  court, and  taught  the  heir 
apparent  Chinese  letters,  and,  probably,  the  Con- 
fucian ethics.  In  552,  Corean  missionaries  in- 
troduced books,  the  writing  of  the  Chinese  clas- 
sics, and  the  Buddhist  images,  sutras,  and  canon. 
This  is  the  greatest  educational  event  in  Jap- 
anese history.  The  nobles  and  officials  learned  to 
read  and  write;  and  government  records,  his- 
tories, and  literature  began  to  be  compiled.  The 
Official  propagation  of  the  new  faith  through  the 
erection  of  temples,  monasteries,  and  pagodas, 
and  the  location  of  the  bonzes  in  each  province, 
near  and  remote,  opened  a  field  for  the  school- 
master, creating  a  limited,  but  for  those  days 
a  large,  reading  class.  Henceforward,  the  his- 
tory of  Japanese  education  is  that  of  Japanese 
Buddhism.  The  most  illustrious  name  of  all 
the  priest-pedagogues  is  Kobo  (774 — 835),  a 
scholar  in  Pali.  Sanskrit,  Chinese,  and  his  own 
vernacular,  and  the  inventor  of  the  Japanese 
syllabary,  or  alphabet.  This  consists  of  47  char- 
acters, abbreviated  from  Chinese  ideographs.  It 
has  two  forms  :  the  '•  grass,"'  script  or  running 
hand,  and  the  square  or  "  printing"  form.  He 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  national  success  of 
Buddhism,  by  propounding  a  theological  system 
in  which  Buddhism  absorbs  Shinto,  and  by  declar- 
ing that  the  ancient  anil  indigenous  deities  were 
but  various  manifestations  of  Buddha  to  Japan. 
After  Kobo.  Sugawara  Michizane,  who  died  903 
A.  D.,  better  known  as  Tenjin,  an  accomplished 
scholar,  did  much  for  the  native  literature  and 
education.  Until  the  twelfth  century,  the  mikado 
ruled  supreme  from  Xara  to  Kioto,  both  of  which 
were  famous  educational  as  well  as  political  cen- 
ters. In  1192.  Yoritomo  was  created  Sei-i  Tai 
Skogun  (the  officer  styled  Ti/coon  by  foreign- 
ers, from  1853  to  1868),  and  fixed  the  military 
capital  at  Kamakura  (about  35  miles  from  the 
modern  Tokio) .  1  lenceforward,  the  governmei 1 1 
of  Japan  was  virtually  a  duarchy,  having  two 
rulers,  two  capitals, and  two  centers  of  authority. 
Eastern  Japan  now  became  more  and  more  civil- 
ized, and  education  spread  apace.  In  general, 
only  the  bonzes  and  court  nobles  in  Kioto  con- 
stituted the  learned  class,  the  soldiers  and  farm- 
ers being  totally  illiterate.  The  bonzes  were 
the  scribes  in  camp,  palace,  and  town,  and  almost 
the  only  teachers  down  to  the  Tokugawa  period 
(1604—1868).  During  the  Hojo  rule  (1219— 
1333)  learning  flourished.  A  fine  library  and 
school  existed  at    Kanazawa,  near    Kamakura, 


i  besides  the  ancient  seats  in  Kioto  and  Xara.  The 
missionary  tours  and  labors  of  Shinran  and  Ni- 
chireu.  in  the  north  ami  east  of  Japan, during thia 
time  tended  powerfully  to  spread  Buddhism,  and 

with  it  letters  ami  writing,  and  to  create    priests 

and  monastic  schools.  The  revival  of  Buddhistic 
studies  and  the  founding  of  new  sects  produced 
much  intellectual  activity.  The  Ashikaga  period 
(1335     L573)    was  one  of  civil   war  and   the 

'  growth  of  feudalism.  Education  and  learning 
languished  during  this  time:  ami  ignorance,  ex- 
cept in  the  palace  and  monastery,  was  univer- 
sal. Under  Nobunaga  (1532  82),  the  relentless 
persecutor  of  the  Buddhist  bonzes,  their  power 
was  in  every  way  greatly  curtailed,  and  the 
Jesuits  then  in  Japan  were  greatly  favored.  The 
era  of  Hideyoshi  (Taiko)  was  brilliant  and  emi- 
nently favorable  to  learning  and  education,  con- 
siderable stimulus  being  given  by  his  enterprise 
and  improvements  tending  to  tranquilize  the 
country.  The  invasion  of  Corea  (1592  8)  was 
followed  by  a  new  tide  of  influences,  which,  to- 
gether with  those  received  by  contact  with  Kuro- 
peans,  gave  fresh  impulses  to  the  intellectual 
life  of  the  nation.  The  accession  of  lyeyasu,  in 
1604,  to  the  shogunate,  the  founding  of  the  « •  i t \ 
of  Yedo,  the  centralization  of  the  feudal  system 
and  military  power  there,  and  most  of  all,  the 
profound  peace  enjoyed  for  two  centuries  ami 
a  half,  mark  the  period  from  1604  to  1868, 
as  the  only  one  in  which  education  in  .Tapan 
has  been  general  among  all  classes,  and  over 
nearly  the  entire  empire.  Next  to  the  essentials 
or  tools  of  an  education- — reading,  writing,  and 
reckoning  on  the  abacus,  the  ( 'hinese  classics  of 
Confucius  and  Mencius  constitute  the  basis  of 
culture.  The  very  voluminous  and — in  the  depart- 
ments of  history  and  classic  fiction,  at  least, — 
valuable,  native  literature  has  also  been  largely 
studied.  Before  the  opening  of  the  country  to 
foreigners,  in  1854,  it  is  probable  that  seven- 
tenths  of  the  people  could  read  and  write.  In 
most  of  the  daimios'  capitals  were  military,  gym- 
nastic, and  literary  training  schools;  and  in  Yedo. 
Kioto,  and  Mito  (Ibaraki)  were  schools  of  great 
learning,  or  universities.  In  every  city,  town, 
village,  or  even  hamlet,  lived  one  or  more  teachers 
or  writing-masters  who  kept  private  schools. 
Many  of  the  bonzes  also  taught  classes  of  lay 
youth, or  neophytes,  in  the  monasteries.  Sanskrit 
and  Chinese  were  the  sacred  languages  of  the 
Buddhist  ritual,  while  the  Yamato  or  ancient 
classic  Japanese  was  used  by  the  Shintoists. 
About  the  time  of  the  opium  war  in  China,  an 
impulse  was  developed  to  study  European  litera- 
ture and  science  through  the  medium  of  the 
Dutch  language.  A  few  Holland  merchants  living 

at  Heshima.  near  Nagasaki,  and  the  annual  Dutch 
trading  ships  served  Japan  as  a  loop-hole  whence 
to  survey  the  world.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  policy  of  closing  the  ports  of  Japan, 
thereby  secluding  her  from  the  world,  was  more  a 
part  of  the  Tokugawa  usurpers'  scheme  of  holding 
the  actual  power  than  the  wish  of  the  nation. 
After  Perry's  arrival,  in  1853,  the  study  of  En- 
glish superseded  that  of  Dutch,  and  the  tastes  of 


490 


JAPAN 


JEFFERSON   COLLEGE 


the  samurai,  or  educated  armed  classes,  inclined 
* }n-iu  to  favor  modern  science  to  the  neglect  of 
the  Chinese.  In  L868,  a  revolutionary  storm,  the 
elements  of  which  had  long  been  gathering,  broke 
at  the  battle  of  Fushimi,  when  the  duareliy,  and 
the  shogunate  were  overthrown,  and  the  toku- 
(imrn  were  reduced  to  their  proper  place  as  vas- 
sals of  the  mikado,  who  was  restored  to  supreme 
power,  as  before  A.l>.  L192.  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment also  was  removed  to  Yedo  (bay-door),  which 
was  thereafter  called  Tokio  (eastern  capital). 
Enterprises  were  now  organized  on  a  national 
scale,  among  them  the  present  system  of  edu- 
cation, the  scheme  of  which  was  promulgated  in 
1872.  According  to  this,  the  empire  is  divide  1 
into  eight  educational  divisions,  in  each  of  which 
(here  is  a  university  or  dai  gakko,  with  thirty- 
two  middle  schools,  colleges  or  gymnasia;  besides 
which  there  are  two  hundred  and  ten  grammar 
schools, or  academies,  in  the  whole  empire.  In  all 

these  schools,  foreign  languages  and  the  sciences 
are  to  be  taught.  The  vernacular  schools  will 
number  about  f>4,00().  or  about  one  for  every  six 
hundred  of  the  population.  According  to  tin- 
latest  statistics,  there  are  30,000  public  schools  in 
operation,  with  very  nearly  2,000,000  pupils,  and 
45,000  teachers.  There  are  also  seven  normal 
schools,  the  principal  one  being  in  Tokio,  with 
teachers  in  course  of  training  from  every  prov- 
ince in  the  empire.  Both  sexes  enjoy  equal 
privileges  of  education,  from  the  primary  to  the 
normal  school.  The  department  of  education 
(  Mom  I!"  Sho)  is  one  of  the  ten  ministries 
of  the  imperial  government.  The  present  head 
(1876)  is  Fujimaro  Tanaka,  the  foreign  adviser 
being  Dr.  David  Murray,  formerly  of  Rutgers 
College,  New  I Srunswick,  X.  •! .  The  universities 
and  technical  schools  are  under  the  direct  con- 
trol of  the  central  government,  while  the  public 
vernacular  schools  are  under  the  care  of  the  local  or 
ken  authorities.  They  are  sustained  in  part  by  the 
central  government,  partly  by  special  taxation 
in  each  ken,  and  partly  by  the  contributions  of 
the  nobles,  the  rich,  and  the  common  people. 
Each  of  the  72  kens  has  a  bureau  of  inspection, 
■while  examiners  and  supervisors  are  regularly 
sent  out  from  Tokio,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
k<  'ping  up  and  improving  the  standard  of  edu- 
cation. In  addition  to  the  schools  under  the 
Mom  r.u  Sho,  nearly  every  government  depart- 
ment has  its  special  and  technical  schools.  Medi- 
cine, law,  and  military,  naval,  engineering,  agri- 
Cultur  1 1,  ami  optical  science  have  each  its  schools, 

some  of  which  are  splendid  colleges,  well  equipped 

•with    foreign    instructors    and     apparatus.       In 

elementary  instruction,  the  Japanese  have  suc- 
cessfully introduced  the  kindergarten  system 
and  object  teaching.  The  general  plan  and  dis- 
cipline of  American  schools  prevail  ;  and  such 
appliances  as  tables  and  chairs,  blackboards  and 
chalk,  slates  and  pencils,  phonetic  and  ideo- 
graphic charts,  colored  representations  and  soliil 
models  of  objects,  are  used  all  these  being 
new  ideas  in  Japanese  pedagogics.   The  children 

n    to    read    and    write    the  script    and  square 

hana  syllabary,  and  are  then  taught   the  sound 


and  sense  of  the  most  common  Chinese  characters. 
They  also  learn  abacus  reckoning,  the  use  of  the 
Arabic  numerals,  and  our  system  of  arith- 
metic. A  large  number  of  American  and  other 
elementary  text-books  have  been  translated,  and 
the  common-places  of  physical  science  are  now 
taught  to  Japanese  youth.  The  vernacular  is 
also  studied  by  the  help  of  standard  reading- 
books,  grammar  (a  new  thing),  declamation,  and 
the  committing  to  memory  of  choice  passages 
from  the  Japanese  classics.  The  Chinese  ethics 
still  holds  its  place;  but  the  moral  ideas,  sen- 
timents, and  narratives  of  Christendom  seem  to 
be  radically  influencing  the  rising  mind  of  the 
nation.  In  the  next  grade  of  schools,  foreign  lan- 
guages are  begun, and  (  hinese  writing  and  read- 
ing are  continued.  In  the  middle  schools,  the 
studies  are  wholly  in  English,  or  some  other 
elected  foreign  language,  the  text-books  being 
those  used  in  America  or  Europe,  while  the  course 
of  studies  common  to  an  American  high  school 
or  academy  is  gone  through  with,  'litis  period 
covers  four  years.  In  the  dai  gakko,  or  univer- 
sity, the  full  standard  of  which  it  is  expected  to 
reach  in  the  future,  the  students  are  actually  car- 
ried through  the  curriculum  of  the  average  Amer- 
ican college,  excepting  in  latin  and  Greek, the 
place  of  these  being  tilled  by  English  and  Chinese. 
At  present,  there  is  but  one  university  in  Japan 
the  KaiSei  Gakko,  in  Tokio.  which  litis  a  corps  of 
about  twenty  American  and  English  instructors, 
and  350  students,  while  the  school  of  foreign  lan- 
guages of  Tokio  has  double  this  number  of  pu- 
pils, all  under  foreign  instructors.  Nearly  two 
hundred  foreigners  are  employed  in  the  edu- 
cational service  of  Japan.  Both  students  and 
native  teachers,  as  a  rule,  wear  the  foreign 
costume;  and.  all  over  the  empire,  the  general 
method  of  school  order,  discipline,  equipment, 
and  architecture  approaches  more  closely  to  for- 
eign models,  year  by  year.  Private  schools  are 
also  very  numerous,  and  exert  a  healthful  spirit 
of  rivalry  with  the  government  establishments. 
The  newspaper  press,  publishers  of  books,  and 
government  issues  of  tracts  of  information  on 
various  subjects,  also  tend  powerfully  to  elevate 
the  intellectual  status  of  the  people.  There 
are  no  educational  journals  in  Japan,  but  the 
minister  of  public  instruct  ion  issues  a  yearly  re- 
port.— See  Gbiffxs,  The  Mikado's  Empire  |  New 
York,  I  876)  ;  Education  in  Japan,  No.  2  of  the 
Circulars  of  Information  of  the  CJ.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education  (Washington,  bs7">);  An  Outline 
History  of  Japanese  Education,  prepared  by 
the  Japanese  Dept.  of  Education  (N.  Y.,  ls7(>). 
JEFFERSON  COLLEGE,  a  1  Ionian  Cath- 
olic institution  at  St.  .lames.  La.,  under  the 
management  of  the  Marist  Fathers,  was  char- 
tered in    L861,  and  organized  in    1864     It   has 

g I  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus,  and 

a  library  of  5,000  volumes.  It  has  a  collegiate 
course  of  6  years,  including  preparatory  studies; 
a  commercial  course;  and  a  preparatory,  or 
primary,  course.  The  regular  charge  for  board, 
tuition,  etc..  is  $300  a  year.  German,  Bpanish, 
drawing,  and    music    are    extras.      In    l,v7"> — 6, 


JERSEY   CITY 


491 


there  were  12  instructors  and  65  students.  Tin- 
Very  Rev.  J.  J*.  Bigot,  S.  ML,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

JERSEY  CITY,  one  of  the  chief  cities  ft 
the  state  of  New  Jersey,  embraces  pari  of  the 
ancient  Dutch  town  of  Bergen,  from  which  ii 
was  set  off  by  an  act  of  the  legislature,  January 
28.,  1820,  containing  at  that  time  less  than  1,000 
inhabitants.  It  has  since  been  increased  by  the 
annexation  of  other  municipalities,  also  parts  of 
Bergen;  so  that  its  present  territory  reaches 
from  the  Hudson  river  westerly  to  the  Ilacken- 
sack  liver,  a  distance  of  nearly  four  miles,  and 
from  north  to  south,  six  miles.  The  population, 
according  to  the  state  census  of  187"),  was 
116,883;  and  the  number  of  children  of  school 
age,  that  is,  between  5  and  IS,  was  38,068. 

Educational  History. —  Probably,  the  first 
school  of  any  kind  that  ever  existed  in  New 
Jersey  was  located  on  the  site  of  the  school- 
house  now  known  as  School  No.  11,  in  Bergen 
Square.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  first  charter 
of  Bergen,  dated  September  22.,  1GG8,  granted 
by  Sir  Philip  Cartaret,  governor  of  the  then 
province  of  New  Jersey,  in  the  sixth  article 
thereof,  stipulated,  "that  all  persons  should  con- 
tribute, according  to  their  estates  and  propor- 
tions of  land./v)/'  thi'  keeping  of  a  free  school  for 
the  education  of  youth."  This  stipulation  was 
rigidly  enforced,  notwithstanding  the  objection 
and  strong  opposition,  at  various  times,  of  certain 
persons  of  the  baser  sort,  who  groaned,  both  in 
body  and  spirit,  when  called  on  to  pay  a  school 
tax  The  Dutch  may  thus  claim  equal  praise 
with  the  Puritans  of  New  England  for  making 
provision  for  the  education  of  their  children  in 
the  first  organization  of  their  towns.  History 
has  preserved  the  name  of  the  first  school-master. 
Engelbert  Steenhnysen,  a  tailor  by  trade,  came 
from  Westphalia  in  1659,  was  licensed  as  teacher 
in  1662,  and  taught  for  250  florins  a  year,  pay- 
able in  sea  stores.  His  school-house  was  built  of 
logs. — The  first  board  of  education  in  Jersey 
City  was  organized  in  March,  1852.  Previous 
to  that  time,  the  school  (for  there  was  but  one) 
was  managed  by  a  committee  of  the  board  of 
aldermen.  Joseph  McCoy  was  the  first  super- 
intendent, and  held  the  office  from  1852  to  1 854, 
and  afterward  from  1862  till  his  death,  in  18G9. 
A.  S.  Jewell  held  the  office  from  1855  to  1862  ; 
A.  rr.  W'allis,  a  part  of  1862  ;  and  S.  B.  Bevans, 
a  part  of  1  869  and  1870.  Up  to  this  time,  the 
office  of  superintendent  was  an  unsalaried  one. 
Merchants  and  other  business  men  held  it,  and 
were  not  expected  to  devote  much  time  to  its 
duties.  E.  ().  Chapman  was  the  first  superin- 
t  sndent  who  received  a  salary.  He  held  the  office 
one  year,  from  1870  to  1871.  Wm.  1..  Dickin- 
son was  chosen  assistant  superintendent  in  May, 
1867,  in  which  position  he  continued  until  \fft  I , 
when  he  was  elected  superintendent,  which  office 
he  yet  (1876)  retains. — From  the  organization 
of  the  first  board  of  education  to  1871, — a  pe- 
riod of  nineteen  years,  the  office  of  superintend- 
ent was  tilled  annually  by  vote  of  the  people  at 
the  charter  elections;  since   that  time,  the  duty 


of  filling  the  office  has  devolved  upon  the  hoard 
of  education,  and  the  term  of  office  has  been  ex- 
tended to  three  years. 

School  System.    The  school  law  under  which 
the  schools  are  now  managed,  was  enacted  in 

1873.      It    provides   that    the   hoard  of   directors 

of  education  shall  consist  of  twelve  members, 
two  from   each  aldermanic  district,  who   shall 

hold  office  two  years,  one  half  going  out  everv 
year.  They  have  power,  and  it  is  their  duty,  to 
provide, for  the  free  education  of  children  in  the 
city  between  the  ages  of  5  and  18,  every  thing 
necessary  in  their  opinion,  except  the  purchase 
of  lands,  the  erection  of  buildings,  and  the  mak- 
ing of  repairs  the  cost  of  which  shall  exceed 

$500,  the  latter  devolving  upon  the  hoard  of 
public  works.  The  hoard  of  education  is  also  em- 
powered to  expend  annually  $1,000,  to  establish 
and  maintain  a  free  library  for  the  use  of  teach- 
ers etc.,  and  to  provide  a  normal  .school,  high 
school,  and  evening  schools. — The  entire  city  is 
embraced  in  one  district,  known  as  District 
No.  13,  Hudson  Co.  Parents  are  permitted  to 
exercise  their  judgment  in  selecting  a  public 
school  in  any  part  of  the  city  for  the  education 
of  their  children.  There  are  four  grades  of 
schools :  primary,  grammar,  high,  and  normal 
schools.  There  are  20  primary  schools;  ]  !  gram- 
mar schools;  1  high  school;  and  1  normal  school 
(held  on  SaUirdays) .  The  14  grammar  schools 
have  each  a  primary  department  which  is  counted 
as  one  of  the  primary  schools.  In  all  of  the 
larger  schools,  the  principal  is  relieved  of  the 
work  of  teaching  a  class,  and  is  confined  to  that 
of  supervision  and  the  training  of  the  younger 
and  more  inexperienced  teachers.  One  city  su- 
perintendent, holding  office  for  three  years,  gives 
all  of  his  time  to  the  work  of  supervision. 

There  is  no  city  school  fund ;  but  the  state 
school  fund  yielded  to  the  city,  in  1874,  $10,738. 
The  two-mill  tax  collected  by  the  state  and  as- 
sessed upon  the  property ,  but  distributed  to  each 
school  district  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
children  between  the  ages  of  5  and  18,  yielded 
©131,602.56.  The  balance  was  raised  by  special 
tax.  Male  principals  of  the  grammar  schools 
receive  a  uniform  salary  of  $2,316;  of  female 
principals  of  primary  and  grammar  departments 
the  salary  is  $1,200.  No  male  assistants  are 
employed,  except  in  the  high  schools.  The  sal- 
aries of  female  assistants  vary,  according  to  their 
positions,  fro,  i  !  I  to  $360.  The  course  of 
study  in  the  primary  schools  is  divided  into  six 
grades,  and  embraces  reading,  spelling,  element- 
ary arithmetic  (through  the  fundamental  rules 
and  U.  S.  money),  geography,  writing,  and  draw- 
ing. Object-teaching  is  prescribed  for  each  grade. 
The  course  in  the  grammar  schools  is  divided 
into  five  grades,  and  includes,  besides  advanced 
instruction  in  the  same  studies,  Knglish  gram- 
mar, etymology,  history  and  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  physical  geography,  algebra,  nat- 
ural philosophy,  and  elementary  science,  the 
Litter  in  each  grade.  The  course  in  the  high 
school  is  divided  into  an  English  and  a  classical 
course,  each  extending  over  three  years. 


492 


•IKS  UITS 


School  Statistics. — The  following  items  are 
reported  for  the  year  1875  : 

Number  ol  |>ii|>ils  enrolled 18,737 

Average  register  Dumber 10.678 

Average  attendance 9.583 

Nnmber  oi  teachers,  males 16 

"        "        "         females 247 

Total 2C3 

Number  of  pupils  per  teacher,  primary  schools        56 
"       "  "       grammar     "  30 

Expenditures: 

Salaries $210,361.53 

Rents 2,2(111.00 

Books  and  stationery....  13,133.61 
Repairs  and  furniture....  10,613.64 
Fuel  and  incid.  expenses.     26,001.59 

Total   ....  $2fi2,310..'!7 

Besides  the  public  schools,  there  are  but  few 
others  of  any  great  importance,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  tlic  denominational  schools  supported  by 
the  Roman  Catholics.  These  schools  are  largely 
attended. 

JESUITS,  or  the  Society  of  Jesus,  a 
celebrated  religious  order  of  the  <  latholic  <  'hurch. 
It  was  founded  by  [gnatius  Loyola  in  the  begin- 
oing  of  the  L  6th  century,  and  spread  with  great 
rapidity  over  the  entire  Christian  world.  It  ob- 
tained an  influence  unparalleled  in  the  history  of 
religious  orders  and,  perhaps,  in  the  history  of 
societies  of  any  kind,  li  was  abolished,  in  177;?, 
by  Pope  Clement  XIV.,  bul  restored,  in  L814,by 

Pope    Pius  VII,   and   has  since    then    borne  the 

brunt  of  battle  in  the  severe  conflicl  which  has 
hem  raging  b  tween  the  Catholic  Church  and 
many  of  the  present  stale  governments,  both 
( latholic  and  Protestant.  The  -lesuits  regarded  it. 
as  a  special  mission  of  their  society  to  arrest  the 

progress  of  the  Reformation,  and  to  regain  for 
the  church  as  much  of  the  lost  ground  as  possible. 
In  order  to  fulfill  this  mission,  they  endeavore  I 
to  obtain  control  of  the  instruction  of  the  ris- 
ing generation.  Their  efforts  to  establish  well- 
patronized,  well-attended,  and  influential  schools, 
met  with  complete  success;  and  though  the  opin- 
ions which  have  been  expressed  of  the  merits  of 

the  Bel Is  of  the  .lesuits  greatly  vary,  according 

to  the  sympathy  or  dislike  of  writers  in  regard 
to  the  order,  the  powerful  influence  which  the 
•lesuits.  through  their  schools,  have  exerted  upon 
the  history  of  many  countries  is  admitted  by 
all.  In  order  to  appreciate  .justly  the  e  lucational 
principl  ss  of  the  •lesuits.  it  may  be  well  to  not  ice, 
iirst.  the  plan  according  to  which  the  members  of 
the  order  were,  and  still  are,  traine  I  themselves 

as  teachers.      The  candidates  tor   the   priesthood 

are,  during  the  two  first  years,  novitii  scholas- 
tici;  thru,  by  binding  themselves  to  the  order  by 

means  of  simple  VOWS,  they  hceonie  SCholostid 
approbcUi.  Devoting  themselves,  fur  several  years. 

to  classical  and  philosophical  studies,  they  art',  for 
bo time,  employed  as  teachers  and  educators 

in   the  colleges,    until    fchej    lie-in    the  study    of 

theology,  which  lasts  for  four  years.     As  all  the 

member8  were  thUB  trained  as  practical  teachers. 

the  ..ider  u;is.  soon  after  its  foundation,  enabled 
wherever  a  favorable  opportunity  offered,  to  call 
into  existence1  an  astonishing  number  of  literary 

institutions. 


All  the  educational  institutions  of  the  Jesuits 
are  governed   in  accordance   with   the   official 
course  of  instruction  entitled  ratio  et  ii<*tihitio 
studiorum  societatis  Jesu,  ami   well   known  in 
history  under  the  shorter  name  ratio  studiorum. 
It    was    drawn    up    under    the  direction  of  the 
fifth  general  of  the  order,  Acquaviva,  who,  im- 
mediately after  his  election,  in  L581,  was  com- 
missioned by  the  4th  General  Congregation  to 
appoint    for   this   purpose  a  committee   of  six 
fathers.    In  L584,  the  committee  in  which  Spain, 
Portugal,  France,  Austria.  Germany,  and  Koine 
were  represented,  were  presented  to  the    Pope. 
Their  work  was  revised  by  another  committee 
of  twelve  members,  subsequently  submitted  for 
revision  and   approbation  to  the  5th  and  6th 
General    Congregations  and  to  the    Pope,  and 
finally  printed  in  L599,  in  the  printing  office  of 
the  Collegium  Romanian.     A  new  edition,  with 
additions  sanctioned   by   the   7th  General    Con- 
gregation, appeared   in   Koine  in  1616.     After 
the  restoration  of  the  order,  the  20th  General 
Congregation,  held  in  1820.  and  the  21st,  held 
in  1 829,  recommended  a  revision  of  the  course 

of  studies;  and  the  general  of  the  older,  father 
Roothan,  appointed,  therefore,  in  L830  a  com- 
mittee of  live  fathers,  representing  the  five  prov- 
inces of  the  order  Italy.  Sicily,  Fiance,  Ger- 
many.and  Spain.  In  L831  .the  revised  en  use.  after 
having  received  the  approbation  of  the  general 
and  his  assistants,  was  sent  to  all  the  members 
of  the  order.  The  changes  made  in  the  old  course 
chiefly  relate  to  theology,  philosophy,  oriental 
languages,  mathematics,  and  physics.  Instruc- 
tion in  theology  and  philosophy  is  not  to  he 
based,  to  the  same  extent  as  before,  on  Thomas 

Aquinas  and  Aristotle:  and.  in  mathematics  and 

the  natural  sciences,  proper  attention  is  to  be 

given  to  the  recent  progress  made  in  those. 
branches.  In  the  lower  classes  of  their  institu- 
tions, new  provisions  are  made  for  learning  mod- 
ern languages,  both  the  vernacular  and  foreign, 
and  for  the  study  of  history.  The  course  of  studies 

is  divided  into  twenty  sections,  and  embraces 

rules  for  the  provincial,  the  rector,  the  prefects 
of    studies,    the    professors,   the    scholastics,  and 

the  students.    'I  he  general  of  this  order  is  the 

supreme  head  of  till  its  schools  and  educational 
institutions:  he  superintends  all  of  them,  and  he 
alone    authorizes  the  establishment  of  new  ones. 

When,  in  the  present  century,  the  government 
of  Austria  transferred  to  the  Society  of  Jesus 
several  gymnasia  ami  the  theological  faculty  of 

one    of    the     state     Ulli  VelMt  ies     |l  lilisplUck) .    the 

general  of  the  order,  father  Beckx,  explicitly  in- 
sisted that  the  superiors  of  the  order  must  be  at 
full  liberty  " to  appoint  members  of  the  order, 

without  a  previous  examination  by  state  boards. 

directors,  rectors,  prefects  of  studies,  and  pro- 

ors,  and  to  remove  them  and   appoint    Others 

in  their  stead,  as  he  may  deem  best  in  the  Sight 
Of  Cod."     The  head  of  a   province  of  the  order  is 

called  a  "provincial";  and  the  first  section  of  the 
ratio  studiorum  recommends  to  him  the  care  of 
the  schools,  the  appointment  of  competent  pre- 
fects of  studies  and  professors,  and  the  enforce- 


JKSriTS 


493 


ment  of  a  strict  observance  of  the  entire  course 

of  studies.  At  the  bead  of  single  houses  or  col- 
leges, is  the  "rector."  who  dors  not  give  instruc- 
tion himself,  but  is  generally  chosen  from  ai ■ 

the  older  teachers.  I  le  is  appointed  for  a  term  of 
three  years  by  the  general  or  his  representative  ; 
and.  atter  this  time,  is  frequently  transferred  to 
another  college.  1  le  appoints  one  or  two  prefects 
of  Studies,  and  all  must  obey  and  revere  him  as 
the  representative  of  Jesus  Christ.  A  college  of 
the  first  class  must,  as  a  ride,  have  20  teachers 
or  ••  regents";  a  college  of  the  second  class.  30;  a 
college  of  the  third  class,  or  a  university,  at  least 
70.  Small  institutions  which  have  not  a  Suffi- 
cient number  of  teachers  must  he  dissolved. 
With  the  colleges,  there  are  generally  connected 
convictoria  alumnorum  (boarding-houses),  in 
which  students  of  the  college  receive  lodging, 
hoard,  and  strict  superintendence  by  a  mem- 
Iit  of  the  order,  or  seminaries  for  educat- 
ing young  candidates  for  the  priesthood  or 
knights'  academies,  for  the  exclusive  education 
of  the  sons  of  nobles.  Day  scholars  who  do  not 
live  in  any  of  the  institutions,  have  to  promise 
obedience  to  the  rector  and  the  rules,  and  they 
are.  from  time  to  time,  visited  by  the  prefect  of 
studies  in  their  houses. 

The  schools  of  the  Jesuits  are  divided  into 
higher  and  lower  classes.  The  former  are  under 
the  supervision  of  a  prcefectus  generalis,  or 
prcefectus  studiorum  superiorum;  the  latter,  un- 
der that  of  a  prcefectus  studiorum  inferiorum. 
The  smaller  colleges  have  only  the  lower  classes, 
and,  therefore,  only  one  prefect.  The  studia  in- 
feriora  embrace  five  classes:  (1)  Infima,  also 
called  "the  rudiment";  (2)  Secunda,  or  media 
classis  grammaticae,  also  called  "grammar"; 
(3)  Ter/i'i,  or  s>t/>rema  classis  f/rtininin/iae.  also 
called -syntax";  I  \)  Quartet — poetica.ov  humani- 
tas,  (5)  Quinta — rhetorica.  The  three  lower  are 
designated  as  the  three  grammar,  and  the  two 
higher  as  the  two  humanity  classes.  In  smaller 
schools,  two  classes  are  sometimes  united  into 
one ;  in  larger  schools,  parallel  classes  are  formed. 
<  nnsiderable  prominence  is  given,  in  all  the  clas- 
ses, to  the  study  of  the  Latin  language.  As 
much  as  practicable,  Latin  is  made  the  medium 
of  instruction  ;  and  it  is  intended  to  give  to  the 
pupils  such  a  knowledge  of  the  language  as  will 
enable  them  to  speak  and  write  it.  Father  Beckx, 
the  general  of  the  order,  says  on  this  subject,  in 
his  correspondence  with  the  Austrian  minister  of 
public  instruction  :  "  Because  the  Latin  language 
is  the  language  of  the  church,  and  the  language  of 
Christian  tradition,  and  because  in  this  language 
the  literary  treasures  of  all  times  and  nations 
have  been  deposited,  and  because  it  has  been  for 
centuries  developed  beyond  any  other  language, 
as  the  medium  of  faith  and  of  science,  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus  has  a  special  predilection  for  this  lan- 
guage, and  uses  it  as  medium  of  instruction  in 
its  schools."  It  is  expressly  stated  that  it  is  not 
intended  to  imbue  the  minds  of  the  pupils  with 
the  spirit  of  classic  antiquity,  and  most  of  the 
Latin  authors  used  in  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits 
are  read  in  expurgated  editions.  -  The  study  of 


the  Greek  language  begins  simultaneously  with 

the  Latin,   though    much  less  time  and  attention 

are  given  to  it.  Instruction  in  the  vernacular 
language  was  incorporated  with  the  course  of  in- 
struction by  order  of  the  1  1 1 1 1  Genera]  Congrega- 
tion, in  1 7().'>;  and.  in  1  T.~><",,  the  colleges  in  Ger- 
many were  advised  to  devote  as  much  attention 
to  German  as  to  Latin  and  Greek.-  To  in- 
struction in  religion,  less  time  is  devoted  than  in 
most  other  schools  conducted  by  religious  orders. 

the  Jesuits  being  of  opinion  that  the  religious 

education  of  their  pupils  will  he  more  promoted 
by  religious  exercises  than  by  theoretical  instruc- 
tion.— In  the  two  higher  classes  oratorical  exer- 
cises and  exercises  in  composition  receive  spe- 
cial attention.—  The  other  subjects  of  instruct  ion 
were  originally  comprised  under  the  collective 
name  of  eruditio,  and  it  was  recommended  to 
use  specially  the  hours  of  recreation,  and  the 
weekly  holidayfor  the  purpose  of  acquainting  the 
pupils  with  the  elementary  and  most  interesting 
parts  of  the  studies. — The  s/»</i</  superiora 
comprise  a  two  years'  course  of  philosophy  and 
a  four  years'  course  of  theology. 

The  management  of  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits 
is  based  on  the  fundamental  principle  that  edu- 
cation and  instruction  should  be  most  intimately 
connected,  and  that  the  education  of  the  pupils 
is  by  far  the  most  important  aim  of  a  school. 
They  favor  the  class  teaching  system;  for  not 
only  does  the  class  teacher  teach  all  or  most  of 
the  subjects  of  instruction  in  his  class,  but  be 
takes  his  pupils  through  several  or  all  of  the 
classes.  They  deem  it  an  important  condition 
of  the  success  of  the  teacher  that  he  should  thor- 
oughly know  the  character  of  each  pupil;  and 
this,  they  contend,  is  only  possible  in  the  class- 
teaching  system.  They  believe  that  great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  crowd  the  pupils,  either 
in  the  number  of  subjects  or  the  amount  of  time 
given  to  study;  and  they  object  to  the  courses 
of  instruction  adopted  in  most  modern  colleges 
and  gymnasia,  as  attempting  too  much.  They 
prefer  short  lessons,  and  are  specially  anxious 
to  make  learning  and  reciting  as  attractive  to 
the  pupils  as  possible.  Great  stress  is  laid  on 
thorough  memorizing,  and  on  frequent  reviews 
and  disputations.  The  last  day  of  every  week 
and  the  latter  part  of  every  month  and  of  even- 
half-year  are  regularly  devoted  to  a  review  of  the 
work  accomplished  during  this  period.  As  the 
chief  incentive  to  diligence,  they  encourage  emu- 
lation, which  they  endeavor  to  stimulate  by  the 
distribution  of  prizes,  by  ';concertations"  (dispu- 
tations or  literary  contests) ,  and  by  the  promotion 
of  the  best  students  to  a  variety  of  honorary  ti- 
tles, which  are  taken  from  the  Greek  and  Roman 
republics  (pretors,  censors,  decurions,  etc.).  It  is 
made  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  control  his  pupils 
by  means  of  praise  and  encouragement  rather 
than  by  punishment.  Corporal  punishment  is 
to  be  employed  only  in  extreme  cases,  and  not 
by  any  member  of  the  order,  but  by  a  "  cor- 
rector    appointed  for  the  purpose. 

The  influence  of  the  Jesuits  upon  education 
in  Catholic  countries  has  been  very  great.    Each 


494 


JESUITS 


JOHNS  HOPKIXS  UNIVERSITY 


one  of  these  countries,  at  one  time  or  other,  has 
had  flourishing  colleges  of  the  Jesuits,  in  wliich, 
iu  particular,  ;i  large  number  of  the  children 
of  the  nobility  and  of  other  prominent  persons 
wen-  educated.  How  huge  a  share  of  the  order's 
activity  was  given  to  instruction,  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that,  in  1749,  the  order  had  only 
'_' 1  professed  houses,  but  669  colleges  and  176 
seminaries.  Even  their  missionaries  in  pagan 
count  tics  were  always  anxious  to  obtain,  as 
soon  a.s  possible,  control  of  the  education  of 
the  rising  generation,  by  the  establishment  of 
colleges.  Thus,  the  Portuguese  .Jesuits  had,  in 
1613,  in  Japan  two  colleges;  and  in  China.  Father 
Ricci  established  a  reputation  as  one  of  the  best 
scholars.  Their  educational  labors  were  chiefly 
limited  to  schools  of  a  higher  grade :  but,  in 
the  most  celebrated  of  their  missions,  Paraguay 
(q.  v.).  all  the  youth  were,  for  some  time,  un- 
der the  sole  educational  control  of  the  Jesuits. 
Though  founded  for  combating  Protestantism, 
they  gained,  as  teachers,  the  admiration  of 
many  of  the  Protestant  princes.  Thus.  Frederick 
the  Great,  of  Prussia,  permitted  them,  after 
the  abolition  of  their  order,  to  continue  as  an 
organized  society,  under  the  name  of  -priests 
of  the  royal  sch  >ol  institute."  In  the  l!)th  cent- 
ury, the  communities  of  the  Jesuits,  inclusive 
of  their  schools,  were  suppressed,  on  the  charge 

of  being  dangerous  to  the  interests  of  the  state, 
in  Portugal,  Spain.  Italy,  Switzerland,  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  and  Russia;  and  they  were,  in 
L876,  threatened  with  suppression  in  Austria- 
Hungary.  They  have  also  been  expelled  from 
Mexico,  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  and  a 
number  of  other  South  American  states.   They, 

however,  still  have  a  number  of  colleges  in  France, 

the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Great  Britain,  and 
the  Austro  Hungarian  Monarchy.  The  .Jesuits 
accompanied  Lord  Baltimore  to  Maryland,  and 
were  the  first  instructors  of  the  Catholic  settlers 
of  that  province.  They  continued  to  live  in  a 
community  after  the  abolition  of  their  order, 
and  grew  rapidly  after  \\<  restoration.  Their  col- 
3,  in  L876,  were  as  follows :  Boston  College, 
South  Boston,  and  College  of  the  Holy  Cross, 
Worcester,  Mass.:  College  of  St.  Francis  Xavier, 
New  York;  St.  John's  College,  New  York  (Ford- 
ham);  St.  Joseph's,  Philadelphia;  St.  John's, 
Frederick,  Md.;  Loyola.  Baltimore;  Gonzaga, 
Washington,  D.  O.j  Georgetown,  1>.  C;  Spring 
Hill,  near  Mobile,  Ala.;  St.  Louis  University, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.;  College  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ion  New  Orleans;  St.  Charles,  Grand  Co- 
teau,  La.;  St.  Joseph's,  Bardstown, Ky.;  St.  Xav- 
ier's,  Cincinnati;  st.  Ignatius  College,  San  Fran- 
cisco; and  Santa  Clara  College,  CaL  In  Canada, 
the  Jesuits  condud  St.  Man  a  College,  Montreal, 
founded  in  1848.  -Among  the  admirers  of  the 
school-  of  the  Jesuits  were  Lord  Bacon,  Descartes, 
and  Chateaubriand.  Says  Bacon:  "As  it  regards 
I  b  hing,  this  is  the  sum  of  all  direction  :  take 
example  by  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits,  for  better 
do  not  exist.  When  I  look  at  the  diligence,  and 
the  activity  of  the  Jesuits,  iioth  in  imparting 
knowledge  and  in  i n< mi  1  line  the  heart.  I  bethink 


me  of  the  exclamation  of  Agesilaus  concerning 
Pharnabazus  :  '  Since  thou  art  so  noble,  1  would 
thou  wert  on  our  side.  "  Lanke.  in  the  His- 
tory qf  the  Popes  (vol.  i.).  makes  the  following 
remarks  on  the  educational  system  of  the  Jesu- 
its :  "The  Jesuits  were  more  systematic  than  the 
former  teachers  ;  they  divided  their  pupils  into 
classes.  Their  instruction  carried  the  pupils  in 
the  same  spirit  from  the  first  elements  to  the 
highest  stage.  They  also  supervised  the  morals, 
and  educated  well-bred  gentlemen.  They  were 
favored  by  the  political  power.  Finally,  they  im- 
parted their  instruction  gratuitously.  This  could 
not  but  be  of  immense  advantage  to  them, 
especially  as  their  results  were  really  as  great  as 
their  zeal.  The  Jesuits  were  learned,  and.  in 
their  way.  pious:  but  no  one  will  say  that  their 
science  was  based  on  a  free  soaring  of  the  mind. 
or  that  their  piety  proceeded  from  the  depth  and 
the  ingenuity  of  a  simple  mind.  They  are  suf- 
ficiently learned  to  awaken  confidence,  to  obtain 
reputation,  to  educate  and  retain  scholars;  they 
aim  at  nothing  further.  Neither  their  piety  nor 
their  teaching  enters  upon  free  and  untrodden 
roads;  but  it  has  something  which  characterizes 
it;  it  has  method.  Every  thing  is  calculated, 
for  every  thing  has  a  special  aim.  They  were 
diligent  and  fantastic,  full  of  wisdom  and  en- 
thusiasm, respectable  people  whom  one  likes 
to  approach  :  without  personal  interest,  one  aid- 
ing the  other.  No  wonder  that  they  succeeded." 
Among  the  most  important  work.-  on  the  history 
of  the  Jesuits  are  :  Cketineau-Joli  (friendly  to 
the  order).  Histoire  religieuse,  politique  et  litter- 
aire  dela  compagnie  ae  Jesus  (6  vols.,  1844 — 6); 

GlOBERT]     (adverse      to     the      Jesuits),     11  Ge- 

suita  Moderno  (5  vols.,  1847) :  Stkixmetz.  His* 
tory  of  the  Jesuits  (3  vols.,  1848] :  IL  beb  (OW 
Catholic),  Der  JesuUenordeii  (lo'T.'l).  A  special 
work  on  the  Ratio  studiorwn  is,  Jhr  SorieWit 
Jesu  Lekr-  und  Erziekungsplan  (3  vols.,  Lands- 
hut,  1  833 — 6,  friendly  to  the  order).  See  also 
The  Jesuits  ami  their  Schools,  in  Barnabd's 
German  Teachers  <n<<l  Educators  (a  condensed 
translation  from  Rauheb's  Geschichte  der P&da- 
gogik);  and  Weicker,  Das  Schulwesen  der  Je- 
suiten  nach  den  Quellen  dargesteQt. 

JOHNS  HOPKINS    UNIVERSITY,    at 
Baltimore,   Md..  was  founded  in    1874.     It  is 

named    in    honor  of  the   late  .lohns    Hopkins  of 

Baltimore,  who  bequeathed  a  fund  of  $3,<  0  1,000 

for  its  endowment  and  a  beautiful  estate  of  .'!.':() 
acres  ,-,t  (  Mi  Hon.  near  the  city  limits,  for  its  perma- 
nent site.      MMie  temporary  location  is  within  the 

city.  Daniel  C.  Gilman  was  appointed  the  6rst 
(idenl  ;  and  the  department  of  philosophy  was 
opened  Oct.  •".,  Ls7(i.  The  plan  includes  a  med- 
ical department  and  a  law  department.  The 
University  contemplates  ••  a  combination  of  lect- 
ures, recitations,  laboratory  practice,  lield  work, 
and   private    instruction."      The  system   adopted 

••involves  freedom  of  methods  to  he  employed 

by  the    instructors  on   the  one  hand,  and  on  the 

other,  freedom  of  courses  to  be  selected  by  the 

students."  while  it  is  ■•  intended  that  the  pupils 
shall    have  been   matured    by   the    long    prejwir- 


JUDGMENT 


KANSAS 


495 


atory  discipline  of  superior  teachers,  and  by 
the  systematic,  laborious,  and  persistent  pursuit 
of  fundamental  knowledge."  Ten  fellowships, 
or  graduate  scholarships,  were  opened  in  ls7i;, 

each  yielding  8500  a  year  and  renewable,  to  be 
bestowed  for  excellence  in  the  following  subjects  : 
philology,  literature,  history,  ethics  and  meta- 
physics, political  science,  mathematics,  engineer- 
ing, physics,  chemistry,  and  natural  history.  So 
many  advanced  students  (152)  presenting  them- 
selves as  applicants,  twenty  fellowships  were  be- 
stowed upon  graduates  of  various  colleges. 

JUDGMENT,  Training  of.  "This  de- 
partment of  intellectual  culture  needs  no  special 
attention,  if  the  whole  educational  system,  in 
other  respects,  is  judicious  and  rational;  i.e., 
adapted  to  the  individual  both  as  to  age  (degree 
of  maturity)  and  peculiarities  of  character  or 
endowment.  Where  this  is  not  the  case,  an  effi- 
cient corrective  may  be  applied  by  bringing  into 
exercise  the  pupil's  mental  faculties  in  various 
ways  and  in  connection  with  various  subjects. 
The  departure  must  be  taken  from  the  sphere  of 
the  pupil's  experience;  he  must  be  led  (1)  to 
an  accurate  observation  of  particulars — -minute 
details;  ('_')  to  their  collation,  as  preliminary  to 
generalization ;  and  (3)  to  their  classification 
under  appropriate  heads.  When  general  prin- 
ciples or  rules  have  been  established  in  the  pupil's 
mind  in  this  way,  his -judgment  will  be  brought 
into  play  in  the  application  of  the  principle  or 


rule  to  particular  objects  or  facts.  Thus,  in  nat- 
ural history,  after  the  pupil  has  learned  the 
characteristics  of  genera  and  species  by  a  minute 
and  accurate  observation  of  individual  specimens, 
he  cannot,  without  an  exercise  of  judgment,  de- 
termine whether  any  particular  specimen,  pre- 
viously unobserved,  belongs  to  one  or  the  other 
genus  or  species,  lie  must  have  a  clear  concep- 
tion of  the  distinguishing  qualities,  both  of  the 
individual  and  of  the  class,  in  older  to  determine 
whether  the  correspondence  exists  or  not.  As 
regards  concrete  objects,  the  judgment  is  exer- 
cised at  a  very  early  age.  and  is  constantly 
trained  more  or  less  by  every   legitimate  process 

of  intellectual  education:  but  as  regards  abstract 

truths,  this  faculty  is  one  of  the  last  to  attain 
a  full  or  mature  development.  Accuracy  in 
judging  depends  verymuchonthe  mental  habits 
formed  during  the  period  of  early  education. 
Habits  of  attention,  careful  observation,  dispas- 
sionate, conscientious  reasoning,  and  a  profound 
and  earnest  love  of  truth,  will  qualify  any  person 
for  the  exercise  of  a  sound  judgment  in  regard 
to  any  subject  of  study  or  investigation.  A  men- 
tal character  based  upon  such  habits  will  be  free 
from  prejudice,  and  will  readily  learn  to  elimi- 
nate all  passion  from  its  intellectual  processes; 
and,  hence,  its  judgments  being  solely  based 
upon  the  facts  acquired,  will  be  correct  or  the 
contrary,  in  proportion  to  the  accuracy  and  ex- 
tent of  the  information  possessed. 


KALAMAZOO  COLLEGE,  at  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  under  the  control  of  the  Baptists,  was 
founded  in  1855.  It  admits  both  sexes,  and  is 
supported  by  tuition  fees  (SI 8  per  year),  and  the 
income  of  an  endowment  of  $80,000.  It  has  a 
library  of  2,500  volumes,  chemical  and  philo- 
sophical apparatus,  and  cabinets  of  natural  his- 
tory. There  is  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate 
department,  with  three  courses;  namely,  (1)  Clas- 
sical, including  Greek  and  Latin;  (2)  Latin  and 
scientific  (without  Greek) ;  (3)  Scientific  (with- 
out Greek  and  Latin).  Facilities  are  afforded 
for  instruction  in  music  and  art.  In  187-4 — 5, 
there  were  11  instructors  (3  females),  and  174 
students  (108  males  and  66  females),  of  whom  27 
were  of  the  collegiate  grade.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  James  A.  H.Stone,  1  >.!>., 
1855—64;  John  M.  Gregory,  LL.D.,  1864—7; 
and  the  Rev.  Kendall  Brooks,  1  >.!>..  the  present 
incumbent  (1876),  appointed  in  1868. 

KANSAS,  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana 
purchase  of  L803,  was  organized  as  a  separate  ter- 
■  ritorybyan  act  of  Congress  passed  in  May,  L854. 
It  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1861.  Its 
area  is  81,318  sq.  in.,  and  its  population,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1870,  was  364,399,  of  whom 
17.1ns  were  colored,  and  914  Indians.  The  state 
census  of  L873  showed  a  gain  of  67.63  per  cent. 
the  total  population  of  the  state  at  that  time  be- 
ing 610,863.  ( >f  the  male  adults  8. 12  per  cent  were 
illiterate;  and  of  the  female  adults,  13.2  percent. 


Educational  History. — By  the  provisions  of 
the  constitution  ratified  in  1859,  the  legislature 
was  required  to  "encourage  the  promotion  of 
intellectual,  moral,  scientific,  and  agricultural 
improvement,  by  establishing  a  uniform  system 
of  common  schools,  and  schools  of  higher  grade, 
embracing  normal,  preparatory,  collegiate,  and 
university  departments.''  It  also  provided  for 
the  appointment  of  a  state  superintendent, 
county  superintendents,  and  a  state  board  of 
commissioners.  Sections  of  land  in  every  town- 
ship had  been,  as  in  the  case  of  other  new  states, 
set  apart  for  common-school  purposes,  and  sev- 
enty-two sections  were  reserved  for  the  main- 
tenance of  a  state  university.  School  laws  have 
been  passed,  with  modified  provisions,  from  time 
to  time  by  successive  legislatures.  A  compulsory 
education  law  was  enacted  in  1874. 

School  System.— -The  educational  interests  of 
the  state  are  committed  to  (1)  a  superintendent 
of  public  instruction, elected  for  two  years;  (2)a 
state  board  of  education,  consisting  of  the  prin- 
cipals of  the  normal  schools,  the  president  of  the 

stale  university  and  of  the  agricultural  college; 

which  body  meets  annually,  and  issues  to  teach- 
ers, upon  examination,  diplomas  for  life  or  certifi- 
cates for  three  or  five  years;  (3)  a  state  board 
of  commissioners,  composed  of  the  state  super- 
intendent, the  secretary  of  state,  and  the  at- 
torney general,  for  the  management  of  the  per- 
manent   school    and    university    funds  ;     and 


496 


KANSAS 


(4)  county  superintendents,  elected  for  two 
years,  whose  duty  it  is  to  apportion  the  school 
moneys,  to  visit  schools,  and  to  hold  teachers' 
institutes.  These  institutes  are  also  required  to 
be  held  annually  by  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  in  the  several  judicial  districts  of 
the  state.  The  schools  must  be  kept  open  six 
hours  per  day  for  at  least  three  months,  the 
school  month  consisting  of  four  weeks  of  five 
i lays  each.  The  school  age  is  from  5  to  21  years. 
By  the  act  of  A.ugust,  L874,  parents  are  com- 
pelled to  send  healthy  children  to  public  or 
private  schools  not  less  than  twelve  weeks  every 
year,  under  the  penalty  of  a  tine  of  from  #•*>  to 
sio  for  the  first  offense,  and  from  #10  to  $20 
for  every  subsequent  offense.  School  directors 
are  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  this  law. — 
The  school  revenue  is  derived  from  (1)  the  pro- 
ceeds of  all  lands  granted  by  Congress  to  the 
state  for  the  support  of  schools,  including  the 
500,000  acres  granted  to  each  new  state  in  1841; 
(2)  all  estates  of  persons  dying  intestate  and  with- 
out heirs;  and  (.'!)  money  derived  from  military 
exemptions,  fines,  and  estrays.  The  amount  of 
interest-bearing  permanent  school  fund,  in  1S75, 
according  to  the  report  of  the  state  superintend- 
ent, for  that  year,  was  $1,163,534.09.  The 
income  from  all  sources  for  the  support  of 
schools,  amounted  to  $1,478,998.64,  including 
S'-'CI.ijkH.:!!)  from  state  funds,  and  $685,162.27 
from  district  taxes. — The  salaries  of  teachers 
areas  follows:  average  monthly  salary  of  male 
teachers,  $33.98;  of  female  teachers,  $27.25. — 
The  course  of  instruction  according  to  the  law 
of  L874,  includes  orthography,  reading,  writing, 
English  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  such  other 
branches  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  district 
board. 

Educational  Condition. — The  total  number 
of  school-districts  in  the  state  is  4,560  ;  and  the 
number  of  school  houses.  .'5,71.").  According  to  the 

report  of  L875,  the  number  of  persons  of  school 
age  was  L99,986;  of  whom  103,551  were  males, 
and  96,435  females.  The  following  are  addi- 
tional items  of  school  statistics  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 142,606 

Average  daily  attendance 85,580 

Number  of  teachers,  males 2,448 

"      "         "        females 2,935 

Total 5,383 

Receipts >1.I7s,'j:is.c,| 

Expenditures,  for  salaries,  repairs,  etc.  $1,235,969.72 
Normal  Instruction.-  -There  are  three  state 
normal  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers.  The 
first  was  organized  at  Emporia  in  L865.  This 
affords  a  two  years' and  a  four  years'  course  of 
study  in  the  normal  department,  and  has,  be- 
sides, a  model  department,  consisting  of  a  high> 
school  a  in  I  era  minar  department,  and  an  element- 
ary training  school.  The  enrollment,  in  L875, 
was  302:  in  the  normal  department,  77:  high 
school,  8;  braining  and  preparatory  school,  217. 

The  second  normal  school  isat    Leavenworth  and 

was  organized  in  1870.  This  comprises  a  nor- 
mal department,  which  affords  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  all  the  subjects  taught    in  the  public 


schools  of  the  state,  and  a  model  school,  in  which 
the  art  of  teaching  is  practiced.  The  model 
school  comprises  thirteen  grades  or  departments, 
and,  in  1875,  the  total  enrollment  was  836  ;  and 
the  number  of  teachers,  12.  In  the  normal  de- 
partment, the  enrollment  was  420:  and  the  num- 
ber of  teachers,  7  ;  the  average  attendance  was 
about  '250.  This  department  includes  two  kinds 
of  classes:  the  regular  classes  of  the  normal 
course,  and  the  temporary  classes  of  the  institute 
course.  The  former  study  in  detail  all  that  per- 
tains to  professional  training:  the  latter  give 
their  attention  to  all  the  ordinary  common-school 
subjects,  with  only  enough  detail  to  illustrate 
methods.  There  are  five  of  these  short  courses 
in  a  school  year.  The  normal  students  teach  in 
the  grades  of  the  city  schools.  The  third  normal 
school,  organized  in  1 874,  is  located  at  Concordia. 
The  school  edifice  is  a  tine  stone  structure,  ca- 
pable of  accomodating  300  students.  The  enroll- 
ment, in  L875,  was.  in  the  normal-department, 
171 :  iii  the  training  school,  8'A:  total,  '254. 

Secondary  Instruction. — In  1^73,  the  regents 
of  the  university  authorized  the  preparation  of 
a  course  of  study  for  the  high  schools  of  the 
state,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  uniformity 
into  the  school  system.  With  this  view  a  clas- 
sification was  adopted  which  assigned  to  the  high 
schools  an  intermediate  position  between  the 
graded  schools  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  state 
university  and  agricultural  college  on  the  other. 
Three  courses,  each  of  four  years,  were  arranged. 
— a  classical,  a  scientific,  and  an  Knglish  course. 
The  choice  as  to  which  shall  be  pursued,  is  op- 
tional with  the  student.  There  are  66  graded 
schools  in  the  state  which  have,  connected  with 
them,  high  school  courses,  attended  by  1,066  pu- 
pils. There  are  two  business  colleges,  which  were 

reported,  in  1874,  to  have  1  instructors  and  179 

students.  140   of  the  latter  being   males,  and  .'!!• 

females.    The  principal  denominational  schools 

of  this  grade  are  (I  i  St.  Benedict's  College  (Ro- 
man Catholic),  at  Atchison,  with  7  instructors 
and  110  students;  (2)  the  college  of  the  Sisters 
of  Bethany  (Episcopal),  at  Topeka,  witli  a  pri- 
mary, a  preparatory,  and  a  collegiate  department; 
(.'!)  Mt.  St.  Mary's  Female  Academy  [Roman 
Catholic),  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity, 
with  7  instructors  and  26  pupils:  (4)  the  Geneva 
Academy  I  Presbyterian)  with  2  instructors  and 
100  pupils;  (5)  the  Western  Methodisi  Collegiate 
Institute,  at  Hartford:  (6)  Washburn  College 
(i  longregational),  at  Topeka. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  Of  the  institutions 
which  afford  instruction  of  this  grade,  the  only 
one  under  the  direct  management  of  the  state  i.- 
the  University  of  Kansas  (q.  v.),  at  Lawrence. 
Others  are  included  in  the  following  table  : 


NAME 


Location 


Baker  I  niversitj Baldwin  Citj 

Highland  University Highland 

Lane  University Lee pton 

st.  Benedict's  College Atchison 

si.  Mary's  CoUege st.  Mary's 

Washburn  College Topeka 


When 

Religion* 

found- 

denomiua- 

ed 

tion 

1857 

M.  l'l'is. 

1857 

Presb. 

1866 

U.  Hreth. 

1869 

K.  ('. 

ls.-.'.i 

R.  C. 

1SG5 

Cong. 

KANSAS    UNIVERSITY 


K  A  NT 


497 


Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — 
The  Kansas  Agricultural  College,  at  Manhattan, 
is  designed,  as  its  name  implies,  to  afford  instruct 
tion  in  agriculture;  ami.  to  that  end,  it  has  a  large 
farm  of  over  400  acres,  by  means  of  which  the 
Students  are  enabled  to  put  to  a  practical  test 
the  theoretical  knowledge  acquired.  This  farm 
has  been  divided  into  orchards  for  pears,  apples, 
etc.,  plots  for  the  cultivation  of  grains  and  grasses. 
and  the  raising  of  root-crops,  as  on  an  actual 
farm.  Besides  this  farm  and  the  course  con- 
nected with  it.  there  are  departments  for  the 
teaching  of  sewing,  printing,  and  telegraphy. 
The  literary  departments  of  the  college  include  a 
farmers',  a  mechanics',  and  a  commercial  course. 
besides  special  instruction  for  women.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  full  curriculum  carries  the 
graduates  up  to  the  point  reached  by  the  best 
colleges.  The  endowment  of  the  institution  was 
derived  from  the  sale  of  the  congressional  grant 
of  land  (90,000  acres),  yielding,  in  ordinary 
years,  an  income  of  about  $20,000,  which  it  is 
expected  will,  before  many  years,  be  doubled. 
The  attendance  of  students  at  the  college,  during 
the  year  1  874,  was  208,  of  whom  139  were  males, 
and  69  females. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Kansas  Institution 
for  the  Instruction  of  the  Blind  is  organized  with 
a  superintendent,  matron,  physician,  and  four 
teachers,  and  receives  pupils  from  9  to  21  years 
of  age.  It  is  expected  that,  before  admission, 
students  shall  have  previously  received  sufficient 
elementary  instruction  to  enable  them  to  go  on 
with  the  course  pursued  in  the  institution;  and, 
on  this  condition,  they  are  received  without 
charge,  except  for  clothing,  traveling,  and  in- 
cidental expenses. 

KANSAS,  University  of,  at  Lawrence, 
Kansas,  was  chartered  in  1864.  It  is  supported 
by  state  appropriations,  the  income  of  a  fund  of 
SI  0,500,  and  by  contingent  fees  of  $10  per 
annum,  the  only  charge  made  by  the  university. 
The  institution  owns  72  sections  of  land  granted 
to  the  state  by  Congress,  in  1861,  for  the  sup- 
port of  a  state  university.  The  grounds  com- 
prise 50  acres  on  Mount  Oriad,  donated  by 
citizens  of  Lawrence  and  its  vicinity.  There  are 
two  buildings,  erected  partly  by  the  city  and 
partly  by  the  state.  The  university  has  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus,  libraries  containing 
about  2,500  volumes,  and  a  cabinet  of  natural 
history.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  The  charter 
provides  that  the  university  shall  consist  of  six 
departments:  (1)  Science,  literature,  and  the 
Arts:  (2)  Law;  (.'!)  Medicine;  (4)  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Elementary  Instruction  ;  (5)  Agri- 
culture ;  (6)  The  Normal  Department.  Of  these 
several  departments, —  Science,  Literature,  and 
the  Arts,  and  the  Normal  Department,  are  the 
only  ones  yet  organized.  These  departments, 
at  present,  comprise  seven  courses  of  instruc-  I 
tion  ;  namely,  a  classical  and  a  modern  literature 
course,  each  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts ;  a  general  scientific  course,  and  three 
special  scientific  courses, — one  in  chemistry,  one 
in  natural  history,  and  one  in  civil  and  top- 
32 


"graphical  engineering  each  of  the  four  scien- 
tific courses  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Science.     A  three  years'  preparatory  course 

precedes  a  four  years'  course  in  each  of  these  de- 
partments.   A  normal  course  was  added  in  April, 
1876.     In  L875 — 6.  there  were   L0  instructors 
and  237  students  (72  collegiate,  35  normal,  and 
130  preparatory),  of  whom  1 17  were  males  and 
L20  females.    The  presidents  of  the  university 
have  been  as  follows  :   the   Rev.  R  W.  Oliver, 
I).  I).,   1865—8;     Bev.   John    Fraser,   A.  M., 
1868—74;  and  the  Rev.  dames   Marvin,  D.  D., 
the  present  incumbenl  (1876), appointed  in  1874 
KANT,  Imrnanuel,  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious of  philosophers,  was  born  April  22.,  1724, 
at  Konigsberg,  where  he  died  Fetor.  12.,  1804. 
After  having  been  for  nine  years  a  tutor,  he  be- 
came in  1755.  jirirnt rdoct nt,  and.  in  1770,  pro- 
fessor, in  the  philosophical  faculty  of  the  univer- 
sity of  Konigsberg.     The  latter  position  he  re- 
tained until  his  death.   The  philosophical  system 
of  Kant,  which  marks  one  of  the  great  turning- 
points' in  the  history  of  philosophy,  is  designated 
by  the  name  of  critical  philosophy,  or  criticism, 
because  he  was  the  first  who,  by  a  keen  analysis 
and  criticism  of  our  power  of  cognition,  endeav- 
ored to  fix  a  distinct  boundary  line  between  that 
which   is  essential   and   generally  valid   in  our 
cognition  on  the  one  hand,  and   that  which  is 
empirical,  non-essential,  and  accidental,  on  the 
other.     The  chief  tenets  of  his  system  are  the 
following :    (1)    that  we   know  things  not  in 
their  essence,  but  in  their  external  appearance; 
(2)  that  there  are  in  the  human  mind,  a  priori, 
elements  of  transcendental  knowledge,  but  that 
this    transcendental    knowledge    does    not    at- 
tain, with  absolute  certainty,  to  the   nature  of 
things  ;  (3)  that  God,  freedom,  and  immortality 
are  postulates  of  practical  reason  ;  (-1)  that  the 
moral  law  is  a  categorical  imperative.   The  prin- 
cipal works  of  Kant,  which  are  still  reckoned 
among  the  classic  productions  of  philosophical 
literature,    are,   Kritik  der    reinen    Vemunft 
(1781);  Kritik  der  praktischen  I rern  unfit  (1788); 
Kritik  der  Urtheilskraft  (1790);    Die  Religion 
innerhalb  der  Grdnzeu  der   blossen    Vemunft 
(1793)  ;  Anthropohgie  in  pragmatischer  Hiii- 
sieht  (1798). — As  professor  of  philosophy,  Kant 
was  required  to  deliver,  alternately  with    the 
other  professors  of  the  same  subject,  lectures  on 
pedagogy.  The  notes  which  he  prepared  for  these 
lectures,  were,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  revised 
and  arranged  by  his  pupil  Rink,  who,  in  1803, 
published  them  under  the  title,  Imrnanuel  Kant 
uber  Padagogik.     Kant  regarded  education  as 
the  highest  and  most  difficult  task  which  can  be 
assigned  to   man.     He,  therefore,  insisted  that 
pedagogics  should  be  made  the  subject  of  earnest 
study,  that  education   should    be    freed    from 
mechanism,  and  be  elevated  to  an  art  guided  by 
science.     Children  must  not  be  educated,  in  ac- 
cordance with  mere  custom,  for  the  world,  as  it 
now  exists,  but,  in  harmony  with  the  idea  of 
humanity,  for  a  better  condition  of  society  in  the 
future.     The  plan  of  education  should  not  be 
narrow  and  restricted,  but  cosmopolitan.     The 


498 


KENTUCKY 


development  of  man  for  the  fulfillment  of  the 
manifold  laws  of  his  existence  is  regarded  by 
Kant  as  the  proper  object  of  education.  He  lays 
particular  stress  upon  practical  morality,  and 
requires  that  the  teaching  of  religious  doctrines 
should  be  preceded  by  a  thorough  course  of  in- 
struction in  the  principles  of  morality,  which 
should  be  derived  from  reason.  The  work  of 
God  (conscience,  moral  law,  and  reason)  must 
be  known,  before  God  himself  can  be  known.  — 
Kant  was  a  great  admirer  of  the  pedagogical 
views  of  Montaigne  and  Rousseau,  and  took  an 
earnest  interest  in  the  career  of  ihe philanthro- 
pic lie  has  exerted  considerable  influence  upon 
the  development  of  German  pedagogics;  as  is 
i  \  [dent  from  the  fact  that  a  number  of  the  most 
devoted  believers  in  his  philosophical  views  dis- 
tinguished themselves  as  educational  writers; 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Niemeyer, 
Sehwarz,  and  Rosenkranz;  and  even  llerbart 
was  greatly  influenced  by  Kant.  —  Editions  of 
the  complete  works  of  Kant  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Habtenstem  (10  vols.,  1838-^9 ;  2d 
edit.,  8  vols.,  1867 — 9),  by  Schubert  and  Rosen- 
ki:\\/.  ill  vols.,  1840 — L2,  with  a  biography  by 
Schubert),  and  Kirchmann  (Berlin,  18(!8 — 74). 
A  good  English  translation  of  the  Critique  of 
Pure  Ramon  has  been  published  by  J.  M.  1). 
Mkiki.kjoiix  (in  Bonn's  Philosophical  Library, 
1855).  Recent  works  of  value  to  English  stu- 
dents are  Mahaffy,  Kant's  Critical  Philosophy 
for  EwjHxfi  I!<;/i/<ts  ilx)ndon,  1*71,  et  seq.)  ; 
Am;orr's  Kant's  Theory  of  Ethics  (London. 
1873)  ;  and  Montr's  Introduction  to  the  Critical 
Philosophy  (Dublin,  1874).  A  new  edition  of 
Rink's  pamphlet,  Tmmanuel  Kant  aber  Pdda- 
gogik,  with  select  passages  from  the  other  works 
of  Kant,  relating  to  educational  tonics,  has  been 
published  by  Wfllmann  (as the  LOth  vol.  of  Rich- 
ter's  PcLdagogische  Biblioihek). 

KENTUCKY,  one  of  the  interior  states  of 
the  American  '  Inion,  was  originally  a  part  of  the 
state  of  Virginia,  but  was  set  off  from  it  as  a  sepa- 
rate territory  in  1 790, and  admitted  into  the  Oh- 
ionin  L792,aa  the  second  state  after  the  original 
thirteen.  Its  population, at  thai  time,  was  about 
75,000;  but,  in  1800,  it  was  reported  as  220,595. 
Its  area  is  37,680  sq.  m.,  and  its  population,  in 
1870,  was  1,321,011, its  rank  in  the  latter  respect 

being  the  eighth. 

Educational  History,  The  first  step  taken  by 
this  state  in  the  interest  of  education,  after  its  ad- 
mission into  the  Union,  was  in  L798,  when,  by  ad 
of  the  legislature,  6,000  acres  of  the  public  lands 
of  the  Btate  were  given  to  each  of  the  following 

institutions:     Franklin,    Salem,    and    Kentucky 

academies,  and  Lexington  and  Jefferson  semina 

lies.  In   1805  and   L808,  acts  were  passed  extend 

iug  these  provisions  to  all  the  counties  of  the 

stall'  then  existing.  Within  twentv  years  after  the 

age  of  the  act  of  1798,  fort \  six  additional 

institutions  were  endowed  I 'V  a  similar  grant  of 
6)000  acres.  Another  law  provided  that,  in  ad- 
dition to  this,  a  large  tract  of  public  land,  speci- 
fied by  the  act,  should  he  set  apart  for  edu- 
cational purposes ;  and  the  county  COUTtS  W6M 


authorized  to  cause  to  be  surveyed,  located,  and 
patented,  within  their  respective  counties,  the 
reserve  above  indicated,  or  elsewhere  in  the  state, 
;  6,000  acres  each  for  seminary  purposes,  such 
lands  to  be  exempt  from  taxation.  Through  in- 
attention or  interested  legislation,  however,  the 
land  was,  in  many  cases,  sold  by  the  county  au- 
thorities, and  the  proceeds  were  squandered;  in 
others,  the  funds  are  still  held  for  their  original 
uses  by  trustees.  On  the  18th  of  December,  1 8 'J  1 , 
one-half  of  the  net  profits  of  the  Bank  of  the 
Commonwealth  were,  by  act  of  the  legislature, 
set  apart  as  a  Literary  Fund,  to  be  distributed) 
pro  rata,  to  the  counties  of  the  state,  for  the 
support  of  a  general  system  of  education,  under 
state  direct  ion  :  and  one-half  of  the  net  profits 
of  the  branch  banks  at  Lexington.  Danville,  and 
Bowling  Green  wire,  in  a  similar  way.  given  to 
Transylvania  University.  Centre  College,  and 
the  Southern  College  of  Kentucky,  respectively. 
Until  the  failure  of  the  bank,  this  last  appro- 
priation   yielded    about    Slid. (Mill     annually.     In 

L836,  Congress  apportioned  $15,000,000,  surplus 
funds  in  the  treasury,  to  the  older  states,  with 
the  understanding  that  it  was  to  be  devoted  to 
educational  purposes.  Of  this  amount.  Kentucky's 
.share  was  $1,433,757.  As  no  condition  was  im- 
posed, however,  that  it  should  be  used  as  an  edu- 
cational fund,  only  $1,000,000  of  it  was  set  apart 
for  that  purpose:  and  this  was  afterwards  re- 
duced to  $850,000.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
permanently  invested  school  fund  of  the  state, 
and  the  interest  of  it  was  for  many  years  the 
only  constant  revenue  for  the  support  of  the 
public  schools.  In  1838,  the  first  law  for  the 
establishment  of  a  general  system  of  common 
schools  was  enacted  :  but  for  ten  years  little  was 
done  to  nii.ke  it  effective  ;  and,  in  1840, the  state 
having  entered  upon  a  system  of  cosily  internal 
improvements  by  which  a  deficit  in  the  treasury 
was  caused,  i  he  payment  of  interest  on  the  school 

bonds  was  refused.  This  was  followed  by  the 
calling  in  and  burning  of  all  the  school  bonds. 
In  L847  s.  however,  an  act  was  passed,  chiefly 
through  the  efforts  of  Rev.  Robert  .1.  Rreckin- 
ridge,  directing  the  governorto  issue  a  new  bond 
for  all  arrears  of  interest  due,  and  submitting  to 
a  vote  of  the  people  a  proposition  to  levy  a  tax 

of  two  Cents   on   each   one   hundred   dollars,   for 

common-school  purposes.  The  election  showed 
a  majority  of  36,882  votes  in  favor  of  this  tax. 
In  L849,  upon  the  framing  of  a  new  constitution 

for  the  state,  the  school  funds,  for  which  the 
state  had  given  bonds  to  the  state  hoard  of  edu- 
cation, were  forever  dedicated  to  common-school 
purposes,  together  with  all  other  funds  which 
might  thereafter  be  raised  for  the  same  purpose. 
Dm  ing  the  legislative  session  of  L850-  51  ,a  fieri  e 
contest  arose  between  the  governor    (John   L 

Helm)    and   the  state  superintendent    (Rev.  I>r. 

Breckinridge)  as  to  whether  the  common  school 

fund  should  Ik'  considered  a    part    of  the  regular 

siate  debt,  the  interest  of  which  was  payable  out 
of  the  sinking  fund.  Dr.  Breckinridge  considered 
that  it  should  be  so  paid,  and  the  adoption  of 

this  method  was  of  vital  moment    to  the  popu- 


KENTUCKY 


491) 


larity  of  the  public-school  system,  since,  if  it 
were  not  so  pud, aspecial  annual  tax  of  #80,000 
would  be  necessary.  After  a  Long  and  heated  dis- 
oaaskm,  a  bill  directing  the  commissioners  of  the 

sinking  fund  to  pay  the  interest  of  the  school 
bonds    was    passed  :    but    it   was   vetoed    by    the 

governor.  It  was.  however, immediately  repassed 
over  his  veto,  by  a  large  vote.  In  L85o,  the 
school  tax  w;is  increased  from  two  to  five  cents 
on  the  hundred  dollars,  by  a  majority  of  57,980 
votes  out  of  109,492  cast.  Prom  that  time  till 
IstiT,  little  change  was  made  in  the  common- 
school  system  of  the  state.  In  the  latter  year, 
the  state  superintendent,  Z.  F.  Smith,  prepared 
a  plan  which  contemplated  an  entire  reorgani- 
zation of  the  system.  His  proposition  to  increase 
the  school  tax  from  five  to  twenty  cents  on  the 
hundred  dollars,  to  add  a  poll  tax  of  one  or  two 
dollars,  and  to  empower  the  people  of  any  county, 
district,  town,  or  city  to  vote  an  additional  local 
tax  of  thirty  cents  on  the  hundred  dollars,  for 
school  purposes,  was  accepted  by  the  legislature, 
and  carried  by  a  large  popular  majority.  His 
plan  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  schools,  though 
greatly  modified,  was  substantially  embodied  in 
the  law  enacted,  and  resulted  in  giving  a  fresh 
impetus  to  the  cause  of  education.  In  1873,  the 
present  school  laws  went  into  effect,  and  the 
beneficial  results  of  their  operation  are  looked 
for  with  very  great  confidence.  In  1S74,  an 
act  was  passed  for  the  establishment  of  a  uni- 
form school  system  for  the  education  of  colored 
children,  to  be  under  the  supervision  of  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  the 
state  board  of  education.  This  act  provides  that 
all  taxes  collected  from  colored  people  shall  go 
to  the  support  of  colored  schools. — The  State 
Superintendents  have  been  as  follows :  Joseph 
J.  Bullock,  D.  P.,  1837—9;  Hubbard  H.  Kav- 
anaugh.  D.  D.,  1839 — 40 ;  Benjamin  B.  Smith, 
D.  D.,  1840—42  ;  George  W.  Brush,  1842—3  ; 
Ryland  T.  Dillard,  D.  I).,  1843—7  ;  Robert  J. 
Breckinridge,  D.D.,  LL.  D.,  1847—53;  John  I). 
Mathews,  1  >.!).,  1853 — 9;  Robert  Richardson, 
A.  M.,  1859—63;  Daniel  Stevenson,  D.D.,  1863 
—7;  Zach.  F.  Smith,  1867—71 ;  Howard  A.  M. 
Henderson,  D.  !>.,  elected  in  1871. 

School  System. — The  general  supervision  and 
control  of  the  educational  interests  of  the  state 
are  intrusted  to  a  state  hoard  of  education,  which 
consists  of  the  secretary  of  state,  attorney  gen- 
eral, superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and 
two  professional  educators.  The  last  three  con- 
stitute a  standing  committee  for  the  preparation 
of  rides,  by-laws,  and  regulations  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  schools,  anl  for  the  recommendation 
of  a  proper  course  of  study  and  suitable  text- 
books— the  latter  to  be  adopted  at  the  discretion 
of  the  county  board  of  examiners.  The  executive 
officer  of  the  board  is  the  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction  who  is  elected  for  four  years,  and 
whose  duty  it  is  to  exercise  a  general  supervision 
over  the  schools  of  the  state,  to  distribute  an- 
nually through  the  state  the  school  laws,  to 
furnish  blanks  for  reports,  certificates,  etc.,  and 
to  perform  all  other  duties  naturally  devolving 


upon  the  office  of  superintendent.  The  school 
year  is  live  months,  of  twenty-two  days  each; 
ami  the  required  age  of  pupils  is  from'  6  to  20 
years.  No  books,  tracts,  paper,  catechisms,  or 
publications  of  a  sectarian  character  are  permit* 
ted  to  lie  used  in  the  schools  in    any    way.      The 

state  board  of  examiners  consists  'of   the  state 

superintendent  and  two  practical  educators  ap- 
pointed by  him.  Their  sessions  arc  held  in  -Inly 
of  each  year  for  the  examination  of  teachers  ap- 
plying tor  certificates.  These  certificates,  for  each 
of  which  the  examiners  are  allowed  to  charge  three 

dollars,  entitle  the  recipients  to  teach  five  years 
in  any  of  the  common  schools,  without  re  exam- 
ination by  county  boards.  The  county  commis- 
sioners are  elected  for  two  years  by  the  county 
judges  and  justices  of  the  peace,  their  functions 
corresponding  to  those  of  county  superintendents 
of  other  states. — The  county  board  if  examiners 
consists  of  the  county  commissioner  and  two 
competent  persons  appointed  by  him.  They 
examine  teachers,  grant  certificates,  and  select  a 
uniform  series  of  text-books,  to  be  in  use  two 
years. 

Educational  Condition. — Concerning  the  num- 
ber of  school-districts,  schools,  etc..  advices  from 
counties  and  districts  are  so  imperfectly  made 
up  that  entirely  accurate  statistics  cannot  be  ob- 
tained. In  the  annual  report  of  the  state  super- 
intendent for  the  year  ending  June,  1874,  an 
approximate  result  is  given  as  follows  :  number 
of  school-districts,  4,035;  districts  in  which  com- 
mon schools  are  taught,  3,983 ;  common- school 
houses,  3,1 18;  private  schools,  463;  academies,  53; 
colleges,  25.  The  number  of  male  teachers  in  the 
common  schools  was  2,756  ;  of  female  teachers, 
1,017  ;  average  attendance  of  pupils,  114,603. 

Normal  Instruction.  —  There  is  an  incorpo- 
rated normal  school  at  Carlisle  under  private 
control ;  but  those  who  graduate  from  the  course 
provided  for  teachers  have  the  right,  under  the 
charter,  to  teach  in  the  common  schools  of  the 
state  five  years  without  examination  by  either 
state  or  county  boards.  Louisville  has  a  train- 
ing school  connected  with  its  public-school 
system ;  and  the  Frankfort  public  school  has  a 
training  class.  At  Lexington,  there  is  a  colored 
school  with  a  normal  department  under  the 
direction  of  the  American  Missionary  Society. 
Teachers'  institutes  are  held  in  almost  every 
county  of  the  state.  These  institutes  are  con- 
ducted by  professional  teachers;  and,  being  the 
chief  agency  for  normal  instruction  in  the  state, 
receive  considerable  attention. 

Secondary  Instruction.  —  High  schools  for 
males  and  females  are  maintained  in  Louisville, 
and  some  other  parts  of  the  state.  There  are 
also  academies,  female  seminaries  and  colleges; 
and  commercial  colleges.  Of  the  former.  17  were 
enumerated  in  the  state,  superintendent's  report 
for  1874.  The  two  business  colleges  at  1  ouisville 
and  I^xington,  reported,  in  1874,  9  instructors 
and  240  students. 

Superior  Instruction. —  The  following  table 
includes  the  principal  colleges  and  universities, 
exclusive  of  female  colleevs,  in  the  state  : 


500 


KENTUCKY 


KENTUCKY  UNIVERSITY 


When 

Religious 

NAME 

Location 

found- 

denomin.i- 

ed 

tion 

Bethel  College 

Busselville 

1849 

Baptist 

Centra]  Cniversil  \ . . . 

Richmond 

is;:; 

&  i.  Presb. 

Im:\  ille 

]H1<> 

b 

Sew  Liberty 

L839 

Kv.  Luth. 

Eminence  College — 

Emim  in  i 

is:,  7 

Non-sect. 

etown  College, . 

i  Georgetown 

[829 

Baptist 

Kentucky  University. 

Lexington 

1 868 

N ■  in  sect. 

Ky .  Military  Inst 

ETarmdale 

1846 

Non  sect. 

Kv.  Weslej  ;m   Univ.. . 

Millersburg 

1859 

M.  E.  So. 

st.  Mary's 

1821 

R.  ('. 

Bowling  Green 

M.  E.  So. 

The  female  colleges  are  quite  numerous :  chief 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  Bethel  Female 
College,  a1  Boplrinsville,  a  Baptist  institution; 
Bourbon  Female  College,  at  Paris;  the  Presby- 
terian Female  College,  at  Bowling  Cieen  :  Bap- 
tist Female  College,  at  Clinton;  Franklin  Fe- 
male College,  at  Franklin;  Lebanon  Female 
College  (Baptist),  at  Lebanon;  Lexington  Fe- 
male College  (Baptist),  at  Lexington:  Logan 
Female  College  (M.  B.  South),  at  Busselville; 
Louisville  Female  College  (Meth.),  at  Louisville; 
Millersburg  Female  College,  at  Millersburg; 
Shelbyville  Female  College  (So.  Presb.),  at 
Shelbyville ;  and  Stanford  Female  College,  at 
Stanford.  Besides  these,  there  are  several  un- 
chartered institutions  which  are  prosecuting 
the  work  of  higher  education.  Among  these 
may  lie  mentioned  Warren  College  at  Bowling 
Green;  Daughters  College,  Barrodsburg;  1  locker 
Female  College,  Lexington;  the  Kentucky  Col- 
lege for  Young  Ladies,  IVwee  Valley;  and 
Berea  Coljege,  at  Berea.  The  last  was  organ- 
ized in'  L858  for  both  sexes,  without  distinction 
of  race. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Tnsiru 
Scientific  instruction  is  partially  provided  in 
many  of  the  colleges  already  enumerated;  but 
special  provision  in  this  respect  is  made  in  the 
State  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  a1 
Lexington.  The  course  comprises  the  following 
departments:  (I )  English  Language  and  literature; 
(2)  mathematics;  (3)  chemistry  and  experimental 
philosophy:  i  I)  natural  history  and  political  econ- 
omy; (•*>)  mental  and  moral  philosophy;  (6)  com- 
mercial training:  IT)  mining  and  civil  engineer- 
ing; (8)  modern  languages;  (9)  fine  arts;  (10)  mili- 
tary tactics.  Law  is  taught  in  a  special  school 
forming  a  part  of  the  Kentucky  University;  and 

medicine   in   tlie  Transylvania    Medical    College. 

now  forming  a  department  of  the  same  univer- 
sity.   The  Louisville  Medical  College, Louisville 

Hospital  Medical  College,  and  the  university  of 
Louisville  also  afford  opportunity  for  instruction 
in  the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine. 

Sp  cial  Instruction.  The  institution  for  deaf- 
mutes,  at  Danville,  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the 
United  States,  having  been  founded  in  L823. 
It   is  a  school  for   the   education    of   deaf-mutes, 

similar  to  that  of  New  York  and  of  Hartford, 

and  not  an  asylum.    Every  deaf-mute  in  the  state. 

of  Bound  mind,  between  the  ages  of  in  and  'At), 
is  entitled  to  its  privileges  for  seven  years,  fp 

charge  It  is  under  the  control  of  a  board  of 
commi  rionen  appointed  hy  the  governor.     Its 


resident  officers  are  a  principal,  matron. steward, 
and  physician.  Its  curriculum  is  that  which  is 
common  to  such  institutions.  The  Asylum  for 
the  Education  of  the  Blind,  at  Louisville,  is  in- 
tended to  furnish  instruction  to  every  child  in 
the  state,  between  the  ages  of  <°>  and  16,  who  is 
deprived  by  defective  sight  from  receiving  the 
education  usually  given  in  the  common  schools. 
In  addition  to  these  institutions  for  special  in- 
struction, the  Kentucky  Institution  for  the  Edu- 
cation of  Feeble-Minded  Children,  at  Frankfort, 
is  worthy  of  mention.  This  was  re-established 
in  1874,  after  having  been  discontinued  for 
some  years.  As  its  name  implies,  it  is  for 
"feeble-minded  children."  not  for  idiots.  To 
such  children,  between,  the  ages  of  6  and  18 
years,  the  state  affords,  through  this  institu- 
tion, an  education  free  of  charge.  The  build- 
ing is  situated  just  beyond  the  city  limits  of 
Frankfort. 

Society  for  the  Advancement  of  Education. — 
On  the  L5th  of  -'uly,  1874,  a  meeting  was  called 
at  Frankfort  to  concert  measures  for  establish- 
ing a  school  or  schools  for  the  training  of  teach- 
ers and  the  education  of  young  men  for  clas- 
sical and  technical  pursuits.  'I  his  resulted  in 
the  foundation  of  the  Society  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Education. 

State  Teachers'  Association. — This  body  holds 
annual  meetings  to  promote  the  cause  of  com- 
mon schools  and  popular  education,  and  to  ele- 
vate the  character  and  advance  the  interests  of 
the  profession  of  teaching.  Prominent  educa- 
tors from  other  states  are  usually  present  by 
invitation  and  take  part  in  the  proceedings, 
which  consist  of  discussions  in  regard  to  school 
matters,  a  daily  order  of  exercises  illustrative  of 
school  methods. and  lectures  in  the  evening.  The 

Louisville  Educational  Association  is  a  body 
formed  for  essentially  the  same  purpose  as  the 
Teachers'  Association. 

KENTUCKY  UNIVERSITY,  at  Lexing- 
ton, Ky.  was  chartered  in  1858.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  theological  department,  which  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Christian  Church,  it  is 
non  sectarian.  It  was  opened  as  a  college,  in 
I  sal',  at  Barrodsburg  in  the  building  of  Bacon 
College, the  property  of  which  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  university.  By  an  act  of  the  legis- 
lature, in  1865, the  institution  was  removed  to 
Lexington,  the  property  and  endowment  of 
Transylvania  University  v. ere  transferred  to  it, 
ami  the  State  Agricultural  College,  founded  with 
the  congressional  land  grant,  was  made  a  de- 
partment of  it.  In  1866,  Ashland,  the  home- 
stead of  Henry  Clay,  and  the  adjoining  estate  of 
Woodlands,  on  the  border  of  and  partly  within 
the  city,   the   entire   tract    containing  133  acres, 

were  purchased  for  an  experimental  farm  and 
the  permanent  site  of   the  university.    These 

grounds  are    now   the   scat    of   the  Agricultural 
aid   Mechanical  College.  The  other  depart  meiits 

occupy  the  former  campus  of  Transylvania  Oni- 

:iy,  containing  -H  acres  in  the  city,  with 
suitable  buildings.  The  university  has  an  en- 
dowment of  aliout  $400,000;  the  value  of  its  real 


KENTUCKY  MILITARY  IXSTiTCI  II 


kindergarten 


.001 


estate  is  about  $250,000.    The  libraries  contain 

about  10.000  volumes.  It  has  a  museum  of 
natural  history,  an  anatomical  museum,  and 
valuable  chemical,  philosophical,  and  astronom- 
ical apparatus.  The  university  comprises  the 
following  colleges:  (1)  The  College  of  Arts; 
('_')  The  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Colleg 
Kentucky;  (3)  1'he  College  of  the  Bible ;  I  t)The 
Normal  College  (not  yet  organized);  (5)  The 
Commercial  College;  (<>)  The  College  of  Law; 
(7)  The  College  of  Medicine  (Transylvania 
Medical  College).  Tuition  in  the  theological 
department  is  free  ;  in  arts  and  agriculture,  its 
cost  is  $5  per  year,  in  commerce  $30,  in  law 
•S<»0.  in  medicine  $10  for  each  professor.  Each 
legislative  district  of  the  state  is  entitled  to  send 
three  students  to  the  university  free  of  charge 
for  tuition  in  any  of  the  first  four  colleges 
named  above.  In  1873 — I,  the  whole  number 
of  instructors  in  the  various  colleges  was  32, and 
of  students.  406.  John  B.  Bowman,  LL.  D.,  to 
■whom  the  foundation  of  the  university  is  mainly 
due,  is  (1876)  the  regent. 

KENTUCKY  MILITARY  INSTITUTE, 
at  Farmdale,  Franklin  (1o..  Ky..  was  founded  in 
1 8  15.  chartered  in  1846,  and  placed  under  the 
direction  and  control  of  a  board  of  visitors  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  of  the  state,  who  is,  ex 
officio,  inspector  of  the  institute.  The  superinten- 
dent, faculty,  and  cadets  are  constituted  a  quasi 
military  corps ;  and  the  officers  are  commissioned 
under  the  seal  of  the  commonwealth.  The  arms 
are  furnished  by  the  state.  The  institution  has 
fine  grounds,  and  buildings  erected  at  a  cost  of 
more  than  $1 00.000.  The  library  contains  3,000 
volumes.  The  charge  for  tuition  is  $100  per 
annum ;  for  board,  etc.,  3200.  There  is  a  prepara- 
tory, an  undergraduate,  a  resident  graduate,  a  civil 
engineering,  and  a  commercial  course.  The  under- 
graduate course  is  in  three  divisions,  requiring 
from  three  to  five  years  for  completion,  and  com- 
prises four  departments,  mathematics,  languages, 
natural  science,  and  English.  .V  certificate  of  pro- 
ficiency is  conferred  after  a  satisfactory  exami- 
nation iu  the  studies  of  a  department;  in  the  de- 
partment of  languages  a  knowledge  of  two  is  re- 
quired, of  which  one  must  be  cither  Latin  or  <  ler- 
man.  The  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Mathematics, 
of  Natural  Science, and  of  English,  an'  conferred 
after  an  examination  in  an  extended  course 
in  the  respective  departments.  For  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Languages,  four  languages  are  re- 
quired. The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  is  con- 
ferred on  those  receiving  certificates  of  proficiency 
in  three  departments,  an  1  of  Master  of  Arts 
upon  those  who  receive  them  in  all  the  four  de- 
partments. Upon  those  completing  the  com- 
mercial course  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Com- 
mercial Science  is  conferred.  In  the  resident 
graduate  course,  besides  mathematical,  scientific, 
and  linguistic  studies,  an  elementary  course  of 
medicine  or  a  professional  course  of  law  may  be 
pursued.  In  1875 — fi,  there  were  8  instruct- 
ors, 51  students,  and  222  alumni.  The  super- 
intendents have  been  as  follows  :  Col.  lb  T.  P. 
Allen,  20  yrs.j  Col.  E.  W.  Morgan,  7  yrs.;  B.  B. 


Sayre,  2  yrs.:    and    Col   Robert   I>.  Allen,  tho 
present  incumbent,  2  yrs. 

KENTUCKY  WESLEY  AN  COLLEGE, 
at  Millersburg,  Ky.,  under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  char- 
tered in  L859  and  opened  in  L866.  It  has  a 
four  years'  course,  with  departments  of  English 
language  and  literature,  history  and  philosophy, 
chemistry  and  natural  science,  mathematics, 
Greek,  and  Latin.  All  these  arc  necessarj  to  the 
degree  of  A.  B., and  with  the  exception  of  Gi 
and  Latin,  to  the  degree  of  B.  S.  In  L875— 6, 
there  were  5  instructors  and  94  students.  The 
value  of  its  buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is 
$40,000;  amount  of  productive  funds,  $45,400. 
T.  J.  Dodd,  1).  J).,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

KENYON  COLLEGE,  at  Gambier,  Ohio. 
is  under  Protestant  Episcopal  control.  It  w;ls 
first  incorporated  under  the  title  of  the  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  Diocese  of  Ohio,  and  was  opened 
for  elementary  instruction  at  Worthington,  in 
L825.    By  a  subsequent  act  of  the  legislature. 

the  president  and  professors  were  constituted  the 
faculty  of  a  college,  under  the  name  of  Kenyon 
College;  and.  in  June,  1828,  the  institution  was 
removed  to  its  present  site.  In  1840,  the  theolog- 
ical department  was  separated  from  the  college, 
and  constituted  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the 
Diocese  of  Ohio.  Auxiliary  to  the  college,  there 
is  a  preparatory  school.  The  college  park  com- 
prises 50  acres,  and  contains  four  college  1  luildings 
and  six  houses  for  the  professors.  At  some  dis- 
tance, are  the  buildings  of  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment and  the  theological  seminary.  The  college 
has  an  endowment  of  SI  00.000.  an  astronomical 
observatory,  and  libraries  containing  19,000  vol- 
umes. The  value  of  its  buildings,  grounds,  and  ap- 
paratus is$160,000.  In  1873 — 74,  there  were  8 
instructors  and  66  students  (13  preparatory  and 
53  collegiate).  The  number  of  alumni,  in  1S72, 
was  453.  The  presidents  of  the  college  have  been 
as  follows  :  the  Rt.  Rev.  Philander  Chase,  D.  D,, 
1825—31  ;  the  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  P.  Mcllvaine. 
1).  D.,  D.C.L.,  LL.  D..  1832—40;  David  Bates 
Douglass,  LL.  I). .  1840 — 14;  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Fuller,  D.  D.  (provisional),  L844— 5 :  the  Rev, 
Sherlock  A.  Bronson,  1>.  D..  1845 — 50;  the  Rev. 
Thomas  M.  Smith.  D.D.,  L850— 54;  Lorin  An- 
drews, LL.  I)..  1854 — (il  ;  Benj.  L.  Lang,  A.  M. 
ing),  1861—3;  Charles '  Short.  LL.  D., 
1863 — 7:  the  Rev.  dames  Kent  Stone.  A.  M 
1867—8;  Eli  T.  Tappan,  L.L.D.,  1868  75;  and 
the  Rev.  E.  < !.  Benson,  A.M.  (acting),  the  present 
incumbent  ( 1S7G). 

KINDERGARTEN  (Ger.,  children's  gar} 
den), a  peculiar  system  of  education,  founded  by 
Friedrich  Froebel  (q.  v.),  designed  to  precede  all 
other  elementary  training,  and  to  prepare  the 
chiM  for  regular  instruction  by  exercising  all  its 
] lowers  so  as  to  render  it  self-active.  While  the 
reformers  of  education  before  his  time.  I'estalozzi 
included,  whose  assistant  he  was,  treated  the 
youthful  mind,  more  or  less,  as  a  passive  recipient 
of  truth,  goodness,  and  beauty,  it  was  Froclx  l's 
fundamental  idea  to  set  the  child  to  do  whatever 


502 


KINDERGARTEN" 


it  could  be  induced  to  do  as  a  kind  of  amusement, 

exercising  its  observing  faculties  in  connection 
•with  its  playthings  and  games,  and  thus  to  create 
in  it  an  interest  in  learning.  He  discovered, 
by  means  of  half  a  century's  attentive  practice 
in  teaching,  in  association  with  many  other 
excellent  educators,  that  the  faculties  of  most 
children  are  stunted  in  infancy  and  earliest  youth 
by  the  want  of  appropriate  mental  food  ;  that 
every  child  may  be  developed  (may  develop 
itself)  into  a  self-educator  by  appropriate  amuse- 
ments ;  and  that,  in  this  manner,  pleasure  may 
be  made  the  most  efficient  instrument  in  the  first 
stages  of  education.  He  studied  all  the  plays  and 
games  in  use  from  the  most  ancient  times,  in 
order  to  find  their  special  adaptation  to  mental 
and  bodily  growth,  and  thus  formed  a  complete 
philosophical  system  of  early  intellectual  culture. 
This  culture  was  to  begin  in  the  earliest  years, 
with  ball  plays,  accompanied  by  snatches  of  song 
and  rhyme  :  later,  with  a  sphere,  a  cube,  and  a 
cylinder  of  wood,  used  for  various  amusing  ex- 
ercises, and  calculated  to  enliven  the  attention, 
and  increase  the  self-activity  of  the  infant.  The 
two  little  books  for  mothers,  which  contain  his 
suggestions  for  this  purpose,  disclaim  any  merit 
of  invention ;  he  considers  them  derived  simply 
from  a  diligent  observation  of  the  methods  of 
many  excellent  and  successful  mothers.  But  it 
was  not  from  books  alone  that  he  intended  that 
mothers  should  learn  how  to  train  their  children. 
They  were  to  be  educated,  as  young  children,  in 
a  kindergarten,  and  afterwards,  before  graduat- 
ing from  the  upper  classes,  to  learn  the  art  of 
infant  education  in  a  model  kindergarten.  It 
was  in  this  way  that  he  hoped  to  render,  in  the 
course  of  time,  all  mothers  true  educators  of  in- 
fancy, the  centers  of  happy  family  circles,  and 
the  priestesses  of  a  higher  humanity,  so  that  they 
might  be  "in  harmony  with  themselves,  with  nat- 
ure, and  with  God. ' — But  mere  family  education 
It  ling  liable  to  one-sidedness  and  exclusiveness, 
social  education  should  begin  early,  in  order  to 
complement  the  former.  During  part  of  the  day, 
the  child  should  be  in  company  with  many  other 
children  of  the  same  age,  and  should  engage  in 
such  plays  as  supply,  in  a  gradually  ascending 
scale,  proper  food  for  the  mental  and  bodily 
appetites  and  functions,  while  making  the  com- 
pany of  little  ones  as  happy  as  possible.  This 
can  be  done  only  under  the  guidance  of  a  true 
t  teller,  who  should  be  a  female  capable,  by  nat- 
ural endowments  and  previous  study,  to  take 
the  place,  in  this  respect,  of  the  mother.  The 
locality  should  be  a  hall  in  a  garden,  with  Mow- 
ers, shrubs,  trees,  each  child  having  its  own 
flower-bed,  so  that  it  may  learn  how  to  raise 
plants,  and  to  enjoy  nature.  The  playful  occu- 
pations of  the  pupils  comprise  a  great  variety  of 
I  lays   in  a  given    order    which,   however,  should 

n  >!   be  absolutely    fixed,  but   should  afford  a 

fa  ■  ilthy  change,  without  inducing  habits  of  im- 
perfect attention  and  restlessness.    None  of  these 

occupations  were  the  invention  of  Froebe]  |  they 
had  all  been  practiced  more  or  less  before  his 
time.     But  their  combination  into  a  harmonious 


whole,  their  adaptation  for  mental  food  in  every 
direction,  and  their  development  in  detail  must 
be  set  down  as  Froebel's  creation  ;  and  the  expe- 
rience had  with  them  for  more  than  twenty-five 
years,  and  in  many  hundreds  of  kindergartens, 
justifies  the  wisdom  of  the  sytem.  Although 
meeting  at  first  with  a  most  stubborn  opposition 
on  the  part  of  governments,  sects,  and  the  teach- 
ing fraternity,  the  kindergarten  has,  step  by 
stej),  made  friends  of  enemies,  silenced  the  most 
severe  critics,  and  won  favor  with  governments 
(in  Austria,  Italy,  and  Russia),  with  the  Roman 
Catholic  bishops  (in  Belgium.  France,  Hungary, 
and  many  parts  of  the  I  nited  States),  and  with 
orthodox  Protestants  <>f  various  denominations. 
It  has  been  endorsed  by  the  great  conventions  of 
German  teachers,  after  a  protracted  study  of  its 
results:  and,  in  America,  by  the  National  Teach- 
ers' Association,  at  the  meeting  held  at  Elmira. 
in  1873.  In  short,  it  seems  to  be  destined  to  be 
universally  adopted,  and  to  be  connected  with 
every  infant  school.  There  is  still  much  con- 
troversy among  the  followers  of  Froebel  them- 
selves in  regard  to  the  mi  nor  details  of  the  system  : 
and  some  improvement  has  been  made  upon  his 
own  first  practical  realization  of  the  idea,  which, 
from  insufficiency  of  means,  could  not  be  all  thai 
he  desired;  but  the  indefinite  perfectibility  of  the 
system  in  practical  details,  according  to  its  prin- 
ciples, insures  its  progressive  success—  The  exer- 
cises of  the  kindergarten  are  alternately  carried 
on  in  a  sitting,  and  in  a  standing  or  walking 
position,  for  the  sake  of  a  salutary  change,  and 
are  partly  such  as  can.  without  special  training, 
be  guided  by  any  good  teacher;  namely,  singing; 
the  reciting  of  child-like  poetry  committed  to 
memory  by  means  of  the  teacher's  frequent 
repetition;  light  gymnastics,  marching  exercises, 
and  easy  ball  plays;  acting  the  doings  of  men 
and  animals  ;  all  these  accompanied  from  time 
to  time  with  song,  or  turned  into  object  lessons 
by  frequent  conversation  on  the  things  men- 
tioned or  represented;  also  amusing  employment 
with  playthings,  called  gifts,  of  which  there  are 
several  sets.  (See  (itiTs.)  The  guidance  of  these 
occupations  requires  a  practical  training,  on  the 
part  of  the  teat  her,  and  a  theoretical  study 
which  never  can  lie  too  thorough,  if  the  pupil's 
mental  and  moral  development  is  to  become 
what   Froebel  intended   it    to  be.      Each  Of  these 

t ixercist  b  serves  a  threefold  purpose,-  to  produce 

forms  of  beauty,  forms  of  life  (such  as  re- 
semble things  that  occur  within  the  child's  ex- 
perience), and  tonus  of  knowledge  (such  as  may 
lead  to  a  knowledge  of  the  qualities,  quantities 
and  actions  of  objects'.  The  child  itself  is  to 
produce  these  forms;  the  teacher  is  not  to  teach 

them,  but  to  lead  his  pupil  by  suggestions  con- 
veyed in  questions  or  conversation,  so  that  the 
child  may  become  inventive.  To  do  this  properly, 
Froebel  has  advised  a  method  based  on  the  law 
of  contraries  and  their  combination  into  a  higher 
unit;  but  the  teacher  is  to  abstain  from  all 
learned    lore       from   using  abstract    expressions. 

Abstract  notions  and  words  are  severely  banished 
from    the    kindergarten;    it    is    merely  concrete 


KINDERGARTEN 


50S 


facts,  which  the  child  can  learn  through 
the  senses,  and  can  clothe  in  its  own  language, 
that  can  become  familiar  to  it  by  its  own  mental 

assimilation.  Neither  is  discipline  to  be  main- 
tained by  authority  or  by  any  mechanical  means; 
but  by  the  suggestions  of  the  teacher,  and  by 
the  pupils'own  absorption  in  the  interest  of  their 
occupations.  Thus  children  are,  at  an  early  age, 
enabled  to  discipline  themselves  through  pleasant 
employment,  to  submit  to  the  will  of  the  majority 
of  their  equals,  on  the  one  hand,  or  to  assert,  on 
the  other,  their  own  free  volition,  if  they  can 
induce  others  to  agree  with  them.  Thus,  they 
are  to  take  their  first  lessons  in  moral  self-govern- 
ment, 

An  objection  has  been  urged  to  the  general 
introduction  of  the  kindergarten  as  being  to.) 
costly;  but  experience  has  established  the  indis- 
putable fact,  that  a  good  kindergarten  need  cost 
no  more  than  the  best  primary  school.  The 
genuine  kindergartner  —  and  none  but  such 
ought  to  be  employed  —  can  superintend  more 
than  a  hundred  children  at  a  time,  provided 
she  begin  with  no  more  than  twenty,  adding 
twenty  more  as  soon  as  she  has  a  good  assistant 
able  to  replace  her ;  and  again  twenty  more,  and 
so  on.  whenever  one  more  assistant  is  prepared  to 
take  her  place.  Such  assistants  may  be  pupils 
of  the  training  or  normal  school  classes,  who 
wish  to  acquire  the  art  of  infant  education,  and 
heed  not  be  paid  for  their  assistance.  These  pupil- 
teachers  will  not,  of  course,  by  merely  six  months' 
help  in  this  way,  be  fully  able  to  conduct  a 
kindergarten  independently  ;  but  they  will  learn 
enough  to  be  valuable  assistants,  and  to  become 
good  educators  as  mothers.  This  is  not  merely  an 
economical  measure,  but  is  sustained  by  peda- 
gogical principles.  The  little  pupils  of  a  kinder- 
garten, from  four  to  seven  years  old,  will  form 
several  grades,  that  can  simultaneously  be  en- 
gaged only  in  certain  occupations;  while,  in  all 
others,  they  must  be  separately  employed.  As, 
then,  divisions  into  grades  are  indispensable, 
and  the  principal  teacher  must  go  from  one  to 
the  other,  she  can  leave  all  the  grades  under 
the  guidance  of  proficient  assistants,  taking 
the  pupil-teachers  along  from  division  to  divi- 
sion, thus  affording  them  an  opportunity  to 
witness  the  greatest  variety  of  exercises  possible 
within  a  short  space  of  time,  and  to  practice 
every  one  under  her  direction.  Besides,  she 
can  hardly  fail  to  receive  valuable  support  in 
the  singing,  articulation,  and  gymnastic  exer- 
cises, from  the  talents  of  some  of  her  assistants. 
But  even  more  important  is  the  following  con- 
sideration. It  is  almost  impossible  to  carry  on 
A  genuine  kindergarten  successfully  without  the 
exercise  of  a  wide-spread  and  lively  interest  in  it 
among  the  women,  especially  the  mothers,  of 
the  community.  So  long  as  they  do  not  fre- 
quently visit  the  institute,  they  will  not  fully 
appreciate  its  purposes  and  results ;  they  will 
insist  that  their  children  should  begin  to  learn 
the  alphabet;  and,  if  that  is  not  done  they  will 

Serhaps  take  them  away  to  some  primary  school. 
lany   kinderyarlnws  of  our  count ry  yield  to 


the  demand  of  the  mothers,  and  make  the  alpha- 
bet and  ciphering  a  part  of  the  regular  kinder- 
garten exercises  ;  but  tliis  is  a  positive  loss  to 
the  children. 

A  prize  essay  on  the  question,  "How  may 
the  kindergarten  be  organically  connected  with 
the  (Public)  School,"  was,  a  short  time  ago,  called 
for  by  the  Education  Society  of  Germany;  and 
the  prize  was  awarded  to  Dr.  A.  Hicli'ter,  of 
Leipsic.  The  reasons  for  rendering  the  kinder- 
garten a  universal  institution,  which  are  given 
in  this  essay  and  in  several  others  that  were 
honorably  mentioned,  are  here  presented.  If  it 
be  granted  that  the  first  education,  imparted 
through  a  good  kindergarten,  is  far  more  effect- 
ive than  that  obtained  in  a  common  elementary 
school,  it  will  not  do  to  combine  a  number  of 
pupils  that  have  completed  their  kindergarten 
course,  with  such  pupils  as  come  directly  from 
the  nursery  or  from  the  street.  The  two  sets  of 
pupils  will  form  a  most  incongruous  body.  The 
former,  possessing  a  more  or  less  harmonious 
development  of  all  their  powers,  and  a  certain 
degree  of  self-activity  and  self-control,  admit  of 
a  more  rapid  course  of  primary  teaching  and 
more  advanced  methods  of  instruction  than 
would  be  proper  for  children  entirely  untrained. 
These  pupils  would,  therefore,  be  greatly  re- 
tarded in  their  progress  by  being  subjected  to 
the  same  treatment  as  the  other  pupils,  who 
come  to  school  with  an  insufficient  preparation, 
who  are,  perhaps,  unable  to  understand  what 
the  teacher  says,  and  to  make  themselves  under- 
stood by  him  (or  her) ,  who  need  a  rigid  uniform- 
ity of  mechanical  discipline  and  a  preparation 
of  their  powers  for  the  school  exercises.  This 
difference  must  remain  the  same  in  the  primary, 
grammar,  and  high  school  classes;  for,  in  all.  the 
kindergarten  pupils  must,  on  account  of  their 
self-activity  and  self-control,  need  a  different 
management  from  that  of  the  others.  Hence 
the  need  of  affording  to  all  the  children  who  at- 
tend the  elementary  school,  a  preliminary  course 
of  training  by  means  of  kindergarten  exercises. 
A  general  introduction  of  this  system  is  impos- 
sible until  normal  schools  afford  the  instruction 
requisite  to  prepare  teachers  for  the  work. 
American  teachers  have  already  recognized  the 
value  of  the  system.  At  a  meeting  of  the  Na- 
tional Educational  Association,  held  in  Elmira, 
in  1873,  resolutions  were  adopted,  (1)  recom- 
mending the  kindergarten  "as  a  potent  means 
for  the  elevation  of  primary  education,  and  for 
the  development  and  promulgation  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  sound  educational  psychology";  (2)  ur- 
ging "  upon  the  attention  of  all  practical  educa- 
tors and  boards  of  education  the  importance  of 
initiating  experiments  with  the  intent  to  deter- 
mine the  best  methods  of  connecting  the  kin- 
dergarten with  our  current  educational  system"; 
and  (3)  suggesting  that  "all  teachers  study  Froe- 
bel's  system,  in  order  to  be  instrumental  in 
founding  such  institutions,  and  to  hasten  the 
advent  of  their  general  introduction."  Efforts 
have  been  made  by  the  (ierman -American 
Tecucheri  Association   to  found  a  normal  and 


504 


KINDERGARTEN 


KIN  DERM  ANN 


model  school  for  the  purpose  of"  training  teach- 
ers ftff  the  management  of  kindergartens.  The 
report  of  the  U,  S.  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion  for  L874  enumerated  55  of  these  schools 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  in  which 
then-  were  L25  teachers,  and  1,636  pupils.  The 
experimental  introduction  of  the  system  in  con- 
nection with  the  public  schools  of  St.  Louis,  in 
1st  i.  is  represented  as  being  eminently  sue 
ful.  At  the  date  of  the  lasl  annual  report 
of  the  superintendent  of  schools  in  that  city 
(1st  i — 5), there  were  7  kindergartens  connected 
with  as  many  of  the  public  schools;  and  the 
whole  number  of  kindergarten  pupils  was  457. 
The  following  advantages  are  claimed  for  the 
system:  (1)  The  kindergarten  children  submit 
more  readily  to  school  discipline;  ('-)  the  aver- 
age intelligence  of  the  pupils  is  greatly  superior 
to  that  of  children  who  (Miter  school  without 
previous  training;  they  are  more  accurate  in 
observation,  and  Beize  ideas  with  more  rapidity 
and  exactness  than  other  children ;  (3)  in  addi- 
tion to  superior  general  development,  children 
thus  trained  show  special  aptitude  for  arith- 
metic, drawing,  and  natural  sciences,  and  can 
express  what  they  know  with  greater  correct- 
ness and  fluency. 

In  Germany,  where  there  are,  as  yet,  no  kinder- 
gartens dependent  on  the  state,  and  only  a  few 
dependent  on  communities,  efforts  are  being 
made  by  the  National  Education  Society  to  in- 
duce the  governments  to  authorize  a  general  in- 
troduction of  the  system,  with  all  th  ■  steps  pre- 
liminary thereto.  An  experiment  lias  also  been 
beimnin  Austria  and  in  Wiirtemberg,  to  establish 
Froebel's  Labor  School.  This  is  a  continuation 
of  the  kindergarten  occupations  through  higher 
stages  of  development.  Only  about  one  half  of 
the  school  time  is  spent  in  the  ordinary  kind 
of  primary  and  secondary  instruction  ;  the  re- 
mainder is  devoted  to  recreation  and  occupa- 
tions, such  as  singing,  declamation,  drawing, 
modeling,  gymnastics,  geometrical  object  lessons 
and  exercises,  paste-board  work,  wood  work,  and 
metal  work,  etc.  This  experiment  has  also  l>  sen 
carrie  1  on  for  the  last  five  years,  at  a  German- 
American  school  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  on  a  smaller 
scale,  but  with  very  Satisfactory  results. 

Owing  to  the  necessity  of  special  skill  and 
training  in  order  to  Cdndud  a  kindergarten 
efficiently,  many  persons  who  undertake  this 
work  fail,  through  want  of  preparation,  to  pro- 
duce the  results  designed.  In  this  way  spurious 
kindergartens  have  caused  much  complaint,  and 

broughl  considerable   discredit    upon   the  system. 

The  test,  of  a  good  kindergarten  is  its  obvious 
effeel  upon  the  pupils,  in  exciting  cheerfulness, 
intelligence,  activity,  and  a  fondness  for  the  school 
work,  £f,  on  the  other  hand,  the  children  dislike  the 

School,  il  is  an  evidence  that  there  is  a  want  of  tact 
and  skill  in  its  management.  There  may.  indeed. 
exist  in  Buch  a,  school  all  the  oeenpat  ions  recom- 
mended by  Froebel,  and  each  may  be  used  ac- 
cording to  the  established  formula  :  bul  if  the 
spirit  in  which  the  exercises  arc  to  be  conducted 

is  missing,  it'  the  treatment  is  mechanical, all  Un- 


moral influence  which  should  spring  from  the 
cheerful  self-activity  of  the  child,  is  lost.    If  too, 
the  teacher  shows  always  the  calm  and  dignified 
deportment  of  the  ordinary  class  disciplinarian, 
instead  of  entering    with   all  her    heart    into  the 
harmless  joy  from  which  the   child's   self-govern- 
ment  is  to  take  a  fruitful   growth,  and   calming 
only  the  troublesome   excess  of   this  mirth  by 
now  and  then  a  look,  a  word,  or  a  gesture,  she  is 
not  well  fitted  for  her  calling.    A  genuine  kinder- 
garten teacher  will,  like  the  best  of  mothers,  take 
a  lively  interest  in  remedying,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  bodily,  mental,  and  moral  defects  of  every 
child  under  her  care. — uncleanly  and  disorderly 
habits,   want  of    attention,   stammering,   color- 
blindness, a  bad  gait  or  posture,  imperfect  artic- 
ulation, etc.     She  will,   in   this  way,  earn  the 
gratitude  of  the  children  and  their  parents,  and 
exert  a  great   moral  influence.     Her  efforts  in 
this  respect  are,  in  a  great  measure,  facilitated 
by  the  pliability  of  the  child's  powers,  as  well 
as  by  its  desire  to  avoid   ridicule,  and  to  enjoy 
the  society  of  its  comrades.  Abundant  experience 
teaches,  that  there  need  be  no  incurable  ct 
of  the   above   kind    among   children   who   have 
the  full   use  of    their  senses;   that   till  children 
may  learn  drawing,   singing,  correct  enunciation, 
geometry,  and  many  other  aits  and  accomplish- 
ments that    are.  by    common    prejudice,  pro- 
nounced attainable  by  those  only  who  are  specially 
gifted.     It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  a  kinder- 
gartner  can   hardly  be  too  well  educated;  and, 
also,   that   no   education    repays    so   abundantly 
its  cost.  —  See  Friedkich  Froebel,  GesammeUe 
padagogische  Schrifien,  herausgeg.  v.  Wichard 
Lange  (Berlin,  1862);  II.  Marenholtz-Buelow, 
Die  Arbeit  und  die  neue  Erziehung  nach  Froe- 
beVs    Methode     ((iottingen,    1875);    II.  Gold- 
ammkk,  T)er  Kindergarten   (Berlin,  L874);  Lina 
Morgenstern,    Das    Parodies    der    KindneU, 
(Leipsic,  isTI )  ;  A.  Kokiu.kk. Der  Kindergarten 
in  siim  in  Wesen  dargestellt{ Weimar,  1868);  and 
Die   Praacis  des   Kindergartens  ('•>  vols..  Wei- 
mar) :  also,   the  monthly  periodical    Erziehung 
der  Gegenwart,  published  in  Dresden,  which  is 

chiefly  devoted    to   the   cause   of   llie   kindcrgar- 

ten.  The  chief  English  publications  are:  An. 
Dodai,  The  Kindergarten  (N.  V..  1871);  W. 
N.  Haii.man.  Kindergarten  Cutture{Cm.,  L874); 
II.  Hoffmann,  Kindergarten  7oys(N.Y.,  1*7-1  ; 
Arc  Kokiii.kk.  Kindergarten  Education  (N.Y.. 
L876) ;  M.  Kraub-Boelte  and  John  Cradr, 
Kindergarten  Guide(H.  5T.,1876);  Mrs.  Hor- 
ace Mann  and  Euz.  1'.  Peabody,  Moral  Outturn 
of  Infancy  <nnl  Kindergarten  <<'i>ii/r  (N.  Y.. 
L876) ;  Jos.  Payne,  Froebel  <t><<l  //>>■  Kinder- 
garten System  (London,  1874);  Exrz.  P.  Peat 
body,  Education  of  the  Kinaergartner  (PittS; 
burgh,  L875) ;  Johannes  and  Bertha  Ro*jge, 
Guide  tn  tin-  English  Kindergarten  (London, 
L875);  Edw.Wibbe,  The  Paradise  of  Child- 
hood (Springfield,  L869). 

KINDERMANN,  Ferdinand,  one  of   the 
greatest  educational   reformers  of    Austria,  born 

at  kniiigswaldc.  in  Bohemia, Dec.  27..1740,  died 
May  25.,    L801.     When  he   was  appointed,   in 


KI\<;    COI.KKCK 


KNOX    COLLEGE 


505 


1771,  parish   priest   of   Kaplitz,  he  found   the 

school  of  th.it  imvu.  as  well  as  the  schools  of 
Bohemia  in  general,  in  a  mosl  deplorable  condi- 
tion. There  was  no  discipline  whatever,  the 
methods  of  instruction  were  entirely  mechanical, 
and  there  was  scarcely  any  attempt  at  classifica- 
tion. Kindermann  resolved  to  make  the  refor- 
mation of  the  school  the  work  of  his  lite  :  ami.  as 
he  says  himself ,'  the  first  day  which  he  gave  to 
his  pastoral  duties, was  also  the  first  dayde'voted 
to  the  school,  lie  taught  the  teachers  how  to  in- 
struct, and  the  children  how  to  learn;  and  by 
equally  enlisting  the  interest  of  teacher,  children, 
and  parents,  met  in  a  short  time  with  complete 
success.  The  school  of  Kaplitz  became  famous 
throughout  Bohemia,  and  even  beyond  its  bor- 
ders; and  priests  and  teachers  were  sent  there 
from  various  towns  to  study  the  method  which 
had  achieved  so  great  a  result.  In  177"),  Kin- 
dermann  was  appointed  chief  superintendent  of 
all  the  German  schools  of  Bohemia,  and  coun- 
cilor of  the  school  commission.  In  the  same  year, 
he  also  became  professor  of  pedagogy  at  one  of 
the  gymnasia  of  Prague.  In  his  new  position, 
he  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  normal  school  of  Prague,  through 
which  he  exerted  the  most  beneficent  influence 
upon  the  other  Bohemian  schools.  The  empress 
Maria  Theresa  acknowledged  his  services  in  many 
ways,  and  raised  him  to  the  knighthood,  un- 
der the  title  of  Knight  von  Schulstein.  Later, 
he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Leitmeritz. —  The 
method  which  Kiiiilennann  followed  and  recom- 
mended was,  on  the  whole,  that  of  Felbiger 
(q.  v.);  but,  in  many  respects,  he  pursued  his 
own  way,  laying  special  stress  on  the  catechetical 
method.  His  desire  to  increase  the  prosperity 
of  the  people  by  the  improvement  of  education, 
induced  him  to  train  the  children  of  his  school 
in  spinning,  sewing,  knitting,  and  also  in  agricult- 
ure, horticulture,  and  the  rearing  of  silk-worms. 
He  thus  became  the  founder  of  the  industrial- 
school  system  in  his  country. — See  Aigner,  Der 
Volks-  und  Industriereformator  Bischof  Ferdi- 
nand. Kindermann  (1867). 

KING  COLLEGE,  at  Bristol,  Tennessee, 
founded  in  1808,  is  under  the  control  of  Presby- 
terians. It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees,  varying 
from  812  to  $25  per  term  of  20  weeks,  and  the 
proceeds  of  an  endowment  of  830,000.  It  has 
a  preparatory  anil  a  collegiate  department.  I  n 
1875 — (i,  there  were  -1  instructors  and  76  stu- 
dents. The  Rev.  James  1).  Tadlock  has  been 
the  president  from  the  commencement  of  the 
institution. 

KING'S  COLLEGE  (London)  is  erected 
on  a  site  which  was  given  by  the  ( 'town,  on  the 
east  side  of  Somerset  House,  in  the  Strand.  Its 
foundation  was  owing  to  the  strong  dissatisfac- 
tion which  many  felt  at  the  total  exclusion  of 
religious  teaching  from  University  College,  which 
had  opened  its  classes  in  1828,  three  years  earlier 
than  King's.  Accordingly,  students  at  King's 
are  instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of 
England;  although  a  liberal  conscience  clause  is  in 
operation,  which  enables  Jews  and  other  religion- 


ists to  share  largely  in  the  benefits  of  the  institu- 
tion. No  person,  however,  \\  ho  is  not  a  member  of 
the  ( ihurch  of  England  can  hold  any  office  in  dm 

College,  witli  the  exception  of    the  professorships 

of  oriental  literature  and  modern  languages,  ill 
other  respects,  K ing's  •  'ollege  docs  not  materially 
differ  from  University  College,  originally  partak- 
ing, like  it,  of  the  proprietary  character,  and  ex- 
hibiting tb 
the  new  . 
lege 


e  same  adherence  to  the  old  studies  and 
There   are  six  departments  in  the  col- 


namely,  (1)  Theological ;  (2)  General  I  iter- 

at  tire  and  Science;  (.'!)  Applied  Sciences,  chiefly 

engineering;  (4)  Medicine;  (5)  Evening  Classes ; 
(6)  School  for  boys.  The  arrangements  of  the 
college  are  wholly  under  the  supervision  of  tho 

principal,  the  Rev.  Canon  Harry.  There  is  also 
a  head-master  of  the  school. 

The  students  at  King's  are  either  matriculated 
or  occasional  students  ;  the  former  being  those 
who  are  admitted  to  the  regular  and  prescribed 
courses  of  study,  the  latter  those  who  take  such 
classes  only  as  suit  their  purposes.  In  Lent, 
term,  187;"),  there  were,  in  the  six  departments, 
the  following  matriculated  students  and  pupils; 
(1)24;  (2)  47;  (3)  70 ;  (4)  135  ;  (5)  86  ;  (6)  553, 
If  to  these  be  added  38  occasional  students  in 
the  morning,  and  -147  occasional  students  in  the 
evening,  the  total  will  be  1,400.  This  total  would 
be  much  increased,  if  account  were  taken  of  cer- 
tain evening  lectures  not  yet  included  in  the 
regular  system,  such  as  the  Gilbart  lectures  on 
banking,  largely  attended  by  clerks. — The  Ap- 
plied Sciences  department  is  highly  esteemed 
by  professional  men,  and,  for  some  years  past, 
has  been  attended  by  from  75  to  95  students: 
It  has,  besides  other  appliances,  two  good  work- 
shops, one  for  working  in  wood,  and  the  other 
for  working  in  metal.  There  are  about  48  pro- 
fessors, besides  lecturers,  demonstrators,  and  the 
masters  in  the  school.  Many  of  these  and  of  the 
old  students  are  men  of  great  eminence.  Sir 
Charles  AVheatstone,  the  joint-inventor  of  the 
electric  telegraph,  was  the  professor  of  experi- 
mental philosophy  from  1834  until  his  death,  iii 
1875.  The  management  of  the  college  rests 
with  a  council  of  42  governors.  Of  these.  21  are 
appointed  by  the  proprietors,  six  retiring  every 
year.  The  remainder  are  either,  ex  officio,  gov- 
ernors or  life-governors  appointed  by  the  visitor, 
The  college  buildings,  with  fittings  and  addi- 
tional land,  cost  £180,000.  The  endowments 
produce  a  yearly  income  of  £880,  which  issue: 
dally  appropriated  to  certainfixed  purposes.  The 
ordinary  expenditure  is,  therefore,  defrayed  by 
the  fees,  three-fourths  of  which  art- paid  to  the 
professors,  the  other  fourth  being  retained  l,v 
the  college. — The  college  has  a  hospital  near 
Lincoln's^Inn  Fields;  it  has  also  a  chapel  for 
divine  service  on  Sundays  and  week-days.  A 
small  number  of  students  reside  within  the  col; 
lege.  -See  the  College  Calendar,  and  the  Fifth 
Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  <>/'  Scientific 
Instruction. 

KNOX  COLLEGE,  at  Calesburg,  111.,  was 
founded  in  1836,  and  fully  organized  in  1841, 
The  first  class  graduated  in   L846.     It  is  non- 


>06 


LAFAYETTE   COLLEGE 


LANCASTER 


The   productive 


buildings 


funds    amount  to 
,  grounds,  etc.,  are 


sectarian 

$110,000;  and  the 

valued  at  $190,000.  The  libraries  contain  6,600 
volumes.  There  are  also  cabinets  of  natural  his- 
tory. The  regular  tuition  fees  vary  from  $20  to 
$30  per  annum.  The  institution  comprises  a  col- 
lege, a  ladies'  seminary,  and  an  academy,  the  first 
of  which  includes  a  classical  and  a  scientific 
course.     In  1875 — 6,  there  were  12  instructors, 


and  32  f)  students,  of  whom  41  were  in  the 
college.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows : 
the  Rev.  Hiram  H.  Kellogg,  to  1845;  the  Rev. 
Jonathan  Blanchard,  to  1858  ;  the  Rev.  Harvey 
( 'urtiss,  to  1863  ;  the  Rev.  Wm.  S.  Curtiss,  D.  D., 
to  1868;  the  Rev.  John  P.  Gulliver,  I).  D.,  to 
1872  ;  Prof.  Albert  Ilurd  (acting),  to  1874  ;  and 
Newton  Bateman,  LL.  D.,  the  present  incum- 
bent (1876). 


LAFAYETTE  COLLEGE,  at  Easton,  Pa., 
tinder  Presbyterian  control,  was  chartered  in 
1826,  and  fully  organized  in  1832,  with  the 
usual  classical  course  of  study  preparatory  to 
the  learned  professions.  The  Pardee  Scientific 
Department  was  added  in  1866,  through  the 
munificence  of  Mr.  Ario  Pardee  of  Hazleton, 
whose  gifts  for  this  purpose  amount  to  nearly 
$500,000.  The  college  has  seven  dormitories, 
four  of  them,  known  as  students'  homes,  having 
also  families  residing  in  them,  and  providing 
board  and  a  home  for  such  as  desire  it.  It  has 
five  buildings  of  instruction  and  manipulation. 
The  Pardee  Hall  of  Technical  Instruction,  built 
and  fitted  up  at  a  cost  of  $250,000,  was  dedicated 
in  1 873.  The  chemical  laboratories  are  perhaps 
unpqualed  in  this  country,  and  those  of  mining 
and  metallurgy,  mechanics  and  physics,  are  of 
the  best.  The  department  of  natural  history- 
contains  the  most  complete  collection  of  the 
plants  of  Pennsylvania.  The  college  has  libraries 
of  over  20.000  volumes,  and  is  especially  rich  in 
the  department  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  early  En- 
glish. It  maintains  a  reading  room,  in  which, 
Besides  papers  and  periodicals,  the  reference 
books  most  frequently  needed  in  each  study  are 
kept  for  constant  use.  The  methods  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  two  first  years  are  those  of  the  gym- 
nasium. The  classes  are  kept  in  small  divisions; 
and  short  lessons  are  thoroughly  learned,  and 
accompanied  by  many  exercises  of  practice,  and 
elementary  explanation,  often  repeated.  In  the 
two  last  years,  there  is  more  attempt  to  stimulate 
general  investigation,  and  to  communicate  ad- 
vanced  thought  and  methods  by  lectures,  and  by 
requiring  the  preparation  of  essays  of  research. 
It  now  offers  five  courses,  of  four  years  each; 
namely,  classical,  scientific,  engineering,  mining 
and  metallurgy,  and  chemistry,  leading  respect- 
ively to  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy,  Civil  Engineer,  Mining 
Engineer,  and  Analytical  Chemist.  Partial 
courses  may  also  be  taken,  and  opportunities 
are  afforded  for  postgraduate  study.  A  three 
years'  postgraduate  course  leads  to  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Philosophy.  A  law  department 
was  opened  in  1S75.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  from 
$45  to  -ST.")  per  year.  In  L875— 6,  there  were  28 
instructors    and    835    students    in   the   academic 

departments.    The  college  has  been  honorably 

ociated  with   the  progress  of  meteorological 

Bcience  through  the  labors  of  Prof.  J.  H.  Coffin, 

LP  D.,  by   wl i  the  government   observations 


and  the  collections  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
have  been  here  reduced  and  prepared  for  publi- 
cation ;  also,  since  the  election  of  Prof.  F.  A. 
March.  1 855,  with  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon  and 
English,  in  connection  with  comparative  philol- 
ogy and  history,  in  which  it  has  been  a  leader 
(see  Anglo-Saxon, and  English,  thk  Stout  of); 
it  is  also  distinguished  for  its  courses  in  the 
Latin  and  Greek  of  Christian  writers,  established, 
in  1872,  by  an  endowment  from  Mr.  Benj.  Doug- 
lass of  New  York  City.  Since  1864,  under  the 
presidency  of  the  Rev.  W.  C.  Cattell.  I  >.!>..  it  has 
also  become  a  center  of  scientific  and  technical 
study  for  the  coal  and  iron  districts  of  Pennsyl- 
vania anil  New  Jersey.  The  presidents  of  the 
college  have  been  as  follows :  the  Rev.  George 
Junkin,  D.  D.,  1832—41,  and  1844—8;  the 
Rev.  J.  W.  Yeomans,  D.  D.,  1841—4;  the 
Rev.  C  W.  Nassau,  D.  D.,  1849  ;  the  Rev.  D.V. 
Meliean,  I).  I)..  L850— 57;  the  Rev.  6.  W.  Mc 
Phail,  D.  D.,  1857—63;  and  William  U.  Cattell, 
I).  I).,  since  1863. 

LA  GRANGE  COLLEGE,  at  Li  Grange, 
Mo.,  was  chartered  in  1859.  and  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Baptist  denomination.  The  college 
has  valuable  meteorological,  astronomical,  chem- 
ical, and  electrical  apparatus,  a  good  niineralogical 
and  geological  cabinet,  and  a  growing  library. 
Tt  is  chiefly  supported  by  tuition  fees  varying 
from  $24  to  $40  per  year.  During  the  present 
year  an  endowment  of  about  $25,000  has  been 
secured.  Candidates  for  the  ministry  receive 
tuition  free.  There  is  a  primary,  a  preparatory, 
and  a  collegiate  department,  the  last  having  a 
classical  and  a  scientific  course.  Both  sexes  are 
admitted.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  10  professors, 
143  students,  and  42  alumni  (24  males  and  18 
females).  J.  P.  Cook,  LL.  D.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

LANCASTER,  Joseph,  an  English  edu- 
cator, horn  in  London  in  177^;  died  in  New 
York,  Oct.  24.,  1838.  He  was  the  promoter, 
though,  probably,  not  the  originator,  of  the  sys- 
tem of  instruction  or  school  organization  which, 
for  a  long  time,  paced  under  his  name.  Of  an 
imaginative  and  excitable  disposition,  Lincaster, 
at  an  early  age,  showed  the  enthusiasm  of  a  true 
zealot.  Thus,  when  only  fourteen  years  old, 
upon    reading    Clarkson's    Essay   on    tin1   Sinn' 

Trade,  he  was  seized  with  the  desire  to  educate 
the  Macks,  so  that  they  might  be  able  to  read 
the  Scriptures,  and.  1o  thai  end.  ran  away  from 
home,  carrying  a  Bible  and  a  copy  of  J'i^/rin/'s 


LANCASTER 


507 


Prxtgreas  in  his  pocket.  The  captain  of  the 
vessel,  however,  in  which  he  proposed  ti>  sail, 
prudently  sent  liini  hack.  At  sixteen,  he  joined 
the  society  <it  Friends;  but.  shortly  afterward, 
having  become  interested  in  the  education 
of  the  poor,  by  an  observation  of  the  scanty 
means  provided  for  that  purpose  in  London,  lie 
addressed  himself  to  the  work  which  became 
afterwards  the  business  of  his  life.  In  1797, 
Dr.  Andrew  Bell  (q.  v.)  published  a  pamphlet, 
entitled  An  Experiment  in  Education,  made  <d 
the  M'tle  Asylum  if  Madras,  in  which  the  sys- 
tem, variously  known  as  the  monitorial,  mutual 
instruction,  or,  afterwards,  Lanca&terian  system, 
was  set  forth.  This  pamphlet  attracted  little 
attention  in  England.  In  the  following  year, 
Lancaster  opened  a  school  in  Southwark,  and 
after  conducting  it  long  enough  to  discover  that 
the  impulse  of  enthusiasm  with  which  it  was 
started,  was  not  sufficient  to  uphold  it,  began  to 
cast  about  for  some  well-matured  plan  on  which 
it  could  be  continued.  The  extent  to  which 
Dr.  Hell's  pamphlet  influenced  him  at  this  time 
has  never  been  definitely  ascertained,  the  ob- 
scurity attending  the  matter  having  been  in- 
crease 1  by  his  own  contradictory  assertions.  He 
began,  however,  to  put  into  practice  the  prin- 
cipal features  of  Dr.  Bell*s  system,  and  secured  so 
general  a  recognition  of  its  merits,  that  schools 
organized  upon  that  system  began  to  spring  up 
all  over  the  country.  The  church,  alarmed  at 
the  success  attained  by  a  dissenter  in  educating 
the  poor,  began  to  open  similar  schools  under 
fie  direction  of  Dr.  Dell,  a  member  of  the 
established  ch  -.rm,  whose  merits,  originally  neg- 
lected or  overlooked,  were  now  recognized  and 
extolled.  The  excitement  produced  by  this  ri- 
valry was  the  means  of  adding  largely  to  school 
revenues  throughout  the  country ;  and  thus  the 
cause  of  education  was  benefited,  whatever  the 
motives  may  have  been  which  animated  the 
Tival  factions.  From  1807  to  1811,  Lancaster 
traveled  through  the  country,  lecturing  on  the 
subject  of  education,  and  illustrating  his  method 
by  the  help  of  monitors  who  accompanied  him  ; 
and  it  is  said  that,  during  one  of  those  years,  a 
new  school  according  to  his  system  was  opened 
every  week.  The  enthusiasm  thus  created  soon 
led,  however,  to  great  pecuniary  success,  but  with- 
out permanent  benefit  to  the  institutions  which 
he  had  founded,  since  his  ardent  temperament 
and  want  of  business  capacity  constantly  sub- 
jected him  to  serious  embarrassment.  In  1812, 
he  attempted  to  found  a  school  composed  entirely 
of  the  children  of  wealthy  parents;  but  he  failed, 
and  was  adjudged  a  bankrupt.  In  1818,  he 
visited  the  United  States,  and  was  well  received  ; 
but  his  want  of  discretion  again  brought  him 
into  trouble.  In  1829,  he  went  to  Canada,  where 
his  fame  procured  him  legislative  aid  in  the  fur- 
therance of  his  educational  projects  :  but  again 
becoming  embarrassed  pecuniarily,  he  removed 
to  New  York,  where  some  friends  had  purchased 
for  him  a  small  annuity.  A  description  of  the 
system  known  as  the  Lancaeterian,  will  be  found 
elsewhere  in  this  volume.    (See  Beij,,  and  Moni- 


torial System.)     Of  the  extraordinary  success 
achieved  by  Lancaster  in  its  application,  and  the 

unselfish  devotion  of  his  life  to  its  practice,  we 
have  the  most  abundant  evidence.  I  lis  course  of 
instruction  originally  included  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic, and  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible,  the  fee 
for  tuition  being  four  pence  a  week  :  while  many, 
even  from  the  first,  were  admitted  free.  Over 
the  door  of  the  school-house,  we  are  told,  was 
printed  the  announcement.  '•  All  that  will,  may 
send  their  children,  and  have  them  educated 
freely  ;  and  those  that  do  not  wish  to  have  edu- 
cation for  nothing,  may  pay  for  it  if  they  please." 
The  children  came  to  him  "like  flocks  of  sheep," 
and  his  school,  in  London,  was  sometimes  at- 
tended by  a  thousand.  It  became  one  of  the 
points  of  interest  for  visiting  foreigners,  and  of 
persons  of  all  classes  interested  in  the  subject  of 
education.  The  wonderful  discipline  maintained 
was  explained  by  him  in  the  rule,  "  Let  every 
child  have,  at  all  times,  something  to  do,  and  a 
motive  for  doing  it".  In  applying  it,  some  of  his 
methods  were  certainly  objectionable,  especially 
his  practice  of  giving  rewards,  which  was  carried 
to  an  unhealthy  excess.  "It  is  no  unusual  thing 
for  me,"  he  said  on  one  occasion, "  to  deliver  one 
or  two  hundred  prizes  at  the  same  time  ;  and,  at 
such  times,  the  countenances  of  the  whole  school 
exhibit  a  most  pleasing  scene  of  delight,  as  the 
boys  who  obtain  prizes  commonly  walk  round 
the  room  in  procession,  holding  the  prizes  in 
their  hands,  and  preceded  by  a  herald  proclaim- 
ing the  fact  before  them."  His  ingeniously 
varied  methods  of  punishment,  also,  would 
hardly  be  regarded  with  favor,  if  judged  by  the 
best  disciplinary  standard  of  the  present  time. 
These  consisted  mainly  of  devices  for  bringing 
the  public  opinion  of  the  orderly  portion  of  the 
school  to  bear  upon  the  offender  by  means  of 
ridicule.  This  course  was  adopted  by  Lancaster 
for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  corporal  punish- 
ment, which  he  detested.  II is  school  revenue, 
beginning  with  the  humblest  contributions  of 
the  poor  of  London,  rose  by  slow  degrees  at 
first,  till  it  finally  embraced  gifts  of  land  and 
money  from  noblemen  of  all  ranks,  and  even 
from  the  king  (George  lib),  who,  in  1805,  sent 
for  him,  and  after  receiving  from  him  in  person  an 
account  of  the  work  that  had  been  accomplished, 
expressed  his  emphatic  approval  of  it.  and  the  de- 
sire that  every  poor  child  in  his  dominions  should 
be  taught  to  read  the  Bible,  promising  any  aid  in 
his  power  to  promote  that  object.  The  novelty 
and  economy  of  the  plan  of  Lancaster  insured  it, 
for  a  time,  a  wonderful  degree  of  success;  but  it  is 
now  considered  to  have  been  much  overrated,  and 
is  of  little  value  in  our  day,  since  it  prin- 
cipally depended  upon  rote-teaching.  In  Holland, 
Prance,  and  Germany,  the  reaction  soon  set  in. 
and  led  to  very  decided  modifications.  In  Eng- 
land it  is  still  in  use  as  a  means  of  relieving  the 
teacher  of  much  work  not  essentially  educational, 
by  the  employment  of  the  aptest  scholars  as  as- 
sistants. By  such  employment,  also,  the  teacher 
is  enabled  to  select  those  pupils  who  are  best 
.qualified  to  be  trained  for  the  profession  of  teach- 


508 


LAND    CHANTS 


LANGUAGE 


ing.  The  distinctive  service;  however,  rendered 
by  Lancaster  to  the  cause  of  education,  was  the 
wide-spread  interest  and  enthusiasm  excited  in 
its  behalf,  and  his  vindication  of  a  non-sectarian, 
though  Christian,  Bystem.  Bis  published  works 
are,  improvement  in  Education  (London,  1805), 
iral  elementary  school  hooks,  and  many  pam- 
phlets in  defense  of  his  system.  For  inter 
ing  accounts  of  his  life  and  labors,  sec  TAfe  of  \ 
Lancaster,by  Willi  \m  Corston;  and  Lord  Cock- 
burn,  Memorials  of  his  own  Time;  .also  Leitch, 
Practical  Educationists  and  their  Systems  of 
Teaching  (Glasgow,  1876). 

LAND    GRANTS,    Congressional.     See 
United  States. 

LANE  UNIVERSITY,  at  Lecompton, 
Kan.,  founded  in  1865,  is  under  the  control  of 
the  United  Brethren  in  Christ.  It  has  an  endow-  i 
inent  of  $12,000  in  notes  and  real  estate.  There  ' 
is  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  course.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted.  In  1872 — 3, it  had  2  instruc- 
tors and  81  students  ("d  preparatory  and  11  col- 
legiate). The  presidents  have  been  as  follows: 
the  Rev.  Solomon  Weaver.  1865 — 6  ;  the  Rev. 
David  Shuck,  A.  M.,  1866  -TO:  \.  B.  Bartlett, 
A.M..  1870—74;  tin-  Rev.  David  Shuck,  A.M., 
again  elected  in  1ST  1:  and  X.I>.  Bartlett,  A.M., 
ted  a  second  time,  in   I  876. 

LANGUAGE    (Lat.     lingua,    the    tongue, 
speech i.  according   to    the    ordinary    acceptation 

of  tli  •  word,  is  the  utterance  of  articulate  sounds 
for  the  purpose  of  expressing  thought.  This 
mode  of  expression  constitutes  one  of  the  char- 
acteristic faculties  of  man  :  since  no  community 
of  human  beings,  in  historic  times,  has  been 
found  entirely  destitute  of  language:  and  abroad 

line  of  demarcation  separates  every  kind  of 
human  Bpeech  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge 
from  all  the  moles  of  expression  used  by  brutes. 

But  though  common  to  men  of   all  degrees 

of  culture,  and.  as  far  as  we  know,  in  till  periods 

of  time,  language  presents  an  infinite  number  of 

varieties.  The  further  we  remove  from  civiliza- 
tion, the  greater  is  the  number  of  different  lan- 
guages that  are  met  with.  "At  the  first  attainable 
period  of  our  knowledge  df  it,  whether  by  actual 
record,  or  by  the  inferences  of  the  comparative 

Student,  it  is  in  a  state  of  almost  endless  sub- 
division.    The  divaricating  forces   in   linguistic 

growth  are  in  the  ascendant  ;  dialects  go  on 
multiplying,  by  the  action  of  the  same  causes 
that  had  already  produced  them.     Hut  wherever 

civilization  is  at  work,  an  opposite  influence  is 
powerfully  operating.  Oul  of  the  congeries  of 
jarring  tribes  are  growing  greal  nations:  out  of 
the  Babel  of  discordant  dialects  arc  growing 
languages  of  wider  and  constantly  extending 
unity.    The  cultivated  languages  have  been  and 

arc  extending  their  sway,  crowding  mil  of  exist- 
ence the  patois  which  had  grOM  a  up  under  the  old 

order  of  things, and  gaining  Buch  advantage  that 

men  are  lie-inning  to  dream  of  a  time  when  one 
language    may    he   spoken   all   over    the  earth." 

i  \\  bitney,  in  Life  and  Growth  of  I.<i/ii/h<i<, 

The  scientific  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  lin- 
guistic differences,  and  the  relation  of  the  differ- 


ent languages  to  each  other,  is  of  a  comparatJTely 
recent  origin.  The  Greeks  and  the  Romans  had 
a  number  of  grammarians,  but  most  of  them  had 
an  acquaintance  with  only  their  own  language. or, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Romans,  with  two  language  s, 
and  they  were,  therefore,  unable  to  make  a  sound 
generalization.  There  is,  in  fact,  hardly  any  work 
prior  to  the  time  of  Leibnitz,  which,  considered 
in  the  light  of  the  present  linguistic  attainments 
of  scholars,  is  of  any  intrinsic  value.  The  ideas 
of  Leibnitz,  and  Herder  (in  his  prize  essay  On 
the  Origin  of  Language),  initiated  the  move- 
ment. The  empress  Catharine  EL,  of  Russia, 
took  great  interest  in  it  :  and  the  co-operation  of 
her  embassadors  in  Kurope  and  Asia  was  enlisted 
in  collecting  the  names  used  in  a  large  number 
of  languages  for  the  different  parts  of  the  human 
body  and  for  the  necessaries  of  life.  On  the  basis 
of  the  material  thus  collected.  Zimniermann  and 
Pallas  prepared,  by  order  of  the  empress.  Lin- 
guarum  totius  orbis  vocabularia  (3  vols.,  St. 
Petersburg,  1787 — 91).  the  first  comparative 
dictionary.  This  was  followed  by  the  more  scien- 
tific work  of  Adelung  and  Yater.  entitled  Mithri- 
dates  1 1806 — 1  7).  While  these  works  illustrated 
the  verbal  affinities  of  languages, the  introduction 
of  the  study  of  Sanskrit  led  to  the  study  of 
comparative  grammar.  After  these  publications, 
l!opp,  by  his  comparative  grammar  of  the  Indo- 
Germanic  languages,  and  Jakob  Grimm,  by  his 
historical  grammar  of  the  German  languag 
became  the  real  founders  of  the  science  oi  com- 
parative  linguistics,  or   comparative  philology, 

which   has    since    been    brought,   chiefly   by  tin; 

labor  of  German  scholars,  to  a  very  high  degree 
of  perfection.  (See  Dictionary,  Grammar,  Indo- 

GermanIC  LANGUAGES.)  The  comparative  study 
of  languages  led  at  once,  and  naturally,  to  an  at- 
tempt to  divide  all  human  Bpeech  into  families, 
and  to  assign  to  every  language  its  appropriate 

place  among  the  languages  of   the    world.     'Ihis 

again  involved  the  necessity  of  a  thorough 
scientific  study,  not  only  of  every  language  and 
dialed  that  is  now  spoken,  hut  even  of  the  lan- 
guages that  are  extinct.  A  marvelous  amount 
of  energy  and  ingenuity  has.  in  the  course  of  the 

present  century,  been  expended  tor  the  purpose 

of  Bolving  this  task.    Travelers  and  missionaries 

have  explored  the  languages  of  the  most  har- 
barous  and  uncivilized  tribes;  keen  philologists 
have  Spent  a  lite  time  in  recovering  the  lost  key 
to  extinct  languages  of  the  highest  antiquity, 
like  the  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  Etruscan;  and 
the  professors  of  comparative  linguistics  have 
been  indefatigable  in  collating  all  these  discover- 
ies, and  in  using  them  in  order  to  improve  the 
classification  of  languages,  and  to  promote  our 

know  ledge  of  the  development  of   human  speech 

in  general.     It  must,  of  course,  be  apparent  at 

first  sight,  that  any  classification  of  languages,  at 
the  present  time,  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  tent- 
ative and  provisional  arrangement ;  hut  a  glance 
at  the  labors  on  which  all  attempts  at  classi- 
fication are  based,  shows  that  the  results  which 

already  have  lieen  attained  are  of  the  greatest, 
importance.     The    best    known    among    all    thu 


LANGUAGE 


500 


families  of  language  is  the  Indo-Germanic  (q. 

k),  which,  in  its  totality,  lias  been  for  more  than 
two  thousand  years  the  language  of  the  ruling 
races  of  the  world,  and  which  embraces,  by  the 

side  of  the  Knglish.  the  ruling languages  in  every 
American  and  European  country,  except  Hun- 
gary and  Turkey,  and  the  two  classic  languages. 
Latin  and  Greek,  which  have  borne  so  prominent 
a  part  in  the  education  of  the  human  race  up  to 
its  present  state  of  civilization.  The  Hungarian 
and  Turkish  languages  have  been  recognized  as  be- 
longing to  two  distinct  branches  of  one  common 
family  called  by  different  philologists  Scythian 
(Whitney),  or  Turanian,  or  IJralo- Altaic,  or  Tar- 
taric, and  presenting  in  the  phonetic  structure  of 
all  its  members  some  striking  family  traits.  The 
Hebrew,  the  sacred  language  of  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  Bible,  appears,  with  the  Arabic,  Syriac, 
( 'haldee,  Phoenician,  and  other  tongues  of  western 
Asia  ami  north-eastern  Africa,  as  a  branch  of 
the  Semitic  family  of  languages,  which,  after 
the  [ndo-Germanic,  is  by  far  the  most  prominent 
in  the  history  of  the  world,  and  of  special  im- 
portance in  the  history  of  religious  thought :  since 
th "  founders  of  all  the  three  great  monotheistic 
religions, — Christianity,  Judaism,  and  Moham- 
me  lanism,  belonged  to  it. 

We  have  ca  -t  this  cursory  glance  at  the  growth 
of  language  and  of  linguistic  science  before  consul- 
Bring  language  as  a  subject  of  practical  education, 
because  it  is  self-evident  that  the  results  of  scien- 
tific research  must,  in  a  marked  manner,  influence 
and  shape  every  course  of  instruction.  The  in- 
fluence of  these  results  is  most  apparent  in  the 
higher  stages  of  instruction;  but  the  better  insight 
into  the  nature  of  language  thus  gained  can  easily 
be  traced  in  all  works  on  the  theory  of  education 
am  1  in  the  history  of  elementary  instruction. — The 
first  Stag  sill  the  development  of  language  consists 
in  th_v  pro  luction  of  articulate  sounds  and  combi- 
nations of  sounds ;  the  second,  in  the  connection 
of  words  with  conceptions;  the  third,  in  the  com- 
bination of  words  for  the  expression  of  thought. 
(See  Intellectual  Education.)  The  develop- 
ment of  language  in  a  child  should  not  outrun 
his  mental  development;  it  should  at  first  follow, 
and  subsequently  accompany  it.  The  child,  from 
his  lirst  infancy,  has  a  tendency  to  give  some  kind 
of  expression  to  all  the  emotions  of  his  mind.  At 
first,  various  movements  of  the  body,  and  inartic- 
ulate sounds  serve  for  the  purpose  ;  when  the 
perceptions  become  more  distinct,  the  child  looks 
around  for  more  definite  expressions,  and  finds 
them  in  the  word-language  of  those  who  sur- 
round him.  If  the  child  has  sound  organs  of 
speech,  the  task  of  the  educator,  at  first,  is  com- 
paratively easy.  An  artificial  plan  is  neither 
necessary  nor  practical ;  an  occasional  influence 
is  sufficient.  By  hearing  the  names  of  the  objects, 
actions,  qualities,  circumstances,  and  relations, 
which  he  perceives,  correctly  and  distinctly  pro- 
nounced, the  child  obtains  his  first  knowledge  of 
words,  and  learns  to  associate  them  with  the 
designated  objects.  The  memory,  without  dif- 
ficulty, retains  a  large  number  of  words,  and 
frequent   practice  soon    leads    to    readiness  of 


speech.    Occasional  conversations  with  the  child 

on  the  objects    of    his    attention,    with    little  dc 

scriptions  and  narratives,  afford  him  the  neces- 
sary material  for  expressing  the  combinations  of 
his  thoughts,  and  aid  in  the  development  of 
his  mind.  Where  the  cultivation  of  speech  is 
neglected  in  the  education  of  a  child,  the  intel- 
lectual development  is  likewise  retarded.  (In  the 
other  hand,  any  attempt  to  force  unduly  the 
rapid  development  of  speech,  may  lead  to  vain 
and  thoughtless  gamdity,  or  to  a  production  of 
erroneous  representations  in  the  mind,  which  will 
obstruct  its  harmonious  development.  During 
this  first  stage  of  education,  the  mother  is  the 
child's  natural  and  best  teacher  of  language,  and 
the  language  which  the  child  thus  learns  has 
justly  been  called  the  "mother-tongue".  Home 
education  may  receive  a  useful,  and  in  many  cases 
a  very  desirable,  aid  in  a  good  kindergarten. 

The  instruction  provided  for  in  the  common 
schools  of  modern  times  aims  chiefly  at  perfect- 
ing the  pupil  in  his  vernacular  language.  The 
course  of  instruction  to  this  end  embraces  ex- 
ercises in  spelling,  reading,  writing,  definitions, 
composition.  English  grammar,  elocution,  etc. 
There  is  still  great  diversity  of  opinion  among 
educators  as  to  the  best  methods  of  teaching 
each  of  these  branches,  and  as  to  the  relative 
position  which  each  of  them  should  occupy  in 
the  course  of  studies.  This  subject  is  fully 
discussed  in  the  special  articles  devoted  to  the 
branches  of  instruction  just  enumerated.  All 
educators,  however,  agree  in  regarding  it  as  one 
of  the  chief  aims  of  school  education  to  give  to 
the  pupil  a  good  knowledge  of  his  vernacular 
language,  and  fluency  in  speaking  and  writing  it 
correctly.  Even  in  those  branches  of  study 
which  neither  solely  nor  chiefly  aim  at  im- 
proving the  linguistic  knowledge  of  the  pupil, 
as  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  etc.,  every  edu- 
cator nowadays  requires  that  pupils  shall  be 
trained  in  the  correction  of  language,  and  taught 
to  avoid  common  errors  of  speech. — Nothing  is 
more  adapted  to  illustrate  the  great  progress 
which,  in  the  course  of  the  present  century,  has 
been  made  in  the  education  of  mankind  than  the 
steadily  improving  methods  employed  in  teaching 
1  the  youth  of  civilized  countries  their  vernacular 
I  tongue.  At  Athens  and  Rome,  instruction  was 
i  given  to  children  in  reading,  writing,  and  gram- 
mar, but  it  was  mostly  limited  to  the  boys  of 
the  higher  classes.  Throughout  the  middle  ages. 
Latin  was  the  medium  of  instruction  in  all  clas- 
ses of  schools,  partly  because  the  popular  dialects 
had  not  yet  attained  the  degree  of  perfection 
needed  for  expressing  the  thought  of  scholars. 
Even  in  the  Kith,  1  7th,  and  18th  centuries,  the 
study  of  the  vernacular  language  made  but  very 
slow  progress,  and  it  was  reserved  for  the  19th 
century  to  mature  plans  for  imparting  to  the  en- 
I  tire  population  a  good  knowledge  of  their  native 
tongues.  Hand  in  hand  with  the  progress  in  ele- 
mentary knowledge  thus  achieved,  goes  the  more 
general  demand  for  popular,  especially  periodical, 
literature,  and  the  more  active  and  more  intel- 
I  ligent  participation  of  the  masses  in  public  life. 


510 


LANGUAGE 


LATIN   LANGUAGE 


There  are  some  countries  in  which  the  entire 
native  population  speak  one  language;  others 
in  which  two,  three,  or  more  are  spoken  by  large 
bodies  of  the  people.  Among  the  former  are 
Italy,  Portugal.  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Nor- 
way; among  the  latter,  Great  Britain.  France, 
Holland.  Spain,  Belgium,  Germany,  Austria, 
Hungary,  Russia,  Switzerland,  and  the  United 
States.  In  Switzerland,  three  languages, — the 
Oerman,  French,  and  Italian,  are,  to  some 
extent,  regarded  as  national  languages:  in  all 
the  other  countries,  one  language  only  has  the 
character  of  a  national  language, though  in  some 
cases,  as  in  Belgium,  Austria,  and  Hungary,  it 
is  the  mother-tongue  of  only  a  minority  of  the 
population.  In  several  of  these  countries,  the 
question  to  what  extent  any  other  than  the  rul- 
ing Language  should  be  admitted  into  the  state 
schools  as  a  branch,  or  as  a  medium,  of  instruc- 
tion, has  led  to  animated  controversies,  which 
are  far  from  being  ended.  From  political  rea- 
sons, it  is  natural  that  the  union  of  an  entire 
people  in  the  bonds  of  one  common  language 
should  he  looked  upon  as  most  desirable;  but, 
from  an  educational  point  of  view.it  will  always 
be  urged  that,  however  desirable  the  universal 
knowledge  of  one  national  language  by  all  the 
inhabitants  of  a  country,  especially  a  large  coun- 
try, may  be,  the  principle  cannot  be  impugned 
that,  wherever  it  is  practicable,  the  education 
of  young  children  should  not  dispense  with  in- 
struction in  the  mother-tongue,  in  order  to  se- 
cure an  entire  co-operation  between  home  edu- 
cation and  school  education.  As  this  question 
equally  concerns  a  number  of  large  countries,  it 
is  to  he  hoped  that  a  solution  may  be  found  which 
will  reconcile  conflicting  claims. —  Besides  the 
mother-tongue  and  the  national  language,  the 
two  classical  and  the  principal  modern  languages 
are  very  extensively  studied  in  schools  of  a 
higher  grade.  The  classical  languages  have,  to  a 
large  extent,  lost  the  prominent  position  which 

they  formerly  occupied  in  most  schemes  of  edu- 
cation ;  the  study  of  modern  languages,  on  the 
other  hand,  appears  to  he  steadily  extending, 
l-'rom  a  pedagogical  point  of  view,  many  educa- 
tors urge  the  early  study  of  a  cognate  language 
as  a  means  to  promote,  by  way  of  comparison,  a 
more  thorough  understanding  of  the  native  lan- 
guage. Prom  a  business  or  practical  point  of 
view,  there  is  naturally  a  growing  demand  for 
instruction  in  the  languages  of  several  foreign 
countries.  The  treasures  of  the  English,  Ger- 
man, and  French  literatures  are  also  stimulating, 
in  an  increasing  ratio,  the  study,  in  many  coun- 
tries, of  those  three  languages,  which,  by  com- 
mon consent,  are  regarded  as  exceeding  ah1  others 
in  importance.  See  M  lrcel,  Language  as 
a  Means  of  Menial  Culture  and  International 
Communication  (2  vols.,  Loudon.  L853) ;  and 
The  Study  of  Languages 
L869);  WniiMv 
guage  (N.Y.,18i 

lbs,  Grammar,  Modern  Lanqi  iges,  and  the 
special  articles  on  Latin,  Greek,  Germak, and 
I       .en. 


I  Loud,    and     V  Y 


The  I. iff  mill  Growth  nf  Lan~ 

5).       (See  also  (  IlASSICAL  Sti  n- 


LA  SALLE,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French 
priest  and  teacher,  born  in  Reims,  April  30., 
1651  ;  died  in  Houen,  April  7.,  1719.  In  1669, 
he  Mas  appointed  canon  of  the  cathedral  of 
Reims,  and  afterwards  went  to  Paris  to  com- 
plete his  studies.  In  1671,  he  was  ordained  a 
priest,  and  began  at  once  the  work  of  his  life, 
the  education  and  improvement  of  the  working 
classes.  His  first  project  was  the  obtaining  of  a 
charter  for  a  sisterhood,  already  established  in 
his  native  place,  and  designed  exclusively  for 
the  education  of  poor  girls.  This  led  to  the  foun- 
dation of  a  similar  order  designed  to  promote  the 
education  of  boys,  which  rapidly  spread  through- 
out France,  under  the  name  of  Brethren  of  the 
Christian  Schools.    The  distinctive  features  of 

his  system  were,  the  bringing  together  of  the 
teachers  in  a  common  residence,  the  use  of  the 
coarsest  food  and  raiment,  and  vows  of  the 
strictest  obedience  and  devotion,  during  a  pre- 
paratory course  of  three  years,  to  be  renewed 
afterwards  for  life  by  those  desiring  it.  No 
member  of  thoorder  was  permitted  to  become  a 
priest;  and  to  prevent  any  aspirations  in  that 
direction.  Latin,  as  a  study,  was  forbidden  till 
the  age  of  thirty.  In  order  to  set  an  example  of 
religious  poverty  to  his  followers,  he  renounced 
his  prebend,  distributed  his  money  in  alms,  and 
constantly  taught  in  the  schools.  After  some  per- 
secutions at  the  hands  of  secular  teachers,  he  pur- 
chased the  establishment  of  St.  Yon.  at  Rouen, 
which  afterwards  became  the  central  school  of 
the  order.  In  1868,  the  brotherhood  numbered 
10,0(10  teachers  and  300,000  pupils,  in  France; 
and    in    the    United    States.    323    teachers    and 

15,000  pupils.    The  published  works  by  which 

La  Salle  is  best  known,  are:  Lrs  regies  <le  la 
bienseance  et  de  In  civilite"  chretiennes,  and  Les 
douse  oertus  d'un  Imn  )n<iiir>'. 

LA  SALLE  COLLEGE,  in  Philadelphia. 
Pa.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  founded  in 
L863,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Christian 
1  brothers.  It  is  Bnpported  by  tuition  fees,  varying 
from  $10  to  $20  per  quarter.    It  has  a  primary, 

an  academic,   a  commercial,  and  a  collegiate  de- 
partment.  The  degrees  conferred  are  A.  1!..  B.  S., 
and  A.  M.    In  1875 — 6.  there  were  200  students 
7  1  collegiate,  '■>'■'<  commercial,  and  93  academic). 

The  presidents  of  the  college  have  hern.  Brother 
Oliver.  Brother  Noah.  Brother  Joachim,  and 
Brother  Stephen  (the  present  incumbent). 

LATIN  LANGUAGE,  one  of  the  two  clas- 
sical languages,  which  as  the  language  of  one  of 
the  greatest  empires  of  the  world,  and  of  one  of 
the  richest  of  literatures,  and  subsequently  as 
the  official  language  of  the  Catholic  church,  the 
literary    language   of    western    Europe,  and    the 

mother  of  the  Romanic  languages,  has  been 
among  the  foremost  agents  in  developing  modern 
ci\  ilization.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  I-at- 
ins.  or  inhabitants  of  Litiuni.  in  central  Italy. 
by  whom  it  18  believed  by  some  to  have  been 
Book  n  as  earl)  as  fifteen  centuries  before  the 
Christian    era.       According    to    the     researches 

Of    modern   philology,    the    Latin    is  < f  the 

two  branches  of    the  Old  Italic  language,  which. 


I  with  the  Greek.  German,  Sanskrit,  and  others, 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  chief  divisions  into 
which  the  lndo-(  Jertnanic  languages  (q.  v.)  arc 
divided.  The  close  resemblance  of  the  Lit  in. 
as  well  as  the  other  (Cnibro-Samnitie)  branch 
of  the  Old  Italic  language,  to  the  Greek  has  led 
some  philologists  to  assume  that  both  the  Italic 
and  the  Greek  language  sprang  from  one  branch, 
now  lost,  which  was  co-ordinate  with  the  San- 
skrit, tier  man,  and  other  divisions  of  the  Ludo- 
Genuanic.  The  subjection  of  Italy  to  the  rule  of 
Rome,  which  was  situated  in  Latium,  gradually 
made  Latin  the  language  of  all  Italy.  After  the 
name  of  the  people  to  whom  it  owes  its  eminent 
position  in  history,  it  has  also  been  called  the 
Roman  language.  For  a  long  time,  the  Romans 
remained  without  a  literature,  the  earliest  work 
which  is  now  extant  dating  about  240  B.  0.  Of 
the  preceding,  ante-literary  period  of  the  lan- 
guage nothing  is  now  left  but  a  few  fragments 
of  the  Salian  songs,  of  the  chant  of  the  Arval 
brethren,  and  of  the  law  of  the  twelve  tables,  be- 
sides a  few  epitaphs.  During  the  next  two 
centuries.  Latin  literature  was  gradually  devel- 
oped, until,  in  the  writings  of  Cicero,  it  reached 
its  classic  period.  Though  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  elegant  language  of  the  educated 
classes  [lingua  urbana,  wbanitas)  and  the  lan- 
guage of  the  common  and  lower  classes  of  the 
people  (lingtta  rustica  or  vulgaris  ruslicitas) 
was  early  and  broadly  drawn,  the  literary  lan- 
guage was  and  remained  substantially  the  same  ; 
and  the  natives  of  the  provinces  of  Spain  and 
northern  Africa  among  the  Roman  writers  used 
the  same  language  as  the  natives  of  the  city, 
although,  in  regard  to  the  spoken  language,  the 
latter  claimed  the  same  prerogative  as  the  mod- 
ern Parisians  in  regard  to  French.  In  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  linguistic  mate- 
rial was  considerably  enlarged  by  means  of  com- 
pounds and  derivatives ;  in  the  course  of  the 
second  century,  the  admission  of  a  large  number 
of  archaic,  ante-Ciceronian  words  and  forms  and 
of  Grecisins,  put  an  end  to  the  classic  period  of 
Roman  literature.  After  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century,  the  purity  of  the  language  and  lit- 
erature rapidly  declined.  The  language  of  the 
common  people  invaded  the  literary  language, 
provincialisms  and  Grecisms  became  more  and 
more  frequent ;  and  although  there  was  a  revival 
of  pure  Latin  in  the  literature  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  the  spoken  language,  in  constant- 
contact  with,  and  under  the  influence  of,  the 
»  tongues  of  the  barbaric  conquerors  of  the  em- 
pire, gradually  succumbed  to  that  series  of  gram- 
matical and  verbal  changes  which  formed  the 
transition  into  the  Romanic  languages.  In  the 
mean  while,  Latin  had  become  the  liturgical  and 
official  language  of  the  I  'liristian  ( Jhurch;  and,  as 
the  modern  languages  which  arose  in  different 
countries  of  Europe  remained  for  centuries  de- 
void of  a  literary  character,  Latin  became  the 
common  language  of  the  schools  and  literatures  of 
western  Europe.  It  was  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion,not  only  in  the  convent,  and  in  the  cathedral 
and   collegiate   schools,  but  also   in   the   town 


LATIN   LANGUAGE 


511 


schools,  which  in  the  12th  century,  began  to  arise 
by  the  side  of,  and  frequently  in  opposition  to, 
the  church  schools.  It  was  this  latter  class  of 
schools  for  which  the  name  Latin  schools  (q.  v.) 
came  into  use.  The  Latin  of  the  middle  ages 
[Laiinitas  media  and  Latmitcu  in/nun)  was 
far  inferior  to  that  of  the  classic  period  of  Ro- 
man literature;  and,  from  the  6th  to  the  14th 
century,  not  one  writer  can  be  found  who,  for 
the  elegance  of  his  diction,  can  be  regarded  as 
a  classic.  The  revival  of  classical  studies  in  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries  caused,  in  literature, 
]  a  return  from  the  Latin  of  the  Church  to  the 
language  of  Cicero  and  the  Augustan  age,  which 
many  writers  of  that  period  strove,  with  some 
success,  to  reproduce  in  its  classic  purity.  The 
Reformation,  in  the  Kith  century,  banished  the 
use  of  Latin  from  divine  service  in  Protestant 
churches;  but  Latin  schools  were  as  rigorously 
maintained  in  Protestant  as  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries. The  speaking  of  Latin  was  common 
among  the  citizens  and  mechanics  of  towns ; 
and  it  is  reported  of  the  family  of  the  learned 
printer  Henry  Stephens  that  not  only  his  wife, 
but  even  his  domestics  talked  Latin.  Special 
importance  was  attributed  to  the  speaking  of 
Latin  in  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits ;  and  also 
in  Protestant  states,  like  Prussia  and  Saxony, 
the  gymnasia  were,  and  partly  still  are,  expected 
to  train  their  pupils  in  speaking  and  writing  Lat- 
in. In  modern  times,  the  growing  opposition 
to  the  privileged  position  of  classical  studies  in 
the  educational  systems  of  civilized  nations,  has 
diminished  the  study  of  Latin  as  well  as  that  of 
Greek,  but  the  former  still  maintains  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  higher  institutions  of  learning 
throughout  the  civilized  world,  and,  even  in 
the  present  century,  though  in  a  decreasing  ratio, 
is  still  used  in  scientific  works.  As  the  lan- 
guage of  diplomacy  it  began  to  give  way  to 
the  French  in  the  course  of  the  1  Tth  century ; 
but,  in  some  parts  of'  Europe,  it  was  still,  in 
the  18th  century,  the  language  of  the  educated 
classes  and  of  political  life.  Thus,  the  Huii- 
garian  Diet,  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century, 
received  Maria  Theresa,  when  she  personally  ap- 
peared to  ask  its  support,  with  the  memorable 
acclamation:  Moriamur  pro  rege  nostro  Maria 
Theresia.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  ( 'hurch,  Latin 
maintains  unimpaired  the  high  authority  ac- 
corded to  it  as  the  language  of  the  Church  ;  and, 
as  such,  it  is  still  used  by  the  Pope  in  his  com- 
munications with  the  bishops  and  church  mem- 
bers of  all  nationalities,  and  by  the  councils  of 
the  (  nurch  in  their  discussions  and  decrees. 

The  Latin  alphabet  derives  a  special  interest 
from  the  fact  that  it  has  been  adopted  for  the 
English  language  and  all  the  Romanic  languages, 
and  has  thus  become  the  medium  of  written  ex- 
pression for  the  thought  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
civilized  world.  Its  early  history  is  still  far  from 
being  fully  elucidated:  but  recenl  researches, 
especially  those  of  Kirehhoff  i  Abhandlungen  der 
Academie  der  Wissenschaften  vu  Berlin,  1863) 
have  shed  considerable  light  on  the  subject.  It 
is  now  commonly  assumed  that  the  I*itin  charac- 


512 


LATIN"   LANGUAGE 


lers  are  the  offspring  of  the  vEolo-"Doric  variety 
of  the  Greek  alphabet.  According  to  <  Scero  and 
Quintilian,  the  number  of  letters  in  the  old  Lat- 
in was  21,  but  only  20  appear  in  the  earliest 
documents.  One  letter  appears,  therefore,  to 
have  disappeared,  which,  according  to  Mommsen 
ami  Lenormant,  was  Z.  The  letter  C,  as  its 
place  in  the  alphabet,  as  well  as  its  early  pro- 
nunciation, indicates,  was  originally  identical 
with  the  Greek  F;  as  it  gradually  assumed 
the  sound  K.  it  caused  the  introduction  of  the 
letter  G.  which  was  not  in  the  earliest  alphabet, 
as  well  as  the  disappearance  of  the  letter  K, 
which  maintained  itself  in  only  a  very  few  ab- 
breviations. In  regard  to  the  pronunciation  of 
Latin,  grammarians,  until  late  in  the  present 
century,  were  accustomed  to  remark  that  the  an- 
cient mode  of  pronouncing  it  was  almost  wholly 
lost,  and  that  modern  scholars  had  applied  to  it 
those  principles  which  regulate  the  pronuncia- 
tion oi  their  own  languages.  The  obscurity  in 
which  Latin  pronunciation  was  believed  to  be 
enveloped,  has,  to  a  great  extent,  been  removed 
by  the  learned  works  of  Corssen  (Veber  Aus- 
sprache,  Vocalismus  und  Betonung  der  lateini- 
schen  Sprache,  2  vols.,  2d  edit.,  1808 — 70)  and 
Others;  and  the  leading  representatives  of  Latin 
philology  are  approaching  a  remarkable  unanim- 
ity in  regard  to  this  subject.  It  is  regarded  as 
probable  that  the  Latin  vowels  had  about  the 
same  sound  as  the  corresponding  vowels  have  in 
the  Italian  and  German  alphabets,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  0,  which  may  have  resembled  more  the 
sound  of  that  letter  in  lord,  than  in  note.  The 
y,  which  only  occurs  in  won  Is  of  Greek  origin. 
sounds  like  the  Greek  v,  the  German  ii,  and  the 
French  u.  In  pronouncing  each  of  the  diph- 
thongs, the  Romans  distinctly  uttered  both  of 
the  vowels  composing  it.  Thus  in  neuter  each  of 
the  two  vowels  was  distinctly  heard,  just  as  in 
the  pronunciation  of  this  diphthong  in  the 
modern  Italian  and  Portuguese.  The  letter  <■ 
was  always  pronounced  like  k\  the  g  was  always 
hard  as  in  give;  final  m  had  an  obscure  sound, 
perhaps  the  nasal  sound  of  the  French,  as  in 
imia;  s  was  always  like  the  Spanish  s,  having 
the  sound  of  ss  in  miss;  and  pn,  ch,  th  were,  as 
the  characters  indicate,  pronounced  as  the  as- 
pirates p,  /,-,  and  /.  In  its  rules  for  accentuation 
and  the  quantity  of  syllables,  the  Latin  resembles 
the  <  rreek  ;  and  it  was  thereby,  like  its  classic  sis- 
ter, enabled  to  develop  in  its  poetry  a  rhythmical 
form  which  by  Ear  exceeds,  in  point  of  beauty, 

anything  that  is  found  in  any  modern  language. 

The  inflectional  part  of  the  language,  both  in 
the  declension  of  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and 
numerals,  and  in  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  also 

characterized  the  Latin   at    first    sight  as  a  sister 

of  the  Greek,  having  many  points  of  resem- 
blance. We  meet  with  striking  similarities  in  the 
rules  pertaining  to  cases,  numbers,  genders,  per- 
sons, voices,  and  modes,  together  with  extensive 
verbal  affinities.  The  later  development  of  liter- 
ature among  the    Romans  deprived  the   Latin 

of    many    01    the    forms    which    Still    distinguish 

the   Greek,  and  gave  to   the  language  a  touch 


of  that  utilitarian  character  which  characterized 
the  people.  Thus,  there  is  no  dual  number,  no 
middle  voice  distinguished  in  its  form  from  the 
passive,  and  no  optative  mood.  Besides,  in  both 
the  active  and  the  passive  voice  of  the  Latin 
verb,  there  are  fewer  tense-forms  than  are  found 
in  the  Greek.  An  additional  case  in  the  declen- 
sion of  singular  norms— the  ablative  (which  of 
all  the  Lndo-Germanic  languages  the  Latin  and 
Old  Bactrian  alone  have  preserved),  is  a  small 
offset  in  favor  of  the  Latin,  as  far  as  fullness  of 
inflectional  forms  is  concerned. 

The  study  of  Latin  is  generally  begun  by  En- 
glish students  at  an  early  age.  It  almost  invari- 
ably precedes  that  of  the  Creek,  and  generally 
the  Study  of  any  foreign  modern  language.  In 
many  cases,  the  study  of  English  grammar  is 
either  entirely  postponed  in  favor  of  Latin,  or 
only  its  most  elementary  rules  are  taught.  At 
the  outset,  the  student  becomes  aware  that  he  is 
entering  a  new  world  of  thought.  The  nouns 
which  he  has  met  with  in  his  English  reading, 
he  has  found  to  be  subject  to  but  very  few 
changes.  When  the  word  father  was  used  in  a 
possessive  sense,  it  became  father's ;  if  used  in 
the  plural,  fathers;  and  in  the  plural  and  pos- 

ave,  fathers'.  All  the  various  relations,  ex- 
cept the  possessive,  which  a  noun,  either  in  the 
singular  or  plural  number,  may  occupy  in  re- 
gard to  other  parts  of  the  sentence,  he  finds,  are 
expressed  by  means  of  prepositions;  as,  of  the 
father,  to  the  father,  with  the  father,  etc  The 
Latin  grammar  presents  to  him  quite  an  array 
of  different  forms;  as, pater, patris, patri,  pa- 
in in.  etc.  Thus  he  sees  that  the  modifications 
of  thought  which  in  English  arc  chiefly  expressed 
by  means  of  prepositions,  are  indicated  in  I  .at  in 
by  the  varying  inflections  of  the  root.  It  re- 
quires considerable  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
youthful  scholar  to  grasp  this  new  idea,  and  it  is 
easily  seen  that  this  effort  must  tend    to  develop 

and  strengthen  the  thinking  powers  of  the  stu- 
dent.—  However  much  the  methods  of  teaching 
Latin  may  differ  in  certain  details,  no  one 
should  dispense  with  a  thorough  drilling  in  the 
inflectional  part  of  the  language  and  in  the 
principal  rules  of  syntax.  Exercises  in  translat- 
ing from  Latin  into  English,  and  from  KngHati 
into  Latin,  are  now  quite  generally  connected 
with  the  very  first  grammar  lessons.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  principles  of  modern  educational 
writers,    the   exercises    in    translation    are    now, 

from  the  beginning,  very  properly  given  in  most 
of  the  text-Looks  in  the  shape  of  complete  sen- 
tences. \s  it  is  the  desire  of  every  teacher  to 
prepare  his  pupils  for  the  reading  of  the  Latin 
classics,  a  selection  of  the  translation  exercises 
from  classic  writers  has  obvious  advantages.  The 
mastery  system,  proposed  by  T.  Prendergast,  in 
The  Mastery  of  "Languages  (London,  L872), 
inverts  this  process,  by  requiring  the  pupils  to 
study  sentences  instead  of  words,  committing  to 

me ry  carefully  constructed   expressions,  and 

learning  the  inflectional  forms  by  comparison. 
This  process  approximates  to  the  natural  method 
of  learning  language,  and,  it  is  contended,  leads 


LATIN    LANGUAGE 


513 


to  a  fluency  and  case  m  its  use  which  cannot  be 
acquired  in  any  other  way.  (See  R.  II.  Quick, 
First  Steps  in  Teaching  u  Foreign  Language, 
London,  L875.)  In  the  system  of  T.  K.  Arnold 
(q.  v.).  the  inflectional  peculiarities  are  learned 
gradually,  as  in  the  Ollendorff  system,  and  al- 
most the  tirst  step  taken  by  the  pupil  is  an  ex- 
ercise in  construction. — The  very  large  extent  to 
which  words  of  Latin  origin  have  been  re- 
ceived into  English  can  be  turned  to  great 
advantage  by  the  intelligent  teacher.  But  few 
words  will  he  met  with  in  the  Latin  exercises. 
which  arc  not  etyniologically  related  to  words 
in  the  English  dictionary:  and  a  constant  ref- 
erence to  this  kinship  not  oidy  facilitates  the 
acquisition  by  the  student  of  a  copious  Latin 
vocabulary,  but  at  the  same  time  enlarges  his 
knowledge  of  English.  The  introduction  of 
young  students  who  have  sufficiently  mastered 
the  elements  of  the  language,  to  the  Latin  clas- 
sics is  considerably  obstructed  by  the  want  of 
good  juvenile  works  in  the  literature,  of  Rome.  If 
that  literature  ever  had  its  Barbaulds  and  Edge- 
worths,  their  fame  has  perished  with  their  works. 
'The  books  which  for  centuries  have  been  the  first 
to  be  read  in  Latin  schools, — Cornelius  Nepos 
and  Caesar,  were  certainly  not  written  for  boys 
and  girls.  Even  in  Rome,  they  were  as  little  read 
by  children  of  ten,  eleven,  or  twelve  years,  as  our 
children  of  that  age  are  expected  to  read  Shake- 
speare,  I  ribbon,  or  Macaulay;  and  it  is.  therefore, 
undoubtedly  a  pertinent  question,  from  an  edu- 
cational point  of  view,  whether  it  is  consistent 
with  common  sense  to  expect  English  boys  and 
girls  to  read  and  appreciate  writers  whom  the 
youth  of  the  same  age  in  their  own  country 
would  have  found  too  difficult  to  understand. 
Various  attempts  have  been  made,  in  modern 
times,  to  supply  this  want,  and  to  provide  young 
Latin  students  with  suitable  reading.  Sometimes 
modern  imitations  of  the  ancient  Latin  have  been 
selected  for  the  purpose.  Such,  for  example,  is 
Willymot's  Century  of  Maturinus  Gorderius  Col- 
loquies, long  familiarly  known  in  Scotland  under 
the  name  of  Cordery.  <  ertain  portions  of  the  dia- 
logues of  Erasmus  have  the  same  object  in  view. 
As  the  most  successful  attempt  of  the  kind,  many 
Latin  scholars  regard  a  little  work  entitled  He 
Viris  [II  a  sir  Hi  a  a  Urbis  Rovkp,  and  commonly 
known  in  the  United  States  as  Viri  Romos,  by 
L'Homond,  a  French  professor  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  This  work  contains  the  most  interest- 
ing stories  related  by  Livy,  Valerius  Maximus, 
Floras,  and  other  eminent  writers,  as  much  as 
possible  in  the  very  words  of  those  writers,  and 
is  still  extensively  used  in  the  United  States 
Great  Britain,  France,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  in 
Germany.  Attempts  have  also  been  made  to 
epitomize  special  Latin  classics  for  the  use  of 
young  students;  thus,  in  recent  times,  an  epitome 
of  Caesar,  prepared  by  Dr.  Woodford,  classical 
master  in  Madras  College.  St.  Andrews,  has  been 
in  extensive  use.  Many  of  the  Latin  readers  also 
contain  attempts  of  this  kind.  The  number  of 
Latin  classics  which  are  commonly  read  in  col- 
leges and  schools,  is  quite  small.  Xepos,  Caesar, 
33 


Cicero.  Sallust,  Livy,  and  Tacitus,  among  the 
prose  writers;  and  Horace,  Virgil,  and  Ovid 
among  the  poets,  are  universally  regarded  as  the 
most  suitable  for  this  purpose.  If  we  add  to 
them  the  aames of  Plautus,  Terence, Lucretius, 
Catullus,  Tibullus,  Propertius,  Birtius,  and  the 
unknown  authors  of  the  works  I),  bello  Afri- 
cano,  De  bello  Alexandrino,  DebeUo  Ilixj><i/ti<}nsi. 
and  Ad Herennium,  oi  the  time  before  Christ, 
and  PhsedruS,  Valerius  .Maximus,  Yelleius, 
Mela,  Curtius,  Persius,  the  two  Senucas,  Lucan, 
Juvenal,  Quintilian,  Pliny,  Floras,  Suetonius, 
Gellius,  .lustin.  and  Eutropius,  of  the  time 
after  Christ,  we  have  named  all  the  writers  of 
ancient  Rome  to  whose  works  the  Latin  reading 
of  at  least  ninety  nine  out  of  every  hundred 
students  is  restricted  both  during  and  after 
their  school  years  ;  and  t  he  vocabulary  of  these 
is,  therefore,  very  properly  regarded  by  the  au- 

thorsof  modern  school  dictionaries  as  furnishing 

all  the  words  embraced  within  the  scope  of  their 
works.  The  reading  of  Latin  classics  constitutes 
the  principal  part  of  the  study  of  Latin  wher- 
ever it  is  pursued,  except  when  only  the  ele- 
ments of  Latin  etymology  are  taughl  for  the 
purpose  of  elucidating  the  structure  of  English. 
(For  further  remarks  on  the  methods  of  reading 
Latin  authors,  see  Classical  Studies.)  As  the 
advantages  which  are  expected  to  accrue  from  a 
reading  of  the  Latin  classics  must  depend  on 
the  pupil's  thorough  knowledge  of  the  language, 
the  study  of  grammar  and  the  practice  of  trans- 
lating from  the  vernacular  into  the  Latin  lan- 
guage should  be  continued  throughout  the  course. 
Whatever  portion  of  the  whole  time  of  a  course 
of  instruction  may  be  assigned  to  Latin,  after 
the  study  has  been  begun,  it  should  be  con- 
tinued without  interruption  until  the  course  is 
completed. —  Whether  exercises  in  Latin  con- 
versation, in  original  Latin  composition,  and  in 
Latin  versification,  should  be  adopted  in  a 
course  of  Latin  study  in  colleges  and  classical 
schools,  is  obviously  dependent  on  the  amount 
of  time  which  is  allowed  for  this  study.  This 
point  is  now  more  than  ever  a  subject  of  an- 
imated controversy  among  educators.  The 
physical  sciences,  which,  in  modern  times,  have 
made  progress  far  exceeding  the  boldest  ex- 
pectations of  former  centuries,  present  claims 
to  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  course  of  in- 
struction of  every  grade  of  schools,  which  are,  on 
all  sides,  regarded  as  entitled  at  least  to  a  serious 
consideration.  The  concessions  which  have 
been  made  to  these  claims,  have  greatly  affected 
the  place  formerly  assigned  to  Latin.  It  has  long 
ceased  to  be  the  general  medium  of  instruction 
in  schools  of  a  higher  grade;  and  fluency  of  Latin 
expression,  either  in  speaking  or  writing,  is  now- 
adays rarely  met  with,  except  among  Catholic 
priests,  who  acquire  it  for  ecclesiastical  purposes, 
and   at  the    universities   of   Germany  and  other 

countries  of  continental  Europe,  where  the  can- 
didates for  the  academic  doctorate  still  continue. 
in  many  cases,  to  write  the  required  essay,  and 
to  defend  proposed  theses,  in  Latin.  In  order 
to  obtain  this  proficiency,  the  German  gymnasium 


5U 


LATIN    LANGUAGE 


provides  a  course  in  Latin  extending  through 
nine  years,  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to  it 
ikly  being,  for  the  lir.-t  seven  years,  LO,  and 
for  the  last  two,  8.  There  are  few  learned 
institutions  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  which  deem  it  advisable  to  require  so 
large  an  amount  of  the  student's  time  for  the 
study  of  Latin;  since  the  ability  to  speak  and 
write  it  with  fluency  is  no  longer  reckoned 
among  the  objects  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  shorter  course.  While  the  amount  of  time 
which,  in  various  courses  of  instruction,  may 
profitably  be  given  to  Latin  is  now.  and  will  Ion- 
continue,  an  open  question,  intelligent  educa- 
tors will  not  find  it  difficult,  when  once  the 
amount  of  time  has  been  determined,  to  adjust 
the  course  of  instruction  to  it.  Great  mistakes 
are  still  made  in  tin's  respect  in  many  classical 
schools.  Where  the  most  difficult  Latin  authors 
are  read  by  students  who  are  not  familiar  with 
declensions  or  conjugations,  or  where  original 
Latin  compositions  are  required  from  students 

who  are  unable  to  translate  simple  .sentences 
without  mistake,  the  Latin  course  may  safely  be 
pronounced  to  have  been  wholly  useless  for  the 
training  of  the  mind,  and  the  time  given  to  it, 
to  have  been  entirely  wasted.  The-  practice  of 
requiring  Latin  addresses  to  be  delivered,  by  stu- 
dents who  cannot  translate  correctly,  to  audiences 
among  whom  there  may  not  be  a  single  person 
who  understands  the  address,  is  exceedingly  ab- 
surd. ( hie  of  the  most  enthusiastic  admirers  of  clas- 
sical s!  in  lies.. loh  ]  i  Stuart  M  ill.  severely  reprehends 
the  English  schools  in  which  "the  most  precious 
years  of  curly  life  may  be  irreparably  squandi  re  I 
in  learning  to  write  bad  Latin  and  Greek  verses." 
The  grammatical  treatment  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage is  believed  to  have  originated  with  ('rales 
Mallotes,  a  <  ircek  embassador  of  king  Attains  of 
Pergamus;  but  nothing  definite  is  known  of  his 
labors.  The  firsl  grammarian  of  whose  work 
valuable  remains  have  been  preserved  to  us  was 
M.Terentius  Varro  (died 27  B.  C),  who  was  dis- 
tinguished as  the  most  learned  of  Romans.  Among 
the  numerous  grammatical  \\  titers  who  succeeded 
him,  Donatus,  in  the  fourth,  and  Priscianus  in 
the  sixth,  century  were  especially  celebrated:  and 

ir  works  serve, 1,  in  some  respects,  as  the  basis 

of    all     later    works.        A     new    period     in     the 

history  of  Latin  philology  begin  with  the  revival 
of  classical  studies  in  Italy,  and  the  invention 
of  the  art  of  printing.  For  some  time,  Italy  re- 
mained the  chief  seal  of    Latin  scholarship,  but. 

in  the  16th and  1 7th centuries,  it  was  outstripped 
by  France,  Holland.  England,  and  Germany. 
The  Latinists  of  Holland  distinguished  them- 
selves by  introducing  a  strictly  scientific  method 
into  Latin  philology.  Richard  Bentley,  of  Eng- 
land, became  the  father  of  the  science  of  verbal 
criticism.  In  Germany,  th<  efforts  of  Ernesti, 
1 1  \  in ■.  Wolff,  and  others,  caused  an  entire  reor- 
ganization of  Latin  studies,  whieh  gradually 
fed,  in  the  course  of  the  1 9th  century,  to  the 
acknowledged  superiority  of  the  German  Latin- 
The  mos1  notable  German  contributions 
to  Latin  lexicography  (see  Dictionaries),  are  the 


comprehensive  dictionaries  by  Freund,  Georges, 
and  Klot/.  the  school  dictionaries  by  Ingerslev, 
(ieoiges.  i  It  inieheii.  Kreussler,  the  etymological 
dictionaries  by  Sehwcnck.  and  Yaiiicek  (lfi 
besides  a  number  of  special  dictionaries  for  the 
poets,  the  sources  of  jurisprudence,  the  histori- 
an-, and  for  every  Latin  work  that  is  com- 
monly read  in  schools.  Latin  grammars  in 
the  German  language  have  been  written  by 
Ziimpt  (13th  cd.,  1874;  shorter  grammar,  9th 
ed.,  L866);  Madvig  (3d  ed.,  1875;  shorter  gram- 
mar, 1857);  Berger  (9th  ed.,  1 875)  jEllendt  (16th 
ed.,  1876);  Kuhner  (Schulgrammatik,  5th  ed., 
1861;  Tuementargrammatik,  38th  ed..  1875  ; 
Lattmann  and  Midler  (Schulgrammatik,  3ded., 
1872  :  Kurzgefasste  Gram.fn.atik,  3d  ed.,  1872  ; 
Middendorf  and  Griiter  (8th  ed.,  1870  ;  Sibi  ni 
{Schulgrammatik,  21st  ed.,  1873);  J.  Schultz 
[Sprachlehre,  8th  ed.,  1874  ;  K7<  ine  Sprachlehre, 
1  1th  ed.,  1875);  and  a  host  of  other.-.  An  alpha- 
betical list  of  all  the  I  atin  grammars,  dictionaries. 
chrestomathies,  and  other  books  relating  to  the 
Latin  language  which  have  been  published  in 
Germany  since  1750,  is  given  in  Engelmann, 
BibliothecaPhihIogica(M  ed.,  1  853).-  -1  hemosl 

celebrated    of  former   lexicographers   were   <  'ale- 

pino.  Robert  Stephens,  Facciolati,  and  Forcel- 
tini.  (See  Dictionaries.)  In  England,  and  sub- 
sequently also  in  the  United  States,  the  Latin 
lexicon  of  Ainsworth  (1736)  became  the  most 
popular  work  of  this  class.  Of  the  English  and 
American  works  published  in  thepresenl  century, 
Leveretts  lexicon  (1836)  announces  itself  as 
an  ■•  abridgment  of  Facciolati  and  Forcellini,  with 
improvements  drawn  from  Scheller  and  Liine- 
mann'';  the  lexicon  of  Andrews  (1856)  is  based 
on  Freund  ;  that  of  W.  Smith  (1855),  on  For- 
cellini and  Freund ;  that  of  Kiddle  and  Arnold 
I  American  edition  by  AnthonLon  I  leorges  :  thai 
of  ('rooks  and  Schem  (1857),  on  Ingerslev. 
Other  Latin-English  dictionaries  have  been  com- 
piled by  Beard,  Bullions,  Entick,  Gardner,  White, 
and  ^  oung.  Among  the  Latin  grammars  used 
in  American  and  English  schools,  besides  trans- 
lation- df  die  grammars  of  Zumpt,  Madvig,  and 
others,  are  those  of  Adam  (formerly  very  ex- 
tensively used  iii  American  schools;  new  edi- 
tion by  Gould,  by  Fish,  and  by  others),  Allen, 
Greenough,  Andrews  and  Stoddard,  Anthon, 
Arnold.  Bartholomew,  Bingham,  Brooks,  Brans, 
Bullions,  Clark,  Dillaway,  Fischer,  Gildersleve, 
Goodrich,  Grant,  Donaldson  (complete  Latin 
Grammar,  3d  ed.,  1867  ;  one  of  the  best },  I  lark- 
in--  now  extensively  used  in  American  collet 
Harrison,  Ley  (3d  ed.,  1862),  MLcClintock,  Mor- 
ris, Roby  (2  vols..  1871  I.  one  of  the  best  I, 
Ro     .     ROSS,     Ruddiman,     W.    Smith,     Spencer, 

Thompson,  Waddell, and  Weale.     An  excellent 

introduction  to  a  philological  Btudyof  the  I  atin, 
is  Donaldson's  Varronianus  (3d  ed..  I860  .  \ 
comparative  grammar  of  Latin  and  Greek  has 
been  written  b\  L.  Meyer  (  Vergleichende  Oram- 
matikder  griechischen  undlateinischen  Sprache, 
'J  Mils.  1861       5).      The  relation   of    I  atin    to  the 

other  branches  of  the  Indo-Germanic  family  is 

fully   elucidated    ill    the   comparative    grammars 


LATIN   SCHOOLS 


LAW   SCHOOLS 


515 


of  Bopp  and  Schleicher.  (See  Indo-Geemanic 
Languages). — There  are  numerous  editions  of 
every  Latin  writer  that  is  usually  read  in  schools, 
with  English  notes,  and  in  many  cases  with  a 
special  vocabulary.  Collective  editions  of  the 
Latiu  authors  read  in  schools,  according  to  a  uni- 
form plan,  are,  among  others,  the  Sibliot) 
Classic  i,  under  the  direction  of  G.  Long  and  A. 
J.  Macleane  (London, since  1854)  ;  the  Clarendon 
Press  Series,  which  counts  among  its  contribu- 
tors Moberley,  Ellis, XV.  and  <  i.  Ramsay,  Prichard, 
Bernard,  Walford,  Browning.  Wickham,  Lee- 
Warner (Oxford);  the  Catena  Classicorum,  under 
the  direction  of  Holmes  and  Bigg  (London)  ; 
the  series  published  by  Chase  and  Stuart  (Phila- 
delphia) ;  the  editions  of  several  of  the  classics  by 
Allen  and  Greenough.  Andrews.  Anthon.  Brooks, 
Harkness,  Schmitz,  Weale,  and  others.  The  best 
collections  of  this  kind  in  Germany  are  those 
published  at  Berlin,  under  the  direction  of 
Sauppe  and  llaupt,  and  at  Leipsic,  by  the  firm 
of  Teubner.  The  latter,  in  1876,  consisted  of  61 
volumes. — Histories  of  Roman  literature  have 
been  published  byKlotz  (Leipsic,  1845);  Thomp- 
son (London,  1852) ;  Browne  (London,  1853)  ; 
Munk  (Berlin.  1861)  ;  BaMir  (3  vols.,  4th  ed., 
Carlsruhe,  1867)  ;  Bernhardy  (Brunswick,  5th 
ed.,  1872);  Teuffel  (3d.  ed.,  Leipsic,  1876  ;  Engl, 
transl..  London,  1873). 

LATIN  SCHOOLS,  a  name  given,  in  several 
German  states  as  well  as  in  the  Netherlands,  to 
a  class  of  secondary  schools.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  Latin  was  formerly,  in  these 
schools,  the  most  prominent  branch,  and  generally 
even  the  medium,  of  instruction.  These  schools 
gradually  developed  out  of  the  ••trivial  schools," 
which,  in  the  course  of  the  middle  ages,  sprung  up 
in  many  towns  by  the  side  of,  or  even  in  opposi- 
tion to,  the  convent  schools,  and  the  cathedral  and 
collegiate  schools.  The  name  Latin  school  did  not 
come  into  general  use.  but  alternated  with  that  of 
particular  school.  When,  in  the  1 6th  century,  the 
word  gymnasium,  and  (more  rarely)  paedago- 
gium  was  applied  to  those  Latin  schools  which 
were  completely  organized,  and  prepared  their 
pupils  for  the  university,  the  name  Latin  school 
was  commonly  reserved  for  the  lower  half  of  the 
institution.  Only  in  exceptional  cases  (as  in 
Halle),  has  a  complete  gymnasium  retained  the 
name  Latin  school,  which  is  now  generally  on 
the  wane.  In  Prussia,  no  distinctive  name  is 
any  longer  given  to  the  lower  classes  of  a  com- 
plete gymnasium  ;  and  schools  containing  only 
the  lower  classes  of  a  gymnasium,  are  called 
progymnasia.  The  largest  proportion  of  these 
schools  is  to  be  found  in  the  kingdom  of  Wiir- 
temberg,  where  many  of  them  have  only  one 
or  two  teachers.  In  Bavaria,  the  name  is  still 
given  to  the  five  lower  classes  of  the  classical 
gymnasium,  which  is  there  called  Studienanstalt. 
and  also  to  those  schools  which  only  contain 
the  five  lower  gymnasium  classes.  In  the  Nether- 
lands, the  difference  between  Latin  schools  and 
gymnasia  is  not  defined.  (See  Netherlands.) 
In  the  United  States,  one  of  the  best  known 
of  such  schools  is  the  public  I.atin  school  of 
Boston. 


LAW  SCHOOLS  have  been  in  use  as  a 
means  of  education  for  the  bar,  almost  from  the 
time  when  the  bar  first  became  a  recognized 
profession.  In  ancient  times,  the  schools  of 
Rome,  Berytus,  and  Constantinople,  with  some 
of  minor  importance,  were  the  recognized  nurs- 
eries of  the  legal  profession.  The  most  eminent 
of  the  Roman  jurists  taught  in  these  schools. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  at  least  one  such 
school  remained  at  Ravenna  up  to  a  period  not 
very  long  before  the  revival  of  the  law;  if,  indeed, 
it  was  not.  as  sonic  have  supposed,  the  germ  from 
which  the  famous  school  of  Bologna  afterwards 
sprung.  From  the  time  of  Irnerius,  early  in  the 
12th  century,  the  history  of  European  juris- 
prudence has  been  identified  with  that  of  the 
schools  of  law.  in  the  states  of  modem  Europe. 
At  present,  upon  that  continent,  the  law  schools 
of  the  various  universities  are  the  recognized 
portals  of  the  legal  profession,  and  of  the 
bench.  In  England,  legal  education  was.  at  first, 
conducted  in  the  same  method.  The  arrival  of 
Vacarius,  an  Italian  teacher  of  law,  at  Oxford, 
in  the  reign  of  Stephen,  marks  the  introduction 
of  scientific  jurisprudence  into  England.  He  con- 
tinued to  teach  for  a  period  not  definitely  ascer- 
tained, but  long  enough  to  found  a  school  which 
has  left,  in  its  glosses  and  other  legal  writings, 
considerable  traces  of  its  existence.  The  Inns  of 
Court,  at  London,  were  probably  intended,  in  the 
first  place,  as  rivals  of  this  civilian  school,  and 
were  devoted,  from  the  beginning,  to  instruction 
in  the  common  law.  During  their  flourishing 
period  as  schools,  the  attendance  of  students 
there  was  very  large,  in  proportion  to  the  entire 
population  of  the  metropolis  and  of  the  kingdom. 
The  well-known  account  given  by  Fortescue  (in 
his  treatise  De  laudibus  legum  Anglice,  cap.  49.) 
of  the  life,  and  mode  of  instruction  in  these 
schools,  proves  the  importance  of  the  position 
which  they  held  as  the  chief,  if  not  the  only, 
mode  of  preparation  for  the  English  bar  of  that 
time.  Their  activity  in  this  respect  seems  to 
have  been  at  its  height  about  the  time  of  For- 
tescue, or  in  the  15th  century.  In  the  16th, 
they  became  rather  places  of  gaiety  ;  and  the 
readerships  and  other  offices  were  perverted  to 
means  of  ostentatious  display.  The  number  of 
students  declined ;  and,  from  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century,  the  course  of  instruction  in 
them  ceased  to  be  any  thing  more  than  a  mere 
form.  Education  for  the  bar  was.  henceforth, 
conducted  in  the  offices  of  special  pleaders,  con- 
veyancers, and  other  practicing  lawyers ;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  present  generation  that  the 
Inns  of  Court  have  again  made  the  effort  to 
resume  their  original  function.  The  Inner 
Temple  led  the  way  in  this  reform,  by  establish- 
ing, in  L833,  two  lecturerships,  one  of  common 
law  and  equity,  the  other  of  general  jurispru- 
dence and  international  law.  The  latter  was  filled 
by  John  Austin,  whose  lectures,  though  only  the 
first  six  were  published  in  his  life-time,  have  since 
exerted  so  great  an  influence  upon  the  revival 
of  scientific  jurisprudence  in  England  [Lectures 
on  Jurisprudence,  or  the  Philosophy  of  Positive 


516 


LAW  SCHOOLS 


Law;  edited  by  his  widow,  1861 — 3;  3d  edition 
by  Robert  Campbell,  1869).  In  1847,  another 
attempt  was  made  to  establish  readerships  or 
lecturerships,  originating  in  the  Middle  Temple, 
by  which  body  .Mr.  George  Long  was  appointed 
reader  on  civil  law  and  jurisprudence.  The 
other  Inns  followed  the  example,  and  moot- 
courts  and  examinations  were  added  by  the 
lecturers.  But  no  joint  action  of  the  four  Inns 
Avas  had  until  1852,  when  a  standing  committee, 
or  council  of  legal  education,  was  appointed  :  five 
readerships  were  established,  in  which  those 
previously  appointed  by  the  several  Inns  were 
merged ;  and  students  were  required,  before  ad- 
mission, either  to  attend  at  least  two  of  the 
courses  for  a  year,  or  to  pass  a  public  exami- 
nation. In  the  mean  time,  a  committee  of  in- 
quiry, appointed  by  parliament  in  1846,  had 
reported  in  favor  of  uniting  the  four  Inns  into  a 
.single  law  university;  and.  in  1854,  a  royal  com- 
mission was  appointed,  which  investigated  the 
subject  very  thoroughly,  and  reported  in  favor  of 
the  proposed  measure,  and  of  a  compulsory  exami- 
nation before  a  call  to  the  bar.  No  practical 
result,  however,  followed  so  far  as  the  Inns  are 
concerned  until  1873,  when  these  recommen- 
dations wen'  ] partially  carried  out.  The  four  Inns 
of  Court  now  elect  a  council  of  legal  education, 
and  this  council  appoints  a  permanent  committee 
of  eight  members,  called  the  Committee  of  Edu- 
cation and  Examination,  to  superintend  the  edu- 
cation and  examination  of  students  for  the  bar. 
The  council  also  appoint  six  readers  or  lecturers, 
to  hold  office  for  three  years,  and  a  certain  num- 
ber of  tutors  for  private  instruction.  There  is 
also  a  paid  board  of  examiners,  six  in  number, 
holding  office  for  two  years,  and  re-eligible  only 
after  an  interval  of  a  year;  and  Studentships,  ex- 
hibitions, and  certificates  of  honor  are  awarded 
to  those  who  pass  good  examinations.  But  at- 
tendance on  the  lectures  and  examinations  is  not 
compulsory;  and  any  person  may  still  qualifyfor 
admission  to  the  bar  by  passing,  previous  to  his 
admission  to  an  Inn  as  a  student, examinations  in 
the  English  and  Latin  languages  and  in  English 
history,  ami  by  spending  a  year  as  pupil  with  a 
barrister  or  pleader. — All  that  has  been  said  thus 
far  relates  only  to  education  for  the  English  bar 
as  distinct  from  the  body  of  solicitors.  Admis- 
sion to  this  body  has  always  been  in  the  hands  of 
common  law  judges  and  masters  of  the  rolls;  and 

the  Incorporated  Law  Society,  a  very  influential 

organization,  succeeded,  as  early  as  Is3(>.  in  intro- 
ducing a   system   of    examination-.,    preliminary, 

middle,  and  final,  as  a  strict  condition  of  admis- 
sion to  the  roll.     I  landidates  are  examined  by  a 

Committee  Of  sixteen  BOlicitorS,  generally  chosen 
from  the  council   of  that  society,  together   with 

the   masters  of  the  common  law  courts.    The 

council  also  appoint  annually  three   lecturers,  by 

whom  lectin.-  are  delivered  to  articled  clerks. 

Attendance  at  these  is  voluntary,  but  no  solicitor 
can  be  admitted  without  passim.:'  the  examinations 

for  which  they  prepare  the  student. — In  duly, 
isTo,  the  Legal  Education  Association, composed 
of  both  barristers  and  solicitors,  aud  heade  1 


by  Sir  Roundell  Palmer,  now  Lord  Selborne, 
was  formed,  with  the  avowed  objects  of  bringing 
about  the  establishment  of  a  law  university  for 
the  education  of  students  intended  for  the  pro- 
fession of  law,  and  the  placing  of  the  admission 
to  both  branches  of  the  profession  on  the  basis  of 
a  combined  test  of  collegiate  education  and  an 
examination  by  a  public  board  of  examiners.  In 
every  session  of  parliament,  from  that  time  to 
1873,  they  made  vigorous  efforts  to  secure  these 
objects  by  resolutions  and  bills,  an  account  of 
which  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Campbell's  preface 
to  h\&  Abridgment  of  Austin's  Lectures.  Since  the 
latter  date,  attention  has  been  chiefly  occupied  by 
the  very  great  changes  in  the  organization  of  the 
courts,  the  methods  of  procedure,  and  the  fusion 
of  law  and  equity.  The  association,  however,  is 
still  engaged  in  prosecuting  its  reforms,  which 
have  been  materially  facilitated  by  these  changes. 
The  law  schools  of  the  United  States  have 
no  historical  connection  with  those  already  men- 
tioned. Their  existence  is  due  entirely  to  the  wants 
of  that  country.  Before  the  Revolution,  it  was 
not  uncommon  for  law  students  who  could  afford 
it.  to  go  to  the  mother  country,  and  prosecute 
their  legal  studies  there,  nominally  in  the  Inns  of 
Court,  really  in  the  offices  where  other  English 
students  of  the  time  prepared  themselves  for  the 
bar;  but  the  number  of  these  was,  of  course, 
small,  and  the  bar  of  the  colonies  was  composed 
in  a  large  measure,  of  those  who  had  read  only 
in  the  office  of  the  nearest  practicing  attorney. 
The  number  of  these  was  comparatively  large. 
In  a  work  published  at  London  in  1790,  entitled 
A  Review  of  the  Laws  of  the  United  States  etc., 
it  is  stated  that  there  were  at  that  time  three 
hundred  practicing  lawyers  in  (  onnecticut,  and 
that,  •'in  New  York,  and  from  thence  through  all 
the  northern  states,  lawyers  swarmed."  This  natu- 
rally led  the  attention  of  thoughtful  men  to  the 
possibility  of  improvement  in  legal  education;  and 
dames  AYilson,one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the 
•United  States,  ami  an  associate  justice  of  the 
supreme  court,  has  the  honor  of  having  been 
the  first  to  deliver  a  formal  course  of  lectures 
upon  American  law.  He  held  the  law  professor- 
ship in  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  then  the 
federal  capital,  and  in  the  winter  of  1790 — 91, 
delivered  his  first  course;  a  second  course  was 
commenced  in  the  following  winter,  but  was  never 
completed.  The  college  became  incorporated 
with  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, in  April 
1  ~{X1  ;  and  the  law  school,  for  some  unexplained 
reason, was  discontinued.  The  lectures  delivered 
by  Judge  Wilson  are  published  in  his  collected 
works  in  three  volumes,  Svo  (Philadelphia,  1804). 
The  honor  of  precedence  is  Bometimes  claimed 
for  the  Litchfield  School,  next  to  be  mentioned. 
Judge  Parker,  in  his  pamphlet  on  the  Harvard 
law  school  (Loston,  1871),  says  that  Timothy 
Reeve  established  the  ('onnecticut  school  in 
I  782  or  1  784  But  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  the  instruction  given  by  Judge  Reeve  in 
the  earlier  years  differed  in  any  respect  from  that 


LAW   SCHOOLS 


51V 


f 


usually  given  by  lawyers  in  their  offices,  till 
Judge  Gould  became  associated  with  him  in 
1798.  The  Philadelphia  school  was  at  least  the 
first  one  formally  incorporated,  while  that  of 
Judge  Reeve  was  the  iirst  successful  one.  It 
was  afterwards  continued  by  the  lion.  James 
Gould,  author  of  Gould's  Treatise  on  Pleading. 
This  school  existed  for  more  than  thirty  years. 
It  was  then  removed  to  Northampton,  and  soon 
afterward  discontinued,  the  professor  in  charge, 
John  Hooper  Ashniun,  having  been  elected  to  a 
position  at  Harvard.  The  Litchfield  school  had 
students  from  all  parts  of  the  Union,  but  its 
numbers  were  never  large.  The  attendance  at 
no  time  exceeded  50  ;  and  the  total  number  of 
its  students,  from  1798  to  1827,  was  730,  or  an 
average  of  about  25  per  annum.  The  third  law 
school,  and  the  oldest  now  in  existence  in  the 
United  States,  is  that  of  the  Law  Department  of 
Harvard  University.  A  single  professorship 
was  established  in  1815;  and  the  school,  in  1817. 
Until  1829,  its  success  was  very  meager;  but,  in 
that  year,  a  gift  from  the  Hon.  Nathan  Dane 
established  a  new  professorship  to  which  Judge 
Story  was  elected.  Professor  Ashmun  was  as- 
sociated with  him;  and  the  Harvard  School 
sprung  at  once  to  the  position  which  it  has  ever 
since  retained,  at  the  head  of  American  law 
schools.  Among  its  professors  have  been  the 
distinguished  legal  authors  Simon  Greenleaf, 
1832—48;  Theophilus  Parsons,  1848—70;  and 
Emory  Washburne,  1855 — 7(5;  besides  many  other 
distinguished  men.  Several  other  law  schools 
were  started  in  various  parts  of  the  country 
prior  to  1830;  but  the  only  oues  now  surviving 
without  a  break  of  existence  are  believed  to  be 
those  of  Yale  College,  1824,  and  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia.  1  825.  The  history  of  the  thirty 
years  from  1829  to,59,  may  be  summed  up  by  say- 
ing that  law  schools  were  few  and  neglected,  and 
that  their  graduates  were  but  an  insignificant  mi- 
nority  of  the  profession.  Even  the  great  name  and 
influence  of  Joseph  Story,  and  the  success  of  the 
Dane  Law  School,  under  his  direction,  formed  but 
an  exception  to  the  rule,  without  perceptibly  mod- 
ifying the  general  custom  of  legal  education  in 
private  offices.  In  L842,  if  we  may  trust  a  table 
published  the  following  year,  there  were  only 
10  law  schools  in  nominal  existence  in  the  coun- 
try, with  19  professors  among  them,  and  384 
students.  No  school  had  more  than  three  teachers; 
and  some  of  the  most  frequented,  like  the 
University  of  Virginia,  had  only  one.  Harvard 
had  only  two,  but  they  were  Judge  Story  and 
Simon  Greenleaf ;  and  their  reputation  attracted 
115  students,  while  no  other  law  school  in  the 
country  had  more  then  75.  The  only  schools  still 
existing  which  date  from  this  period  are  the 
following :  Indiana  University,  at  Bloomington, 
1842 ;  Louisiana  University,  at  New  Orleans, 
1847 ;  Albany  Law  School,  now  a  branch  of 
Union  University,  1851 ;  University  of  New 
York,  New  York  City,  1857  ;  Cincinnati  Law 
School,  1833;  Ohio  State  and  Union  Law  Col- 
lege, Cleveland,  1856 ;  Cumberland  University, 
Lebanon,  Tenn.,  1847.    The  Law  School  of  the 


University  of  Michigan,  was  established  in 
L858,  and  that  of  Columbia  College,  in  New 
York  (which  had  previously  been  established 
under  Chancellor  Kent,  but  discontinued  after 
a  brief  existence),  dates  its  present  existence 
from  the  same  year.  These  are  now  the  two 
largest  schools  in  the  country;  and  the  date  of 
their  establishment  may  well  be  taken  as  the 
period  when  the  more  rapid  growth  of  law 
schools  began  in  this  country. — Prior  to  1858, 
the  schools  cannot  be  said  to  have  exerted  much 
influence  upon  legal  education.  Their  attendance 
was  very  small,  and  a  course  in  them  was  re- 
garded rather  as  an  accomplishment  which  might 
very  well  be  dispensed  with,  than  as  a  necessary 
part  of  the  preparation  for  the  actual  work  of 
the  bar;  but,  about  this  time,  several  causes  con- 
tributed to  produce  a  change  in  the  system  of 
legal  education.  The  rapid  development  of  the 
"W  est,  and  the  number  of  lawyers  required  by  its 
business  gave  a  great  stimulus  to  professional 
education;  while  it  became  evident  that  the  tra- 
ditional method  of  instruction  in  offices  would 
not  meet  the  wants  of  the  country,  outside  of  the 
few  great  cities.  The  introduction  of  codes  also, 
and  the  change  from  a  very  technical  practice  to 
an  informal  one,  together  with  the  immense  in- 
crease of  decided  cases,  and  the  consequent  loss 
of  precision  and  fixity  in  the  law,  all  combined 
to  make  the  old  method  unpopular  and  unsatis- 
factory. An  increase  of  teaching  facilities  was 
an  evident  necessity;  and  the  recent  growth  of 
law  schools  has  been  the  result,  rather  than  the 
cause,  of  the  change  which  has  come  over  the 
whole  system  of  professional  education.  The 
school  at  Ann  Arbor  was  also  the  first  to  place 
its  tuition  fees  at  a  rate  within  the  means  of 
most  students,  and  thus  to  encourage  a  very 
general  disposition  on  their  part  to  take  a  course 
in  the  law  school,  as,  at  least,  a  part  of  their  pro- 
fessional education.  1  he  growth  in  numbers  of 
this  school  was  entirely  unprecedented. — In  1860, 
as  we  learn  from  the  United  States  census  of 
that  year,  there  were  in  the  country  twenty  law 
schools,  distributed  as  follows  ;  five  in  the  state 
of  New  York,  two  in  Indiana,  and  one  each  in 
the  states  of  Connecticut,  Illinois,  Kentucky, 
Louisiana,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Missouri, 
North  Carolina.  Ohio.  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee, 
Virginia,  and.  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  But 
how  little  dependence  can  be  placed  on  such 
statistics  may  be  learned  by  comparing  this  list 
with  the  one  prepared  in  the  same  year  for  the 
American  Almanac,  of  1 861 .  This  gives  nearly  the 
same  total  number  (nineteen),  but  entirely  omits 
oneof  the  New  York  schools,  and  those  in  Illinois, 
Missouri,  and  the  District  of  Columbia,  while 
adding  one  in  each  of  the  states  of  Virginia, 
Kentucky,  and  Mississippi.  A  comparison  of 
both  lists  shows  about  fifteen  schools  that  had 
what  may  be  called  a  substantial  existence  at 
that  time.  Nearly  all  of  these  remain  in  full 
operation  at  present.  Since  that  time  the  number 
has  been  more  than  doubled,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  table  we  give  below.  Some  of  the  most 
flourishing  schools  at  present  have  been  estab- 


518 


LAW   SCHOOLS 


lislied  since  that  period;  as.  for  instance,  those 
al  Boston,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Iowa  City,  and 
Washington;  and  most  of  the  older  schools 
have  been  reorganized  and  improved. — The  fol- 
lowing table,  will  show  the  remarkable  recent 
increase  of  these  institutions. 


Year,  and  source 

Number 

of 
schools 

Number 

of 
teachers 

Number 

of 
students 

1842    American  Almanac, 
for  1843      

10 

19 
20 

28 
30 
37 
37 
38 
41 

19 
43 

384 

Lmeric&D  Almanac, 
for  lnGl) 

1,111 

1860    !'.  s.  census) 

1870   U.S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 

99 
129 
154 
168 
181 
216 

1,653 

1871       [do 

1H72        do.) 

1873      (do 

1ST4       (do 

1,722 

1.976 
2.174 
2,585 

1S75      [do.) 

2,631 

It  will  he  noticed  that,  of  late  years,  the  number 
of  teachers  has  increased  much  more  rapidly  in 
proportion  than  that  of  students. 

Organization,  Cnurm- <>/ Simli),  etc. — Although 
there  is,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  no  statutory 
or  other  rule  prescribing  the  organization  and 
conduct  of  American  law  schools,  in  general,  yel 
a  few  prominent  features  are  common  to  all. 
The  faculty  usually  consists  of  lawyers  in  the 
active  practice  of  the  profession,  or  judges  oc- 
cupying seats  upon  the  bench;  and  the  time 
which   tiny  give  to  instruction  is  usually  but  a 

11  pari  of  that  required  by  their  other  dut 
Only  a  U'\\  schools  have  yet  succee  Led  in  secur- 
ing to  themselves  the  constant  services  of  one  or 

more  resilient  professors  who  devote  themselves 

entirely  to    the  work  of  instruction  in  law. — The 

method  of  instruction  differs  in  different  schools, 
but  is  usually  either  by  lectures,  or  by  recitation 
from  text-books.  The  latter  are  for  the  most  part 
th  ■  treatises  which  have  been  prepared  for  the  use 
a:  practicing  lawyers,  and  very  few  of  them  are 
fil  for  elementary  instruction.  Still,  the  method 
of  recitation  is  so  much  more  effective  than  the 
mere  delivery  of  lectures,  that  the  present  tend- 
ency is  to  an  increased  use  of  textbooks.  A 
few  teachers  have  made  an  effort  to  combine 
the  two.  thus  affording  a  method  really  adapted 
to  the  use  of  beginners,  or  have  prepared  them- 
selves printed  synopses  of  their  lectures,  or  col- 
lections of  cases,  to  be  place:!  in  the  hands  of 
th  ■  class  for  study.  Attention  has  recently  I 
drawn  to  this  subject,  ami  to  the  great  waste  of 
t  ime  and  labor  cause  1  by  the  pre\  ions  neglect  of 
all  effort  toward  better  teaching.  Another  defect 

of  the  schools  may  lie  trace  I  to  the  cireumstae 

of  their  origin.     As  they  grew  up  only  to  sup- 

pl  •incut  the  old  method  of  instruction  in  otlices. 

bave  relied  entirely  upon  such  instruction 

f  •!■   the   training  of   students    in    professional 

li  kbits,  and  in  the  details  of  practice.    They  have 

conf  niselves  exclusively,  or  almosi  so.  to 

the  task  of  assisting  the  Btudenl  in  memorizing 
-  of  law:  ami  a  course  of  introductory  lect- 
like  the  encyclopaedia  ami  methodology  of 
the  German  schools  is  almost   unknown.     Very 
few  ir students  a  \  iew  of  the  law 


as  a  single  and  uniform  system.  The  course  is 
composed  of  detached  fragments,  in  each  of  which 
a  single  topic  of  law  is  treated  with  no  reference 
to  others,  and  no  attempt  at  consistent  treat- 
ment by  different  teachers.  The  result,  too  fre- 
quently, is,  that  students  go  through  a  course 
with  uo  conception  of  the  law  as  a  whole,  and 
with  no  training  of  that  power  of  legal  judgment 
which  is  the  first  requisite  of  a  lawyer. 

Admission. — Most  of  the  schools  throw  open 
their  doors  to  all  comers,  and  require  no  partic- 
ular amount  of  education  for  admission.  The 
course  is  intended  to  be  taken,  in  all  cases,  at  the 
very  beginning  of  professional  education.  None 
of  the  schools  require  any  previous  knowledge  of 
law.  except  in  cases  where  students  apply  for 
advanced  standing. — Two  or  three  of  the  older 
schools  have  recently  adopted  a  rule  by  which 
students  an-  required  to  present  a  college 
diploma,  or  to  pass  an  equivalent  examination. 
This  rule  is  not  to  take  effect  until  the  next 
college  year.  1*77 — 8;  and  its  operation  must 
be  considered  as  yet  an  unsolved  problem. 

Length  of  Course,  (tmi  Graduation.  —  The 
course  of  study  varies  in  length,  from  a  single 
session  of  five  or  six  months  to  three  years.  <  >nly 
one  or  two  schools,  however,  haveas  yet  adopted 

the  latter.  The  majority  require  either  a  single 
year  of  continuous  study,  or  a  course  nominally 
of  two  years,  composed  of  two  annual  sessions  of 
five  or  six  months  each.  Tin'  advantage  of  the 
latter  arrangement  is  supposed  to  lie  in  the  op- 
portunity given  to  students  to  prosecute  their 
studies  in  an  office  between  the  two  sessions.  Iu 
such  cases  students  are  usuall}r  admitted  to  the 
senior  class,  upon  examination,  and  are  thus 
enabled  to  reduce  the  period  of  actual  attendance 
to  one  session:  but,  as  methods  of  instruction  im- 
prove, a  tendency  is  manifest  to  insist  more  upon 
the  discipline  acquired  in  the  school  itself,  and 
to  make  a  constant  term  of  attendance  a  condi- 
tion of  graduation.  The  usual  degree  at  gradu- 
ation is  that  of  LL.  B.  It  was  formerly  given 
as  a  matter  of  course,  after  the  requisite  period 
of  attendance:  but.  at  present,  an  examination 
is  required  in  every  case.  This  examination,  in 
some  schools,  is  conducted  by  the  faculty:  in 
others,  by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  courts 

of  the  state,  or  in  some  ol  her  manlier.  The  extent 

and  rigor  of  examinations, of  course,  vary  widely 
in  different  institutions;  but, upon  the  whole,  they 
are  so  much  more  thorough  and  severe  than 
those  to  which  applicants  were  subjected  under 
the  former  system,  that  the\  ha\e  undoubtedly 
done  much  to  raise  the  standard  of  professional 
acquirements.  —Quite  a  number  of  Bchoolshave, 
by  law.  the  privilege  of  admitting  students  to  the 

har  of  the  states  iii  which    they  arc  situated.     In 

such  cases,  it  is  usually  sutlicieiit  for  a  graduate 

to  present  his  diploma,  and  take  the  attorneys 
oath;    though,    in     some    instances,  the    diploma 

serves  merely  as  a  substitute  for  examination, 

and  the  applicant  must  also  prove  moral  char- 
acter, etc.  A  warm  controversy  has  recently 
been  waged,  in  New  York  and  some  other  states, 
iu    regard   to  the  value   and    propriety    of  this 


LAW   SCHOOLS 


LEBANON  VALLEY  COLLEGE 


f)l!> 


privilege.  The  schools  themselves  are  by  no 
means  unanimous  in  desiring  it.  The  better 
opinion  seems  to  be  that  it  should  be  granted 
only  in  cases  where  the  examination  tor  the 
degree  is  not  left  with  the  faculty  alone,  but  is 
under  the  direction  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
state,  or  of  some  other  body  whose  position  will 
guarantee  its  fairness  and  impartiality.  Where 
examinations  are  so  conducted,  it  certainly  seems 
superfluous  to  require  the  graduates  to  appear 
again  before  Buch  committees  as  are  usually  ap- 
pointed for  local  examinations.  As  a  general  rule. 
no  degree  but  that  of  LL.  B..  given  on  tin-  com- 
pletion  of  the  usual  course,  is  bestowed  by  the 
American  law  schools.  The  Vale  School,  how- 
ever, now  offers  the  degree  of  Master  of  Law 
(M.  L.)  to  such  students  as  pursue  an  advanced 
course  for  oue  year  after  taking  the  bachelors 
decree,  and  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Civil  Law 
(1).  C.  L.)  for  a  second  year  of  advanced  study. 
The  University  of  Georgia  offers  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Jurisprudence  to  such  of  its 
graduates  as  have  pursued  the  practice  of  law 
■with  success,  and  maintained  an  honorable  and 
virtuous  character  for  seven  years  after  grad- 
uation. —  The  subjoined  table  contains  a  list 
of  all  the  important  law  schools  in  the  United 
States  : 


School 

■a 

z    U 

V 

,   t 

or 

Location 

E  " 

Z)    >> 

Department 

O 

£.5 

Univ.  of  Alabama 

Tuscaloosa,  Ala 

is  75 

1>. 

— 

Yale  Law  School 

1824 

2 

35 

1866 

1 

51 

111.  Wesleyan  Univ.... 

Blooniington,  HI... 

1S74 

•j 

36 

Union  CoH.  of  Law.  ) 
Chic.  ^N.W.Univ...J 

Chicago,  HI 

1873 

2 

36 

McKendree  College. .. 

1870 

2 

40 

Lincoln  University. .  . 
Indiana  University. . . 

Lincoln,  HI 

1875 
1842 

2 



Bloomington,  Hid.. 

38 

Iowa  College  of  Law  1 
Simpson  Cent.  Coll.  J 

1ST;, 

1 

36 

Iowa  State  Univ 

Iowa  City,  la 

1866 

1,2 

38 

Mt.  Pleasant.  la 

1S71 



— ■ 

lsc,.-, 

2 

22 

Central  Univ 

1874 

2 

— 

Univ.  of  Louisiana. . . 

New  Orleans,  La ... . 

|S47 

2 

20 

Univ. of  Maryland. . . . 

L812 

2 

34 

B"st"ii  t'liivcrsitv.  . . . 

1872 

3 

30 

Harvard  University. . 

Cambridge,  Mass... 

1817 

2 

37 

Univ. ■>!'  Michigan.... 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich... 

L858 

2 

— 

Univ.  of  Missouri 

L872 

2 

21 

Washington  Univ 

1867 

2  '  a 

Albany  Law  School. . . 

Albany,  N.Y 

1*51 

1  I  38 

Clinton,  N.Y 

— 

1 

— 

Columbia  College 

New  Tori,  N.  Y 

L858 

2 

32 

Univ.  of  N.Y.  City.  ... 

New  York,  N.Y. 

1857 

2 

36 

Kutherford  College.. . 

Happy  Home.N.C 

— 

—    — 

Trinity,  N.  C 

L867 

2 

40 

Cincinnati  Law  S 

1833 

2 

30 

Cincinnati  College 

Ohio  State  &  I'nion  1 
Law  College ( 

1856 

2 

39 

Xenia,  0 

1 872 

is;:. 

2 

4'> 

Lafayette  College 

Univ.  of  Pennsylvania 

•»> 

Philadelphia.  Pa 

I860 

2 

40 

( ' 'lumbia.  S.  C 

L868 

2 

40 

Neophogan  Law  Sch. . 

1876 

1 

39 

Cumberland  Univ 

Lebanon.  Tenn 

1*47 

1 

411 

Univ.  of  Virginia 

Charlottesville,  Ya.. 

1826 

1 

39 

Sch.  of  Law  &  Equity  1 
Wash.  ,v  Lee  Univ..  J 

1871 

1.2 

— 

Univ.  of  Wisconsin. . 

1 B68 

1 

38 

Columbian  University 

Washington.  D.  C. . 

I  SCI 

2 

::c, 

Reward  University. . . 

Washington,  1>.  0... 

L869 

2 

:s7 

Washington,  D.c... 

1870 

2 

:;l 

National  Dniversit]  . . 

Washington,  D.  C. .. 

1870 

2 

30 

LAWRENCE,  Abbott,  born  in  Groton, 
Mass..  Dec.,  Hi.,  L792 ;  died  in  Boston,  Aug.  Is., 
1855.  Be  was  associated  with  his  brother  in 
business,  but  turned  his  attention  also  to  politics, 
serving  as  minister  to  Great  Britain  from  L849 
to  1852.  His  chief  claim  to  remembrance  in 
the  educational  world  was  his  founding  of  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School,  at  Cambridge,  in 
1847,  for  which  he  gave  850,000. 

LAWRENCE,  "Amos,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, a  merchant,  born  in  Groton,  Mass.,  April 
22.,  L786;  died  in  Boston.  Dec.  31.  L852.  After 
a  serious  illness  in  1831,  he  retired  from  active 
business,  and  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life 
to  acts  of  benevolence,  expending  in  this  way 
over  $600,000.  Among  the  educational  institu- 
tions which  were  the  objects  of  his  bounty,  may 
be  enumerated  the  following:  Williams  College, 
Mass.,  to  which  he  gave  nearly  $.10,000,  the 
Lawrence  Academy  of  Groton,  Wabash  College, 
Ind.,  Kenyon  College,  Ohio,  and  the  theological 
seminary  at  Bangor,  Me. 

LAWRENCE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WIS- 
CONSIN, at  Appleton,  A\  is.,  chartered  in 
1847,  is  under  Methodist  Episcopal  control.  It 
is  supported  by  tuition  fees,  etc..  and  the  income 
:  of  an  endowment  of  about  $60,000.  It  has 
chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus,  a  cabinet 
of  minerals,  botanical  specimens,  etc.,  aud  a  li- 
brary of  nearly  8,000  volumes.  The  regular 
tuition  fees  vary  from  $15  to  £"21  a  year. 
The  university  comprises  both  the  College  and 
the  Institute,  and  consists  of  seven  depart- 
ments, as  follows:  (1)  a  preparatory  department ; 
(2)  an  academic  department;  (3)  a  commercial 
school;  (4)  a  conservatory  of  music;  (5)  a  school 
of  drawing  and  painting:  (6)  a  juvenile  depart- 
ment; and  (7)  the  college  (opened  in  1853),  which 
has  a  classical,  a  scientific,  and  a  civil  engineer- 
ing course.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  14  instructors.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents was  as  follows :  collegiate,  102  (58  males 
and  44  females);  preparatory. 'J 7;  academical.  38; 
commercial,  4:"i ;  music,  33  ;  drawing  and  paint- 
ing, 14;  juvenile,  29;  total,  deducting  repetitions, 
333  (185  males  and  148  females).  There  were 
173  alumni  (114  males  and  59  females).  The 
Rev.  W.  II.  Sampson,  A.  M..  was  principal  of 
Lawrence  Institute  from  1848  to  1853.  The 
presidents  of  the  university  have  been  as  follows: 
the  Rev.  Edward  Cooke,  D.  D.,  1853— 61 ;  the 
Rev.  R.  Z.  Mason.  LL.D.,  1861—5;  and  the  Rev. 

G ge  M.  Steele.  I >.  I>..  the  present   incumbent 

(1876),  appointed  in  1865. 

LEBANON  VALLEY  COLLEGE,  at 
Annville,  Pa.,  under  the  control  of  the  I'nited 
Brethren  in  Christ,  was  founded  in  1867  by 
the  East  Pennsylvania  Conference  of  that 
church.  It  has  an  endowment  of  $20,000, 
but  is  chiefly  supported  by  several  conferences 
of  the  church,  and  by  contributions  ami  tuition 
The  regular  fees  are  from  $40  to  $47  a 
year.  The  college  has  a  beautiful  campus  of 
about  seven  acres,  two  fine  buildings,  a  cabinet', 
anil  a  library  of  over  1,200  volumes.  The  cur- 
riculum embraces  three  course*  :  a  classical,  a 


520 


LECTURES 


LESLIE 


ladies',  and  a  scientific  course.  There  is  also  a 
preparatory  department.  In  L875-  6, there  were 
<i  instructors,  and  ll'i  students  (classical  course, 
30;  ladies'  course,  3 ;  scientific  course,  83),  of 
whom  84  were  preparatory.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows:  T.  R.  Virkmv,  L867 — 71; 
l.nrian  II.  Hammond,  1871 — 6;  and  I*.  I>.  De 
Long,  the  present  incumbent,  elected  in  1876. 

LECTURES,  or  Lecture  System,  a 
method  of  giving  instruction  by  formal  expo- 
sitions, generally  written  out  and  read  to  the 
learners.  Hence  the  term  lecture  (from  the 
Latin,  meaning  ri'<i<lii>(i  or  something  read). 
Lectures  are,  however,  quite  often  extempora- 
neous, or  delivered  without  previous  preparation 
of  the  language.  The  lecture  differs  from  the 
lesson  chiefly  in  dispensing  with  the  ordinary 
processes  of  the  recitation  room— question  and 
answer,  repetition,  etc.  The  learners  simply 
listen,  or  take  notes,  while  the  lecturer  reads  or 

speaks,  with  or  without  illustrations  by  means 
of  the  blackboard,  maps,  pictures,  apparatus, 
etc.  Lectures,  as  a  system  of  instruct  ion.  are 
chiefly  depended  on  in  higher  education  in  col- 
leges and  universities,  also  in  technical,  scien- 
tific, and  professional  schools, because  the  stu- 
dents are  supposed  to  have  acquired  a  consider- 
able maturity  ot  intellect,  enabling  them  not 
only  to  receive  knowledge  without  exercises 
specially  designed  to  awaken  attention  or  stim- 
ulate the  understanding,  but  to  exercise  their 
own  faculties  in  arranging  it  in  their  minds  for 
use.  —iii  other  words.  CO-ordinating  it  with  their 
previously  acquired  knowledge.  They  are.  he- 
sides,  supposed  to  appreciate  the  importance  of 

the  information  communicated, SO  as  not  to  need 
any  special  stimulus  to  self-activity.  In  element 
ary  instruction,  all  these  conditions  are  reversed; 
and.  therefore,  the  lecture  system  is  inappropriate 
at  that  Stage.  In  middle  Schools  (secondary  in- 
struction), lectures  may  he  used  w  ith  good  effect. 
in  connection,  or   alternation,  with  the  ordinary 

recitation  processes.  When  the  material  has 
been  methodically  arranged, and  when  the  state- 
ments are  definite  and  precise,  the  language 
simple  and  forcible, and  the  style  earnest,  lectures 

may  he  made  to  suhserve  a  very  useful  purpose. 

[See    I  llSToKV.) 

LEHIGH  UNIVERSITY,  at  South  Beth- 
lehem, Pa,  chartered  in  L866,  is  under  Protest 
ant  Episcopal  control.  It  was  founded  by 
Asa  Lacker,  of  Mauch  < 'hunk,  who.  in  1865, 
appropriated  8500,000  and  suitable  grounds  for 
the  purpose,  Tuition  is  entirely  free.  There 
are  three  fine  buildings,  besides  houses  for  the 

president  and  professors.  The  library  contains 
2,000    volumes.       The    university    has    a     well 

equipped  observatory,  a  museum,  and  collections 
in  natural  history.  It  comprises  live  schools: 
(1)  general  literature;  (2)  civil  or  statical  en- 
gineering; (3)  mechanical  or  dynamical  engineer- 
ing; 1 1)  muiing  and  metallurgy ;  (5)  chemistry. 
The  courses  are  each  of  four  years,  excepl  that  for 
the  degree  of  Engineer  of  Mines,  which  requires 

four  years  and  a  half.  The  Studies  of  the  fresh- 
man year  and  of  the  first  half  of  tin1  sophomore 


year  are  the  same  in  all  the  courses.  This 
institution  was  originally  designed  to  impart  a 
technical  education,  anil  the  school  of  general 
literature  (similar  to  the  ordinary  college  cor,; 
was  added  subsequently.  In  l^Ta — (i.  there 
were  8  professors,  6  other  instructors,  and  111! 
students.  The  Lev.  John  M.  Leavitt.  1>.  D.,  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

LELAND  UNIVERSITY,in  New  (  Means. 
La.,  chartered  in  L870  and  opened  in  1873, 
is  under  Baptist  control.  It  was  especially  de- 
signed for  colored  youth,  but  no  one  can  be  ex- 
cluded on  account  of  race,  color,  sex,  or  religion. 
It  is  supported  by  contributions,  tuition  fees,  and 
the  products  of  Kl  acres  of  cultivated  land.  The 
buildings  and  grounds  are  valued  at  about 
$75,000,  toward  which  the  I'Teedmen's  Bureau 
contributed  $17,500,  and  benevolent  individuals 
and  churches  the  residue.  The  cost  of  tuition  is 
SI  per  month,  which  is  remitted  to  ministers  and 
licentiates.  An  opportunity  is  afforded  students 
to  support  themselves  in  part  by  labor  on  the 
farm.  The  university  has  an  academic  and  a 
college  preparatory  course,  of  three  years  each,  a 
college  course  ot   four  years,  and   a   theological 

department.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  4  instructors 
ami  96  students  (63  male  and  .'>.'{  female),  of 
whom  5  woe  in  the  college  preparatory  course, 
and  L 6  were  pursuing  theological  studies.  'I  he 
Rev.  Silas  B.Gregory  was  the  first  president, 
who  held  office  one  year,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  Lev.  L.  Bartlett  Barker,  A.  M..  the  present 
incumbent. 

LESLIE,  Sir  John,  a  celebrated  natural 
philosopher,  teacher,  ami  author  of  scientific 
works,  born  in  I  argo,  Scotland.  April  lh..  1766; 
died  in  Coates,  Fifeshire,  Nov.  3.,  L832.  Whili 
a  boy,  his  strong  inclination  for  natural  science 
was  shown,  and  led  to  his  entrance  into  the  uni- 
versity of  St.  Andrews,  in  177'.*.  I  le  afterwards 
went  to  the  Edinburgh  Divinity  Hall,  but  de- 
voted his  time  there  to  the  study  of  the  sciences. 

particularly  chemistry.  In  L 788, he  accepted  the 
position  of  tutor  in  the  Randolph  family  of  Vir- 
ginia :  but.  in  L790, returned  to  London,  when 
he  attempted  to  establish  himself  as  a  lecturer 
on  natural  philosophy.  Failing  in  this,  be  be- 
came a  tutor  in  the  family  of  Mr.  Wedgewood 
at  Ltruria.  Staffordshire;  and  while  traveling  in 
that  capacity  on  the  continent,  made  a  transla- 
tion of  Buffon's  Natural  History  of  Birds  (I  793), 
ami  published  an  Experimental  Inquiry  into  //"■ 
Nature  and  Propagation  of  Heat  (1804).  In 
L805,  after  much  opposition  on  the   part    of  the 

clergj  of  Edinburgh,  he  was  elected  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  university  of  that  place,  suc- 
ceeding I  'rof.  Playfair;  and.  in  1 819, on  the  death 
of  the  latter,  again  succeeded  him.  as  professor 
of  natural  philosophy.   Shortly  after  his  election. 

in  1805,  he  began  the  publication  of  his  <'<>/t/-si 
of  Mathematics,  followed,  in  L823,  by  one  vol- 
ume of  his  Elements  <.</'  Natural  Philosophy. 
The  latter  was  never  completed.    Shortly  bit. 

his  death,  ill   L832,  he    was  created   a    knight    of 

the  order  of  Guelph.    As  an  able  and  versatile 

writer  in   almost   every   department  of  science. 


LEWIS 


LIBRARIES 


52 1 


and  an  inventor  of  philosophical  instruments, 
his  merit  is  generally  acknowledged.  The  inven- 
tion of  a  differential  thermometer,  a  hygrometer, 
and  a  photometer,  also  of  a  process  of  artificial 
congelation,  and  a  method  for  freezing  mercury, 
are  some  of  the  results  of  his  experimental  labors. 
His  chief  publications,  in  addition  to  those  men- 
tioned, are  .1"  essay  on  the  Resolution  of  Inde- 
terminate Equations  (Edin.,  L788);  Philosophy 
of  Arithmetic  (1817) ;  Progress  of  Mathemat- 
ical and  Philosophical  Science  during  ike  \.8th 
Century,  the  fifth  dissertation  in  the  Encyclopae- 
dia Britannica. 

LEWIS,  Dio,  an  American  physician  and 
author,  born  in  Auburn,  N.  Y..  March  .'i..  1823. 
He  was  educated  at  Harvard,  and  practiced 
medicine  at  Port  Byron  and  Buffalo.  While 
in  the  latter  place,  he  published  a  medical  maga- 
zine in  which  he  advocated  the  substitution  of 
physical  exercise  for  dings,  in  the  prevention 
and  cure  of  disease.  In  1863,  he  established  in 
Boston  an  institution  for  the  training  of  teach- 
ers according  to  his  new  system  of  physical  edu- 
cation. The  necessity  of  such  education  he  has 
advocated  for  many  years,  and  sought  to  intro- 
duce it  into  the  public-school  system  of  the 
United  States.  Shortly  after  the  destruction  of 
his  school  buildings  by  fire,  in  1868,  he  gave  up 
his  school,  and  devoted  himself  to  lecturing, 
principally  on  hygiene  and  temperance.  His 
published  works  are.  New  Gymnastics  (Boston, 
»1862) ;  Weak  Lungs,  and  how  to  make  them 
strong  (Boston.  1863) :  Talks  about  People's 
Stomachs  (1870);  Our  Girls  (New  York,  1871); 
and  Ghats  with  Young  Women  (New  York, 
1874). 

LEWISBURG,  University  at,  an  in- 
stitution at  Lewisburg,  Pa,  under  Baptist  con- 
trol, was  founded  in  1S47.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees,  room  rent,  and  the  income  of  an 
endowment  of  $130,000.  Its  library  contains 
about  5,000  volumes.  The  institution  has  a 
cabinet  of  geology  and  mineralogy,  collections 
in  natural  history,  and  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus.  The  cost  of  tuition  in 
the  collegiate  department  is  $36  a  year.  This 
department  has  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course. 
Connected  with  the  university  is  a  preparatory 
department,  an  English  academy,  and  a  female 
institute.  In  187") — <>,  the  collegiate  department 
had  6  instructors.  The  number  of  students  was 
118;  namely,  collegiate,  66;  preparatory,  31; 
academy,  21.     The  presidents  of  the  university 

have    1 n    the    Rev.    Howard    .Malcoin.    1).  !>., 

1851 — 8;  and  the  Rev.  Justin  R.  Loomis,LL.D., 
the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in  L858. 

LEWIS  COLLEGE,  at  Glasgow,  Mo., 
founded  in  i860,  is  under  Methodist  Episcopal 
control.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees,  which 
vary  from  $30  to  $40  per  year,  and  by  the  liber- 
ality of  its  founders,  the  Lewis  family  of  Howard 
county.  It  has  a  library  of  about  3.000  volumes, 
and  comprises  a  primary,  an  academic,  a  prepar- 
atory, ami  a  collegiate  department,  the  last  hav- 
ing a  classical  and  a  scientific  course.  Oppor- 
tunity is  aLso  afforded  for  theological  and  musical 


instruction.  Both  sexes  are  admitted,  in  1874 — 5, 
there  were  5  instructors  and  B8 -students.  The 
presidents  have  been  as  follows:  theRev.D.A. 
Mct'ivadv.  c_'  years)  ;  the  Rev.  Joseph  Barwick, 
A.  M.  (2  years)  :  the  Rev.  L.  M.  Albright,  A 
.M.  (1  year) ;  the  Rev.  .lames  ('.  Hall,  A.M.. 
the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in  L871. 

LIBERAL   EDUCATION,    literally,  that 
which  is  suited  to  the  condition   and  wants  of  a 

freeman  or  a  gentleman,  that  is,  extending  be- 
yond  the  practical  necessities  of  life;  hence, 
contrasted  with  a.  practical  education,  or  that 

which  is  designed  to  fit  for  mechanical  or  busi- 
ngs pursuits.  A  liberal  education  embraces 
within  its  scope  instruction  in  all  those  branches 
which  collectively  are  called  the  humanities  (q.  v). 
LIBERIA,  a  republic  of  western  Africa;  area, 
9,500  sq.m.;  population,  estimated  at  718,000, 
of  whom  about  700.0(10  arc  uncivilized  negroes. 
The  sett  lenient  of  Liberia  was  commenced 
in  L822,  by  liberated  slaves  from  the  United 
States,  under  the  auspices  of  the  American 
Colonization  Society:  and.  in  L  847,  it  was  pro- 
claimed a  free  and  independent  state.  Its  con- 
stitution has  for  its  model  that  of  the  United 
States.  Of  the  numerous  tribes  comprising  the 
native  population  the  Mandingos  are  the  most 
remarkable.  They  all  possess  considerable  in- 
telligence, and  not  a  few  of  them  are  educated. 
'I  hey  are  found  on  the  whole  eastern  frontier  of 
the  republic,  and  extend  far  into  the  interior  of 
Africa.  Like  most  of  the  interior  tribes  of 
Africa,  they  are  Mohammedans,  and  have  schools 
and  mosques  in  every  large  town.  They  read 
and  write,  and  many  speak,  the  Arabic  language. 
Besides  the  Mandingos,  the  only  tribe  that  have 
reached  any  degree  of  culture  are  the  Veys,  on 
the  west  coast.  They  have  a  syllabic  alphabet, 
invented  by  themselves.  A  mission  school  has 
been  established  among  them  at  Totocareh.  by 
the  Protestant  P]piscopal  Church  of  the  United 
States.  There  were  also,  in  1872,  15  day  schools, 
under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  and  a  training  school  for  Baptist  mis- 
sionaries, at  Virginia.  A  regular  system  of 
public  schools  has  been  organized,  comprising 
elementary  and  high  schools,  and  a  college.  The 
statistics  arc  very  meager  in  regard  to  the  com- 
mon schools.  The  county  of  Mesurado  had.  in 
1870,  36  public  schools,  with  37  teachers  and 
1,155  pupils. — See  Stockwkm,,  77/ e  Republic  of 
Liberia  (N.  Y.,  L 868),  and  Blyden  (a  negro 
professor  in  Fourah  May  College.  Sierra  Leone), 
The  Republic  of  Liberia,  its  Status  and  its 
Fields,  in  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Review 
(1872). 

LIBRARIES  constitute  one  of  the  most 
important  instrumentalities  for  stimulating  the 
intellectual  improvement  of  the  people,  as  well 
as  for  the  mental  and  moral  training  of  pupils 
in  schools.  This  has  been  recognized  in  the 
Legislation  of  many  of  the  states  of  the  Amer- 
ican Onion,  by  making  provision  for  supplying 
the  schools  ami  school-districts  with  libraries  of 
interesting  and  useful  books.  In  1S27,  Covernor 
Clinton,  of  New  Fork, recommended  the  estab- 


52: 


LIBRAE  IKS 


lishment  of  school  district  libraries;  and,  in 
1835  ,  a  law  was  passed  by  the  legislature  of 
that  state  which  permitted  school-districts  to 
raise  money  by  tax  for  the  Bupport  of  libraries. 
In  1838,  further  provision  was  made  by  author- 
izing an  animal  appropriation  of  855,000  from 
the  general  school  fund  for  this  purpose,  on  con- 
dition that  the  districts  would  raise  an  equal 
.sum.  In  L875,  the  legislature  of  this  state  re- 
duced the  appropriation  to  !£~>0,000.  Massachu- 
setts enacted  a  permissory  law  in  1837,  and,  in 
1  9  12,  granted  a  premium  of  81.")  to  each  district 
which  raised  an  equal  sum  by  taxation.  Maine, 
Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  <*hio,  Michigan,  Illi- 
nois. Wisconsin,  and  California  have  passed  acts  I 
similar  to  that  of  New  Fork.  These  provisions 
have,  however,  been  found  inadequate-;  and,  in 
some  of  the  states,  township  libraries  have  taken 
their  place.  Such  libraries,  administered  as  a  ; 
part  of  the  common-school  system,  have  been 
established  in  Michigan,  Indiana,  and  Wisconsin  ; 
but  the  results  are  said  not  to  be  wholly  satis- 
factory. In  Massachusetts,  the  library  has  been 
rated  from  the  school  system,  being  made 
public,  or  open  to  all.  In  1851,  a  law  was 
passed  authorizing "  cities  and  towns  to  establish 
and  maintain  public  libraries,"  and  the  system 
thus  inaugurated  has  proved  eminently  sue 
fid.    In  1869,  there  were  58  public  libraries  in 

the  state,  wholly  or   partly  maintained   by  taxa- 

ti  m.     At  the  present  time,  there  are,  probably, 

more  than   three   times  that  number.     "  Public 

libraries,"  says  die  ('.  S.  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, in  his  report  for  L874,  "are  now  univi 
ally  regarded  by  school  officers  and  friends  of 
education  as  an  indispensable  complement  to 
our  system  of  free  schools,  and  no  educational 
r.port    can    now   lie   considered  complete  which 

do es  not  recognize  their  importance." 

The  value  of  a  school  library  will  depend  up- 
on the  character  of  the  books  of  which  it  is 
composed,  and  the  uses  to  which  it  is  applied. 
A  large  and  expensive  collection  of  1 ks  is  not 

idea  ;  but  the  hooks  should  tie  instructive  and 

interesting  to  children,  so  that  through  their 
perusal  they  may  not  only  obtain  useful  infor- 
mation, but  imbibe  a  taste  for  reading.  By  this 
means,  an  antidote  may.  in  part  at  least,  be  ap- 
plied to  the  influence  of  the  trashy, exciting, and 
.sensational  literature,  which  so  greatly  abounds 
at  the  present  lime,  and  which  is  so  apt  to  Cor- 
rupt both  the  minds  and  morals  of  the  young. 
•  \  library,"  says  //«</•  to  Teach  (N.  Y;,  1874), 
*•  is  the  indispensable  supplement  to  the  system- 
mental  instruction  given  in  the  class-room. 
It.  for  instance,  cue  be  taken  and  opportuni- 
ties sough!  during  the  lessons  iii  geography,  his- 
tory,  or  in  any  of  the  departments  of  science,  to 

introduce  some  little  book  from  the  library,  and 
to  nad  a  lew  interesting  paragraphs  illustrating 

—    i  .—      I  B 

the  lesson,  a  brief  notice  and  commendation  of 

the  book  at    the  close  of    the  exercise,  with  a   few 

hints  as  in  how  best  to  read  it.  will  utilize  many 

aluable    work    that    mighl    otherwise    remain 

Untouched  upon    the   Bhelvea \   teacher   has 

failed    iii   one  of  the    most    important  of  all   his 


LICENSE 

functions, if , being  in  possession  of  a  good  school 
library,  he  has  not  fixed,  in  at  least  some  of  his 
pupils,    the    habit    and    love    of    self-culture,  by 

leading  them  to  become  habitual  readers." 

LICENSE,  Teacher's,  a  legal  permission 
to  give  instruction,  generally  in  a  public  school. 
This  license  is  usually  conferred  after  exami- 
nation, and  attested  by  a  certificate,  either  tem- 
porary or  permanent,  which  is  evidence  to 
employing  school  boards  that  the  holder  is  a 
qualified  teach  r.  sometimes  called  a  certificated 
teacher.  The  object  of  such  a  license  to  teach 
is  to  protect  the  interests  of  the  community 
against  the  evils  arising  from  the  employment 
of  incompetent  persons  by  those  who  might  not 
be  able  to  test  the  qualifications  of  applicants, 
or  who  might,  from  favoritism  or  corrupt  mo- 
tives, be  willing  to  employ  as  teachers  persons 
not  possessing  the  requisite  qualifications.  In 
the  united  States,  the  requirement  that  all  teach- 
ers should  be  duly  examined  and  licensed  previ- 
ous to  appointment  is  almost  universal.  The 
practice  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  examination, 
and  the  forms  and  grades  of  the  certificate, 
varies  considerably  in  the  different  states,  far 
information  in  regard  to  which,  Bee  the  titles 
of  the  states.  i>  spec  tivcly.  In  all  an  unqualified 
attestation  of  moral  character  is  r«  quired,  in  ad- 
dition to  literary  and  professional  qualifications. 
Walsh,  The  Lawyer  in  iJi>  School-Room, 
N.  V..  L871,  s.  v.  The  Law  as  tothe  Teacher's 
Morality.)  State  certificates,  that  is.  certifi- 
cates issued  by  state  boards  of  education  or  state 
superintendents,  entitle  the  holders  to  teach  in 
any    part    of    the  state  without  an   examination 

before  county,  town,  or  district  boards  or  officers. 
Such  certificates  are.  however,  usually  overruled 
by  city  hoards  of  education,  who  make  an  ex- 
amination and  license  by  their  own  officers — 
usually  the  city  superintendent — a  condition  of 
employment.  In  some  states,  the  standard  for  a 
license  is  fixed  by  the  state  board  of  education 
or  by  the  superintendent:  in  others,  each  locality 
fixes  its  own  standard.  'I  his  gives  rise  to  a  great 
want  of  uniformity,  which  lias  often  been  in- 
veighed against  as  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of 
teachers  and  of  the  profession.  American  teachers 
have  been,  and  still  arc.  to  a  diminished  extent 

however,  subjected  to  greal  wrong  and    injustice 

by  being  obliged  to  pass  examinations  before  in- 
competent persons,  that  is.  persons  who  have 
neither  scholarship  nor  professional  knowledge, 

either  theoretical  or  practical.  The  examiner.-,  in 
the  rural  districts  are  rarely  teatheis.  and  hence 
cannot    hut    imperfectly  determine  the  teachers 

qualifications,  except,  indeed,  elementary  schol- 
arship and  moral  character.  At  the  meeting  of 
the  National   Educational  Association,  in  1>TL'. 

this  sulijcct  was  discussed,  and  the  following 
decided  upon  as  the  proper  conditions  for  award- 
ing teachers'  certificates:  (1)  a  comprehensive 

system  of  state,  city,  county,  and  town  boards 
of  examination  ;  (2)  such  boards  to  he  composed 

of  school  superintendents  and  profc  B&iona!  teach- 
ers; (3)  a  graded  series  of  certificates  from  life 

diplomas    down    to    annual    certificates,     to     he 


LICENSE 


I, IK  BE  R 


523 


granted  only  upon  actual  examination;  (-1)  legal 
recognition  by  each  state  of  professional  certifi- 
cates and  normal  school  diplomas  issued  in  other 
states.  In  the  state  of  New  Fork,  the  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  can  issue  his  err 
tiii. 'ate  only  to  those  who  have  been  found  on 
examination  qualifie  1  to  receive  it ;  and  it  is  his 
duty  to  appoint  exami  ters.at  such  times  and  in 
BUCn  places,  as  he  may  deem  necessary,  for  the 
purpose  of  examining  candidates.  (See  New 
York.) 

The  English  Elementary  Education  Act  (1870) 
provides  that  "before  any  grant  is  made  to  a 
school,  the  Education  Department  must  be  satis- 
fie  1  that  the  principal  teacher  is  certificated  ;" 
an  1  that  "teachers, in  order  to  obtain  certificates, 
must  be  examined,  and  must  undergo  probation 
by  actual  service  in  school;"  that  is,  "after  suc- 
cessfully passing  their  examination, thsy  must. 
as  teachers  continuously  engaged  in  the  same 
schools,  obtain  two  favorable  reports  from  an  in- 
spector, with  an  interval  of  one  year  between 
them  :  and  if  the  first  of  these  reports  be  not 
preceded  by  service  of  three  months  (at  the  least  I 
since  the  examination,  a  third  report,  at  an  in- 
terval of  one  year  after  the  second  report,  is  re- 
quired :  if  the  second  (or  thirl;  report  is  favor- 
able, a  certificate  is  issued.  Teachers  under  pro- 
bation satisfy  the  conditions  which  require  that 
schools  be  kept  by  certificated  teachers."  The 
Scotch  Education  Act  (1872)  provides  that  "no 
person  shall  be  appointed  to  the  office  of  prin- 
cipal teacher  in  a  public  school,  who  is  not  the 
holder  of  a  certificate  of  competency.-'  Those 
win.)  hold  university  degrees  are  entitled  to  re- 
ceive the  certiticat  ■  without  further  examination 
in  the  studies  in  which  they  were  examined  for 
the  degree.  Too  great  laxity  seems  to  exist  in 
the  granting  of  these  certificates ;  as  appears 
from  the  following  statement  of  the  Educational 
New*  (Edinburgh,  dune  3.,  1876)  :  "A  gradual 
deterioration  in  tlu  value  of  certificates  has  been 
going  on  for  the  last  twenty  years,  under  pre- 
tence of  making  it  the  badge  of  practical  skill 
rather  than  of  literary  attainments  and  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  teaching;  and  so 
thorough  has  been  the  transformation,  that  it 
now  affords  no  evidence  whatever  of  the  posses- 
siou  of  knowledge,  and  next  to  none  even  of 
practical  skill;"  which  strong  statement  is  based 
on  the  fact,  as  alleged,  that  "  the  Education  De- 
partment seems  bent  on  interfering  with  the 
intentions  of  parliament  in  this  matter  by  grant- 
ing certificates  -without  examination,'  although 
the  act  unmistakably  makes  examination  a  nec- 
essary condition  of  granting  a  certificate." — in 
Austria,  most  of  the  teachers  are  compelled  to 
spend  four  years  in  the  normal  schools,  after 
which  they  are  required  to  pass  an  examination 
before  an  independent  commission  appointed  by 
ill.-  government,  before  they  can  obtain  a  license 
to  teach.  In  France,  the  teachers  of  private  as 
well  as  of  public  schools  are  required  to  obtain  a 
license  by  passing  an   examination  before  the 

governmental  officers;  and  their  schools  are  also 
subject  to  official   supervision.     In  the  German 


states,  persons  are  prohibited  from  keeping 
schools  without  being  licensed ;  ami  to  obtain  a 
license  are  required  to  pass  an  examination  ; 
upon  which  they  receive  certificates  showing  the 

grade  of  school  they  are  qualified  to    teach  ;   and 

they  are  interdicted,  under  a  severe  penalty,  from 
issuing  a  prospectus  for  any  higher  school.  Sim- 
ilar legal  provisions  exist  in  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  some  other  European  countries. 

LIEEER,  Francis,  a  noted  publicist  and 
teacher,  born  in  Berlin,  March  is.,  L800;  died  in 
New  York,  Oct.  "J..  1  .s 7 'J .  He  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  Jena,  in  1819,  but  left  it  in  L821;  and, 
after  traveling  on  foot  through  Switzerland,  cm- 
barked  at  .Marseilles  for  ( ireece,  where  he  entered 
the  Greek  army  as  a  volunteer.  Returning  to 
Koine,  he  became  an  inmate  of  the  family  of 

Niebuhr,  the  historian,  then  I  'nis.-ian  ambassador; 
and  wrote  therein  1822,  an  account  of  his  so- 
journ in  Greece,  which  was  published  in  Leipsic 
(1823).  lie  returned  to  Berlin,  and  entered  the 
university  of  Halle,  but  was  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned at  Kopenick,  where  he  wrote  a  number 
of  poems,  which,  upon  his  release,  at  the  inter- 
cession of  Niebuhr.  were  published  under  the 
name  of  Franz  Arnold,  being  threatened  with 
another  arrest,  he  left  Germany,in  L 825, and  fled 
to  England,  where  he  supported  himself  for  a 
year  as  a  private  teacher.  While  in  England,  he 
contributed  to  German  periodicals,  and  wrote. 
in  German. an  article  on  the  I  ancasterian  method. 
in  1*27,  he  came  to  the  United  States,  lectured 
on  history  and  politics,  and.  shortly  alter.  1  egan, 
at  Boston,  to  edit  the  Encyclopaedia  Americana, 
which  was  published,  in  13  volumes,  in  Phila- 
delphia (1828 — ■VI).  By  invitation  of  the  trus- 
tees of  Girard  College  in  Philadelphia,  he  fur- 
nished a  plan  of  education  and  instruction  for 
that  institution,  and  afterwards  went  to  reside 
in  that  city.  In  1835,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  history  and  political  economy  in  the 
South  Carolina  College,  at  Columbia,  a  position 
which  he  held  till  1856.  1  hese  were  the  most 
fruitful  years  of  his  life.  Here  he  wrote  his 
Manual  of  Political  Ethics  (Boston,  le.'5*~9), 
commended  by  Kent  and  Story,  and  adopted 
by  Harvard  (  ollcge  as  a  text-book  :  Legal  <</></ 
Political  Herment  utics  i  boston,  1839)  :  a  trans- 
lation of  Ramshorns  Latin  Synonyms  (1839); 
Great  Events  described  by  Great  Historians 
\ .  V.,  1847) ;  essays  on  the  Use  of  the  Study 
of  Latin  and  Greek,  as  Elements  of  Educa,' 
Hon;  on  the  Study  of  History  and  Political 
Economy  as  branchesofa  superior  education;  on 
Laura  Bridgman's  vocal  sounds;  Oivil  Liberty 
and  Self-Governmeni  (bhila..  1853);  and  numer- 
ous other  essays,  letters,  and  reports.  In  1*57. 
he  was  appointed   to   the  chair  of  history  and 

political  science  in  Columbia  College,  N.  Y..  and 

remained  in  that  position  till  his  death.    The 

labors  of  Dr.  I.ieber  were  of  great  importance, 
and  their  value  has  been  fully  recognized  both 
in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.      Although 

passing  most  of  his  life  in  the  professor's  chair,  his 
commanding  ability  gave  him  a  reputation  such 
as  is  usually  the  reward  of  long  public  service. 


524 


LILY 


LOCKE 


LILY,  William,  a  celebrated  English  schol- 
ar and  teacher,  the  friend  of  Erasmus  and  Sir 
[nomas  More,  was  born  at  Odiham,  Hants,  in 
England,  in  1466,  and  <  1  i«-< I  in  L523.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford  University,  and.  sunn  after 
arriving  at  manhood,  traveled  in  the  East  to 
obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  and 
subsequently  studied  for  a  time  at  Rome,  and 
also  at  Paris.  On  bis  return  to  England,  he  ac- 
quired a  very  high  reputation  for  scholarship, 
being  the  first  teacher  of  Greek  in  London  :  and, 
in  L512,  he  was  appointed  by  Dr.  John  Colet, 
dean  of  St.  Paul's  church,  London,  high  master 
of  St.  Paul's  school,  then  recently  established 
through  the  dean's  munificence.  This  position 
he  tilled  until  his  death.  Be  published  several 
educational  works,  but  is  chiefly  noted  for  his 
Latin  grammar  [Brevissima  Institutio  sew  Ratio 
Grammatices  Cognoscendce,  4to,  London,  L513), 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  text  books.  In  the 
compilation  of  this  work,  Colet,  Erasmus,  and 
Cardinal  Wolsey  had  a  share;  the  English  rudi- 
ments being  written  by  Colet.  the  preface  to 

the  first  edition  by  Wolsey,  and  the  Latin  syn- 
tax chiefly  by  Erasmus.  This  Look  was  thus 
the   jniiii    production  of  four  of  the  greatest 

scholars   of  the   age.      Lew    school    Looks    have 

had  so  long  a  career,  or  have  passed  through  so 
many  editions,  being  used  to  this  day  in  St. 
Paul's  school.  King  Henry  VIII.  wrote  an 
introduction  to  grammar,  making  Lily's  gram- 
mar the  basis;  he  also  caused  a,  law  to  he  en- 
acted prescribing  this  as  the  grammar  to  be  ex- 
clusively used  in  all  the  schools  of  the  kingdom  ; 
and, accordingly,  it  remained  the  accepted  gram- 
matical standard  in  English  schools  for  more 
than  three  centuries.  Hence  it  bore  on  its  title- 
pa  uc  (Jin/in  solam  Regia  Mqjestas  in  omnibus 
scholis  docendam  prcecepit.  This  grammar  is 
also  noteworthy  as  being  the  basis  of  the  first 
English  grammars. — See  Puller,  History  of  the 
Worthies  of  England  (1622) ;  Samuel  Cmight, 
Lifr  of  Dr.  John  Colet  (1724);  Dim. in.  The 
Biographical  Decameron  (London,  L817);  Jor- 
iin.  Life  of  Erasmus  (1758—60).  (See  also 
Gramm  \k,  English.) 

LINCOLN  COLLEGE,  at  Greenwood,  Mo., 
was  founded,  in  1869,  by  the  United  Presbyte- 
rians. The  grounds  comprise  live  acres,  reserved 
for  the  site  of  a  college  when  the  town  was  laid 
out.  The  building  was  erected  through  tin-  efforts 
of  the  Lev.  I  Iain  ltd  Loss.  A.  M..  who  has  been  the 
president  of  the  board  of  directors  from  the  first, 
tne  college  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  of  $30 
a  year.    It  has  a  classical  course  of  four  years. 

and  a  Scientific  course  of  three  years  ;  both  sexes 

are  admitted,  -in  lbTJ — 6, there  were  .">  instruct- 
ors and  75  students. 

LINCOLN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Lincoln. 
III.,  under  the  control  of  the  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterians, was  organized  in  1867,  and  chartered 
in  1872.   The  value  of  its  buildings,  -rounds,  and 

apparatus  is  $475,000;  thei unt  of  its  produc- 
tive funds,  $834,000.  The  libraries  contain  22,000 
volumes.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  There  is  a 
preparatory,  a  classical,  a  Latin-scientific,  a  scien- 


tific, and  a  select  course.  A  theological  depart- 
ment has  also  Leen  organized.  In  1873 — 4, there 
were  1  '1  instructors  and  386  students  (332  pre- 
paratory  and  54  collegiate). 

LINCOLN  UNIVERSITY,  at  ( brford,  in 
Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  opened  in  1856,  is  under 
Presbyterian  control.  It  is  especially,  but  not 
exclusively,  designed  for  colored  students.  The 
value  of  its  buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is 
$125,000.  The  grounds  include  80  acres,  and 
contain  four  university  buildings  and  four  pro- 
fessors'houses.  The  library  contains  3,500  vol- 
umes. '1  he  university  has  valuable  philosophical 
apparatus  and  a  mineralogical  cabinet.  It  has  a 
collegiate  department, a  normal,  preparatory,  and 
business  department,  and  a  theological,  a  law,  and 
ai lical  department.     In  L874 — 5,  there  were 

1(1  instructors  and  117  students  (71  collegiate, 
57  preparatory,  and  L6  theological.  The  Lev. 
Isaac  N.  Randall,  D.  D.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 
LINDSLEY,  Philip,  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  in  1786;  died 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1855.  After  graduating 
at  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  in  1804,  he  was 
for  three  years  tutor  in  that  institution.  In  1813, 
he  became  professor  of  languages,  and.  in  lsl7. 

vice-president    of  the    college.      In  1823,   he  was 

chosen  president  of  the  institution,  but  he  de- 
clined. In  1824,  he  accepted  the  thrice-tendered 
presidencyof  the  university  of  Nashville,  which, 
through  his  efficient  administration,  attained  a 
very  high  rank  among  American  colleges.  So 
great  was  the  reputation  which  he  acquired  in 
that  position, that  no  less  than  ten  different  col 
i  leges  offered  him  the  presidency.  Be  retired  in 
Oct.  1850,  and  spent  the  last  four  years  of  his 
life  at  New  Albany,  teaching  part  of  the  time. 

in  the  theological  seminary  of  that  town.  His 
works  have  Leen  edited  by  L.  J.  Halsey  (Philn.t. 
LING,  Peter  Henrik,  a  Swedish  poet,  and 
the  founder  of  a  system  of  gymnastics  for  the 
cure  of  disease,  was  Lorn  in  Ljunga,  Nov.  16., 
1776,  and  died  in  Stockholm.  May  3.,  1839.  Un- 
der the  name  of  leinesipathy  [movement  cv 
his  system  has  Leen  put  into  practice  to  some 
extent  in  other  countries,  but,  like  many  similar 

discoveries,  has  not  fully  answered  the  expec- 
tations of  its  too  sanguine  advocates.  In  1813, 
the  Loyal  Central  Institution  of  Stockholm  was 
established  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  this 
system,  Ling  being  appointed  director.  His 
/-./.  mentary  Principles  of  Gymnastics  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death  (Stockholm,  1840). 

LINGUISTICS.     See  Lakqi  age. 

LOCKE,  John,  an  illustrious  English  philos- 
opher, Lorn  at  Wrington.in  Somersetshire,  Aug. 
29.,  1632;  died  at  Oates,in  Ebbcx,  Oct.  28.,  1704. 
His  education  began    at   Westminster  School. 

from  which  he  passed,  in   1651, to  Christ  Church. 

Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1658.  Heapplied 
himself  to  the  stuay  of  medicine  with  such  suc- 
cess as  to  win  the  special  approbation  of  Dr. 
Sydenham,  the  greatest  medical  authority  of  his 
time.  In  1 66  L  iie  went  to  Berlin,  as  secretary  to 
the  British  envoy.  Sir  William  Swan,  but  returned 
within  a  year  to  pursue  his  studies  at  Oxford. 


LOCKE 


521 


His  perplexity,  at  this  time,  as  to  the  choice  of 
a  profession,  was  very  great,  three  being  open 
to  him.  A  preferment  in  the  church  was  offered 
him  by  the  (hike  of  Ormond;  inducements  to 
continue  in  diplomatic  service,  either  in  Spain  or 
Germany,  were.  also,  made  to  him;  while  his 
own  inclinations  were  toward  the  practice  of 
medicine,  for  which  he  had  shown  special  aptitude. 
While  engaged  in  the  study  01  experimental 
philosophy,  in  connection  with  his  medical 
studies,  he  formed  the  acqaintance  of  Lord 
Ashley,  afterwards  earl  of  Shaftesbury.  This 
nobleman's  life  is  believed  to  have  been  saved 
by  IiOeke's  skill :  and  at  this  time  an  intimacy 
sprang  up  between  them,  which  led  to  Locke's 
taking  up  his  residence  at  Lord  Ashley's  house 
in  London,  where  he  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  politics  and  philosophy.  There  he  met  the 
earl  of  Northumberland,  the  earl  of  Halifax, 
the  duke  of  Buckingham,  and  others  of  the 
most  eminent  persons  of  that  day.  in  1668,  he 
accompanied  the  earl  of  Northumberland  on  a 
Tour  in  Prance,  and,  on  his  return,  was  em- 
ployed by  Lord  Ashley,  then  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  to  draw  up  the  constitution  of  the 
province  of  Carolina.  In  1G70,  he  began  to 
form  the  plan  of  his  great  work,  the  Essay  con- 
ceniiinj  !]/•>  Human  Understanding,  though  this 
was  not  published  till  twenty  years  later.  In 
1675,  he  visited  France  for  the  benefit  of  his 
health,  where,  at  Montpellier,  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  to  whom, 
many  years  after,  he  dedicated  his  J:'rs<///.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1679;  but,  in  1682,  when 
the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  who  bad  been  charged 
with  treason,  left  the  country,  Locke  acc<  unpauied 
him,  taking  up  his  residence  in  Amsterdam, 
where,  in  conjunction  with  Limborch,  Le  Clerc, 
and  others,  he  founded  a  literary  society  for  the 
weekly  discussion  of  important  questions.  In 
168'i,  he  published  in  French  a  Neva  Method  of 
a  Commonplace  Book,  and,  in  1688,  his  letter 
On  Toleration.  In  the  latter  year,  he  returned 
to  England,  in  the  fleet  which  conveyed  the 
princess  of  Orange,  and  shortly  after  (1690) 
published  his  celebrated  Essrn/.  The  success  of 
this  work,  largely  aided  by  the  violence  with 
which  it  was  attacked,  was  very  great,  six  editii  >ns 
appearing  in  14  years,  besides  translations  of  it 
into  Latin  and  French,  which  gave;  the  author  a 
European  reputation.  In  1693,  appeared  his 
Thoughts  Concerning  Education.  This  work. 
the  value  of  which  has  been  variously  estimated 
by  distinguished  critics,  is  of  special  interest  to 
educators,  inasmuch  as  it  was  the  first  attempt . 
in  England,  to  deal  with  the  subject  of  education 
in  a  comprehensive  and  practical  way.  It  was 
written  as  a  guide  to  the  education  of  a  young 
gentleman,  in  this  respect  resembling  Montaigne's 
essay  on  the  same  subject.  Indeed,  Locke's  work 
was  an  amplification,  through  in  no  sense  an  im- 
itation, of  Montaigne's.  The  subject  is  eonsi  lered 
from  the  beginning,  ami  rides  were  laid  down  not 
only  for  mental  and  moral  development,  but  for 
physical  training,  Locke's  education  as  a  physi- 
cian  especially   qualifying   him   for  the   latter. 


Some  of  his  recommendations  in  this  respect, 
have,  of  course,  become  antiquated  by  the  pi 

reSS  made  in  physiology  and  hygienic  knowl- 
edge since  his  time  ;  but.  as  a  whole,  it  remains. 
to  this  day,  a  trustworthy  guide.      His   views  in 

regard  to  early  influences,  the  force  of  habit. 
manners,  etc.. do  doI  differ  materially  from  tl 
now  entertained.     In  regard   to  tin'  training  of 
children,  his  observations  concerning  tin-  time  at 
which  it  should  be  begun,  the  means  to  be  em- 
ployed, and  the  objects  to  be  kept  in  view,  are, 
in  all  essential  respects,  in  accordance  with  the 
views  now  generally    held.      Many  objections  to 
Locke's  teachings  have   been    made  by   modern 
educators.     For  instance,  he  has  placed  himself 
on  record  as  entirely  opposed  to  corporal  punish- 
ment, except  for  obstinacy;   and  even   for  this 
he  would  have  the  punishment  so  ordered  that 
'the  shame  of  the  whipping  and  not  the  pain, 
should  be  the  greatest  pari  of  the  punishment." 
In   the  controversy   which   springs   up  period- 
ically on  this  subject,    therefore.    Locke's    great 
authority,  as  a  guide  to  educators,  would  probably, 
by  one  side,  be  seriously  questioned.     A  more 
serious  objection  is,  that  the  motive  presented  to 
children  for  doing  right  • —  the  approbation  of 
their  elders  ■ — is  not  a  sufficiently  exalted  one. 
It  may  be  said,  however,  in  defense  of  Locke,  that 
it  was  not  his  intention  to  present  a  psychologic- 
al theory  of  education,  but  a  practical  plan  lor 
educating  the  young.     The  reasoning  faculty  in 
children   is   very   rarely   developed    sufficiently 
to  make  an  explanation  of  motives  of  any  use  in 
educating  them.    Whipping  being  discarded  by 
Locke,  there  seemed  to  him  only  one  way  t<  >  incline 
children  to  do  right  —  that  of  rewards,  or  of  ap- 
pealing to  their  love  of  approbation.     He  care- 
fully guards  himself  here,  by  explaining  that  the 
reward  or  the  approval  must  not   be   given  for 
any  "particular  performance  that  they  show  an 
aversion  to,  or  to  which  they  would  not   have 
applied  themselves   without   that  temptation". 
•But",  he  says,  "to  make  the  sense  of  esteem  or 
disgrace  sink  the  deeper,  and  be  of  the  more 
weight,   other  agreeable  or  disagreeable   things 
should   constantly    accompany    these    different 
states ;  not  as  particular  rewards  and  punish- 
ments of  this  or  that  particular  action,  but  as 
necessarily  belonging  to,  and  constantly  attending, 
one,  who,  by  his  carriage,  has  brought  himself 
into  a  state  of  disgrace  or  commendation."     It 
is  doubtful  whether  any  more  powerful  agent  can 
be  brought  to  bear  practically  in  influencing  the 
i  hild.     It  has,  indeed,  been  doubted  w  hcther  any 
higher  motive  for  doing  right,  can  be  presented 
to  the  majority  of  adults,  than  this  of  the  ap- 
probation  of    their    fellows,    which   is  usually 
known  as  public  opinion.     To  attempt  to  in- 
fluence children,  therefore,  exclusively  by  higher 
motives,  would  hardly  be  practical,  or  productive 
of  benefit.  That  Locke  was  not  forgetful  of  these 
higher  motives,  however,  the  following  words  will 
show:  "Concerning reputation,  1   shall  only  re- 
mark this  one  thing  more  of  it ;  that  though  it 
be  not  the  true  principle  and  measure   of  virtue 
(for  that  is  the  knowledge  of  a  man's  duty,  and 


526 


LOCK  I . 


LONDON   UNIVERSITY 


the  satisfaction  of  it  is  to  obey  his  Maker,  in  fol- 
lowing  the  dictates  of  that  light  God  has  given 
him,  with  the  hopes  of  acceptation  and  reward), 
yet  it  is  that  which  comes  nearest  to  it.  and, 
being  the  testimony  and  applause  that  other 
people's  reason,  as  it  wen',  by  a  common  con- 
sent, gives  to  virtuous  and  well-ordered  actions, 
it  is  the  proper  guide  and  encouragement  of 
children,  tall  they  grow  able  to  judge  for  them- 
selves, and  to  1 1 114  L  what  Is  right  by  their  own 
reason."  II is  disapproval  of  public  schools,  also. 
is  not  in  accordance  with  our  modern  view,  but 
of  this  there  are  two  extenuating  circumstances, 
—  one- the  fact  that  his  essay  was  intended  to 
be  used  in  the  education  of  a  young  nobleman  ; 
the  other,  that  the  public  schools,  in  Locke's  day. 

were  SO  inferior  to  those  of  to-day.  that  his  cen- 
sure can  hardly  be  construed  as  applying  to  the 
latter.  Bis  slight  opinion  of  the  classics,  also. 
must  be  modified  in  our  estimate  of  it.  by  the 
same  fact  mentioned  above,  that  it  was  the  edu- 
cation of  the  man  of  affairs  that  he  had  in  view, 
and  not  that  of  the  scholar.  1 1  is  recommendations 
in  regard  to  the  study  of  natural  philosophy,  in- 
terspersed, as  tiny  are,  with  theological  con- 
siderations and  directions  concerning  "spirits",  of 
course,  show  the  confusion  of   mind  in  regard  to 

this  subject,  prevalent  in  his  day.  and  furnish  no 

guide  for  that  branch  of  study  at  the  present 
time.  Bis  high  opinion  of  the  value  of  history, 
civil  law,  English  law.  style,  and  letters  will,  by 
many,  he  thought  to  show  the  bias  produced  by 
his  long  association  with  them,  and  the  station  of 
the  pupil  for  whom  his  treatise  was  intended ; 
while  his  depreciat  ion  of  music,  as  part  of  a  liberal 
education,  is  accounte  1  for  by  the  low  state  of  that 
art  during  his  time,  and  will  hardly  be  acepted 
now  as  a  true  statement  of  its  merits.  Not- 
withstanding the  objections  which  can  he  urged 
hist    Locke's  method,   owing  to   the    changed 

condition  of  society,  the  greal  progress  thai  has 
been  made  in  man j  branches  of  learning,  and  the 

creation  of  new  ones,  his  treatise  remains  a 
memorable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the 
great  subject  of  which  he  treats, and  a  landmark 

in  its  history.  That  it  is  not  without  errors  and 
short-comings,  and  that  he  was  conscious  of  them, 

his  own  concluding  words  will  show:  "Though 
I  bave  now  come  to  a  conclusion  of  what  ob- 
vious remarks  have  suggested  to  me  concerning 

DO  Q 

education,  I  would  not  have  it  though!  that  I 
look  on  it  asajusl  treatise  on  this  subject.  There 

are  a  thousand  other  things  that  may  need  con- 
sideration ;  especially  if    one   should    take    ill    the 

various  tempers,  differenl  inclinations,  and  par- 
ticular defaults  thai  are  to  he  found  ill  children: 
and   prescribe   proper  remedies.  *  ■  I'ach 

man's  mind  has  s e  peculiarity,  as   well   as  his 

face,  thai  distinguishes  him  from  all  others;  and 
there  are  possibly  scarce  two  children   who  can 

he  conducted  by  exactly  the  same  method.  *  *  * 
Bui   having  had   here  only  some  general  views  in 

reference  to  the  main  end  and  aims  in  education, 
and  those  designed  tor  a  gentleman's  son,  whom. 

being  then  \cry  little.  I  considered  only  as  white 
paper  or  wax  to  he  molded  and  fashioned  as  one 


pleases,  I  have  touched  little  more  than  t!, 
heads,  which  I  judged  necessary  for  the  breeding 
of  a  young  gentleman  of  his  condition  in  general, 
and  have  now  published  these  my  occasional 
thoughts,  with  this  hope,  that,  though  this  be 
far  from  being  a  complete  treatise  on  this  sub- 
ject, or  such  asthat  everyone  may  find  what  will 
just  tit  his  child  in  it.  yet  it  may  givesomesmall 
lighl  tn  those  whose  concern  for  their  dear  little 
ones  makes  them  so  irregularly  bold,  that  they 
dare  venture  to  consult  their  own  reason  in  the 
education  of  their  children,  rather  than  wholly 
to  rely  upon  old  custom.-' 

L'HOMOND,  Charles  Francois,  a  French 
priest  and  educator,  was  horn,  in  I  T'JT.  at  ( Ihaul- 
nes;  died  at  I'aris,  in  L794.  lie  was  for  some  time 
at  the  head  of  the  College  cPInviUe  at  Paris,  and 
from   there   passed  to  the  College  du  Cardinal 

Lemoine  win-re  he  was  for   twenty  years  teacher 

of  the  sixth  class.  After  becoming  professor 
emeritus,  he  devoted  his  time  to  the  compilation 

of  school  hooks,  many  of  which  attained  a  very 

wide  circulation.  His  work  De  viris  illustrious 
urbis  Himiii .  is  still  in  extensive  use.  not  only 
in  France,  hut  in  the  United  States,  England, 
Germany,  and  some  other  countries,  and  is  re- 
garded by  many  distinguished  educators  as  the 
best  Latin  reader  that  has  ever  been  issued.  In 
L860,  his  native  town  erected  a  statue  to  him. 
(See  I. mix  Language.) 

LOMBARD  UNIVERSITY,  at  Gales- 
burg,  111. .under  the  control  of  OniversalistS,  was 
founded  as  the  Illinois  Liberal  Institute,  in  1851, 
and    chartered   as   a   university,  in    1853.      It    is 

supported  by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
$100,000,  and  by  tuition  fees.  'I  he  regular  fees 
vary  from  $15  to  $33  per  year.  It  has  a  large 
and  valuable  cabinet,  and  libraries  containing 
over  4,000  volumes.  The  university  embra 
two  departments  of  instruction,    the  collegiate 

and  the  preparatory.  The  Collegiate  includes 
three  differenl  courses  of  study,  the  classical,  the 
scientific,  and  the  literary  course, on  the  comple- 
tion of  which  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
Bachelor  of  Science,  and  Laureate  of  A  its  are. 
respectively,  conferred.  Both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted. In  1875—6,  there  were  ;i  instructors 
and    !l  I    students,  of    whom    "_'.">    (7    classical.    1.'! 

scientific,  and  5  literary]  were  in  the  collegiate 
department,  and  69  (24  pursuing  ancient  and 
modern  languages,  and  1">  English  studies),  in  the 
preparatory  department.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Paul  II.  Kendall.  A.  .\L. 
1851  6;  Prof.  •'.  V.  \.  Standish  (acting), 
1856-  7 :  the  Rev.  Otis  A.  Skinner,  l».  D., 
1857  9;  the  Rev.  J.  I'.  Weston.  I).  I)..  L859 
7.*?:   Prof.   Win.    Livingston   (provisional),   1873 

.">:  and  the  Rev.  Nehemiah  VVhite, Ph. D., the 
present  incumbent,  appointed  in  L875. 

LONDON,  University  of,  was  created  by 
royal  charter  bearing  date  Nov.  28.,  1836.  It 
was  founded  on  the  same  principles  of   liberality 

as   University  College,  London    (q.  v.),  out  of 

which  it  sprung.  By  an  oversight,  the  firsl  char- 
ter was  granted  only  during  "royal  will  and 
pleasure",  and   would  have  expired  six  months 


LONDON    UNIVERSITY 


52V 


after  the  death  of  the  king.  A  new  charter, 
therefore,  not  so  determinable,  was  granted  ID 
the  following  year  by  Queen  Victoria.  The 
early  constitution  of  the  university  bore  a  rough 
resemblance  to  that  of  the  universities  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  there  being,  on  the  one  hand, 
colleges  or  teaching  bodies,  and,  on  the  other,  a 
university  to  test  the  quality  of  the  teaching  and 
to  grant  degrees  accordingly.  There  was  how- 
ever, this  capital  difference,  that,  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  London,  the  colleges,  instead  of  being  all 

in  one   loeality.  were  scattered  0V6T  the  country. 

some  of  them  being  situated  even  in  distant 
colonies.  En  the  earlier  years  of  the  university, 
every  candidate,  before  presenting  himself  at  the 
examination  for  his  degree,  was  obliged  to  furnish 
a  certificate  showing  that  he  had  studied  at  one 
of  the  affiliated  colleges  for  two  years  subsequent 
to  his  matriculation.  In  1858,  these  affiliated 
institutions,  which  alone  had  the  right  to  give 
certificates  for  degrees  in  arts  and  laws,  com- 
prised, in  addition  to  the  universities  of  the 
United  Kingdom  and  of  Sydney,  37  other  col- 
leges and  schools.  The  most  important  of  these 
were  University  College  and  King's  College, 
London,  and  Owens  College.  Manchester  (q.  v.). 
Most  of  the  remainder  were  theological  colleges 
in  connection  with  the  Roman  Catholics,  the 
Independents,  the  Baptists,  and  other  denomina- 
tions. 

The  government  of  the  university  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  senate,  consisting  of  a  chancellor,  a 
vice-chancellor,  and  36  members,  or  fettows;  all 
of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  <  Jrown  for  life  or 
until  resignation.  All  by-laws  and  regulations. 
however,  have  first  to  be  submitted  to  the  ap- 
proval of  one  of  her  Majesty's  principal  secre- 
taries of  state.  It  had  been  proposed,  as  early  as 
184(1,  to  give  the  graduates  some  influence  in  the 
management  of  university  affairs.  This  scheme, 
taken  up  in  earnest  in  1848,  was  agitated  year 
after  year,  until  a  new  charter  was  obtained  in 
1858.  This  charter  formed  the  graduates,  then 
about  1,01)0  in  number,  into  a  corporation,  giving 
them  the  right  to  meet  in  convocation  and.  to  in- 
tervene by  discussion  and  opinion  in  university 
affairs,  to  nominate  one-fourth  of  the  senate.and 
the  right,  along  with  the  senate,  of  accepting  any 
new  charter  or  of  surrendering  a  charter.  The 
charter  also  gave  the  right  to  confer  new  degrees 
in  science,  in  music,  or  in  any  department  of 
knowledge  whatever,  theology  always  excepted. 
Itisexpectedtli.it  the  degrees  in  music  will  be 
instituted  shortly. 

Whilst  the  draft  charter  was  under  considera- 
tion, in  the  earlier  half  of  1857,  a  new  clause  was 
introduced  by  the  senate  which  provoked  great 
excitement  and  strong  opposition  from  all  the 
affiliated  colleges  except  one.  and  from  a  decided 
majority  of  the  graduates.  According  to  this 
36th  clause,  all  persons,  wherever  educated,  were 
xo  be  allowed  to  compete  for  degrees,  other  than 
medical.  The  senate,  notwithstanding  the  oppo- 
sition they  met  with  from  without,  persevered 
in  their  course,  and  the  new  charter  came  into 
force  on  April  9.,.  1858.     The  certificate  system. 


in  fact,  had  not,  in  many  cases,  been  working 
well  ;    many  whom    the  university  would    ehidly 

have  welcomed  as  candidates,  were  kepi  away; 
and  the  university  was  prevented,  it  was  thought, 
"from  an  expansion  commensurate  to  its  national 
position  and  promise."  At  the  same  time,  in- 
creased care  was  taken  to  discredit  superficial 
knowledge  by  making  the  examinations  more 

scan  liin-:  and  i-ont innous  and  progressive  study 

wassoughl  to  be  secured  by  making  the  exam- 
inations more  frequent.  There  had,  for  in- 
stance, formerly  been  two  examinations,  includ- 
ing matriculation,  for  B.A.,with  at  least  two  years 
between  them:  henceforth,  there  were  to  1m-  three, 
with  not  less  than  a  year,  in  most  cases,  between 
them.  The  new  clause  did,  in  fact,  constitute  a 
revolution  in  the  history  of  the  university;  but, 
after  Is  yens,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  the  ap- 
prehensions of  its  opponents  have  been  realized. 
Although  the  number  of  graduates  now  is  nearly 
treble  what  it  was  18  years  ago,  the  value  of 
the  degree  in  public  estimation  lias  not  di- 
minished but  increased.  Nor  have  the  colleges 
suffered,  although  the  former  protective  system  in 
their  favor  has  been  abolished.  The  advantages 
of  effective  collegiate  instruction  will  always 
speak  for  themselves,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  fol- 
lowing statistics  relating  to  the  final  examination 
for  the  ordinary  B.  A.  degree  in  L875.  Of  106 
candidates.  53  described  themselves  as  coming 
from  certain  colleges  and  schools  ;  the  other  •">.'!, 
as  having  been  prepared  by  private  study  and 
tuition.  Of  the  college  students,  17,  or  3'J.l  per 
cent,  were  rejected;  of  the  others.  28,  or  52.8  per 
cent,  were  rejected.  The  comparison  would  be 
still  more  decisive,  if  the  examinations  for  honors 
were  taken  into  account. 

The  first  examination  in  the  university  is  the 
matriculation  examination  (to  be  carefully  dis- 
criminated from  matriculation  at  Oxford  or 
Cambridge)  ;  for  this  there  were,  in  lS7.r>.  1,021 
candidates,  of  whom  522  passed.  It  may  be 
passed  at  the  age  of  16  ;  but  the  average  age  of 
candidates  is  L9,  and  sometimes,  20  years.  It  is 
an  examination  in  Latin  ;  in  any  two  of  the  fol- 
lowing languages.  Greek,  French,  German;  in 
English;  in  mathematics:  and  in  natural  philos- 
ophy and  chemistry.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  good 
lest  of  a  complete  school  education.  One  peculi- 
arity of  the  examination,  as  of  the  other  pass 
examinations,  is,  that  a  candidate  is  rejected  if 
he  fails  entirely  in  any  one  subject,  however  well 
he  may  do  in  all  the  rest.  Of  those  who  pass 
this  examination,  about  one  third  go  no  further. 
Those  who  do,  henceforth  pursue  diverging 
courses.  They  may  proceed  to  prepare  for  de- 
grees in  arts,  in  science,  laws,  or  medicine. 
The  university  grants  the  higher  degrees  of 
Master  and  Doctor  only  after  the  passing  of  a 
further  examination,  which  differs  from  the 
Bachelors'  examinations   by    testing   the   depth. 

rather  than  the  width,  of  the  candidate's  acquire- 
ments. <  >f  all  these  degrees,  the  medical  ones,  in 
particular,  have  always  had  a  high  reputation. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  leading  physicians  in 
London  are  graduates  of  this  university.     The 


528 


LORIXSKR 


LOUISIANA 


matriculation  examination  and  the  pass  exami- 
nations for  B.  A.  and  I!.  Sc.  are,  on  application 
to  the  senate,  held,  simultaneously  with  the  ex- 
aminations in  London,  at  various  populous  cen- 
ters in  England,  at  some  places  in  Ireland,  and 
in  the  colonics  (e.  g.  Canada,  Mauritius,  and 
Tasmania).  They  will  shortly  he  held  also  in 
Scotland. 

An  unintended  omission  in  the  charter  of 
1858  made  a  newcharter  necessary  in  1863;  and, 
in  1867,  a  supplemental  charter  was  obtained, 
conveying  the  right  to  hold  examinations  for 
women.  There  have  been,  at  times,  a  majority 
in  ( 'mi  vocation  who  were  willing  to  admit  wom- 
en to  degrees  on  the  same  terms  as  men ;  but 
whether  the  movement  will  be  successful  re- 
mains to  be  seen.  The  programme  of  the  gen- 
eral examination  for  women  will,  next  year,  be 
completely  assimilated  to  the  matriculation  pro- 
gramme; and  that  is  the  amount  of  success 
which  the  movement  has  attained  so  far.  Wom- 
en, after  passing  this  examination,  may  be  ex- 
amined for  certificates  of  higher  proficiency  also. 
The  Reform  Act  of  1807  gave  the  members  of 
Convocation  the  right  of  returning  a  represent- 
ative to  Parliament:  the  first  member  for  the 
university  is  the  Right  Hon.  Robert  Lowe. 
Convocation,  in  March,  L876,  numbered  L.663 
members.  The  entire  number  of  graduates  is 
nearly  double  this,  only  those  of  them  being 
members  of  Convocation  who  are  of  a  certain 
standing,  and  have  paid  the  prescribed  fee. 

The  estimate  of  the  expenses  of  the  univer- 
sity, for  L876 — 7,  is  as  follows :  salaries  (of  the 
registrar  and  his  assistant,  of  the  clerks,  etc.) 
£2,705  5s  8d ;  examiners,  £5,300;  exhibitions, 
scholarships,  prizes,  and  medals,  £1,972  10  s.; 
incidental  expenses,  £520;  total,  £10,557  L5s.  8d. 
If  from  this  be  deducted    £4,500,   which   it    is 

estimated  the  fees  will  yield  during  the  same 
period,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  university  is  a 
yearly  charge  to  the  country  to  the  extent  of 
about  £6,000.  It  must  be  added  that  the  beauti- 
ful new  buildings  in  Hurliiii'ton  Gardens,  which 
are  the  first  home  of  its  own  the  university  has 
had,  and  which  were  opened  by  the  Queen  in 
1870,  were  built  entirely  at  public  cost.  The 
earl  of  Burlington,  now  the  duke  of  Devonshire, 
was  the  first  chancellor  of  the  university;  he 
still  retains  a  seat  in  the  senate.  The  second  and 
present  chancellor  is  Earl  Granville.  —  See  the 
yearly  Cede) uliir  of  the  University  of  London, 
ainl  the  Minutes  of  ilf  Senate;  The  University 
of  London  <ni<!  Us  Influence  on  Education  in 
Scotland,  is  Frazer's  Magazine  (Aug.  1876). 

LORINSER,  Karl  Lgnaz,  a  distinguished 
<  I'cnnan  physician,  and  writer  on  school  hygiene, 

born  July  24.,  L796;  died  October  •!..  L853.  In 
L836,  lie  published  a  pamphlet  Oil  school  hygiene 
(Ziini  Schutze  </>■>•  QesundheU  auf  Schulen),  in 
which  he  severely  inveighed  against  the  condition 
of  the  gymnasia,  asserting  thai  the  great  variety 
of  studies  pursued,  the  long  school  hours,  and 
tin'  excessive  amount  of  home  work,  tended  to 
undermine  the  health  of  the  pupils.  This  criti- 
cism of  the  school  management   gave   rise   to  a 


;  bitter  controversy,  more  than  seventy  pamphlets 
being  written  pro  and  con.  King  Frederick 
William  III.,  of  Prussia,  declared  himself  in 
sympathy  with  Lorinser's  views,  and  ordered  the 
ministry  of  education  to  draw  up  a  plan  to  rem- 
edy the  evils  described  in  the  pamphlet.  The 
minister  Altenstein.  however,  in  his  decree  vir- 
tually denied  the  charges.  An  important  result 
of  this  controversy  was,  that  gymnastics  were1 
again  introduced  into  the  gymnasia,  and  that  the 
necessity  of  making  school  hygiene  a  subject  of 
special  and  thorough  study,  was  generally  ad- 
mitted. The  autobiography  of  I. orinser  was  pub- 
lished in  1  sii  I.  by  his  son. 

LOUISIANA,  one  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  American  I  "liioti.  was  originally  a  part  of  the 
French  province  of  Louisiana,  which  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States  in  1803.  This  vast  tract, 
stretching  from  the  Mississippi  river  westward 
to  the  Rocky  mountains,  was  at  first  divided  into 
two  territories,  that  of  Orleans  and  Louisiana, 
the  former  including  the  present  State  of  Louisi- 
ana, and  the  latter  all  the  remainder.  In  1812, 
the  territory  of  Orleans  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  the  state  of  Louisiana.  The  population, 
in  L810,  was  70.550.  of  whom  34,660  were 
slaves,  and  7,585  free  colored  persons;  in  1870. 
the  population  was  726,915,  of  whom  362,065 
were  whites,  364,210  colored  persons,  569  In- 
dians, and  71    '  'hinese. 

Educational  History. — While  Louisiana  was 
yet  a  territory,  provision  was  made  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  primary  schools  in  each  parish. 
In  IM'.t.  these  schools  were  placed  under  the  su- 
pervision of  police  juries:  and.  in  L821,  under 
live  trustees  appointed  by  the  police  jury  of  each 
parish,  from  the  resident  landowners.  In  that 
year,  the  sum  of  $800  was  appropriated  for  the 
support  of  schools,  and  authority  was  given  to 
increase  that    amount  by  a   tax  on  the  property 

of  each  parish.     By  an  act  of  the  legislature,  in 

L833,  the  secretary  of  state  was  made  superin- 
tendent of  public  education,  and  acted  as  such 
from  that  time  until  L846;  The  result  not 
proving  satisfactory,  however,  a  bill  was  passed 
in  is  17,  providing  for  the  appointment  of  a 
state  superintendent  and  parish  superintendents, 

the  collection  of  a  one  mill  tax  on  property, and 

the  establishment  of  a  state  school  fund  by  a 
consolidation  of  the  land  grants  (amounting  to 
786,044  acres)  and  individual  donations.  The 
object  of  this  legislation  was  to  establish  a  free 
public-school  system  for  all  the  white  children 

between  the  ages  of  0  and  10  years.  Additional 
legislation,  in  L855,  imposed  a  poll-tax  of  $1.00 
on  each  free  white  male  inhabitant  over  twenty- 
one  years  old.  In  L850,  there  were  676  public 
schools  in  the  state,  taught  by  845  teachers,  and 
giving  instruction  to  25j793pupils.  There  were 
also  1  12  academics,  and  8  colleges.     In  I860,  the 

number  of  public  scl Is  had  increased  to  713, 

with  31,813  pupils;  and  the  school  revenue 
amounted  to  $469,210.     In  L868,  the  new  state 

constitution  provided  that  a  statesuperintendent 
should  he  elected  for  four  years,  and  that  all  the 
children  of  the  state  between  the  ages   of   C>  ami 


LOUISIANA 


t>29 


21  years,  should  bo  admitted  to  the  public  schools 
or  to  other  state  institutions  of  learning,  without 
regard  to  race,  color,  or  previous  condition.  A 
special  act    to  carry  <>ut    these   provisions   was 
passed  in   March,  L869.     This  required  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  state  board  of  education  to  con- 
sist of  the  superintendent  of  public  education, 
<me  member  from  each  congressional  district  in 
the  state,  and  two  from  the  state  at  large.    To 
this  board  were  committed  the  supervision  and 
management  of  the  educational  interests  of  the 
state.      The   state   was  to   be   divided    into  six 
districts,  with  a  division  superintendent  for  each, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  supervise  and  manage  the 
schools  in  his  district,  subject  to  the  control  of 
the  state  board.      Hoards  of  directors    for  each 
district  in  the  state  were  also  to  be  appointed  by 
the  state  board,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
and    supervising    schools     in    their    respective 
districts,  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  division 
superintendent*.     A  two  mill  property  tax  was 
directed  to  be   levied,  leaving  it   optional   with 
the  voters  to  raise  by  local  taxation   whatever 
additional  funds  were  necessary  for  the  erection 
or  hiring  of  school  buildings.    1  hiring  the  earlier 
years  of  legislation,  the  sparseness  of  the  popu- 
lation rendered  the  school  laws,  in  many  respects, 
inoperative;  and,  during  the  last  twenty  years, 
political  disturbances  ending  finally  in  civil  war, 
by  producing  class  distinctions  founded  on  color, 
le  the  work  of  education  in  the  state  a  matter 
of  great  difficulty.     Since  the  establishment  of 
the  school  system,  in  1870,  considerable  progress 
has  been  made.     The  school  boards  have  been 
energetic  and  judicious;  the  school  funds  have 
been   managed   with   economy    and    prudence, 
many  new  schools  have  been  established,  and  an 
increased  number  of  pupils  brought  under  in- 
struction.    The  first  state  superintendent  under 
the  new  law  was  Thomas  W.  Conway,  who  was 
succeeded,  in   1872,  by  William  G.  Brown,  the 
present  incumbent  (1876). 

School  system. — -The  public  schools,  according 
to  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  March  16.,  1870, 
are  governed  by  the  state  board  of  education, 
which  consists  of  a  state  superintendent  and  six 
division  superintendents;  there  is  also  an  assistant 
superintendent  for  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  The 
duties  of  the  board  are  to  appoint  parish,  city, 
town,  and  district  directors,  to  make  all  needful 
rules  for  the  government  of  schools,  to  enforce 
the  constitutional  provisions  relating  to  the  ad- 
mission into  the  schools  of  all  children  without 
regard  to  race,  color,  or  previous  condition,  to 
recommend  a  uniform  series  of  text-books,  and 
to  prescribe  a  course  of  study.  The  state  super- 
intendent is.  ex  officio,  president  of  the  board,  and 
its  chief  executive  officer.  He  is  charged  with 
the  care  of  all  educational  reports  and  docu- 
ments, exercises  a  general  supervision  over  the 
division  superintendents,  holding  meetings  with 
them  in  the  several  divisions  of  the  state,  at  least 
once  a  year,  issues  teachers'  certificates  of  quali- 
fication, apportions  the  school  fund,  examines 
and  approves  all  plans  for  school  buildings 
erected,  and  makes  a  report  to  the  general  as- 
34 


Bembly  at  each  session. —  Division  superintend 
ents  have  control  of  the  schools  in  their  respective 
divisions,  examine  teachers,  issue  certificates  of 
qualification  good  for  one  year  in  the  division 
where  issued,  hold  teachers'  institutes,  organize 

teachers'  associations,  audit    treasurei-s'  accounts, 

make  reports  to  the  state  board  and  state  super- 
intendent, and  exercise  a  general   supervision 

over  their  respeetive  divisions,  subject  only  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  state   hoard  and  the  state 

superintendent. — Board*  of  school  directors  dis- 
charge all  the  duties  usually  appertaining  to 
such  bodies  in  other  states.  The  school  month 
consists  of  four  weeks  of  five  days  each.  The 
Bible  is  not  excluded  from  the  public  schools, 
but  no  pupil  is  required  to  read  it  contrary  to 
the  wishes  of  his  parents  or  guardians. 

Educational  condition.-  The  total  number 
of  school  districts  in  the  state,  in  1  875,  was  473; 
ami  the  number  of  public  schools.  L.032;  besides 
which  there  were  reported  lis  private  schools. 
The  whole  amount  of  school  income  for  the  year 
was  $789,068.95.  of  which  $31  1,818.03  was  de- 
rived from  state  apportionments.  Other  items 
of  the  school  statistics  are  given  below  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age  280,387 

Number  enrolled  in  public  schools  74,846 

Number  attending  private  schools  22,306 

Number  of  teachers,  males,         797 

females,     760 


1,557 

$37.00 


.Total, 
Average  salary  of  teachers  per  month 
Expenditures,  for  salaries,        $.">7:!,144.44 
"  other  purposes,       290,247.42 

Total,  $863,301.86 

Normal  Instruction. — Although  the  law  pro- 
vides for  the  establishment  of  a  normal  school  in 
the  state,  no  steps  have  yet  been  taken  to  carry 
out  its  provisions  in  this  respect.  The  city  of 
New  Orleans  had  formerly  a  normal  school;  but, 
owing  to  the  inability  of  the  school  board  to 
sustain  it  with  appropriations,  it  has  passed  from 
their  control,  and  is  now  a  department  of  the 
New  Orleans  University.  Straight  University 
and  the  Peabody  Normal  Seminary,  in  the  same 
city,  also  afford  normal  instruction  and  training. 
The  division  superintendents  are  required  by 
law  to  hold  teachers'  institutes  annually  in  their 
respective  divisions. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  institutions  of 
this  grade,  in  the  state,  are  (1)  private  schools, 
(2)  high  schools,  and  (.'!)  business  colleges.  The 
first,  in  1875.  reported  846  teachers  and,  22.306 
scholars.  Of  the  high  schools,  four  are  mentioned 
in  the  state  superintendent's  report  for  1875,  three 
being  established  in  New  Orleans,  and  the  other 
recently  open  at  Baton  Rouge.  One  of  those 
located  in  New  Orleans  is  for  boys ;  the  other 
two,  for  girls,  The  Central  High  School  for 
boys,  is  divided  into  six  departments, as  follows: 
English  literature;  Latin  and  Greek;  science; 
mathematics;  commerce,  comprising  penman- 
ship, drawing,  and  book-keeping:  and  French. 
During  the  first  year  in  this  school,  all  pursue 
the  same  studies  ;  after  that  time,  the  study  of  the 
classics  is  optional.     Four   business  colleges  re- 


530 


LOUISIANA 


LOUISVILLE 


ported,  in  1874,  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, 12  teachers  and  915  pupils,  of  whom 
8(>0  were  males,  and  55  females.  Their  courses 
of  instruction  vary  from  three  months  to  a  year. 
Superior  Instruction. — The  institutions  which 
afford  opportunities  for  higher  instruction,  in- 
cluding the  Louisiana  State  University  (q.  v.), 
are  enumerated  in  the  following  table  : 


When 

Religious 

NAME 

Location 

found- 

denomina- 

ed 

tion 

Jackson 

1825 

M.  Kiiis.S. 

Leland  University 

N.  Orleans 

1870 

Non  - 

Louisiana  State  Univ'ty. . 

Bat.  Rouge 

1863 

Non-Beet. 

New  Orleans  University.. 

N.  Orleans 

M.  Epis. 

St.  Charles  College 

Q-r.  Coteau 

1852 

E.  C. 

M.Mary  Jefferson  College. 

St.  James 

1861 

B.  C. 

N.  Orleans 

1869 

Evangel. 

Centenary  College,  the  oldest  in  the  state,  is 
also  one  of  the  most  efficient.  The  New  ( Means 
University,  like  Straight  University,  makes  no 
distinction  of  race  or  sex  in  its  requirements  for 
admission.  It  has  a  preparatory,  a  normal,  a  eol- 
legiate,  and  a  theological  department.  The  Silli- 
m.in  Female  Collegiate  Institute,  at  Clinton, 
under  the  control  of  the  Presbyterians,  also 
affords  superior  instruction.  It  has  a  collegiate 
course,  and  is  authorized  to  confer  degrees. 

Scientific  and  Professional  Instruction.  ■ 
The  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of 
Louisiana  was  opened  June  1..  L874,  in  the 
building  of  the  Louisiana  University,  in  pursu- 
ance of  an  act  of  the  legislature,  passed  in  April 
of  the  same  year,  making  provision  for  carry- 
ing into  effect  the  purposes  of  the  donation,  by 
the  i  Hind  States,  of  public  lands  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  agricultural  and  mechanical  col- 
li j'  in  the  state.  The  ( ihalmette  battle-ground, 
in  tin'  parish  of  St.  Bernard,  where  the  state 
owns  200  acres  of  land,  was  selected  as  a  site  for 
the  college.    The   only  schools  of  theology  are  the 

Biblical  department  of  NewOrleans  I  mversdty, 
the  theological  department  of  Straight  Univer- 
sity, which  is  open  to  all  denominations,  and 
tin-  theological  department  of  Leland  University. 
The  law  department  of  the  University  of 
Louisiana  performs  the  office  of  a  law  school, 
besides  which  there  is  a  law  department  in 
Strai-ht  University,  instructed  by  members  of 
the  New  Orleans  bar.  By  a  special  act  of  the 
legislature,  a  diploma  from  this  department  en- 
titles the  graduate  to  practice  in  all  the  courts 
of  the  slate.  The  same  institution  has  also  a 
medical  department. 

Special  instruction. — The  Louisiana  Institu- 
tion tor  tin-  Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
at  Baton  Rouge,  was  founded  in  1854.  In  1874, 
it  had  5]  pupils,  and  10  instructors.  The  value 
ot  us  grounds,  l>iiiMin..:>.  etc..  is  aboul  $200,000. 
The  Institution  for  the  instruction  of  the  I'.lind. 
al-o  at  Baton  Rouge,  was  founded  in  1871.    It   is 

represented  to  he  in  a  flourishing  condition.  In 
1*71,  it  bad  65  pupils,  and  1 9  instructors  and 
other  employes.  The  value  of  its  grounds  and 
buildings  is  about  8100,000.  This  institution 
Includes  als,>  an  industrial  home  for  the  blind. 
ides    these    institutions,    there    is   an    insane 


'  asylum,  at  Jackson,  supported  by  the  state  at  an 
annual  cost  of  about  $40,000. 

LOUISIANA  STATE  UNIVERSITY, 
at  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  was  chartered  in  L853,  be- 
ing founded  upon  grants  of  land  made  by  Con- 
gress to  the  state  for  the  establishment  of  a 
seminary  of  learning.  It  was  opened  at  Alex- 
andria, in  January,  L860, under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Col.  (now  Gen.)  Win.  T.  Sherman,  and 
continued  in  operation  till  June,  1861,  when  it 
was  closed  on  account  of  the  war.  It  was  re- 
opened in  1862 — 3,  tinder  the  superintendence 
of  Col.  Win.  E.  M.  Linfield  and  Prof.  Wm.  A. 
Seay.but  was  again  closed.  It  was  again  opened 
in  October,  1865,  under  the  superintendence  of 
Col.  David  J-'.  Boyd,  who  resigned  in  1875,  but 
is  still  (1876)  in  charge  of  the  institution.  In 
1 869,  the  university  building  having  Keen  burned, 
the  institution  was  transferred  to  the  buildings 
of  the  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Baton 
Rouge.  This  location  is  intended  to  he  tempo- 
rary, until  the  edifice  at  Alexandria  shall  he  re- 
built. The  university  owns  state  bonds  to  the 
amount  of  SI  ,",^.ni)(i.  on  which  it  receives  li  per 
cent  interest.  It  has  a  library  of  13,000  vol- 
umes, good  chemical  and  philosophical  appara- 
tus, and  museums  of  natural  history, fine  aits. 
etc.  The  value  of  its  real  and  personal  property 
is  about  8160,500.  The  cost  of  tuition  is 
880  a  year.  An  act  of  1870  provided  tor  the 
education  and  maintenance  of  two  indigent 
youths  from  each  parish,  and  20  from  the  city  of 
New  Orleans,  who,  after  remaining  at  the  uni- 
versity four  years,  were  required  to  teach  school 
in  the  state  two  years.  No  provision,  however, 
has  been  made  recently  for  carrying  this  ad  into 
effect.    By  act  of  the  legislature,  the  professora 

of  engineering,  mineralogy,  geology,  botany, and 
zoology,  of  this  institution,  are  required  to  make 
surveys  of  Louisiana,  in  their  respective  depart- 
ments. Several  reports  of  these  surveys  have 
been  made.    The  organization  of  the  university 

is  thoroughly  military,  and  there  are  daily  drills 

and  parades.  The  course  of  study  embraces  a 
preparatory  and  an  academic  department,  a  spe- 
cial school  of  civil  engineering,  and  a  commercial 

Bchool.  The  academic  department  has  a  literary 
(or  classical),  a  scientific,  and  an  optional  coi 
The  degrees  conferred  are  1'..  A..  B.S.,  li.  Ph., 
A.  M..  and  C.  E.  In  1872-  3,  there  were  12  in- 
structors and  IK'  students.  Since  then,  the 
unsettled  condition  of  the  state  and  the  con- 
sequent withdrawal  of  legislative  support  have 
greatly  embarrassed  the  institution  :  and.  in  1  876, 
there   were    only  '_'*J   students.     The    number  of 

graduates,  from  1869  to  1874,  inclusive,  was  58. 

LOUISVILLE,    the  chief  city  of  the  state 

of  Kentucky,  having  a  population,  according  to 

the  U.  S.  census  of  L870,  of  loo.:."'.".,  of  whom 

1  1,956  were  colored  persons,  and  25,668  foivign- 

the  latter  including  1.4,380  natives  of  Ger- 
many. This  city  has  grown  up  during  the  pres- 
ent century,  its  population, in  1810,  being  only 
1,357.  The  town  was  established  by  an  act  of 
the  Virginia  legislature  in  1 780,  and  called  Louis- 
ville,  in  honor  of  1/niis  XVI.,  king  of  !■  ranee, 


LOUISVILLE 


531 


important  aid  having  boon  furnished  by  that 
country  to  the  United  States  in  their  struggle 
for  independence. 

Educational  History. — -Among  the  earliest 
efforts  in  the  cause  of  education  in  Kentucky, 
were  those  made  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  who 
established  schools  in  connection  with  their 
churches,  in  many  parts  of  the  state;  and  it  is 
probable  that  Louisville  shared  in  the  benefits  of 
these  efforts.  In  1819,  an  institution  known  as 
the  Seminary,  gave  instruction  in  the  several 
branches  of  an  English  and  classical  education. 
It  was  under  the  direction  of  the  trustees  of  the 
town,  but  was  not  well  supported,  the  wants  of 
the  community  requiring  little  beyond  elementary 
education.  In  1837,  the  Medical  institute  was 
organized,  having  received  an  appropriation  of 
$50,000  from  the  city  council,  and  opened  with 
80  students.  In  1847,  the  building  for  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louisville  was  sufficiently  near  comple- 
tion to  permit  the  opening  of  its  law  department, 
the  first  lectures  in  which  were  delivered  to 
about  .'50  students.  At  that  time,  there  were,  in 
the  city,  4  large  public-school  buildings,  and  24 
schools,  of  which  0  wore  grammar  schools, — 3 
for  males  and  3  for  females.  In  1861,  a  high 
school  for  males,  with  all  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  a  university,  was  chartered  by  the  legis- 
lature, as  an  institution  for  superior  instruction, 
in  connection  with  the  public  schools  of  the  city. 
In  1802 — 3,  the  average  daily  attendance  of 
pupils  in  the  public  schools  Avas  3,851.  Two 
years  afterward,  instruction  in  vocal  music  was 
made  a  part  of  the  common-school  course  ;  and, 
in  1868,  the  study  of  the  German  language, 
which  had  been  previously  introduced,  bad  been 
so  far  extended,  that  one-half  of  all  the  pupils 
(over  4,000)  received  instruction  in  it.  In  1870, 
there  were  2  high  schools,  and  17  schools  of  an 
inferior  grade.  The  progress  of  the  school  sys- 
tem has  been  uninterrupted  since  that  time.  The 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  public  schools 
has  increased,  during  the  ten  years  ending  in 
1875,  from  9,388  to  17,593;  and  the  cost  of  the 
system,  from  $103,425.05  to  $255,529.02. 

School  S;/s(em.— The  public  schools  are  under 
the  management  of  a  board  of  trustees,  consist- 
ing of  24  members,  2  from  each  ward  of  the  city. 
The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  system  is  the 
superintendent  of  the  public  schools,  who  exer- 
cises a  general  supervision  over  the  schools,  and 
makes  an  annual  report  to  the  board  of  trustees. 
There  is  also  a  superintendent  of  German  in- 
struction, who  is  subordinate  to  the  superintend- 
ent of  schools,  but  acts  under  the  direction  of 
the  committee  on  German,  of  the  board  of  trust- 
ees. The  board  of  examiners  of  public  scliools 
consists  of  the  superintendent  and  six  or  more 
professional  teachers,  who  hold  principals'  cer- 
tificates, selected  by  the  committee  on  examina- 
tions and  course  of  study  of  the  board  of 
trustees;  and  there  is  also  a  (Jcrman  board 
of  examiners,  consisting  of  the  superintendent 
and  other  persons  selected  !>y  the  committee. 
All  teachers  are  required  to  be  at  least  18  years 
of  age.     The  schools  are  divided  into  primary, 


district,  intermediate,  and  high  schools,  besides 
the  evening  schools  and  the  training  school  for 

teachers.      The  studies  pursued  embrace    all    tho 

ordinary  common-school  branches,  besides  Ger- 
man and  music,  which  are  taught  in  all  the 
grades  of  the  schools. — The  Length  of  the  school 

course  is  designed  to  lie  71  years  in  the  lower 
grades,  5  years  in  the  male  high  school,  -I  years 
in  the  female  high  school,  and  2  years  in  the 
training  school.  The  support  of  the  schools  is 
chiefly  derived  from  a  city  tax.  The  daily  ex- 
ercises in  each  are  commenced  by  the  leading  of 
a  selection  from  the  Scriptures.  The  legal  school 
age  is  from  G  to  20  years.  Children  living  out- 
side the  city  limits  are  permitted  to  attend  the 
pnl ilic  schools  on  payment  of  a  tuition  fee  ran- 
ging from  $20  to  #50  per  annum. 

Educational  Condition. — The  whole  number 
of  schools,  in  1875,  was  3d,  as  follows:  2  high 
schools, — 1  male,  and  1  female,  6'  intermediate 
schools,  14 district  schools,  7  primary  schools,  4 
night  schools,  and  1  training  school.  Of  tho 
schools  of  the  lower  grade,  5  are  for  colored 
children.  The  principal  items  of  school  statistics, 
for  1875,  are  as  follows  : 

Whole  number  of  children  of  school  age 44,827 

Whole  number  of  pupils  enrolled 17,593 

Number  of  colored  pupils  enrolled 2,634 

Average  daily  attendance 11,561 

Average  attendance  in  the  night  schools G10 

Number  of  teachers,  English 286 

"        "        "  German 27 

"        "        "     of  music 4 

Total  number  of  teachers 317 

Total  receipts  for  school  purposes $301,655.72 

Total  expenditures $255,529.02 

Cost  per  pupil $19.95 

Total  value  of  school  property $847,300.00 

The  course  of  instruction  in  the  training  school, 
or  class,  embraces  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
history,  English  grammar  and  composition,  elo- 
cution, physical  geography  .physiology,  astronomy, 
chemistry,  and  theory  and  methods  of  teaching. 
The  whole  number  of  pupils  in  this  school,  in 
187;",  was  42.  The  Male  High  School  contains 
five  classes,  including  the  preparatory  class.  The 
studies  taught  are  comprised  in  the  following 
departments:  belles-lettres,  ancient  languages, 
pure  mathematics,  chemistry  and  technology,  ap- 
plied mathematics,  and  modern  languages.  Any 
student  who  passes  a  satisfactory  examination 
in  any  of  these  departments  is  entitled  to  a  cer- 
ate of  graduation  in  the  same.  This  institu- 
tion, in  1875,  had  an  enrollment  of  221  students, 
and  a  faculty  of  0  members,  including  the  pres- 
ident. For  admission  into  the  Female  High 
School,  applicants  are  required  to  pass  an  ex- 
amination in  the  branches  taught  in  the  first 
grade  of  the  Intermediate  Schools.  They  must 
also  be  at  least  12  years  of  age.  The  number  of 
teachers  in  the  school,  in  1875,  was  12  I. 

Besides  tho  institutions  for  superior,  pro- 
fessional, and  scientific  instruction  mentioned  in 
the  article  on  Kentucky,  there  are  several  pri- 
vate schools  and  academies,  and  3  public  libra- 
ries, having  an  aggregate  of  about  10,000  volumes. 
The  Public  Library  of  Kentucky  alone  contains 
20,000  volumes. 


532 


LOYE 


LUTHER 


LOVE,  on  the  part  of  pupils  for  their  teach- 
er, is  one  of  the  most  essential  elements  of  his 
success,  just  as  antipathy  (q.  v.)  constitutes  an 
insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  exertion  of  any 
important  educational  influence.  Thefirst  thing, 
therefore,  which  the  educator  should  strive  to  do 
is  to  win  the  affection  of  his  pupils;  if  that  is 
accomplished,  every  tiling  else  will  be  done  with- 
out difficulty.  It  is  of  little  use  to  address 
merely  the  intellect  of  children.  Their  curiosity, 
it  is  true,  can  be  excited,  their  attention  aroused, 
and  the  faculties  of  their  minds,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, be  developed  and  sharpened;  but  the  real 
elements  of  character  are  behind  all  this;  and 
the>e  cannot  he  affected  in  any  important  degree 
by  mere  intellectual  training.  The  heart  -  the 
sensibilities  and  the  will  —must  be  reached; 
and  the  key  to  success  in  this,  the  greatest 
office  of  the  educator,  is  love.  When  love  for 
the  teacher  reigns  in  the  bosom  of  his  pupil, 
there  is  entire  confidence  in  him,  a  desire  to  obey 
him,  to  please  him,  to  listen  to  his  precepts,  to 
imitate  his  example,  both  in  words  and  in  acts; 
indeed,  by  an  inexplicable  psychologic  law.  the 
pupil  seems  to  he  1 » mini  to  the  teacher  by  a  kind 
of  magnetic  chain,  and  is  subject  in  every  thing 
to  his  will,  fear,  on  the  other  hand,  repels,  and 
thus  prevents  the  operation  of  that  influence 
without  which  educational  processes  are,  more  or 
less,  nugatory.  The  fear  to  do  wrong,  and  of  the 
punishment  which  is  to  follow  it,  is  not,  how- 
,  inconsistent  with  a  love  of  tin;  teacher. 
(See  Pear.)  The  latter  must  make  himself,  and 
the  authority  which  he  wields,  respected  ;  or  he 
will  incur  the  contempt  of  his  pupils;  and  this 
is,  of  course,  antagonistic  to  love.  Children 
naturally  recognize  authority,  however  much 
they  may  strive  to  evade  or  defy  it  ;  and  its  just 
ami  rightful  exercise  docs  not  interfere  with 
their  warmest  affections  toward  parents  and 
teachers.  Hence,  love  is  not  to  be  inspired  by 
making  improper  concessions  to  children,  for 
these  tiny  construe  into  weakness,  which  they 
despise.     Minute  directions  may  he  given  tor  the 

winning  of  the  pupil's    affections;   hut    these 

would  he  cither  unnecessary  or  futile.      Lov< 

the  part  of  the  teacher  can  alone  produce  love  in 
the  hearts  of  the  pupils.      lie   cannot    put   on   a 

semblance  of  affectionate  regard  for  his  pupils ; 
he  must  feel  it.     Children   have  naturally  deep 

intuitions   into  character,  and   detect    hypocrisy 
almost     instantly;     hence    they    at     once   discern 

whether  there  is  any  real  affection  in  the  mind 

of  the  teacher  towards  themselves,  or  only  a  mere 

pretense,     hove  will  show  itself  in  hisappear- 

e,  his  words,  his  manners:  every    tone  of    his 
voice  will  indicate  it .  if  it  exist,  and  the  pleasant 

smile  beaming  habitually  from  his  countenance 

will,  while  m ulring   his  own  labors  pleasant  and 

.,  make  bght  the  hardest  tasks  of  his  pupils, 
by  exciting  their  ambition  and  determination  to 

accomplish    it.      The     teacher    should,    however. 

aever forget  the  relation  existing  between  him 

and  his  pupils.      "Some  teachers,"  says   Mail 

the  School-Room,  Phila.,  1868),  "in  avoiding  a 

hard,  repulsive  manner,  run   to  the  opposite  ex- 


treme, and  lose  the  respect  of  their  scholars  by 
undue  familiarity.  Children  do  not  expect  you 
to  become  their  playmate  and  fellow,  before 
giving  you  their  love  and  confidence.  Their 
native  tendency  is  to  look  up.  They  yearn  for 
repose  upon  one  superior  to  themselves." 

LOYOLA  COLLEGE,  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
was  opmed  in  L852,  and  chartered  in  1853.  It 
is  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  controlled  by 
members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  It  has  a  mu- 
seum, philosophical  apparatus,  and  Libraries  con- 
taining 21,500  volumes.  There  is  a  classical,  a 
commercial,  and  a  preparatory  course.  The  cost 
of  tuition,  in  the  preparatory  course,  is  §50  a 
year;  in  the  other  courses.  $75.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  16  instructors  and  1 -lit  students. 

LUTHER,  Martin,  the  author  of  the  great 
religious  movement  of  the  16th  century,  was 
horn  at  Eisleben,  Nov.  Hi.,  1483  (according  to 
others.  1  1>I).  and  died  in  the  same  town  Feb. 
L8.,  L546.  After  attending  the  town  school  of 
Mansfeld  and  the  Latin  schools  of  Magdeburg 
and  Eisenach,  he  went,  in  1 501,  to  the  university 
of  Erfurt  in  order  to  study  law.  In  1505,  he 
entered  the  AugUStmian  convent  at  Erfurt,  and 

in  1508,  received  the  appointment  of  professor 
in  the  university  of  Wittenberg.  There  he  be- 
gan, in  1517,  the  religious  reform  which  made 
his   name    s,,   famous.      A-   Luther  held  that  all 

Christians  should  read  the  Bible  in  their  native 

tongue,  the  governments  which  adopted  the  Ref- 
ormation had  Indirect  their  attention  to  the  es- 
tablishment  of  schools  in  all  the  parishes.  Luther 
himself,  in  1524,  issued  a  powerful   appeal  to 

towns 
in 

10  establish  schools. and  to  provide  tor  the  edu 
tion  of  school-teachers,  and  the  establishment  of 
school  libraries.  Helaidgreat  stress  upon  the  im- 
portance of  religious  instruction  and  the  ancient 
Languages,  and  made  many  suggestions  in  regard 

to  an   improvement  of  the  methods  of  teaching. 

which  were  adopted  by  educators  of  the  follow- 
in-'  centuries.  His  German  translation  of  the 
Bible  and  his  smaller  catechism  Mere  generally 
introduced  into  the  Lutheran  schools,  and  have 
remained  in  extensive  use  up  to  the  present  day. 
The  first  Gt  rman  primer  (/•'/'/- 1),  which  appeared 
about  this  time,  is  by  some  ascribed  to  Luther; 
1  iv  others  to  Melanchthon.  It  contained  the  alpha- 
bet, and  as  reading  exercises  the  ten  command- 
ments, the  creed, the  Lord's  Prayer,  somepas- 
-  from  the  Bible,  and  prayers.  At  the  end, 
the  numbers  from  I  to  L00,  and  the  multiplica- 
tion table  were  given.    Many  of  the  measures 

which  weiv  taken  by  Melanchthon  for  the  refor- 
mation of  .schools,  were,  in  great  part,  due  to  the 
advice  and  co-operation  of  Luther,  for  the 
schools  which  he  recommended  the  German 
burgomasters  to  establish,  Luther  drew  up  a 
comprehensive  course  of  studies,  which  he  sent  to 

his  friend  Spalatin  with  the  request  to  sulunit  it 
to  the  elector  of  Saxony.      This  course  of  studies 

is  either  verballj  contained  in  the  Book  of  Visita- 
tion (VtsitationsbilchJein,  published  by  Melanch- 
thon in  L  528),  or  at  fast  forms  the   Lasisof  the 


the  burgomasters  and  magistrates  of  all 
in  the  ( rerman  countries,"in  which  he  urged  them 


LUTHERAN    CHURCH 


533 


one  published  by  Melanchthon, —  See  Gedike, 
Luther's  Padagogik  \  [792);  Bruestlein,  Luther's 
Einfliiss  n'if  das  Vblksschuhcesen  mid  den 
Religionsunterricht  (1852)  ;  J.Schiller,  Dr.  .1/. 
Luther  uber  christliche  Kinderzucht  (2d  ed., 
L854). 

LUTHERAN  CHURCH,  the  Dame  of  the 
religious  denomination  which  anise  in  the  L6th 
century,  from  the  church  reformation  effected  by 
Martin  Luther.  It  has  also  been  designated  by 
the    name    Evangelical,    Evangelical    Lutheran, 
or    Protestanl    Church,  or,  as  in    Austria,  the 
Church  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  The  three 
general  creeds  of  the  ancient  church,  and  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg  have  generally  been  re- 
garded by  Lutherans  as  standards  of  faith.     In 
respect  to  constitution   the    Lutheran    churches 
greatly  differ.     Sweden.  Norway,  and   Denmark 
have  an  episcopal,  most  of  the  other  churches 
a  synodal  or  consistorial,  form  of  government; 
the  latter,  which  means  a  government  of  the 
church   by  state   boards   called  consistories,  is, 
however,  on  the  wane.     In  Prussia  and  some  of 
the  other  German  states,  the  Lutheran  Church 
has  been  united  with  the  Reformed  Church  into 
one  ecclesiastical  organization,  called  the  United 
Evangelical  Church  (q.  v.) ;  but   the    Lutherans 
to  a  large  extent  have  regarded  this  as  a  mere 
confederation  which  does  not  impair  or  alter  their 
standing  as  Lutherans.    In  Germany,  as  in  other 
countries,    the    predominance    of    rationalistic 
views,  and  the  almost  unlimited  freedom  of  be- 
lief or  untielicf.  which  has  been  practically  con- 
ceded to  the  clergy  and  members  of  the  church, 
have,  to  a  great  extent,  swept  away  the  distinctive 
landmarks  of  the  Lutheran  denomination.  It  has 
been  calculated,  however,  that  of  the  25  millions 
of  Protestants  in  the  German  empire,  20.0(10,00(1, 
at  least,  are  of  Lutheran  extraction.  In  the  Scan- 
dinavian  kingdoms,  which   have  an  aggregate 
population  of  about  8,000,000,  as  well  as  m  the 
grand-duchy  of  Finland,  and  in  the  Baltic  provin- 
ces of  Russia,  nearly  the  entire  population  is  Lu- 
theran.   Austria  had,  in  1869,  a  Lutheran  popu- 
lation of  l,365,000,and  Russian  Poland.  2  10,000. 
France   has  lost   almost  all  her   Lutheran   pop- 
ulation by  the  annexation  to  Germany  of  Alsace 
and  Lorraine.     The  entire  Lutheran  population 
of  the  world    (including  the    Lutheran    portion 
of  the    United    Evangelical  Church)   has  been 
estimated  at  about  40,000,000.    [n  consequence 
of  the  close  connection  of  church  and  state  in 
Europe,  the   Lutheran  Church   has  exerted,  and 
to  some  extent  still  exerts,  a  verygreat  influence 
upon  the  educational  institutions  of  those  coun- 
tries in   which   it    prevails.      Universities  and 
gymnasia    have,    however,    so    generally    passed 
i  under  the  sole  control  of  the  state,  and  in  the; 
German  churches  so  wide  a  departure  from  the 
official   creeds   of   the    Protestant   churches   has 
been  generally  allowed   to   theologians,  that  it 
would   be  extremely  difficult   to  state  in  a  few 

words  the  relation  of  the  Lutheran  Church  to 
the  learned  institutions  of  the  countries  named. 
It  may  be  said,  however,  that  at  present  ( L876) 
the  universities  of  Rostock.  Frlanevn.  and    Leip- 


sie,  in  ( lermany,  those  of  <  lopenhagen,  Lund,  and 
(  psal,  in  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  and  of 
'  Dorpat,in  Russia, are  seats  of  a  strictly  Lutheran 
theology.  (See  Germany,  Denmark,  Finland, 
Norw  w,  Swedi 

The  immigration  of  Lutherans  into  the  United 
Stai  i  as  early  as  1(121.  when  a  few  came 
to  New  York  from  Holland.  Their  firsl  church 
was  built  in  L671.    They  were  s i  followed  bj 

a  Lutheran  colony  from  Sweden,  and  by  more 
numerous  emigrants  from  <  lermany,  who  chiefly 
settled  in  Pennsylvania.  In  the  19th century, the 
immigration  into  the  United  States,  from  the 
Lutheran  countries  of  Europe,  Germany,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  and  Norway,  increased  so  rap- 
idly, that  the  Dumber  of  preachers  and  of 
communicants,  which, in  L820,  was  only  L 70 and 
35,000,  respectively,  rose,  in  L875,  to  2,669  and 
573,149.  The  first  generation  of  immigrants  re- 
tain their  native  tongue  in  divine  worship;  of 
their  descendants,  a  considerable  Dumber  have, 
in  the  course  of  time,  substituted  for  it  the  En- 
glish. Still  the  church,  school,  and  family  lan- 
guage of  a  large  majority  of  these  churches  is 
even  now  chiefly  German.  Some  idea  of  the 
proportion  of  the  languages  spoken  among  the 
Lutherans  of  the  United  States  may  be  formed 
from  the  fact,  that  of  their  periodicals,  22 
are  published  in  the  English  language,  30,  in 
the  German,  5,  in  the  Swedish,  and  8,  in  the 
Danish  or  Norwegian  language.  Like  the  Meth- 
odists and  Baptists,  the  Lutherans  of  the  United 
States  are  divided  into  a  number  of  independent 
bodies  which, to  some  extent,  differ  as  to  certain 
points  of  doctrine.  The  principal  divisions  are 
the  following  : 

1 1  |  Tin'  General  Synod. — This  was  formed  in 
1820,  and  is  the  oldest  of  the  general  bodies. 
In  it  the  English  language  largely  predominates. 
It  allows  larger  liberties  than  the  other  bodies 
in  both  doctrine  and  practice.  It  recognizes  the 
Augsburg  Confession  as  the  chief  exposition  of 
its  faith,  but  does  not  impose  a  strict  adherence 
to  its  text  as  a  test  of  membership. 

(2)  The  General  Council.  This  was  formed 
in  18(57.  It  exacts  a  strict  adherence  to  the 
unaltered  Augsburg  Confession,  and  recognizes 
the  Apology  for  the  Augsburg  Confession.  Lu- 
ther's greater  and  smaller  catechisms,  the 
Schmalkalden  Articles,  and  the  Formula  of 
Concord,  as  forming,  with  the  unaltered  Augs- 
burg Confession,  the  full  creed  of  the  same 
faith. 

(3)  Tli'-  Synodical  Conference.  This  is  the 
most  numerous  Lutheran  body  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  also  the  most  strict  in  its  inter- 
pretation of  the  standards,  and  in  its  rules  oi 
membership  and  fellowship.  It  was  formed  in 
L872,  and  the  language  used  in  its  churches  and 
schools  is  al st  wholly  German. 

i  1 1  TkeSouihern  Synod — This  withdrew  from 
the  General  Synod  during  the  civil  war,  chiefly 
for  political  reasons,  and  formed  the  General 
Synod  South.  Resides  these  four  general  organi- 
zations, there  arc  seven  particular  synods,  which 
are  entirely  independent. 


534 


LUTHERAN'  CHURCH 


LYCEUM 


The  Lutheran  bodies  in  the  United  States  have 
always  felt  the  importance  of  the  educational  work 
required  of  them,  and  have  endeavored  to  meet 
its  demands  as  far  as  they  haw  had  the  means. 
In  lTT.'J,  Dra.  Schmidt  and  I  [eUmuth  opened,  in 
Philadelphia,  a  Latin  school  and  a  private  semi- 
nary for  the  instruction  of  candidates  for  the 
ministry.     It  continued  in  operation  for  more 
than  twenty  years,  and  was  finally  elosed  by  the 
necessities  of  war  during  the  Revolution.     In 
1787,  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  established 
Franklin   College,  Lancaster,  of   which  Henry 
Ernest  Muhlenberg  was  the  president,  for  the 
especial  benefit  of  the  Germans  of  the  common- 
wealth, and  as  a  reward  for  their  services  in  the 
war.   In  L791,  the  *  'lunch's  services  to  education 
were  further   recognized   by  the  legislature   of 
Pennsylvania,  by  the  gift  of  five  thousand  acres 
of  land  to  the  Free  Schools  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,   in    Philadelphia.      Tn    1784,   Johann 
Christoph  ECunze,  of   Philadelphia,  accepted  a 
call  to  the  High  German  Congregation,  in  New 
York,  in  the  hope  that  he  mighl   establish  a 
Lutheran  theological  professorship  in  Columbia 
College.     He  became  professor  of  oriental  lan- 
guages in  that  institution.     The  Lutherans  at- 
tach greal  importance  to  theological  instruction, 
and  theological    seminaries    receive    very  great 
consideration    from   them.      Their    oldest     in- 
stitutions, in  fact,  seem  to  have  been  at  first 
theological  schools,  around   which  literary  de- 
partments were  afterwards  formed.     Hartwick 
Seminary,   New    York,    was    founded    in    L816. 
The  theological  school  there  was  the  first  pub- 
lic training  school  of  the  American    Lutheran 
Church  for  candidates  for  the  ministry.     The 
theological    seminary,  at  Gettysburg,    Pa.,    was 
founded  by  the  General  Synod  in  L826.     Pre- 
vious to  that  time,  the  Rev.  Dr.  S.  S.  Schmucker, 
of  New  Market.  Va..and  the  Rev.  D.F.Schaef- 
fer,  of  Frederick,  Md.,  had  received  a  limited 
number   of    young   men    as   students,   and   in- 
structed  them  in  theology.      The   Gettysburg 
seminary  celebrated,  in  L876,  the  completion  of 

the  fiftieth  year  of  its  existence.  It  had  then 
furnished  thirty-nine  professors  to  various  in- 
stitutions, nearly  ah1  the  editors  of  the  English 
periodicals  and  reviews  of  the  General  Synod, 
and    five    hundred    and    thirty-eight    ministers. 

Pennsylvania  College,  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  was 
founded  in  1832,  six  years  alter  the  th 
seminary.  The  General  Synod  has  also  the 
following  higher  institutions  of  learning:  Wit- 
tenberg College,  Springfield,  Ohio  (founded 
in  1s!<m,  to  which  a  theological  department 
(founded  in  L845)  isattached;  Swedish- American 

Inagari  College,  Knoxville,   111.  (1873),  with  a 
ologica]  department;  Carthage  College,  Car- 
thage, Mo.  (1871  Kami  Practical  Theol.  Seminary, 

liishall,  Wis.   (1876).    -The  General  Synod 
"' .  has  the  care  of  Roanoke  College,  Salem, 

va.  (1854),  a  theological  seminary  a1  the  same 
place  1 1  $30,  al  Lexington, S.  G, and  removed  to 
Salem,  Va.,  in  L872);  Newberry  College,  Wal- 
halla.S.  0.  (1858).  North  Carolina  College,  Mt. 
Pleasant,  N.  0.  (1859),  and  the  theological  de- 


partment of  the  same  (1872).  are  connected  with 
the  Worth  Carolina  Synod.  The  (General 
Council  has  a  theological  seminary  at  Phila- 
delphia, which  was  founded  in  1864.  Its  other 
collegiate  and  theological  seminaries  are :  .Muh- 
lenberg College,  AUentown,  I'a.  (1867);  Angus- 
tana  College  and  theological  seminary  (the  latter 
founded  in  1863), at  Rock  Island.  111.;  Mosheim 
College.  Mosheim,  Tenn. ;  German  American 
College,  Rousselville,  Texas;  Thicl  College. 
Greenville,  Pa.  (1870)  ;  Wartburg  Theological 
Seminary.  Mendota,  111.;  and  the  Norwegian 
Lutheran  Seminary,  at  Madison,  AVis.  (187G). 
The  principal  theological  school  of  the  Synodtcal 
Conference  is  the  Concordia  Theological  Semi- 
nary, of  which  the  theoretical  department,  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  was  founded  in  1840,  and  the  prac- 
tical department,  at  Springfield,  111.,  in  L846. 
its  other  higher  institutions  are;  Capital  Uni- 
versity, Columbus,  Ohio  (1850),  with  a  theolog- 
ical department  (1830);  Concordia  College, 
Fort  Wayne.  1 1 id.  (1840,  and  organized  alter 
the  plan  of  a  German  gymnasium);  Luther 
College,  Decorah,  Iowa  (1863);  North  "West 
University,  Watertown,  Wis.  (1865). — The  con- 
ference of  the  Norwegian-Danish  Evangelical 
Lutheran  church  sustains  the  Augsburg  The- 
ological Seminary,  at  Minneapolis.  Minn.  The 
synod  known  as  Gfraban's  Buffalo  Synod  sup- 
ports Martin  Luther  College,  with  a  theological 
department,  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y,  and  the  Synod  of 
Iowa  supports  the  College  of  the  Iowa  Synod, 
Mendota.  111.    The  Lutheran  almanacs  give  also 

lists  of  twenty-two  classical  schools  and  acad- 
emies and  Seven  female  seminaries  under  the 
patronage  of  the  various  Lutheran  bodies,  or 
looking  to  Lutherans  for  support. — Orphans' 
homes  and  schools  are  supported  by  the  general 

bodies  and  several  synods  at  Loysville,  Zelienojple, 

Rochester,  Middletown,  and  Cermaiitown,  Pa.. 
Rit.  Vernon  and  Buffalo,  N.  V.,  Toledo,  Ohio, 
Jacksonville,  Addison,  and  Andover,  111.,  Vasa. 
Minn..  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Boston.  Mass..  Norm, 
Mich.,  and  Andrew,  Iowa.  The  Missouri  Synod 
has  a  deaf  and  dumb  i nst it  ute.  at  N orris,  Mich. — 
The  Synodical  Conference  enumerates,  among 
the  conditions  required  for  admission  to,  and 
membership  in,  its  organization,  the  providing  of 
Christian  school  instruction  for  the  congrega- 
tions. Accordingly,  parochial  schools  arc  gen- 
erally connected  with  its  congregations.  Forthe 
education  of  its  school  teachers,  the  Synodical 
Conference  supports  a  teachers'  seminary  at 
Addison.  111.,  which,  in  1875,  had  5  instructors 
and     111    students.      Three    educational    papers. 

in  the  German  language,  were  published  in 
L877,  the  Schulblatt  and  Abendschule,  at  St. 

Louis,  and  the  Schulzeitung,  sA  Milwaukee. 

LYCEUM    (Or.     \  .    named     after    the 

neighboring  temple  of  Apollo,  >,  „,■  .„ ,  a  surname 
which  is  differently  explained  by  Creek  etymol- 
ogists), a  gymnasium  or  public   palestra  with 

covered  walks,  in  the  eastern  suburb  of    Athens. 

where  Aristotle  and  the  philosophers  of  his  school 
taught.  The  Romans  gave  the  name  lyceum  to 
Beveral   similar  institutions,  as   to  those  in  the 


LYCURGUS 


McGUFFEY 


535 


Tusculanum  of  Cicero,  and  in  the  villa  of 
Ailrian  at  Tibur.  In  the  middle  ages,  lyceum 
denoted  an  institution  in  which  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy  was  taught.  In  modern  times,  the 
meaning  of  the  word  varies  greatly  in  different 
countries.  In  Wurtemberg,  il  i>  equivalent  to 
a  progymnasium,  or  the  five  lower  classes  of  a 
gymnasium  ;  in  Alsace- Lorraine,  it  is  still  given 
to  some  of  the  gymnasia,  with  which  a  real  school 

is  connect eil ;  in  France, the  lyceum  is  the  highest 
secondary  school  ami  comprises  eight  classes;  in 
Italy,  it  corresponds  to  the  three  higher  classes 
of  the  German  gymnasium  ;  in  Finland,  some  of 
the  lyceums  which  have  seven  classes  corre- 
spond to  the  German  gymnasium,  and  some 
which  bave  only  four  classes,  to  the  higher  clas- 
ses of  the  gymnasium  ;  in  Rotimania,  the  lyceum 
Ills  seven  classes,  and  equals  the  complete  gym- 
nasium, hi  England  and  in  the  United  States, 
the  word  is  not  applied  to  any  class  of  schools, 
but  is  sometimes  given  to  literary  associations. 
For  a  fuller  account  of  the  modern  lyceums  see 
the  articles  on  the  several  countries  ;  for  an  ac- 
count of  the  American  Lyceum,  see  Holrrook, 

JOSIAH. 

LYCURGUS  (Greek  A.vKovpyog,  the  light- 
producer),  the  reputed  author  of  the  Spartan 
system  of  education.  He  is  said  to  have  lived 
in  the  9th  century  before  Christ :  but  so  little  is 
known  of  his  life,  that  even  his  existence  has 
been  doubted  by  some,  his  name  being  regarded 
by  them  as  the  personified  origin  of  a  new  era  of 
culture.  According  to  the  traditional  view,  he 
belonged  to  the  royal  family  of  Sparta,  and  was 
guardian  of  his  nephew,  king  Charilaus.  Having 
been  forced  by  an  opposing  party  to  leave  his 
country,  he    made   extensive    travels    in   Asia 


Minor,  and  in  Crete,  where  he  became  acquainted 

with  the  laws  of   Minos,     lie  was  finally  recalled 

to  Sparta,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  tin'  increasing 

disorders,  for  which  purpose  he  enacted  the  laws 

which  have  made  his  name  immortal,    lie  made 

the  Spartans  swear  to  keep  his  laws,  until  he 
Should  return  from  Delphi,  where  he  was  to  ask 

the  god's  opinion  as  to  their  value.  As  the  orai  le 
predicted  for  Sparta  an  unfailing  prosperity  as 

Jong  as  these  laws  should  be  observed,  he  never 
returned  to  his  native  land.  According  to  one 
legend,  he  starved  himself  to  death,  having  pre- 
viously ordered  the  ashes  of  his  ((.ipse  to  be 
thrown  into  the  sea  in  order  that  they  might  nol 
be  brought  back  to  Sparta  so  as  to  release  the 
Spartans  from  their  pledge.  That  the  whole  of 
the  political  and  educational  system  of  Sparta 
was  not  the  work  of  Lycurgus,  is  admitted 
even  by  those  who  have  entire  faith  in  the 
existence  of  a  famous  lawgiver  of  that  name. 
(See  Sparta.) 

LYON,  Mary,  an  American  teacher,  born 
in  Bucklaud,  Mass.,  Feb.  28.,  ITDT;  died  in 
South  Hadley,  Mass..  Mar.  '>..  1849.  In  the  face 
of  many  obstacles,  she  acquired  sufficient  educa- 
tion to  enable  her  to  teach,  which  she  did  with- 
out notable  result  till  1837,  when  she  established 
at  South  Hadley,  Mass.,  the  Mount  llolyoke 
Female  Seminary,  the  first  of  several  similar  es- 
tablishments founded  by  her  pupils.  The  dis- 
tinct feature  of  the  Mount  Bolyoke seminary  was 
the  union  of  domestic  labor  with  intellectual  aud 
moral  instruction.  Her  published  works  are 
Tendencies  of  the  principles  embraced  ami  the 
system  adopted  in  the  Mount  Holyoke  Female 
Seminary  (1840);  and  the  Missionary  Offering 
(Boston,  1843). 


McCORKLE  COLLEGE,  at  Bloomfield 
{Sago  P.  O.),  Ohio,  was  founded  as  a  high  school 
in  1862  by  the  Rev.  Win.  Ballantine,  A.  M.,  who 
has  been  its  president  from  the  first.  It  was  in- 
corporated as  an  academy  in  1808,  and  as  a  col- 
lege in  1873.  It  is  under  Associate  Presbyterian 
control.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  The  prin- 
cipal design  of  the  institution  is  to  qualify  young 
men  for  the  study  of  theology ;  yet  a  general 
and  thorough  course  of  education,  well  adapted 
to  qualify  students  for  the  pursuit  of  any  of  the 
learned  professions,  is  given,  in  languages,  mathe- 
matics, and  the  sciences.  There  are  three  depart- 
ments: a  preparatory,  two  years;  and  a  classical 
and  a  scientific,  each  four  years.  The  cost  of 
tuition  ranges  from  $18  to  630  per  year.  In 
1874 — -5,  there  were  5  instructors  and  43  students. 

McCOSH,  James,  an  eminent  Scottish 
scholar,  teacher, and  metaphysician,  born  in  Ayr- 
shire, in  1811.  He  was  educated  in  the  univer- 
sities of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh  ;  and.  in  Is.-!."), 
ordained  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 
at  Arbroath.  Subsequently,  while  pastor  at 
Brechin,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.     In  1851, 


he  accepted  the  appointment  of  professor  of 
logic  and  metaphysics  in  Queen's  College,  Bel- 
fast ;  and  while  here  distinguished  himself  both 
as  a  lecturer  and  a  metaphysician,  publishing 
Intuitions  of  the  Mind  (London.  1860),  a  work 
of  great  merit  for  its  originality  and  acuteness, 
Inl8G8,he  waselected  president  of  the  ( 'ollege  of 
New  Jersey, at  Princeton,  which  position  lie  still 
occupies.  As  an  educator  he  has  exerted  a  very 
extensive  influence,  by  the  breadth  and  sagacity 
of  his  views.  His  reputation  as  a  metaphysician 
is  not  exceeded  by  that  of  any  living  scholar. 
In  this  department  of  intellectual  research,  his 
writings  have  been  very  numerous,  and.  as  is 
universally  conceded,  are  characterized  by  re- 
markable depth  of  thought  and  acuteness  of 
reasoning. 

McGUFFEY,  William  Holmes,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Washington  Co.,  Pa., 
Sept.  23.,  1800;  died  in  Charlottesville,  A'a.. 
May  4.,  1873.  He  graduated  at  Washington 
College,  iii  Pennsylvania,  in  1826,  and  was 
soon  afterwards  elected  prof essor  of  ancient  lan- 
guages in  Miami  University,  at  Athens,  Ohio, 
in  which  institution  he  was  transferred,  in  1632, 


536 


McKENDREE   COLLEGE 


MAGEK 


to  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy.  Tn  1836, 
he  was  elected  president  of  Cincinnati  Col- 
lege; but,  in  L839,  he  returned  to  Miami  Uni- 
versity to  take  the  position  of  president  of  the 
institution.  In  L 845,  he  accepted  the  appoint- 
ment of  prof essor  of  moral  philosophy  and  po- 
litical economy  in  the  University  of  Virginia, 
where  he  remained  until  bis  death.  While 
president  of  Cincinnati  College,  he  began  the 
preparation  of  the  Eclectic  Series  of  school  read- 
ing-books, which  became  widely  popular,  more 
than  a  million  copies,  it  is  said,  having  been 
issued.     It  is  by  these  that  he  is  best  known. 

M'KENDREE  COLLEGE,  at  Lebanon, 
ED.,  established  in  1828,  was  chartered  in  1834, 
and  rechartered  in  L839'.  It  is  under  Methodist 
Episcopal  control.  It  has  beautiful  grounds, and 
buildings  well  adapted  for  college  purposes.  The 
location  is  healthful  and  easy  of  access.  The 
libraries  contain  about  7,500  volumes;  and  the 
apparatus  is  extensive.  The  institution  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an  en- 
dowment of  845,000.  Both  sexes  are  admitted. 
The  collegiate  department  has  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course,  and  there  is  a  preparatory 
and  a  law  department.  The  cost  of  tuition  in 
the  collegiate  department  is  $24  a  year.  In 
L875 — 6,  there  were  8  instructors,  and  226  stu- 
dents, of   whom    L29  were  in  the  collegiate  and 

8  in  the  law  department.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Peter  Alters,  l>.  I>..  T 
yens;  the  Rev.John  W.  Merrill,  I).  I).,  3  years; 
the    Rev.   .lames    Finley,    I  >.   I>..    1    years:     the 

Rev.  Erastus  Wentworth,  D.  D.,  4  years;  the 

Rev.  Anson  CummingS,  l>.  !>.,  '2  years;  the 
Rev.  Nelson  Cobleigh,  l>.  I'..  5  years;  the  Rev. 
Robert  Allyn.  I  >.  D.,  L3  years;  and  the  Rev. 
John  W.  Locke,  I>.  D.,  the  present  incumbent 
(1876),  2  years. 

McMINNVILLE  COLLEGE,  at  McMinn- 
ville,  Oregon,  under  the  control  of  Baptists,  was 
chartered  in  L859,  It  has  an  endowment  fund 
of  $25,000.  It  comprises  a  primary,  an  academic. 
and  a  collegiate   department,   in    which   the  cost 

of  tuition  is  sis.  $30, and  $44  a  year,  respect- 
ively. Both  sexes  are  admitted.  In  1873 — 4, 
there  where  6  instructors  and   L50  students. 

MADISON  UNIVERSITY,  at  Hamilton, 
\.Y..  under  Baptist    control,   was  chartered    in 

L846.  It  comprises  a  theological  seminary,  a  col- 
lege, and  an  academy.  The  seminary  was  opened 

in  L820;    the  college  and   academy   w,  r gan- 

i/.ed  in  L832.    The  college  has  a  classical  and  a 

atific  course.    The  endowment  i nuts  to 

15,000.  The  university  has  extensive  cabinets 

of  natural  history,  and  valuable  chemical  and 

philosophical    apparatus.     The   libraries  contain 

I  l.doi)  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  col- 
lege is  $30  a  year,  in  the  academy  $20;  in  the 

Seminary,  tuition  and  room  rent  are  free.  In 
1^7:7  (',,  there  were  in  the  seminary.  .">  instruct- 
ors and  33  students;  college,  9  instructors  and 

~7  students;  academy,  9  instructors  and  89  stu- 
dent s;  total,  deducting  repetitions,  1 '.» instructors 
and  209  students.    The  Rev.  Ebenezer  Dodge, 

D.  I).,    Id..    1).,  is  (1876)    the   president. 


MADRAS     SYSTEM.      See    ^Ioxitokial 
System. 

MADVIG,     Johann    Nikolai,    a   Danish 

educator  and  philologist,  born  in  Svanike,  on 
the  island  of  I  Joriiholm.  in  L804.  He  graduated 
at  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  where  he 
became  professor  of  the  Latin  language  and 
literature  in  L829.  In  L 848,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  public  worship,  and  in  L852,  di- 
rector of  public  instruction.      He  has  edited  the 

works  of  Cicero,  Juvenal,  Livy,  and  Lucretius. 
In  1829,  he  published  a  pamphlet  in  which  he 
attempted  to  prove  that   the  Tie  Orikographia, 

attributed  to  Apuleius,  and  first  published  by 
Mai  in  L823,  was  written  as  late  as  the  L5th 
century,  lie  has  also  published  a  Glance  at  the 
Constitutions  of  Antiquity;  Tin-  Creation,  De- 
velopment, and  I. if <■  of  Language;  Adversaria 
CrUica  <i>l  S<-rij>(ores  (>ro?cos  et  Latinos  (vol.  i.T 
1871);  and  a  Latin  Grammar  for  Schools. 
This  last  was  translated  by  the  Rev.  G.  W< 
(Oxford.  L859). 

MAGER,    Karl,    a    distinguished   German 
educator,    was    born    near    Dusseldorf,   dan.    1., 

L810;diedin  Wiesbaden,  June  10.,  L858.  Be 
studied  iii   Bonn,   Berlin,  and   Paris,  where  he 

early  attracted  attention  by  his  talents  and 
scholarship.  After  his  return  to  Germany,  he 
engaged  in  the  study  of  the  philosophical  sys- 
tems of  Hegel  and  llerbart.  and  in  thoseof  edu- 
cation and  instruction,  introduced  by  Pestalozzi 
and  Diesterweg.  for  the  Wiegweiserfur  deutsche 
Lehrer,  edited  by  the  latter,  he  wrote  an  essay 
on  the  teaching  of  foreign  languages  (1835  and 
L838),  after  which  he  became  professor  in  the 
cantonal  school,  in  Geneva.  This  position  he  Boon 
resigned  on  account  of  a  spinal  disea.se.  from  which 
he  found  some  relief  in  ('annstadt.  a  watering- 
place,  near  Stuttgart.  In  1840,  he  founded  the 
Pddagogiscke  /■'-  vue,  which  soon  became  one  of 

the  leading  journal.-  for  all  questions  of  education 

and  instruction  in  Germany  and  Switzerland. 
This  was  edited  by  him  until   L849.    The  wish 

to    test    practically  his  theories  and   school  books 

induced  him  to  accept  the  professorship  of  modern 
languages  (French  and  German]  in  the  cantonal 

school  of  Aarau.  Switzerland.  Altera  few  years, 
he  resigned  this  position,  to  give  all  his  time 
to  the  radagogische Revue,  which,  for  his  con- 
venience, had  been  removed  from  Stuttgart  to 
Zurich.      In  1848,  he   was  invited  by  the  Staats- 

minister  Wydenbruck,  in  Weimar,  to  take  the 
direction  of  the  real  gymnasium  in   Eisenach,  an 
institution  that    had   been  organized  accordi 
to  his  plan  and  ideas,     lie  begin  his  work  with 
his  usual  ardor;  but,  unfortunately,  his  disei 

greVi  worse,  and  his  health  became  so  much 
impaired,  that,  in  L852,  he  was  obliged    to  retire 

from  his  office,  and,  even  to  give  up  all  literary 

WOrk,  thus  being  unable  to  show  whether  his 
practical  skill  as  a  teacher  and  head  of  an  insti- 
tution was  equal  to  his  extensive  .scholarship and 

the  brilliancy  of  his  writings.  EEb  death  oc- 
curred a  few  years  after  his  retirement.  Mag  r 
was  without  doubt  an  eminent  reformer  in  the 
held  of  education  and  instruction;   ami  his  coun- 


MAGEK 


MAINE 


537 


try  is  largely  indebted  to  him  for  his  efforts  in 
the  introduction  of  the  genetic  metJiod  and  the 
creation  of  the  higher  real  school  or  real  gym- 
nasium.     (Sec    Real    Schools.)       A    few    words 

will  suffice  to  characterize  Mager's  ideas  on  the 

genetic  method,  which  lie  calls  the  combination 

of  analysis  and    synthesis.     There   is  a    method 

of  development  proper  to  every  objeel  a  pecu- 
liar mode  of  growth,  both  in  form  andsubstance; 

this  is  objective  method.  Bu1  the  term  method 
lias  also  a  subjective  meaning,  implying  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  pupil  acquires  knowledge,  and 
hence  having  reference  to  his  self-activity,  which 
it  is  the  office  of  the  educator  to  stimulate,  to 
vest  rain,  or  to  guide.  Now,  psychology  and  ex- 
perience teach  us  that  the  human  mind  has  to 
go  through  different  stages  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge:  perception, conception,  and,  finally, 
abstraction  :  and  the  mode  of  instruction  must 
conform  to  the  operations  of  the  human  mind. 
Applying  these  principles  to  the  study  of  foreign 
languages,  it  is  obvious  that  grammar  cannot  be 
its  beginning,  but  must  be  its  end.  Man  speaks 
in  sentences.  The  simplest  form  of  human  speech 
is  not  a  word,  but  a  sentence.  The  old  gram- 
matical school  said,  the  sum  of  the  parts  of  a 
thing  is  the  thing:  but  this  is  not  true:  the  sum 
of  the  parts  of  a  watch  is  not  necessarily  a 
watch:  only  when  they  are  combined  in  a  proper 
manner  so  that  they  indicate  time,  they  are  a 
watch,  dust  so  it  is  with  language.  Hence,  gram- 
matical lexicography,  inflections,  parsing  of 
words,  etc.,  must  hie  subordinate  to  syntax.  Xow. 
every  sentence  contains  a  verb,  and  the  verb 
alone  can  form  the  whole  sentence,  though  now 
more  rarely  than  in  the  older  languages;  then- 
fore  grammatical  instruction  must  begin  with 
the  verb.  As  the  simple  sentence  is  the  begin- 
ning of  language,  so  the  most  developed  period 
is  its  completion.  So  far  for  the  genesis  of  the 
substance;  but  also  the  form  of  the  instruction 
must  follow  the  process  of  human  thought — in- 
tuition, perception,  abstraction — first,  the  lan- 
guage (example),  then  its  rules.  But  the  study 
of  language  is  not  merely  theoretical,  it  is  prac- 
tical also.  lie  who  learns  a  language,  lias  to 
apply  it,  to  use  it;  and,  therefore,  Mager  ends 
with  the  free  speaking  and  writing  of  the  for- 
eign language. — Besides  several  articles  in  the 
Pd<l'ti/t)'//si-///-  Rrrii,',  he  wrote :  Geschic/dt? 
der franzdsischen  NdtiondUiteralur  (Berlin  1837 
— 40) ;  Tableau  anthologique  de  /•'■  litterature 
frangaise  contemporaine  (Berlin  1837 — 40); 
Wissenschajt  der  Mathematih  nach  heuristisch- 
genetischer  Method*;  (Berlin,  ls.'ST)  :  Veher  den 
Untt'rrii.-ht  in  fri'inden  Sprachen  (Essen,  1838); 
Die  hdhere  Bilrgerschule  (Stuttgart,  1840); 
Deutsches  Elementarwerk,  Sprach-  mid  Lese- 
buch  (a  posthumous  work,  completed  and  edited 
by  Charles  Schlegel,  Stuttgart.  1866)  ;  Franzfr 
sisches  Sprach-  und  Lesebuch,  revised  by  Charles 
Schlegel,  Stuttgart,  L862)  ;  Die  moderns  Philo- 
logie  und  die  deutschen  St-liulm  (Stuttgart,  1844); 
Die  genetische  Methods  (Zurich,  1846);  Die  En- 
cyTctopoidie,  das  System  des  Wissois,  ein  Lese- 
buch (Ziirich,  1847). 


MAINE,  until  1820  a.  pari  of  Massachusetts, 

has  an  area  of  35,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population, 

according  to  the  census  of  L870,  of  629,915, 
found  mostly  in  the  southern  half  of  the  slate 

Educational  History.  This  will  embrace 
(1)  The  establishment  of  schools ;  (II)  The  main- 
tenance of  schools;     (III)  The  supervision  of 

schools. 

I.  The  School  System  of  Maine,  when  it  becan  . 
a  distinct  state,  in  L820,  was  the  same  as  that 
of  the  parent  state.  Massachusetts.  In  the  con- 
stitution of  Maine,  the  duty  of  the  state  to  pro- 
vide its  people  with  the  means  of  education,  and 
its  right  to  control  public  education  throughout 
its  entire   extent,   are   asserted    in    the  following 

article:  "A  general  diffusion  of  the  advantages 

of  education  being  essential  to  the  preservation 
of  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people,  to  pro- 
vide this  important  object,  the  legislature  are 

authorized,  and  it  shall  he  their  duty,  to  require 

the  several  towns  to  make  suitable  provision,  at 

their  own  expense,  for  the  support  and  mainte- 
nance of  public  schools;  and  it  shall  further  be 
their  duty  to  suitably  endow,  from  time  to  time, 
as  the  circumstances  of  the  people  may  author- 
ize, all  academics,  colleges,  and  seminaries  of 
learning,  within  the  state,  /irin-ii/,  d  that,  at  the. 
time  of  making  any  donation,  grant,  or  endow- 
ment, the  legislature  of  the  state  shall  have  the 
light  to  grant  any  further  powers,  to  alter,  limit, 
or  restrain,  any  of  the  powers  vested  in  any  such 
literary  institution,  as  shall  be  judged  necessary 
to  promote  the  best  interests  thereof." — The 
school  law  of  Maine  remained  the  same  as  that 
of  Massachusetts  until  the  second  legislature,  in 
1821,  enacted  a  general  school  law  differing  from 
the  former  one  only  in  requiring  each  town  to 
raise,  by  a  tax  on  polls  and  property,  a  sum  of 
not  less  than  fortyr  cents  for  each  inhabitant,  to 
be  apportioned  among  the  several  districts  in  the 
town,  and  annually  expended  tor  public  schools, 
instead  of  requiring  each  town,  as  in  the  original 
law,  to  sustain  its  schools  for  a  certain  prescribed 
length  of  time  each  year.  The  district  system 
had  become  fixed  in  the  school  law  of  Massachu- 
setts previous  to  the  separation,  ami  it  has  been, 
up  to  the  present  time,  recognized  in  the  school 
law  of  Maine.  At  first,  the  towns,  at  their  annual 
meetings,  elected  agents  for  the  several  districts; 
later,  districts  were  allowed. on  the  vote  of  towns, 
to  choose  their  agents,  and  agents  were  allowed 
to  expend,  at  their  own  discretion.  Id  per  cent  of 
the  school  money  for  repairs.  A  return  of  sta- 
tistics to  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  was 
required;  and  abstracts  of  th<  se  were  made,  and 
transmitted  to  the  various  districts.  The  bank 
tax  of  one-half  of  one  per  cent  on  the  capital 
stock  of  state  banks  was  divided  among  the  va- 
rious towns  according  to  the  number  of  persons 
between  the  ages  of  four  and  twenty  one  years 
of  age.  for  the  benefit  of  public  schools:  and 
power  was  given  to  districts,  in  1827,  and  still 
further,  in  L842,  "to  classify  scholars  and  to  grade 
their  schools."     The  district  system   has   proved 

unfavorable  to  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency 

in  schools,  and  a  few  years  since  a  law  was  etc 


538 


MAINE 


acted  authorizing  towns  to  abolish  school-districts 
aud  to  adopt  a  uniform  township  system.  A  law 
was  enacted  in  1873,  encouraging  the  establish- 
ment of  free  high  schools  at  the  j<jint  expense  of 

town  and  Bta 

II.  The  public  schools  of  Maine  have  always 
been  free.  Their  support  has  been  derived  from 
(1)  Taxes;  (2)  The  income  of  permanent  funds. 

(1)  Taxes. — The  sum  of  forty  cents  for  each 
inhabitant,  required  by  the  law  of  L821,  tobe 
raised  annually  for  the  support  of  schools,  was 
increased  by  subsequent  legislation,  in  1854,  to 
sixty  cents,  in  1865  to  seventy-five  cents,  and  in 

1868  to  one  dollar.  In  1872.  a  law  was  enacted 
assessing  annually  a  tax  of  one  mill  per  dollar 
upon  all  the  property  of  the  state,  according  to 
the  valuation  thereof,  to  lie  distributed  to  the 
several  towns  of  the  state  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  persons  of  school  age  in  each  town.  Up- 
on the  of  this  act,  called  the  Mill  Tax 
Law,  the  per  capita  tax  was  changed  from  one 
dollar  to  eighty  cents  for  each  inhabitant.  -For 
many  years,  a  large  sum  was  added  to  the  school 
fund  annually  by  a  tax  upon  deposits  in  the 
State  banks.  This  amounted  sometimes  to  80,000 
dollars  in  a  year.  Willi  the  change  from  -iai 
national  banks,  this  sum  decreased  until  it  be- 
came  nothing.  In  1872, a  tax  of  one-half  of  one 
percent  wa  I  upon  deposits  in  savings- 
banks,  to  be  distributed  among  the  several  towns 
of  the  state  according  to  their  school  population. 
Many  towns  raise  by  taxation  a  larger  sum  than 
IS  prescribed  by  the  law,  and  ••any  school  district 

maintaining  graded  schools  is  authorized  to  raise 
for  the  support  of  these  schools  a  sum  of  money 
not  exceeding  that  which  it  receives  from  the 
town,  in  addition  thereto." 

(2)  Income  of  Permanent  Funds. — These  funds 
are  state  and  local.  The  state  fund  is  derived 
from  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  twenty  town- 
ships of  public  lands  formerly  set  apart  for  school 
purposes,  increased  from  year  to  year  by  the  ad- 
dition thereto  of  unexpended  balances  of  school 
money.  The  local  funds  are  derived  in  part  from 
th,'  sale  of   lands   assigned   to  towns  for  the  sup- 

ji  >rt  of  schools,  and  in  part  from  various  other 

- •■  vs.  Mich  as  bequests,  etc.  An  amount  equal 
to  six  percent  of  the  permanent  school  fund  is 
distribute  I  to  the   school-  each  year.     This  fund 

ii  amounts  to  $400,558. 

III.  Supervision  of  Schools. — NTotwithsl 

ing  the  emphatic  statements  of  the  constitution 
as  to  the  rights  ami  duties  of  the  state  in  regard 
to  public  education,  there  was  in  the  law  a  greal 
lack  of  the  elements  of  an  effective  system  until 
1846,  when,  in  response  to  determined  action  of 
the  friends  of  education,  a  law  was  passed  estab- 
lishing a  state  board  of  education  consisting  of 
one  member  from  each  county,  chosen  by  the 
school  committees  of  the  county  in  joint  con- 
vention, with  a  secretary  chosen  by  the  board. 
Win.  (1.  Crosby,  afterwards  governor  of  the 
i,  was  secretary  of  the  board  from  1846  to 

'.       lie  then  resigned,  and  was   succeeded  by 

E.  M.  Thurston,  who  served  until  the  abolition 
of  the  board,  in  1852.    Great  good  was  effected 


by  this  board  of  education.  County  institutes 
were  held,  and  were  attended  by  huge  numbers 
of  teachers.  Teachers'  associations  were  organ- 
ized in  every  county  of  the  state.  [Setter  school- 
houses  were  built,  and  the  standard  of  teaching  was 
raised  :  moreover, the  state  owes  several  improve- 
ments in  tin-  school  law  to  this  period  of  its  his- 
tory. In  1 852, an  act  was  passed  directing  the  ap- 
pointment by  the  governor  of  a  school  commis- 
sioner for  each  county,  thus  replacing  the  board 
of  education  by  a  much  less  efficient  agency.  In 
1853,  this  law  was  repealed,  and  the  office  of  state 
superintendent  was  created,  the  superintendent 
beingappointed  by  the  governor  and  the  coun- 
cil. The  following  is  a  list  of  the  successive  state 
superintendents,  with  the  dates  of  their  appoint- 
ment to  office  :  (diaries  A.  Lord,  June  26.,  1854; 
Mark  II.  1  tumuli.  March  27.,  1855;  John  P. 
Craig,  Feb.  28.,  1  >')('>:  Mark  II.  Dunnell,  Jan. 
•J!'..  1857  :  Edward  P.  Weston.  March  5.,  1860  ; 
Edward  Mallard.  May  s..  l,siia;  Warren  Johnson 
March  30.,  1868;  and  Wm.  J.  L'orthell,  the 
present  incumbent,  ( >et.  26.,  l^Tti. 

In  1869.  acts  were  passed  directing  the  ap- 
pointment, by  the  governor  and  the  council,  of  a 
board  of  county  supervisors  for  a  term  of  three 
yens. and  making  provision  for  county  institutes. 
In  1 872, the  first  of  these  laws  was  repealed  ;  and. 
three  years  later,  the  second  was  also  repealed. 
ddie  efforts  of  the  friends  of  education  to  secure 
more  efficient  means  for  the  training  of  teach- 
ers were  for  a  long  time  fruitless.     For  several 

years  appropriations  were  made  by  the  state   to 

academies  for  the  maintenance  of  normal  depart- 
ments. I  he  results  proving  unsatisfactory,  the 
first  state  normal  school,  located  at  Farming- 
ton,  was  established  by  an  act  of  the  legislature, 
approved  March  25.,  1863;  and  the  school  went 
into  operation  Aug.  24.,  1864  The  second  state 
normal  school,  located  at  I  'astine.  went  into  oper- 
ation Sept.  7.,  lsf>7.  A  state  teachers' associa- 
tion was  organized  in  1859  ;  but  it  was  not  con- 
tinued, ho]. ling  its  last  session  in  1864.  Another 
association  was  organized  in  1867, and  still  holds 
annual  sessions.  Of  county  and  town  associa- 
tions, there  are  very  few. 
School  System. — The  public  schools  of  the  state 

are  under  the  supervision  of  the  state  superintend- 
ent of  common  schools  and  the  town. superintend- 
ing school  lommittees.  There  is  no  intermediate 
agency.  The  state  superintendent  is  appointed 
by  the  go\  ernor  and  council  for  the  term  of  three 
years.  "  or  during  the  pleasure  of  the  executive." 

It  is  his  duty  to    exercise  a   general    supervision 

over  the  schools  of  the  state ;  to  advise  and  di- 
rect town  committees  in  the  discharge  of  their 
duties,  devoting  all  his  time  to  the  duties  of  his 
office  :  to  collect  and  disseminate  information 
as  to  the  school  systems  of  our  own  and  other 
countries:  to  prescribe  the  studies  for  the  com- 
mon Schools  of  the  state,  town  committees  hav- 
ing also  the  right  to  prescribe  additional  studies. 

and  lo  make  a  report  to  the  governor  and  coun- 
cil, annua  1 1\  prior  to  the  session  of  the  legislature. 

ddie  superintending  school  committees  examine 
all  teachers,  and  employ  teachers  for  the  school- 


M  A  1  N  E 


;.:;«> 


districts  when  authorized  to  do  so  by  the  town. 
They  direct  the  general  course  of  instruction,  ae- 
fect  a  uniform  system  of  text-books,  and  exercise  a 
general  supervision  and  control  over  the  several 
schools  of  the  town.  They  are  required  to  make 
a  written  report  of  the  condition  of  the  schools 
in  their  respective  districts,  for  the  preceding  year, 
at  the  annual   town  meeting,  and  to  transmit  a 

»copy  thereof  to  the  state  superintendent  of  com- 
mon schools.  They  are  also  required  to  make  an 
annual  statistical  report  to  the  state  superintend- 
ent on  or  before  the  first  day  of  May  of  each 
year.  Supervisors,  ami  members  of  the  school 
committee,  receive  for  their  services  SI  .JO  a  day, 
bjsides  the  necessary  traveling  expenses. 

A  town,  at  its  annual  meeting,  or  at  a  special 
meeting  called  for  that  purpose,  may  determine 
the  number  and  limits  of  school-districts  therein  ; 
but  these  districts  must  not  be  altered,  discon- 
tinued, or  annexed  to  others,  except  upon  the 
written  recommendation  of  the  municipal  officers 
and  of  the  superintending  school  committee.  A 
town  may  abolish  its  school-districts;  and  it  must 
(hereupon  take  possession  of  all  the  school  prop- 
erty therein,  levying  upon  the  town  a  tax  equal  to 
the  appraised  value  of  such  school  property,  and 
remitting  to  the  tax  payers  of  each  district  the 
appraised  value  of  the  property  thus  taken.  The 
town  must  annually  expend  for  the  support  of 
schools  the  amount  received  from  the  state  school 
fund,  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  its  share  of  the 
fund  for  the  ensuing  year  ;  and  it  must  raise  and 
expend  annually  for  the  support  of  schools,  ex- 
clusive of  income  from  any  other  source,  at  least 
eighty  cents  for  each  inhabitant,  or  forfeit  not  less 
than  twice,  nor  more  than  four  times,  the  amount 
of  its  deficiency,  and  also  its  share  of  the  state 
school  fund.  The  assessors  and  the  school  com- 
mittee may  annually  apportion  among  the  smaller 
districts  of  the  town,  in  addition  to  theirper  capita 
share  of  the  school  money,  20  per  cent  of  money 
raised  by  the  town  and  of  that  received  from 
the  state,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  them  equal 
educational  advantages  with  the  larger  districts. 

The  town  may  provide  school  books  to  pupils 
of  the  public  schools  at  cost,  or  free  of  cost.  It  is 
required  to  choose  a  school  committee  of  three 
for  a  term  of  office  of  three  years,  one  to  go  out 
of  office  each  year,  or  a  supervisor  instead  of 
school  committee.  Towns  are  empowered  to  make 
such  by-laws,  not  repugnant  to  the  laws  of  the 
state,  concerning  truants  and  children  between  <> 
and  IT  years  of  age  not  attending  school,  and 
having  no  regular  and  lawful  employment,  as  are 
most  conducive  to  their  welfare  and  the  good 
order  of  society.  Children  under  15  years  of  age 
Cannot  be  employed  in  a  cotton  or  woolen  manu- 
factory without  having  attended  school  a  pre- 
scribed p  >rtion  of  the  year  next  preceding,  and 
no  person  under  the  age  of  16  can  be  employed 
by  any  corporation  more  than  ten  hours  a  day. 
A  law  was  passed  in  L875,  compelling  the  at-  | 
tendance  at  school  for  at  least  twelve  weeks 
each  year,  of  all  children  between  the  ages  of  6 
ami  1 5  years,  unless  excused  by  the  school 
officers,  for  reasons  prescribed  in  the  act. 


Every  school-district  is  a  corporate  body,  and 
all  school  property  therein  belongs  to  the  dis- 
trict, and  is  under  its  full  control;  but  all 
plans  for  the  erection  or  reconstruction  of  a 
school  house  voted  by  a  district  musl  be  ap- 
proved by  the  school  committee.  Each  school- 
district,  at  its  annual  meeting,  chooses  a  moder- 
ator, a  clerk,  ami  an  agent,  unless  by  vote  of 
the  town  the  agents  are  chosen  in  town  meet- 
ing. Twoormore  districts  may  unite  to  sup- 
port a  union  school  for  advanced  scholars,  or  to 
maintain  a  graded  school;  and  a  district  main- 
taining a  graded  school  may  choose  a  committee 
to  classify  and  grade  the  pupils  therein.  Wher- 
ever, in  the  opinion  of  the  school  committee,  a 
school  district  unreasonably  neglects  or  refuses 
to  raise  money  to  provide  proper  school  build- 
ings or  grounds,  the  matter  may  be  brought  be- 
fore the  next  town  meeting,  and  the  town  mav 
vote  to  raise  the  money  by  a  tax  upon  the  dis- 
trict, to  be  expended  by  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  municipal  officers.  A  school-district  may 
appropriate  a  sum  not  exceeding  lit  per  cent 
of  its  school  money  for  any  year,  for  the  pur- 
chase of  a  school  library  and  school  apparatus; 
and  adjacent  districts  may  unite  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  school  agent  attends  to  the  finan- 
cial affairs  of  the  district,  and  employs  tea<  hers, 
unless  by  vote  of  the  town  they  are  employed 
by  the  school  committee.  The  audit  may,  at 
his  discretion,  expend  for  repairs,  each  year, 
10  per  cent  of  the  money  apportioned  to  the 
district. 

Any  town  establishing  and  maintaining  a  free 
high  school  for  at  least  ten  weeks  in  any  one  year, 
is  entitled  to  receive  from  the  state  one-half  of  the 
amount  actually  expended  for  instruction,  not 
however  exceeding  $ 500  from  the  state  to  any 
oue  town.  Two  or  more  adjoining  towns  may 
unite  in  sustaining  such  a  school ;  and  so  long  as 
any  town  shall  decline  to  avail  itself  of  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act,  any  school-district,  or  union 
of  school-districts,  in  the  town  may  do  so.  — 
Every  teacher  of  a  public  school  is  required  to 
keep  a  register  containing  the  names  and  attend- 
ance of  his  pupils,  and  a  record  of  such  other 
facts  as  may  be  required  by  the  blank  forms 
provided  for  annual  or  other  reports;  and  he  is 
required  to  leave  such  register  completed,  and 
signed  by  the  school  committee,  as  a  condition 
of  receiving   his  salary. 

Educational  Condition.- — The  number  of 
school-districts  returned  in  1875,  was  3,953; and 
the  number  of  parts  of  districts,  368.  The  num- 
ber of  towns  in  the  state  was  121 .  and  the  num- 
ber of  these  which  have  abolished  the  district  svs 
tem  was  25.  The  country  schools  are  generally 
ungraded.  In  the  cities  and  larger  villages,  pri- 
mary and  grammar  schools  arc  maintained;  and. 
in  the  cities  and  a  few  of  the  larger  villages,  high 

scl Is  have  also  been   established.     There  were 

maintained,  in  L875,  for  one  or  more  terms,  157 
tree  high  schools,  at  an  annual  cost  of  8116,308, 
of  which  the  state  paid  $38,633.  There  are  no 
returns  by  which  the  number  of  graded  schools, 
or  departments  in  each  grade,  can  be  ascertained- 


540 


MAINE 


For  the  support  of  public  schools  there  was 
paid,  in  1875,  $1,261,297,  from  the  following 
sources : 

Permanent  school  fund $22,193 

Local  funds 25,585 

Total  from  funds $47,778 

Municipal  taxation  for  current 

expenses $662,558 

School  mill-tax 224,579 

Savings-bank  tax 145,936 

For  free  high  schools 116,308 

"     supervision 36,968 

"     normal  schools 15,500 

To  prolong  schools 11,671 

Total   taxation $1,213,519 

Total  current  expenses  $1,261,297 

There  was  also  expended  for  new  school- 
houses  in  1875,  $1  1.0,725  :  and  hereafter  si  3,000 
for  the  support  of  normal  schools  will  be  taken 
annually  from  the  general  school  fund,  instead 
of  being  made  a  special  appropriation. 

The  following  are  other  important  items  of 
school  statistics  for  1875  : 

The  number  Of  teachers  : 
In  summer,  males,  171;  females,  4,426;  total,    4,597 
In  winter,  males,  l,!is4;  females,  2,475;  total,    4,459 
The  average  wages  per  month,  excluding  board, 
was  of 

Male  teachers  (36.96 

Female  teachers 17.16 

The  average  cost  per  month  ofteach- 

ers'  board  was $9. 

Whole  nnmber  of  scholars  between  l  and  21..  221,117 

Number  registered  in  snmmer  schools 117,^-1 

Number  registered  in  winter  schools 130,343 

Average  attendance  in  summer  schools 95 

Average  attendance  in  winter  schools 105,625 

Average  length  of  schools  for  the  year 
(5i  'lays  to  n  week) 21  weeks  1  day. 

Normal  Instruction. — The  date  of  establish- 
ment of  the  two  state  normal  schools  has  been 
given  in  the  historical  sketch.  For  their  support 
$13,000  is  drawn  from  the  common-school  fund 
each  year.  The  law  establishing  these  schools 
prescribes  that  they  "shall  be  thoroughly  devoted 
to  the  work  of  training  teachers  for  their  profes- 
sional labors,"  that  "the  course  of  study  shall 
include  the  common  English  branches  in  thorough 
reviews,  and  such  of  the  higher  branches  as  are 
especially  adapted  to  "prepare  teachers  to  con- 
duct the  mental,  moral,  ami  physical  education 
of  their  pupils,"  and  "thai  the  art  of  school 
management,  including  the  best  methods  of  gov- 
ernment and  instruction,  shall  have  a  prominenl 
place  in  the  daily  exercises  of  said  schools." 
Candidates  for  admission  must  be,  it'  females,  16 
years  of  age;  if  males.  17;  they  must  pledge 
themselves  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  Maine 
for  as  long  a  time  as  they  shall  have  remained 
connected  with  the  normal  school,  and  pass  a 

satisfactory    examination    in     reading,    Spelling, 

writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  English 
grammar.  The  course  requires  two  years  for 
its  completion,  and  comprises  the  usual  studies 
of  an  English  high-school  course,  togetherwith 
history  of  education,  school  laws,  and  didactics, 
and  practice  teaching.  The  schools  are  sup- 
plied with  libraries  and  apparatus,  and  with 
models  and  copies  for  free-hand  drawing.-  The 
normal  schools  are  tinder  the  direction  of  a 
board  of  trustees  consisting  of  seven  members, 


five  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  governor  and 
executive  council  for  a  term  of  three  years,  the 
governor  and  the  state  superintendent  of  schools 
being,  ex  officio,  members  of  the  board. 

Seconduri/  Instruction  (comprehending  the 
high  schools  and  the  academies). — Of  the  high 
schools  an  account  has  already  been  given.  The 
right  and  duty  of  the  state  to  aid  institutions  of 
this  class  is  explicitly  asserted  in  the  constitution; 
and,  in  its  early  history,  many  academies  received 
grants  of  public  lauds.  Twenty-three  academies 
were  chartered  by  Massachusetts  before  Maine 
became  a  state.  For  many  years  the  elements  of 
an  effective  system  were  lacking  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  state ;  and  the  academies,  always 
tuition  schools,  effected  much  good.  The  period 
from  1830  to  1850  was  perhaps  the  period  of 
their  greatest  influence,  Since  the  latter  date, 
improvements  in  the  public-school  system,  and 
other  cause.-,  have  led  to  their  decline,  and  some 
have  been  incorporated  with  the  public-school 
system  as  high  schools.  Several  have  been  en- 
dowed by  religious  denominations,  or  made  pre- 
paratory schools  for  the  several  colleges  of  the 
state.  Of  these  the  most  prominent  are  Maine 
Wesleyan  Seminary  and  Female  College,  at 
Cent's  Bill,  the  Fast  Maine  Conference  Semi- 
nary, at  Hucksport.  both  conducted  by  the  Meth- 
odists; the  Wcstbrook  Seminary,  by  the  Cni- 
versalists;  Waterville  Classical  Institute.  He- 
bron Academy,  and  Houltou  Academy,—  prepar- 
atory schools f or  <  lolby  University,  Maine  ( lentral 
institute,  at  Pittsfield, and  Nichols  Latin  School 
at  Lewiston,  —  preparatory  schools  for  Ba 
College,  and  Hallowcll  Classical  Institute,  a 
preparatory  school  for  Bowdoin   College. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — 
Most  of  the  academies  of  the  state  were  origi- 
nally founded  by  the  efforts  of  religious  denom- 
inations. The  most  prominent  have  been  named 
in  the  preceding  section.  Of  parochial  schools, 
there  are  none  but  a  few  small  Roman  Catholic 
schools  in  connection  with  local  churches. 

Superior  Instruction. —  Bowdoin  College 
(q.  v.).  the  oldest  college  in  Maine,  situated  at 
Brunswick,  received  its  charter  in  1794,  with  a 
-rant  of  five  townships  of  land.  It  derives  its 
name  from  . lames  Bowdoin,  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts in  L785.  The  board  of  trustees  and 
the  board  of  overseers   met   in    L801  and  elected 

a  president,  and  a  professor  of  languages.    At 

the  installation  of  these  otiicers.  in  1 802,  8  stu- 
dents were  admitted,  and  in  L806  the  first  class, 
consisting  of  s.  was  graduated.  It  has  now  an  aca- 
demical faculty  of  1 07  and  numbered. in  1ST.") — 6, 

148  students.  —  Waterville  College,  located  at 
Waterville,  was  established  in  L820 ;  and  a  few 
years  since,  the  name  was  changed  to  Colby  Ini- 
ny  <|.  v.),  in  honor  of  ( iardner  ( 'olby.  a  bene- 
factor of  the  college.  It  lias  a  faculty  of  12.  and 
91  students.  Hates  College  (,n  v.!.  located  at 
Lewiston.  was  founded  in  L863.  It  is  named  in 
honor  of  Joshua  Bates,  a  benefactor  of  the  college- 
It  has  a  faculty  of    7,  and   numbers  96  students. 

Professional  <nitl  Scientific  Instruction. —  Un- 
der this  head  are  included   Theological  Schools, 


MANHATTAN    COLLEGE 


MANN 


541 


Medical  Schools,  and  Scientific  Schools,  of  which 
(he  following  is  an  enumeration  : — The  Theoloc- 
ical  Seminary  (Congregationalist)  at  Bangor, 
was  organized  in  L819.  In  the  year  L875 — 6,  it 
had  39  students.  The  Theological  School  of 
Bates  College  (Free  Baptist)  was  organized  in 
1870.  In  the  year  1875 — 6,  it  had  25  students. 
The  Medical  School  of  Maine  was  organized  in 
1820.  By  act  of  the  legislature  it  is  placed 
under  the  superintendence  and  direction  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees  and  Overseers  of  Bowdoin 
College.  In  the  year  1875 — 6,  it  had  '.).'}  stu- 
dents. The  Maine  State  College  of  Agriculture 
and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  situated  at  Orono,  was 
established  upon  the  basis  of  the  congressional 
grant  of  public  lands  for  such  instruction.  In 
the  year  1875 — -0,  it  had  in  its  various  courses  115 
students.  The  Scientific  Department  of  Bowdoin 
College  should  also  be  named  among  the  scientific 
schools.  Its  course  of  study  is  four  years,  parallel 
with  the  classical  course,  and  its  students,  in 
1875 — 6,  numbered  50,  already  included  in  the 
enumeration  of  Bowdoin  College. 

Special  Instruction. — There  is  a  State  Reform 
School  for  boys  at  Cape  Elizabeth,  and  one  for 
girls,  at  Gardiner.  There  is  a  Soldiers'  Orphan 
School  at  Bath. 

Educational  Literature. — No  works  have  been 
published  upon  the  schools  of  Maine,  except  the 
reports  of  the  secretary  of  the  board  of  education 
and  of  the  superintendent.  The  Common  School 
Advocate  (1849)  was  followed  by  the  Maine 
Teachers  [\%tt  to  1864).  The  Maine  Normal, 
commenced  in  1865,  was  followed  in  1867  by  the 
Maine  Journal  of  Education,  merged  in  the 
New  England  Journal  of  Education  in  1875. 

MANHATTAN  COLLEGE,  a  Roman 
Catholic  institution  in  New  York  City,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Christian  Brothers,  was 
chartered  in  1863.  It  comprises  a  collegiate,  a 
commercial,  and  a  preparatory  department.  The 
library  contains  about  10,000  volumes.  In 
1874—5,  there  were,  in  all  the  departments,  48 
instructors  and  694  students.  Bro.  Paulian  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

MANITOBA,  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada;  area  13,923  sq.  m.,  population, in  1870, 
11,963.  This  portion  of  the  Dominion  was  first 
visited  by  the  French,  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing trading  posts  at  various  points.  In  1767, 
it  was  for  the  first  time  visited  by  English 
traders.  It  subsequently  belonged  to  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  who,  in  1869,  gave  up  their 
territorial  rights  to  the  imperial  government, 
which,  in  1870,  transferred  them  to  the  Canadian 
government.  The  schools  of  this  province  are 
divided  into  two  sections  :  one  for  Protestants, 
and  one  for  Roman  Catholics.  Each  section  has 
its  own  superintendent,  but  there  is  only  one 
board  of  education,  in  which  both  sections  are 
represented.  The  forms  of  prayer  prescribed  in 
Ontario,  and  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  or 
the  saying  of  the  Lords  Prayer  are  employed  in 
opening  and  closing  each  session  of  the  Protest- 
ant schools.  The  school  hours  are  required  to 
be  not  less  than  five  per  day,  for  five  days  in  the 


week  ;  and  the  school  year  is  divided  into  two 
parts  of  100  days  each. — The  legislative  grant, 
which,  in  1874,  amounted  to  37,000,  is  divided, 
according  to  law,  between  the  two  sections  in 
proportion  to  the  relative  average  attendance  of 
pupils  at  the  schools  of  each.  In  1874,  it  was, 
however,  for  some  reason,  divided  equally  be- 
tween the  two  sections.  In  1874,  there  were  22 
Protestant  schools,  with  1,248  pupils  enrolled, 
and  an  average  attendance  of  635.  The  number 
of  Catholic  schools  was  21,  with  998  children 
enrolled,  and  21  teachers. — The  Manitoba  Wes- 
leyan  Institute  was  opened  in  1873.  It  prepares 
its  pupils  to  enter  any  of  the  universities,  the 
course  of  studies  comprising,  besides  the  common 
English  branches,  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics, 
French,  and  German.  It  is  governed  by  a  board 
of  management, appointed  by  the  Methodist  Con- 
ference of  Canada.  Manitoba  College,  in  "Winni- 
peg, was  incorporated  in  1873.  Its  affairs  are 
conducted  by  a  board  appointed  by  the  general 
assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  The  cur- 
riculum of  study  of  the  college  is  divided  into 
three  courses :  a  regular,  a  commercial,  and  a 
special  course.  The  regular  course  fits  for  ma- 
triculation, and  for  first-year  examinations  in 
the  University  of  Toronto,  for  matriculation  in 
law  or  medicine,  as  well  as  for  entrance  upon 
the  courses  of  civil  engineering  and  agriculture, 
and  for  commencing  the  study  of  theology  in 
any  of  the  Canadian  colleges.  A  preparatory 
department  has  been  organized  in  connection 
with  the  college.  St.  John's  College,  belonging 
to  the  Episcopal  Church,  has  also  a  preparatory 
department  and  a  theological  school  connected 
with  it.  The  Roman  Catholics  have  a  college  at 
St.  Boniface;  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity  have  also 
a  large  convent  at  St.  Boniface,  an  academy  for 
young  ladies,  an  orphanage,  and  four  missions 
in  the  province. — See  Marling,  Canada  Edu- 
cational Directory  for  1876;  Lovell's  Gazetteer 
of  British  North  America,  1873. 

MANN,  Horace,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  American  educators,  born  in  Franklin,  Mass., 
May.  4.,  1796;  died  in  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio, 
Aug.  2.,  1859.  The  cause  of  education  in  Amer- 
ica is  deeply  indebted  to  this  remarkable  man. 
Rarely  have  great  ability,  unselfish  devotion, 
and  brilliant  success  been  so  united  in  the  course 
of  a  single  fife.  More  rarely  still,  has  the  prep- 
aration for  that  success  been  made  under  such 
discouraging  circumstances  of  poverty,  want  of 
opportunity,  and  ill  health.  To  say  that  the 
childhood  and  youth  of  Horace  Mann  were 
passed  in  poverty,  is  only  to  repeat  the  story 
common  to  the  early  lives  of  very  many 
eminent  men.  The  degree  of  poverty,  how- 
ever, in  his  case,  appears  to  have  been  excep- 
tional ;  his  biographer  telling  us  "that  it  was  the 
misfortune  of  the  family  that  it  belonged  to  the 
smallest  district,  had  the  poorest  school-house, 
and  employed  the  cheapest  teachers,  in  a  town 
which  was  itself  both  small  and  poor."  The 
hard  manual  labor  to  which  he  was  subjected 
giving  him  no  time  for  recreation,  in  either  sum- 
mer or  winter,  weighed    upon    his    naturally 


5*2 


MANN 


buoyant  spirits,  and  left  an  ineffaceable  impres- 
sion on  his  memory.  Many  years  after,  he 
speaks  of  this  want  of  happiness  in  his  child- 
hood as  an  "  irretrievable  misfortune."  Left 
fatherless  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  he  remained  at 
home,  with  no  opportunities  for  cultivation 
beyond  those  furnished  by  the  tew  and  unsuit- 
able books  of  the  household,  and  the  ancient 
histories  and  theologies  contained  in  a  small 
library  which  had  been  given  to  his  native  town 
by  Franklin.  Always  thirsting  for  knowledge, 
he  declares  that,  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  had 
never  received  more  than  eight  or  ten  weeks' 
schooling  in  any  single  year.  He  remained  at 
home  till  the  age  of  twenty,  eagerly  treasuring 
up  every  thing  that  could  add  to  his  scanty 
store  of  information.  About  that  time,  having 
snatched  some  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek, 
and  of  English  grammar,  from  an  itinerant  school- 
master, he  presented  himself,  after  six  months 
of  such  intermittent  schooling,  for  admission  to 
the  sophomore  class  in  Brown  University,  and 
entered  it  in  1816.  Illness — the  consumptive 
habit  bequeathed  him  by  his  father— now  inter- 
rupted his  work,  and  compelled  him  to  leave. 
Poverty  succeeded,  requiring  him  again  to  ab- 
sent himself  during  the  winter,  in  order  to  teach 
school  for  his  support  while  in  college.  In  spite 
of  these  drawbacks,  however,  he  graduated  in 
1819,  with  the  first  honors,  conceded  by  the 
unanimous  consent  ot  both  faculty  and  class- 
mates, lie  immediately  entered  a  law  office;  but 
had  been  there  only  a  few  months,  when  he  was 
offered  the  position  of  tutor  of  Latin  and  Greek 
in  the  college  he  had  just  left.  He  accepted, 
principally  on  account  of  the  facilities  it  ga\  • 
him  for  self  improvement  ;  and  at  once  began   a 

course  of  study,  to  be  carried  on  simultaneously 
with  his  teaching.  His  method,  in  the  Litter, 
already  foreshadowed  his  fitness  for  the  teacher's 

vocation.    In  1821,  he  resigned  his  position  as 

tutor,  and  entered  the  law  school  at  Litchfield. 
Ct.,  where  he  remained  about  a  year.  Leaving 
it,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  L823,  and 
immediately  opened  an  office  for  the  practice 
of  law.  During  the  fourteen  years  of  his  pro- 
fessional practice,  the  probity  which  was  so 
marked  a  characteristic  throughout  his  life,  was 
always  apparent.      In  L 827,  he  entered  political 

life,  having  I n   elected   representative    for   the 

district  of  Dedham,  in  which  he  resided;  and 
to    this  office    he   was  successively  re-elected   till 

L833,when  he  removed  to  Boston,  where,  shortly 
after,  he  was  elected  to  the  stale  senate,  serving 
four  consecutive  terms,  during  which  time,  he 
twice  chosen  the  presiding  officer.  Through- 
out bis  legislative  career,  Mr.  Mann  took  an 
active  part  in  all  discus-ions  relating  to  internal 

improvements,  temperance,  and  education.  The 
state  lunatic  asylum  at  Worcester  was  almost 
entirely  his  creation,  he  having  suggested  it, and 
carried   it.  almost    single-handed,  through    the 

various   stages   of    legislation.       His    services   in 

tin-  respect  were  so  generally  recognized,  that  he 
was  appointed  chairman  of  the  board  of  com- 
missioners  for   its  erection,  and.  on    its  comple- 


tion, chairman  of  its  board  of  trustees.  In 
1835,  he  was  appointed  by  the  senate  one  of  a 
committee  to  codify  the  statute  laws  of  the  state, 
and  assisted  in  their  publication.  In  1837,  the 
legislature  appointed  a  board  of  education,  to 
revise  and  re-organize  the  common-school  system 
of  the  state.  In  view  of  the  laborious  duties 
inseparable  from  this  work,  the  good  judgment 
required  for  its  successful  issue,  and  the  great 
length  of  time  necessary  for  its  completion,  it 
was  no  ordinary  compliment  that,  on  the  organ- 
ization of  the  board.  Mr.  Mann  was  chosen  its 
secretary.  There  is  complete  evidence,  however, 
that  he  fully  comprehended  the  magnitude  of 
the  work  before  him  ;  but.  having  found,  at  last. 
a  congenial  field  of  labor,  he  did  not  hesitate. 
Recognizing  the  necessity  of  entire  devotion  to 
bis  new  undertaking,  and  the  necessity,  also,  of 
an  unbiased  position  in  regard  to  it.  he  declined 
re-election  to  tin  senate. left  political  life  entirely . 
gave  up  all  professional  engagements,  and  placed 
himself  simply  in  the  position  of  a  citizen  of  his 
native  state.  From  this  stand-point,  he  ap- 
proached the  work  before  him.  and.  for  twelve 
years,  applied  himself  solely  to  his  duties  as 
secretary.  Notwithstanding  the  sacrifices  he 
had  made,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  freeing 
liis  work  from  any  suspicion  of  partisan  bias,  the 
dilliculties  he  had  to  encounter  were  appalling. 
The  abuse  of  enemies,  open  and  covert ;  the 
jealousies,  not  only  of  political  partisans,  but  of 
religious  denominations,  educational  associations, 
and  private  schools:  the  opposition  of  tax-pay- 
ers; and,  more  than  all,  the  deep-rooted  conserv- 
atism, which,  through  indolence  or  ignorance, 
or  both  combined,  resists  all  change,  constituted 
a  formidable  opposition  which  might  have  well 
led  him  to  decline  the  duties  that  now  devolved 
upon  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the  aid  on  which 
he  was  to  depend  was  often  lukewarm,  seldom 
enthusiastic.  His  method  of  procedure  was  com- 
prehensive and  effectual.  He  began  the  pub- 
lication of  a  periodical  on  bis  own  account — 
The  Common-School  Journal,  in  which  lie  gave 
in  detail  his  views  concerning  general  school 
management,  and   methods  of  instruction  and 

training;  while  he  visited  all  parts  of  the  state, 
Conferring  with  teachers,  attending  conventions, 

and  delivering  lectures  and  addresses.  His  most 
effective  instrument,  however,  was  the  annual 

report,  which  the  duties  of  his  position  requited 
him  to  make  to  the  board.  In  these  reports,  of 
which  there  are  twelve,  the  entire  subject  of 
education  i>  treated  in  a  practical  and  exhaustive 

manner.  The  sound  judgment, wide  experience, 
and   comprehensive   grasp  displayed    in    these 

papers,  constitute  them  a  classic  OU  the  subject 
of  which  they  treat  ;  while  their  clear  and  vigor- 
ous statements,  apt  illustrations,  ami  felicitous 
style  carry  conviction  even  t<>  careless  readers, 
and  amply  justify  his  selection  as  the  instrument 
for  working  out    the  great   reform    proposed. 

Their  publication  and  broad-cast  disperai ver 

the  state,  gradually  changed  the  current  of  pub- 
lic opinion,  and  raised  up  friends  in  every  quar- 
ter.    .Not  without  opposition, however,  wen  all 


MANX 


MANNERS 


543 


these  changes  effected.  In  1840, in  the  midst  of 
his  manifold  wearying  and  distracting  labors,  a 
bill  was  introduced  into  the  legislature,  calling 

for  tlic  abolition  of  the  board  of  education,  thus 
undoing  the  work  of  three  years,  and  remanding 
the  schools  to  their  former  condition.  Eappily 
the  bill,  though  sustained  by  a  majority  of  the 
committee,  was  defeated.  The  publication  of 
his  seventh  annual  report  gave  rise  to  a  tierce 
opposition.  Op  to  this  time,  his  reports  had 
treated  the  subject  of  education  in  a  philosoph- 
ical way,  with  a  constant  reference  to  first  prin- 
ciples, and  with  illustrations  drawn  from  the 
practical  experience  of  every  reader.  1  lis  seventh 
report,  however,  gave  the  result  of  his  observa- 
tions in  Europe,  singling  out  Prussia  for  special 
commendation,  and  comparing  her  system  of  in- 
struction with  that  of  his  native  state,  to  the 
disadvantage  of  the  latter.  A  rancorous  hostil- 
ity, founded  on  national  jealousy,  was  the  im- 
mediate result,  and  Mr.  Mann  found  himself,  his 
motives,  and  his  work  assailed  by  means  of  let- 
ters, newspapers,  and  pamphlets  in  the  most 
violent  manner.  The  result  of  this  attack,  how- 
ever, was  that  the  attention  of  the  public  was 
specially  called  to  the  subject  under  discus- 
sion, without  impairing  the  work  of  the  board, 
either  in  its  extent  or  its  efficiency.  In  1848, 
Mr.  Mann  was  elected  to  Congress  to  fill  the 
vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  John  Quincy 
Adams ;  and,  in  November  of  the  same  year, 
was  re-elected.  In  1850,  though  failing  of  the 
nomination,  he  was  elected  again  as  an  independ- 
ent candidate.  It  was  thought  by  many,  per- 
haps by  Mr.  Mann  himself,  that  by  re-entering 
the  field  of  politics  at  Washington,  he  might  in- 
fluence the  government  to  establish  a  bureau  of 
education  either  independently,  or  in  connection 
with  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  accomplished.  Leaving  polities, 
therefore,  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  Antioch 
College,  where  he  hoped  to  be  able  to  effect 
something  in  the  way  of  further  reforms  in  the 
pursuit  he  had  most  at  heart.  In  the  organiza- 
tion of  this  institution,  his  shaping  hand  is  again 
recognized;  and  the  objects  attained  before  his 
death,  which  happened  a  few  years  after,  are 
said  to  have  satisfied  him  of  the  feasibility  of  his 
plans.  The  great  glory,  however,  of  Mr.  Mann's 
career — -that  which  is  now  acknowledged  to  be  his 
distinctive  work — was  the  reform  accomplished 
in  the  Massachusetts  common  and  normal  school 
system,  dming  his  labors  in  the  board  of  educa-  ! 
tion.  His  twelve  annual  reports  led  to  many  J 
radical  reforms,  which  extended  beyond  the  bor-  ! 
ders  of  his  native  state  ;  and  the  knowledge  on  \ 
the  subject  of  education  which  they  contain  ren-  ! 
'ders  them  a  necessary  part  of  every  school  library. 
Mr.  Mann's  other  published  works  are :  A  Few 
Thoughts  for  a  Young  Man  (1850)  ;  Slavery, 
Letters  and  Speeches  (1851) ;  Lectures  on  In- 
temperance (1862);  Powers  and  Duties  of 
Woman  (1853)  ;  besides  numerous  reports, 
lectures,  and  addresses.  A  complete  edition  of 
his  works  with  a  biography  (Life  and  Works  qf\ 
Horace  Mann,  2  vols.)  was  published  in  Cam-  ! 


bridge,  in  1867;  a  selection  from  his  works 
(Thoughts  selected  from  //is  Writings),  in  L869. 

A  biography  was  published  by  his  wife,  Maky 
Peabodi  M\.\\  (Boston,  L865V.  Mis  lectures  on 
education  were  translated  into  French  by  Eugene 
de  Cuer,  with  a  preface  and  biographical  sketch, 
by  Laboulaye  (1ST.'!). 

MANNERS,  the  genuine  or  simulated 
manifestations  of  disposition  towards  each  other, 
which  occur  in  the  intercourse  of  human  beings. 
The  ordinary  use  of  the  word  manners  re- 
stricts it  to  those  personal  and  visible  peculiar* 
ities  of  deportment  which  characterize  the  inter- 
course mentioned.  The  agents  commonly  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  are  the  eye,  the  voice,  lan- 
guage, and  gestures.  When  persons  are  brought 
together  without  previous  knowledge  of  each 
other,  or  with  no  common  ground  of  taste  or  ex- 
perience between  them,  custom  has  prescribed  a 
conventional  code  of  formal  manners,  character- 
ized as  etiquette,  which  serves  to  relieve  the 
awkwardness  of  the  situation.  That  this,  how- 
ever, is  temporary  in  character,  and  not  intended 
to  survive  its  original  uses,  is  evident  from  the 
fact,  that  after  it  has,  in  great  measure,  been  laid 
aside,  any  attempt  to  revive  it,  as  the  exclusive 
medium  of  kindly  expression,  is  regarded  as  just 
cause  for  resentment.  The  fugitive  character  of 
mere  etiquette  can  never  constitute  it  an  equiv- 
alent for  that  abiding  kindliness  of  disposition 
which  finds  expression  in  genuine  politeness. 
Manners,  therefore,  are  more  decidedly  moral  in 
their  nature  than  a  superficial  observation  would 
lead  us  to  suspect ;  hence  the  usual  association 
of  "  morals  and  manners."  The  basis  of  agree- 
able manners  is  that  humanity,  or  feeling  of 
brotherhood,  which,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
pervades  the  human  race,  and  which  every  cent- 
ury, by  its  multiplied  means  of  communication, 
is  tending  to  extend  and  strengthen.  It  is,  there- 
fore, essentially  Christian;  and  pleasant  man- 
ners may  be  regarded,  not  as  an  accomplishment 
merely,  but  as  one  of  the  legitimate  ends  of  a 
thorough  education.  In  social  intercourse,  agree- 
able manners  are  far  more  powerful  than  intel- 
lectual accomplishments ;  while  the  displeasure 
produced  by  rude  manners  often  neutralizes  moral 
worth,  and  renders  mental  acquisitions,  however 
great,  comparatively  useless.  Momentous  issues  — 
even  the  destiny  of  a  lifetime  —  may  hang  upon 
the  apparently  unimportant  question  of  man- 
ners. To  educate  thoroughly,  therefore,  and 
neglect  the  means  by  which  thai  education  is  to 
be  made  effective,  is  self-evident  folly.  Beyond 
the  ordinary  rules  of  etiquette,  no  set  rules  can 
be  given  for  the  production  of  good  manners; 
since,  in  addition  to  the  moral  basis  above  re- 
ferred to,  they  are  largely  dependent  upon  tem- 
perament ;  but,  no  precept  is  half  so  powerful  in 
furtherance  of  this  end,  as  the  daily  example  of 
the  teacher,  the  parents,  or  other  persons  with 
whom  the  pupil  is  brought  into  daily  contact. 
The  indirect  though  constant  insistence  upon  the 
claims  of  every  individual  to  respect  and  kindly 
attention,  which  results  in  a  practical  recognition 
of  this  by  the  pupil,  together  with   the  daily 


544     MANUAL  LABOR  SCHOOLS 


.MARYLAND 


example  referred  to.  constitute,  perhaps,  the 
most  effective  method  for  the  grafting  of  agree- 
able manners  on  the  conduct  of  the  pupil. —  Sec 
Gow,  Good  Morals  and  Gentle  Manners  (Gin. 
and  N.  V.,  1873).  (See  also  Moral  Education.) 
MANUAL  LABOR  SCHOOLS.  See  In- 
dustrial Schools. 

MAP-DRAWING.      See  GEOGRAPHY. 

MARIETTA  COLLEGE,  .Marietta.  Ohio, 
was  founded  in  1  <s:-i"».  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  and  the  income  of  an  endowment  of  &1 1 5,000. 
The  libraries  contain  27,000  volumes.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  $38  per  annum.  There  are  several  schol- 
arships exempting  the  holders  from  the  payment 
of  tuition,  and  aid  is  extended  to  candidates  for 
the  ministry.  The  college  has  tour  buildings  and 
valuable  cabinets  and  apparatus.  There  is  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  department.    In  1875 

— 6,  there  were  it  instructors  and  H)'_'  students,  of 

whom  82  were  of  the  collegiate  grade.  The  num- 
ber of  graduates  in  the  classical  course  is  421; 
in  the  scientific  course,  11.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows :  the  Rev.  Joel  EL  Iinsley,  D.  D., 
L835  HI;  the  Rev.  Henry  Smith.  D.D.,  LL.D., 
1846—55;   and   the  Rev.  Israel  Ward  Andrews. 

I). ]>..  LL. D., the  present  incumbent, appointed 

in  Is;,"). 

MARYLAND,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  having  an.  area 
of  11,124  sq.  m.:  and  a  population,  according  to 
the  census  of  1870,  of  780,89  I.  of  whom  605, 197 
were  whites,  L75,391  colored  persons,  I  Indians, 
and  '1  Chinese.  In  respect  to  population,  the 
state  ranks  as  the  20th. 

Educational  History. — In  many  counties  of 
the  state,  free  schools  were  established  as  early 
as  1723,  when  an  act  was  passed  "for  the  en- 
couragement of  leaming.and  erecting  schools  in 
the  several  counties  of  this  province."  Under 
it,  a  ■•  public  free  school"  was  established  at  the 
county-seat  of  Calvert  county  (Battle  Creek), 
which  existed  without  a  rival  for  fifty-two  years. 

In   I  7 T.">, anot her  school  was  established  at  Lower 

Marlboro',  the  efficiency  of  which  was.  in  177'.', 

increased  by  the  addition  to  its  funds  of  the 
proceeds  from  the  sale  of  the  buildings  and 
lands  of  the  first  school.  Though  this  is  one  of 
the  earliest  schools  on  record  in  the  slate.  Talbot. 
comity  claims  to  have  had  the  tirst  absolutely 

free  school.      He t. ween  the   years  I  77)0  and  L753, 

the  Rev.  Thomas  Bacon  established  a  charity 
working  school  in  the  parish  of  St.  Peter,  which 
continued  in  existence  to  the  time  of  the  Revo- 
lution, when  the  building  in  which  it  was  kept, 
was  converted  into  a  home  Eor  the  county  poor. 
NO  genera]  interest  appears  to  have  been  aroused 

OH  the  subject  of  education    till    L825,  when  the 

Legislature  passed  an  act  "to  provide  for  the 
public  instruction  of  youth  in  primary  schools." 

The  offices  of  state  superintendent,  county  com- 
missioners, and  school  inspectors  were  created 
by  this  law  :   and  a  system    of   public  schools  for 

the  city  of    Baltimore  was  authorized  to  be 

established  by  the   mayor   and   common  council. 

for  which  purpose  they  were  empowered  to  levy 
a  tax.    In  L827,  the  office  of  state  superintend- 


ent was  abolished.  For  some  years  from  this 
time,  little  mention  is  made  of  the  schools  of 
the  state,  and  little  action  was  taken  for  their 
benefit  outside  of  the  city  of  Baltimore.  In 
L828,  sis  school  commissioners  were  appointed 
to  establish  a  system  of  city  schools.  The  next 
year,  three  schools  were  opened;  the  following 
year,  two  more,  the  highest  number  of  pupils  up 
to  that  time  being  402.  In  1839,  the  first  high 
school  was  opened;  and.  in  1840,  the  number  of 
common  schools  had  increased  to  nine.  In  1840, 
there  were  127  academies  or  grammar  schools, 
with 4,178  pupils;  and  567  common  and  pri- 
mary schools,  with  16,982  pupils.  In  1850,  of 
104,438  educable  children  in  the  state,  only 
34,467  attended  school,  for  which  there  was  an- 
nually expended  $225,260.  The  M-hool  fund,  in 
1852,  was  $148,509.  In  1864,  the  constitution 
gave  a  generous  recognition  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation, for  the  first  time,  by  decreeing  that  free 
schools  should  be  opened  in  e\ cry  school  district, 
and  taught  six  months  every  year.  A  state 
board  of  education  was  created,  consisting  of 
the  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  speaker  of  the 
house,  and  state  superintendent.  Local  super- 
vision was  to  be  exercised  by  school  commission- 
ers, and  an  annual  tax  was  levied  upon  the 
property  of  the  state  for  the  creation  of  a  school 

fund.  Acting  on  this  Suggestion,  the  stale  super- 
intendent prepared  a  detailed  plan  for  a  system 
which  was  adopted  in  1865,  and  continued  in 
operation  till  1868.     It  was  then  superseded, 

and    the   school   system    of    the   state    lias   been 

variously  modified  since  that  time,  principally  in 
L868,  L870,  and  L872.  Under  the  system  estab- 
lished in  1865,  Rev.  L.  Van  Bokkelen  was  the 
state  superintendent  ;  and  on  the  change  of  the 

system,  in  1868,  M.  A.  Newell,  principal  of  the 
state  normal  school  since  Lsof>,  became,  by  the 
operation  of  the  law.  the  state  superintendent. 
This  position  he  still  holds  i  1876). 

School  System. — The  care  of  the  schools,  at 
present,  is  confided  to  a  state  board  of  education 
which  consists  of  the  governor,  the  principal  of 
the  state  normal  school,  and  four  persons  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the 
senate.  These  four  persons  are  appointed  for 
two  years,  and  must  be  chosen  from  among  the 
presidents  and  examiners  of  the  county  boards, 
one  of   whom  must  be  a  resilient    of  the  eastern 

shore.  The  members  of  the  board  are.  ex  officio, 

trustees  of  the  state  normal  school.  The  prin- 
cipal of  this  school  is  the  executive  officer  of  the 
board,  his   office  corresponding   to    that  of  stale 

superintendent.  The  boards  of  county  school 
commissioners  consist  of  three,  or  live  members, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  county,  who  arc  ap- 
pointed for  two  years  by  the  judges  of  the  cir- 
cuit courts.  They  elect  a  person,  not  of  their 
number,  to  act  as  secretary,  treasurer,  and  ex- 
aminer, and  when  necessary,  an  assistant  exam- 
iner in  the  larger  counties.  The  county  com- 
missioners ti\  teachers'  salaries,  and  decide  what 

text  1 ks  shall  be  used.    District  school  trustees. 

three  in  each  district,  are  annually  appointed  by 
the  county  commissioners.     They  have  the  more 


MARYLAND 


545 


immediate  supervision  of  the  schools  in  their 
respective  districts,  subject  to  the  county  com- 
missioners and  tin'  state  board.  A  special  board 
of  trustees  is  appointed  by  the  county  board  for 
each  colored  school.  County  examiners  are  re- 
quired to  visit  the  schools  under  their  jurisdiction 
at  least  twice  every  year,  and  to  make  quarterly 
reports  to  the  county  board.  Teachers  must  be 
graduates  of  the  normal  school,  or  have  a  certif- 
icate from  the  state  board,  or  the  county  exam- 
iner. Teachers]  institutes  must  be  held,  once  a 
war,  for  five  days,  in  each  county.  For  this 
purpose,  time  is  allowed  from  the  school  session. 
and  a  portion  of  the  traveling  expenses  is  paid. 
These  institutes  are  presided  over  by  the  county 
examiner,  or  by  the  principal  or  a  professor  of  the 
normal  school.  The  law,  also,  encourages  asso- 
ciations in  districts  and  counties. and  state  teach- 
ers' associations.  One  school,  in  each  district, 
must  be  kept  open  ten  months  each  year,  the 
sessions,  of  five  hours  each,  to  be  held  five  days 
of  each  week.  The  school  age  is  from  6  to  21  for 
whites,  and,  in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  from  6  to 
20  for  colored  persons.  For  the  latter,  separate 
schools  have  been  established  in  each  election  dis- 
trict. These  are  supported  by  state  appropriations, 
private  gifts,  and  special  taxes  for  the  purpose 
levied  upon  the  colored  people. 

Tin;  school  revenue  is  made  up  of  a  state 
school  tax,  a  free-school  fund,  an  academic  fund, 
and  a  county  tax.  The  state  tax  is  limited  to 
ten  cents  on  the  $100  ;  the  county  tax  is  levied 
by  the  county  officers  at  a  rate  varying  from  ten 
to  twenty-five  cents  on  the  $100. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
schools  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was  1,846, — in  the 
city  of  Baltimore,  125  ;  and  in  the  counties, 
1,721.  The  other  principal  items  of  school  sta- 
tistics, for  1875,  are  the  following  : 

Number  of  different  pupils  enrolled 143,003 

Highest  number  enrolled  in  one  term 112,399 

Average  attendance 69,2,59 

Number  of  teachers 2,723 

Receipts  (except  city  of  Baltimore) : 

State  school  tax $336,110.11 

Appropriations  to  col- 
ored  schools SI, 170. 16 

County  taxation 36^,962.39 

Other  sources 135.757.51 

Total ~  $922,000.17 

Expenditures  (counties): 

Teachers' salaries $609,035.07 

Buildings,  repairs,etc.  10.5,175.65 
Other  expenses 209,898.23 

Total —  —  $924,108.95 

Expenditures  in  the  city  of  Baltimore 716,938.82 

Total  in  the  state $1,641,047.77 

Normal  Instruction. — A  state  normal  school 
was  established  in  Baltimore  in  1865,  to  which 
200  pupils,  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  city 
or  county  commissioners,  are  admitted  free,  if  in- 
tending to  teach  in  the  state;  otherwise,  payment 
for  tuition  is  required.  An  appropriation  of 
$100,000  has  recently  been  made  by  the  legis- 
lature for  a  new  building,  which  is  now  in  proc- 
ess of  erection.  The  number  of  instructors,  in 
1874,  was  10;  number  of  pupils,  174, — 9  males, 
35 


165  females.  The  number  of  graduates  was  21. 
There  is  also  a  normal  school  for  the  education 
of  colored  teachers, which  was  organized  in  1H66. 
it  received,  in  L874,  an  appropriation  of  §2,000 
from  the  state.  The  number  of  instructors  was 
■I;  number  of  pupils,  246,  -115  males,  131  fe- 
males. The  number  of  graduates  was  5.  There 
has  been  formed,  also,  in  Baltimore,  a  normal 
class  for  the  schools  of  that  city,  which  has  re- 
eeived  very  favorable  notice  from  the  school 
board. —  Tieaehers'  institutes  constitute  a  part  of 
the  system.  Fourteen  were  held,  during  1875, 
in  different  counties.  The  principal  of  the  state 
normal  school  or  the  local  examiner  is,  by  law, 
the  presiding  officer,  the  tendency  to  substitute 
the  latter  officer  for  the  former  increasing  as  the 
number  of  competent  examiners  increases.  "The 
good  results  of  the  institutes."  says  the  annual 
report  for  1875,  "have  been  as  marked  in  Mary- 
land as  in  any  other  state  of  the  Union." 

Secondary  Instruction. —  The  provision  for 
this  purpose,  by  the  establishment  and  mainte- 
nance of'  high  schools,  has  been  somewhat  re- 
tarded by  the  existence  of  the  old  academies  of 
the  state  which,  by  receiving  from  the  state  an- 
nual appro] uia t ions  too  small  to  maintain  them 
in  a  condition  of  efficiency,  and  yet  too  large,  to 
permit  of  their  extinction,  act  as  a  bar  to  prog- 
ress in  the  means  of  secondary  instruction.  The 
old  law  provides  that  each  academy  shall  edu- 
cate one  pupil  free  of  charge  for  every  $100 
received  from  the  state.  This  was  intended  to 
encourage  the  academies,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
to  educate  a  few  of  the  most  deserving  poor. 
The  first  object  seems  not  to  have  been  attained, 
at  least  not  to  the  extent  expected;  while  the  sec- 
ond has  failed  entirely,  on  account  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  public  schools.  Another  result  has 
been,  that  these  academies  have  become,  in  many 
cases,  entirely  anomalous  in  character,  holding, 
in  some  places,  the  position  of  elementary  schools, 
in  others,  that  of  high  schools,  so  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  classify  them  in  the  school  system  of  the 
state.  The  city  college  of  Baltimore  is  the  prin- 
cipal high  school  of  the  state.  It  numbers  10 
professors  and  400  students.  Its  English  course, 
alone,  furnishes  a  good  commercial  education ; 
while  the  full  course  is  an  ample  preparatory 
one  for  entrance  into  any  college  or  university. 
Two  female  high  schools  are  also  located  in  Bal- 
timore, with  30  teachers,  and  an  attendance  of 
761  pupils.  Their  courses  of  study  are  for  four 
years  each,  and  give  instruction  in  the  ordinary 
branches  of  a  good  English  education,  besides 
the  accomplishments  of  drawing  and  music. 
Many  other  academies  and  secondary  schools  ex- 
ist in  the  state  ;  but  the  reports  from  them  are 
incomplete  or  entirely  wanting.  In  1874,  as  far 
as  heard  from  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
they  gave  employment  to  243  teachers,  and  had 
an  attendance  of  3,694  pupils.  There  are,  through- 
out the  state,  a  number  of  private  schools  and 
academies,  the  courses  of  study  in  which  are 
various,  furnishing  all  degrees  of  preparation, 
from  that  necessary  to  enter  commercial  life  to 
that  required  for  admission  to  college. 


546 


MARYLAND 


Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — 
Several  of  these  exist  iu  the  state,  but  from  the 
amount  of  instruction  imparted,  tiny  are  more 
properly  classed  under  the  head  of  schools  for 
secondary  instruction. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  following  table 
contains  the  principal  institutions  of  this  grade. 


NAME 


CoUege  of  St.  James 

Frederick  College 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Loyola  College 

Mt.  st.  Diary '8  College 

Hill  College 

St.  <  'uarles's  College 

st.  John's  College  

Washington  College 

ni  Maryland  College 


Location 


When 

found- 
ed 


Denomi- 
nation 


St.  James  1842  M.  Epis. 

rick  1797  Non-sec. 

Baltimore  I  376  Non-sec. 

Baltimore  1852  B.  C. 

Emmettsburg  1808  R.  C. 

Elliott  City  1867  R.  C. 

EllicottCity  1848  R.  C. 

Annapolis  1789  Non-sec. 

Chestertown  1783  Non-sec. 

Westminster  1807  51.  Prot. 

Woodstock  College T.Woodstock  1867  R.  C. 

St.  John's  College  reported,  in  1*74, 11  pro- 
fessors, 130  students,  and  8  graduates.  Its  course 
is  the  usual  collegiate  one  of  four  years.  Six 
scholarships  are  provided  at  this  college  for  each 
senatorial  district,  the  holders  of  which  are  en- 
titled to  rent  of  room  and  tuition  free:  and  1  i<  tan  I 
is  furnished  free  to  two  of  them  from  each  dis- 
trict, who  agree  in  return  to  teach  in  tin'  state, 
after  graduation,  not  less  than  two  years.  For 
the  latter  purpose,  $10,000  of  the$25,000  annual- 
ly appropriated  by  the  state,  is  devoted.  The 
Western  Maryland  <  iollege  reported  13  pr< 'lessors 
and  131  students, of  whom  61  were  females,  for 
whom  there  is  a  three  years'  course  of  study.  This 
college  also,  has  several  state  scholarships.  Wash- 
ington College  had  2  professors,  27  students,  and 
3  graduates.  It  supports  6  state  scholarships  as 
provided  by  the  act  of  187-1.  Mt.  St.  Mary's 
college  had,  in  1873—4,13  professors,  and  182 
students.    Besides  the  usual  colli  course,  it 

has  a  theological  course,  in  which  34  students, 
in  addition  to  the  number  above  mentioned,  re- 
ceived instruction.  St.  Charles's  College  had  L2 
professors  and  180  students.  It  is  intended  only 
for  students  proposing  to  enter  the  church. 
Woodstock  College,  with  102  students,  is  exclu- 
sively Roman  Catholic.  For  additional  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  these  institutions,  see  the  re- 
spective tides.  In  1874,  six  institutions  claiming 
to  be  colleges  for  women,  were  reported  to  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.  They  numbered 
58  instructors  and  66  I  students. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — The 
Agricultural  College  in  Prince  Georges  Co.  was 
established  in  1865,  with  a  fund  of  $1  L0,000,the 
proc Is  of  UK). ihh)  acres  of  land,  granted  by 

Congress   to    the    state.      It    has  a  farm    of   300 

acres  connected  with  it,  and  furnishes  partial 
tuition  free  to  twelve  students  from  each  con- 
gressional district.  It  has  a  preparatory  and  a 
collegiate  department,  and  has  '.*  professors  ami 
91  students.  Mt.  St.  Clement's  College,  al  Qches- 
ter.  and  St.  Mary's  Theological  Seminary,  at  m. 
Sulpice,  both  Roman  Catholic,  afford  instruction 
in  theology,  besides  the  theological  departments 
ni  the  other  colleges.  A  school  of  law  tonus  a 
part  ni  the  University  of  Maryland,  while  tin' 


professions  of  medicine,  surgery,  etc.,  are  repre- 
sented by  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, and  the  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  at 
Baltimore,  the  .Maryland  Dental  College,  the 
Maryland  College  of  Pharmacy,  and  the  schools 
attached  to  the  Washington  University  and  the 
University  of  Maryland. 

Sp'j<-i<i/  Instruction. — The  Institution  for  the 
Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  opened  at 
Frederick,  in  1868,  and,  in  1874,  had  1  1  instruct- 
ors of  all  kinds,  and    104  pupils,  of  whom  68 

were  males,  and  3(1,  females.  The  COUTSe  of  study 
extends  over  seven  years,  and  comprises  the 
branches  usually  taught  in  the  public  schools, 
iher  with  instruction  in  several  kinds  of 
manual  labor.  The  study  of  written  language 
receives  special  attention.  It  is  found  that  com- 
paratively few  of  the  pupils  remain  to  complete 
the  course.  The  whole  number  of  pupils  in- 
structed in  the  institution  since  its  opening  is 
146  ;  of  these  the  number  who  have  engaged  in 
teaching  in  similar  institutions,  is  very  small. — 
The  Institution  for  the  Instruction  of  the  Blind 
at  Baltimore  was  organized  in  1853.  Pupils  be- 
tween the  ages  of  !l  and  18  are  received,  and 
may  be  educated  free,  upon  the  recommendation 
of  the  governor.  The  instruction  afforded  is 
that  of  a  common-school  course,  with  special 
instruction  in  vocal  and  instrumental  music. 
Such  branches  of  trade  or  manual  labor  also  are 
taught  as  are  specially  suited  to  the  condition  of 
the  blind.  'I  lie  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings, 
and  apparatus  is  estimated  at  $255,000.  The 
Maryland  Institution  for  Colored  Blind  and 
Deaf-Mutes  was  established  in  1872,  in  Balti- 
more. The  faculty  consists  of  4  instructors. 
The  number  of  pupils  during  the  year  1874  was 
12,  -5  males  ami  7  females. — The  McDonoUgh 
Institute  was  organized  in  1873  by  private  mu- 
nificence to  give  •instruction  in  the  Christian 
religion,  a  plain  English  education,  music,  and 
the  art  of  husbandry  or  farming  to  poor  boys 
of  good  character,  of  n  sociations  in 

life,  residents  of  the  city  of  Baltimore."  It  has 
an  endowment  fund  of  $725,000,  with  which  it 

is  estimated  that  250  boys  can  be  maintained 
and  Educated;  special  instruction  in  religion, 
and  useful  branches  of  manual  labor, in  addition 
to  that  given  in  the  English  branches,  is  provided 
for  colored  girls  by  the  St.  Francis  Academy  of 
Baltimore.  It  was  established  by  the  Oblate 
Si.-ters  of  Providence,  a  religious  order  founded 
in  1825.  The  Peabody  Institute,  with  an  orig- 
inal endowment  of  $300,000, afterwards  inert 
to  $1,000,000,  is  located  in  Baltimore,  and  fur- 
nishes facilities  for  advanced  instruction  in  art, 

by  means  of  a  library,  a  gallery  of  paintings,  and 
yearly  courses  of  concerts  ami  lectures. 

Teachers'  Associations. — The  Maryland  State 
School-Teachers'  Association  has  been  in  existence 
ahout  ten  years.  It  holds  an  annual  convention 
at  smiie  convenient  point  in  the  state  for  the 
discussion  of  such  questions  as  pertain  to  the 
welfare  of  the  teachers,  or  the  cause  of  cduca- 
tion.  Day  and  evening  meetings  are  held,  the 
exercises   consisting   of    debates    upon    subjects 


MARYVILLE   COLLEGE 


MASSACHUSETTS 


547 


affecting  the  schools,  recommendations  of  im- 
proved methods  of  instruction,  and  listening  to 
papers  previously  prepared  by  members  desig- 
nated for  the  purpose,  or  to  casual  addresses  by 
distinguished  educators  from  other  states. 

MARYVILLE  COLLEGE,  at  Maryville. 
Tenn.,  founded  in  1819,  is  under  Presbyterian 
control.  The  grounds  comprise  65  acres,  beauti- 
fully situated,  and  contain  three  new  buildings, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $50,000.  The  college  has  a 
library  of  3,000  volumes,  and  valuable  chemical 
ami  philosophical  apparatus.  It  comprises  a  col- 
legiate, a  preparatory,  a  normal,  a  ladies',  and 
an  English  com--.'.  In  L875  —6,  there  were  8  in- 
structors and  137  students,  of  whom  27  were  of 
collegiate  era  le.  The  Rev.  P.  M.  Bartlett,  D.  D., 
is  (1876)  the  president. 

MASON,  Lowell,  an  American  composer 
and  teacher  of  music,  born  in  Medfield,  Mass.. 
January  8.,  1792  ;  died  in  Orange,  N.  J.,  August 
11.,  1872.  He  manifested,  at  a  very  early  age, 
a  fondness  for  music,  and  adopted  it  as  his  pro- 
fession, teaching  'it  successfully  and  organizing 
choirs  and  musical  associations.  In  1821,  he 
made  his  first  effort  at  musical  publication,  the 
Boston  Handel  and  Haydn  Collection  of  Church 
Music.  In  1827,  at  the  instance  of  several  gen- 
tlemen interested  in  the  improvement  of  church 
music,  he  removed  from  Savannah  to  Boston, 
where  he  devoted  himself  more  particularly  to 
the  training  of  children's  voices.  His  efforts 
were  highly  successful,  resulting  in  a  general 
awakening,  to  the  value  of  music,  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  he  dwelt,  and  paved  the  way 
for  it.:  introduction  into  the  school  system  of  the 
city  and  state,  and  to  the  formation  of  the  Boston 
Academy  of  Music.  Mr.  Mason  had  been  success- 
ful for  many  years,  as  a  practical  teacher  of  vocal 
and  instrumental  music,  by  the  use  of  what  is 
now  known  as  the  arbitrary  or  text-book  method, 
when,  about  1827,  at  the  instance  of  his  friend 
Mr.  Wbodbridge,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 
method  of  Pestalozzi.  For  a  long  time,  he  re- 
sisted its  conclusions,  his  own  method,  pursued 
with  success  for  many  years,  appearing  to  furnish 
a  practical  refutation  of  its  utility.  He  consented, 
at  last,  however,  to  make  the  experiment  of 
publicly  teaching  a  class  according  to  the  new 
method;  and  the  success  attending  it  was  so 
great,  that  he  frankly  accepted  the  result  as 
conclusive,  and  always  afterwards  pursued  it, 
continuing  the  practice  for  more  than  thirty 
years.  A  lecture  given  in  1830,  by  Mr.  Wood- 
bridge,  before  the  American  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion, illustrated  by  a  class  of  Mr.  Mason's  pupils, 
called  renewed  attention  to  the  subject  of  music, 
and  led  to  the  formation  of  lar<re  classes  anion"- 
the  children  of  the  public  schools,  in  which  the 
study  of  music  has  now  become  a  striking  fea- 
ture, and  from  which  it  has  spread  throughout  the 
state  and  the  Union.  In  1837,  Mr.  Mason  visited 
Europe,  where  he  examined  the  different  systems 
of  musical  instruction,  with  a  view  to  improve- 
ment. The  result  of  his  observations,  however,  was 
to  confirm  him  in  his  opinion  of  the  wisdom  of 
the  method  of  Pestalozzi ;  and,  on  his  return,  he 


applied  the  method  more  carefully  and  rigorously 
than  before,  with  the  mosl  satisfactory  results. 
In  1855,  the  University  of  New  Fork  conferred 
on  Mr.  Mason  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music. 

MASSACHUSETTS,  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  American  Union,  having 
an  area  of  7,800  sq.m.  and  a  population, a<  cord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1870,  of  1,457,351,  of  whom 
13,947  were  colored.  Though  ranking,  accord- 
ing to  population,  as  the  7th  state  in  the  Union, 
and  in  size  as  the  35th,  its  influence  has  always 
been  very  great  in  every  thing  that  pertains  to 
education,  literature,  and  general  improvement. 
Educational  History.-  'I  his  topic  will  be 
treated  under  the  three  follow  ing  h<  ads  :  (I)  The 
establishment  of  s<  hools  ;  1 1 1 1  'I  he  mode  of  main- 
taining them ;  (III)  The  mode  of  supervising 
them. 

I.    As  far  back  as  1635,  the  people  of  Boston 
expressed  by  vote  their  appreciation  of  the  need 
of  a  school,  and  requested  "Brother  Philemon 
Purmont  to  become  school-master  for  the  teach- 
ing and  nurturing  of  children."     The  following 
year,  a  small  subscription  was  made  by  some  of 
the   citizens  for  the  maintenance  of  a  school, 
Daniel  Maud  being  chosen  to  conduct  it.    ri  he 
general  court,  also,  authorized  an  appropriation 
of  £400  for  the  establishment  of  a  -schoole  or 
colledge  whereof  £200  to  bee  paid  the  next  yeare, 
and  £200  when  the  worke  is  finished,  and  the 
next  court  to  appoint  wheare,  and  what  building.'' 
The  next  year  the  court  directed  that  the  college 
should  be  established  at  Newtown.     The  first 
educational  ordinance  of  the  colony  is  dated  in 
1(542.    By  it.  the  selectmen  of  every  town  are 
enjoined  to  have  a  "vigilant  eye  over  their  breth- 
ren and  neighbors,  to  see.  first,  that  none  of  them 
shall  suffer  so  much  barbarism  in  any  of  their 
families  as  not  to  endeavor  to  teach,  by  them- 
selves or  others,  their  children  and  apprentices  so 
much  learning  as  may  enable  them  perfectly  to 
read  the  English  tongue,  and  knowledge  of  the 
capital  laws,  upon  penalty  of   twenty   shillings 
therein."  By  the  law  of  1647,  it  was  ordered  by  the 
court,  that  every  township  of  fifty  householders 
should  appoint  one  of  their  number  to  teach  all 
children  that  might  be  sent  to  him  to  read  and 
write,  the  wages  of  such  teacher  to  be  paid  either 
by  the  parents  or  guardians  of  the  children  sent, 
or  by  the  inhabitants  in  general  ;  the  penalty  at- 
taching to  the  disregard  of  this  ordinance  for 
one  year  to  be  £10.     It  was  also  ordered  that 
every   town   of    one   hundred    families    should 
maintain,  in  addition  to  its  common   school,  a 
grammar  school  for  the  fitting  of  pupils  to  enter 
the  university-     In  1650,  Ezekiel  Cneever  came 
to  reside  in  Ipswich,  taking  charge  of  the  gram- 
mar  school   there.      In    1661.   he    removed   to 
<  'harlestown,  and  became  principal  of  the  Town 
Free  School,  which  position  he  filled  till  1670, 
when  he   removed   to   Boston,   where  he  took 
charge  of  the  first  school  founded  in  the  state, 
continuing  his  labors   there   thirty-eight   years. 
Prom   1650,  the  time   of  his  teaching   in  the 
Ipswich  school,  which  he  made  "  famous  in  all 
the  country,"    down  to   1708,   he   contributed 


548 


MASSACHUSETTS 


powerfully  to  the  fame  of  Massachusetts  as  an 
educational  center,  and  encouraged,  more  than 
any  other  man,  that  love  of  learning,  the  prac- 
tical activity  in  behalf  of  which  lias  always  been 
a  characteristic  of  the  state.  (See  Chebver.) 
Further  enactments  were  made,  from  time  to 
time,  as  required  by  the  wants  of  the  growing 
colony.  Thus,  in  Ids.'!,  all  towns  of  five  hundred 
families  where  required  to  maintain  two  gram- 
mar schools  and  two  writing  schools;  and  any 
town  failing  to  support  a  grammar  .school,  was 
required  to  pay  at  first  I'll),  and  afterwards  £20 
to  tin-  nearest  school  kept  in  compliance  with  the 
law.  During  the  provincial  period,  these  laws 
Substantially  were  kept  in  force.  The  constitu- 
tion of  L780  made  special  mention  of  the  impor- 
tance of  education  ;  anil  after  the  revolution, 
when  new  townships  were  created,  a  lot  was  re- 
served in  each  for  a  school.  In  1789,  a  general 
act  of  the  legislature  directed  that,  in  every 
town,  schools  should  be  maintained  in  which 
children  should  he  taught  to  read  and  write. and 
to  receive  instruction  in  the  •■  English  langn  i 
arithmetic,  orthography,  ami  decent  behavior." 
It  was  further  directed  that  towns  should  b3 
divided  into  school  districts  which  were  after- 
wards erected  into  corporations,  with  power  to 
sue  and  Ik'  sued,  and  to  hold  property  for  the 
ase  of  the  schools  ;  that  towns  of  200  families, 
instead  of  100,  as  before  enacted,  diould  consti- 
tute the  basis  for  the  maintenance  of  grammar 
schools;  that  the  teacher  should  have  acertilicat  • 
of  good  moral  character;  and,  lastly,  that  pupils 
should  be  permitted  to  pass  from  the  common 
school  to  the  grammar  school  after  a  certain  pro- 
ficiency had  been  attained.  For  the  violation  of 
this  law,  penalties  in  money  were  imposed,  gradu- 
ated according  to  the  size  of  the  towns  disol 
ing.  Incompliance  with  this  law,  the  town  of 
Dedham  was,  in  L818,  indicted,  tried,  and  con- 
victed for  neglecting  for  a  year  to  keep  and  sup- 
port a  grammar  school  for  the  instruction  of 
children  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  lan- 
guages. This  was  the  first  law  in  which  women 
were  recognized  in  Massachusetts  as  teachers. 
In  I  B2  1,  the  law  was  modified  somewhat  in  favor 
of  towns  having  a  population  of  less  than  5,000, 
the  maintenance  of  a  grammar  school  being 
waived  in  this  case,  and  a  common  school  being 
accepted  in  its  stead,  if  the  inhabitants  so  de- 
sired. In  1832,  incomplete  returns  showed  that 
the  sum  of  81  .!>H  jut  pupil  was  the  average  annual 

expenditure ;  and.  in  1 83 1,  it  was  ascertained  that 
five-sixths  of  the  educable  children  of  the  state 
received  instruction  in  the  public  schools,  the  re- 
mainder attending  private  schools.     In  this  year 

(1834)  a  law  was  passed  prohibiting  children 
under  15  years  of  age  from  working  in  factories, 
unless  they  had  attended  Bchool  for  at  least  tine.' 
months  during  the  preceding  year.  In  1837, 
the  state  board  of  education  was  created,  and 

Horace  Mann  was  elected  ita  secretary  (June 29., 

17).  It  was  made  the  duty  of  the  secretary, 
"to  collect  information  of  the  actual  condition 
tod  efficiency  of  the  common  sohools  and  other 

means  of  popular  education;   aud  to  diffuse  as 


widely  as  possible,  throughout  every  part  of  the 
commonwealth,  information  of  the  most  ap- 
proved and  successful  methods  of  arranging  the 
Studies  and  conducting  the  education  of  the 
young."  I'p  to  that  time,  though  much  had  been 
done,  throughout  the  state,  for  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation, the  great  lack  of  uniformity,  in  system 
and  action,  had  deprived  the  results  of  much  of 
their  practical  usefulness.  This  uniformity  the 
board  set  itself  vigorously  to  work  to  supply. 
Mr.  Mann,  in  particular,  labored  long  and  ear- 
nestly for  the  attainment  of  this  object,  withdraw- 
ing himself  entirely  from  politics  and  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession,  and  devoting  himself  for 
twelve  years  to  the  work.  (See  M  \\\\  HORACE.) 
The  result  of  the  labors  of  the  board  was  a  uni- 
form common-school  system,  which  was  adopted 
by  the  legislature,  and  which  has  continued  in 
force  to  the  present  time.  In  1839,  two  normal 
schools  were  opened,  —  one  at  Lexington,  and 
the  other  at  Barre.  These  were  first  designated 
state  normal  schools  in  1842  ;  and  their  number 
has  been  increased  gradually,  according  as  a  ne- 
cessity  for  their  establishment  has  been  recog- 
nized. In  1846,  the  first  law  making  education 
compulsory  in  this  state  was  passed  ;  being  ren- 
dered necessary,  in  the  opinion  of  the  legislature, 
by  the  fact  that  the  number  of  persons  in  the 
state  who  were  unable  to  read  and  write  was 
vapidly  increasing,  the  presence  of  which  class 
had  always  been  regarded  with  distrust.  Previ- 
ous to  L819,  accurate  information  in  regard  to 
schools  had  not  been  obtainable;  but,  in 
that  year,  a  law  was  passed,  specifying  that  the 
income  of  tin'  permanent  school  fund  should  be 
apportioned  among  those  cities,  towns,  and  die- 
ts only  which  had  raised  by  taxation  the  sum 
of  $1.50  for  the  education  of  each  child  between 
the  ages  of  5  and  15  years.  By  thus  making 
the  amount  raised  for  each  child  the  unit  of  ap- 
portionment, definite  statistical  information  as 
well  as  accuracy  of  appropriation,  was  insured. 
Various  changes  and  amendments  of  minor  im- 
portance were  made  in  the  school  laws  from  this 
time  to  L857,  when  the  state  constitution  itself 
was  altered  in  the  interest  of  free  non-sectarian 
education.  By  this  amendment  it  is  provided. 
that  "no  person  shall  have  the  right  to  vote,  or 
shall  be  eligible  to  office  under  the  constitution 
of  this  commonwealth,  who  shall  not  be  able  to 
read  the  constitution  in  the  English  language, 

and  write  his  name,  unless  prevented  by  physical 

disability  from  complying  with  the  requirement, 

and  unless  he  already  enjoys  the  right  to  vote. 
All  moneys  raised  by  taxation  in  towns  and 
cities  fur  the  support  of  public  schools,  and  all 
moneyB  appropriated  by  the  state  for  the  sup- 
port of  Common  schools,  shall  never  be  appropri- 
ated to  any  religious  sect  for  the  maintenance 
exclusively  of  its  own  schools."  In  L869,  upon 
petition  of  several  citizens  of  the  state,  an  act 
was  passed  amending  a  previous  act  so  as  to  in- 
clude drawing  in  the  common-school  course,  and 
providing,  in  addition,  that  every  city  and  town 
having  more  than  10,000  inhabitants,  should 
make  annual  provision   for  giving  free  iustruc- 


MASSACHUSETTS 


549 


drawing  to 


tion   in  industrial  and  mechanical 
pupils  over  fifteen  years  of  age. 

II.  There  have  been  live  BOUTCeB  of  income 
for  the  support  tit'  schools  and  colleges:  (I)  In- 
dividual gifts;  (2)  Tuition  tees,  or  rate  bills; 
(3i  Taxes  :  (1)  The  income  of  permanent  funds; 
(.">)  Special  appropriations. 

(1)  Individual  Gifts.-  -The  first  mention  made 
in  the  history  of  the  state,  of  a,  fund  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  school,  was  that  of  a  gift,  in  the 
shape  of  a  subscript  ion,  made  in  L 636,  by  several 
wealthy  >*tizens  of  Boston,  for  the  school,  of 
which  Daniel  Maud  was  teacher.  This  example 
was  followed,  in  L638,  by  the  Rev.  John  Harvard, 
who  bequeathed  £77!)  and  a  library  of  30(1  vol- 
umes to  the  college  already  founded  at  New- 
town. A  year  after,  the  name  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege was  given  to  it  in  his  honor;  and  the  name 
of  Newtown  was  changed  to  Cambridge,  in  com- 
pliment to  the  English  university  of  that  name, 
of  which  some  of  the  settlers  were  graduates. 
Since  that  time,  the  history  of  education  in  tin- 
state,  particularly  since  the  Revolution,  is 
adorned  by  continual  gifts  made  by  enlightened 
citizens  for  the  establishment,  maintenance,  or 
improvement  of  schools  or  colleges.  Chief  among 
these  benefactors  may  be  mentioned,  Samuel 
Appleton,  John  Lowell,  jr..  Amos  Lawrence, 
Abbott  Lawrence,  Nathaniel  Thayer,  Edmund 
Dwight,  and  George  Peabody.  Probably  no 
state  has  produced  a  larger  number  of  pecuniary 
contributors  to  the  cause  of  education. 

(2)  Tuition  Fecs.-Tho,  earliest  method  employed 
for  the  payment  of  the  teacher  was  that  of  a  fee 
charged  to  each  parent  or  guardian,  according  to 
the  number  of  children  sent.  This  method  con- 
tinued in  force  for  a  century  and  a  half  after 
the  first  school  law  was  passed.  Even  after 
towns  were  compelled  by  law  to  maintain  a 
free  school  by  a  special  yearly  tax,  the  original 
method  was  continued  in  many  country  districts 
down  to  a  very  late  clay.  These  fees  took 
different  forms  according  to  locality,  in  the  cities 
and  large  towns  being  usually  in  money  ;  in  the 
country,  consisting  of  board  for  the  teacher,  con- 
tributions of  fuel,  etc. 

(3)  Ta.res. — The  first  educational  law  passed 
by  the  colony  —  that  of  1647 — provided  that 
the  teacher  should  be  paid  either  by  the  parents 
or  masters  of  the  children  taught,  or  by  "  the 
inhabitants  in  general,  by  way  of  supply,  as  the 
major  part  of  those  that  order  the  prudentials 
of  the  town  shall  appoint;  provided  that  those 
that  send  their  children  1m  not  oppressed  by 
paying  much  more  than  they  can  have  them 
taught  for  in  other  towns.''  Through  every 
period  of  the  subsequent  history  of  this  state, 
taxation  has  been,  to  a  considerable  extent,  re- 
sorted to  as  a  means  of  supporting  schools.  As 
already  stated,  the  towns  were  obliged,  under 
stringent  penalties,  to  support  schools ;  and  this, 
of  course,  could  only  be  effected  by  paying  taxes. 
In  1827,  the  legislature,  in  the  school  law  of  that 
year,  authorized  the  towns  to  raise  as  much 
money  as  they  might  deem  necessary  for  school 
purposes.    The  method  of  raising  money  for  the 


support  of  public  schools  has  varied  from  time 
to  I  line,  lull   tlie  plan  generally  adopted    prior  to 

the  establishment  of   the  school  fund,  in  1-31. 

was  by  taxation  of  the  polls  and  estates  of  the 
people  of  the  tow  ns  and  school  disti  icts.  without 
any  substantial  aid  from  the  government.  Since 
the  establishment  of  the  school  fund,  more  or 

less  aid  has  been  furnished  by  the  state  for  the 
support  of  the  common  schools.  During  the 
period  from  1*35  to  L 845, the  amount  raised  an- 
nually by  tax  for  the  wages  of  teachers  advanced 
from  $325,320  to$600,000.   Thestatuteof  L839 

required  that  $1.25  should  be  raised  for  every 
child  between  the  ages  of  -1  and  Hi,  and  actually 
expended  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  in  each 
town;  but,  in  184"),  more  than  $3  for  every 
child  of  that  age  was  actually  raised  by  tax  in 
53  towns,  and  more  than  $2  in  DO  towns,  the 
average  being  $2.99. 

(4)  The  Income  of  Pn-initnentFiouh. —  The 
first  trace  of  any  thing  like  a  permanent  fund 
for  school  purposes  is  found  at  a  very  early  day, 
when  the  public  money  derived    from   the  ('apt; 
Cod  fisheries  was  applied  to  the  maintenance 
of  schools.     The  revenue  from  this  source  was, 
of  course,  uncertain  ;  but  the  intelligence  of  the 
people  seems  to  have  been  relied  on  to  furnish, 
from  time  to  time,  by  special  act  of  the  legislature 
or  direct  taxation,  whatever  funds  were  necessary, 
till  1834,  when  a  most  important  step  was  taken 
for  placing  the  public  school  system  of  the  state 
on  a  firm  financial  basis,  by  the  establishment 
of  a  permanent  school    fund.     Chapter  1(59  of 
the  laws  of  that  year  provided  that  this  fund 
should  consist  of  the  amount  in  the  treasury  de- 
rived from  the  sale  of   lands  in    the   state   of 
Maine,  with  fifty  per  cent  of  all  money  to  be 
received  from  the  sale  of  lands  in  the  same  state 
after  January  1.,  1835  ;  and  all  money  derived 
from  the  claim  of  the  state  on  the  government 
of  the  United  States  for  military  services  and 
not  otherwise  appropriated.     This  fund  was  not 
to  exceed  $1,000,000.  and  the  income  only  was 
to  be  used  for  the  support  of  common  schools  ; 
no  city,  town,  or  district  receiving  more  than  it 
had  raised  for  the  same  purpose.     This  created 
almost    immediately     a     permanent     fund     of 
$500,000,  which  was  increased  from  that  amount, 
in  1835,  to  $800,000,  in  L845.     At  the  close  of 
the  year  1850,  the  amount  of  the  fund  was  up- 
wards of  $986,000 ;  at  the  end  of  1853,  it  had 
been  increased,  by  the  sale  of  lands  in  Maine,  to 
$1,244,284;  in  1854,  it  was  $1,501,743.62.     In 
1859,  this  fund  was  further  increased  by  the 
proceeds  derived  from  the  sale  of  public  lands 
in  iioston.      At  the  end  of  L863,  it  amounted  to 
$1,870,970;  in  1864,  to  $2,196,827.18;  and  at 
the  close  of  1874,  $2,1 1  7.732.*2.     By  an  act  of 
the  legislature,  passed  in    1*54,  one  half  of  the 
income  derived  from  this  fund  is  applied  to  the 
support  of  the  common  schools,  the  other  half 
being   used    for    the    maintenance   of    normal 
schools,    teachers'  institutes,  repairs   of    school 
buildings,  the  salary  of  the  secretary  of  the  board 
of    education,  printing,  etc.     Any  surplus,  re- 
maining after  the  payment  of  expenses,  is  to  be 


550 


MASSACHUSETTS 


added  to  the  fund.  For  some  time,  the  principal 
of  the  fund  was  increased  by  these  unexpended 
balances,  but  at  present  this  is  not  the  case.  13y 
a  liberal  interpretation  of  the  law,  various  sums 
of  money  were,  from  time  to  time,  drawn  from 
the  income  of  the  permanent  fund  for  the  pur- 
pose of  aiding,  in  an  indirect,  way  new  normal 
schools,  till  it  was  discovered  that  the  income 
was  becoming  insufficient,  and  the  half  devoted 
to  the  support  of  common  schools  was  being  en- 
croached upon.  This  was  due  to  the  increase  in 
educational  wants  produced  by  the  growth  of 
the  state  in  population,  and  has  been  remedied, 
from  year  to  year,  by  special  acts  of  the  legis- 
lature. 

(5)  SpecialApproprialions. — The  first  special 
appropriation  made  for  educational  purposes  was 
that  of  163(5,  by  which  £400  was  devoted  to  the 
founding  of  a  school  or  college.  The  appropria- 
tions from  that  time  to  the  present  have  been 
many,  and  for  various  purposes,  and  have  in- 
creased rapidly  in  number  with  the  growth  of  the 
state,  being  most  frequent  as  we  approach  tin- 
present  time.  Thus,  in  L836,  the  foundation  of 
Bchool  libraries  was  made  secure  by  an  act  of 
the  legislature,  which  authorized  the  expenditure, 
in  each  school  district,  of  $50  the  first  year,  ami 
$10  each  succeeding  year,  for  their  establishment 
and  maintenance.  In  1837,  $10,000  was  appro- 
priated for  the  establishment  of  two  normal 
Bchools,  a  like  sum  having  been  contributed  for 
the  same  purpose  by  lion.  Edmund  Dwight; 
and,  in  L842,  $6,000  was  appropriated  annually 
for  three  years  to  continue  these  schools.  In 
1873,  a  special  act  of  the  legislature  set  apart  the 
sum  of  $7,500  to  establish  a  state  normal  art- 
school  in  Boston. 

III.  The  supervision  of  the  common  schools  of 
the  state  appears  to  have  been  committed  to  the 
selectmen  at  the  first,  afterward  I  in  1 826)  to  school 
committees  appointed  in  the  different  towns.  In 
1837,  the  reorganization  of  the  public-school 
system  was  undertaken  by  the  board  of  educa- 
tion. The  secretary  of  the  board,  Horace  .Mann, 
in  his  first  annual  report,  makes  special  mention 
of  the  ansa!  Isfactory  manner  in  which  the  schi 
were  supervised,  laying  great  stress  upon  the 
1  of  properly  qualified  school  conunittee- 
men.    "  Thi  py,"  says  the  report,  "  a  con- 

trolling position  in  relation  to  our  common 
school,.  They  are  the  administrators  of  the 
system  ;  and,  in  proportion  to  the  fidelity  and 
intelligence  exercised  by  them,  the  system  will 
flourish  or  decline."  One  of  the  most  important 
duties  imposed  upon  the  school-committees  (by 
tli  ■  law  of  L826)  was  to  obtain  evidence  of  the 
good  moral    character  of  all    instructors,  and  to 

rtain  their  "literary  qualifications  and  ca- 
pacity for  the  governmenl  of  schools."  The  law 
c  .pp.  I,  i,  quired  every  teacher  to  obtain,  from 
the  school  committee  of  the  town,  a  certificate 
o    his  qualifications  before  opening  the  school. 

The  laxity  with    which  this  part  of    the  law  was 

enforced   received    severe  animadversion   from 

Mr.  Mann,  in  the  report  above  referred  to.  The 
employment  by  the  board  of  education  of  state 


agents  constitutes  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts system.  Their  duties,  as  defined  by 
the  general  statutes  of  the  state,  are  "  to  visit 
the  several  towns  and  cities,  for  the  purpose  of 
inquiring  into  the  conditions  of  the  schools,  con- 
ferringwith  the  teachers  and  committees,  and 
lecturing  upon  subjects  connected  with  educa- 
cation."  In  L850,  the  legislature  appropriaxed 
82,(100  to  the  board  for  this  purpose;  and  ac- 
cordingly, six  agents  were  employed  to  visit  the 
towns  in  the  early  summer.  Among  these,  were 
N.  P.  Banks,  and  S.  S.  Greene,  the  latter  after- 
wards of  Brown  University.  The  experiment 
was  eminently  successful ;  and  accordingly,  the 
legislature,  in  1 851 ,  made  a  similar  appropriation 
for  two  years,  which  was  renewed  in  1853, 1855, 
and  1  ^o7,  with  the  authority  in  the  last  instance 
to  expend  a  sum  not  exceeding  $4,000  in  one 
year.  B.  (i.  Northrop  was  sole  agent  from  1860 
to  1867.  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Abner  B. 
Phipps,  who  has  continued  in  office  till  the  pres- 
ent time  (1876).  The  legislature  of  1871  made 
a  special  appropriation  of  810.000,  for  this 
purpose,  payable  from  the  "moiety  of  the  in- 
come  of  the  school  fund  appropriated  to  gen- 
eral educational  purposes."  This  opened  a 
May  for  the  employment  of  a  state  director 
of  art-education,  to  which  position  "Walter 
Smith  was  appointed  in  1871.  In  1^75,  the 
legislature  made  an  appropriation,  for  the  same 
purpose,  of  $14,000,  payable  from  the  state  treas- 
ury, and  thus  enabled  the  board  to  increase  the 
number  of  its  agents.—  The  following  named 
persons  have  filled  the  office  of  secretary  of  the 
board  of  education  since  its  creation  in  L837  : 
I  loiace  Mann,  until  1848;  Hamas  Scars,  from 
L848  to  L855;  George  S.  Boutwell,  from  L855 
to  18(*>1  ;  Joseph  White,  from  1861  to  the  pres- 
ent time  (187(>). —  Teachers'  Infinites  were  first 
organized  in  1845  ;  and,  in  184G,  the  legislature 
for  the  first  time  made  an  apjjropriation   for 

their  support. 

In  1850.  the  first  truant  law  was  passed,  which 
simply  authorized  the  towns  to  make  needful 
by-laws  concerning  habitual  truants,  and  re- 
quired  the  towns  that  availed   themselves  of  the 

act  to  appoint  truant  officers  empowered  to  carry 

the  law  into  execution.  This  law  was  amended 
in  1862,  making  i!  obligatory  upon  the  towns  to 
enact    bylaws   concerning   truants;  and  such  is 

the  law  at  present.     An  amendment,  made  in 

:.  requires  the  school  committee,  instead  of 
the  town  or  city,  to  appoint  the  truant  officers. 
ami  fix  their  compensation.  This  is  the  duty  of 
the  committee  independently  of  the  action  of 
the  town;  since  there  are  other  laws  besides 
those  relating  to  truancy  which  only  the  truant 
officers  can  execute. 

School  System. — The  control  of  the  educa- 
tional interests  of  the  state  rests  immediately 
with  the  legislature.  All  information,  however, 
in  regard  to  the  schools,  colleges  ami  other  in- 
stitutions of  learning,  on  which  its  action  is 
based,  is  derived  from  the  annual  report  of  the 
state  board  of  education,  which  is  composed  of 
the    governor,    lieutenant    governor,   and    eight 


MASSACIirSKTTS 


551 


persons  appointed  by  the  governor,  who  hold 
office  for  eight  years,  one  retiring  each  year.  To 
this  board  is  entrusted  the  care  and  management 
of  the  school  system,  subject  to  the  enactments  of 
the  legislature,  to  whom  the  board  annually  re- 
ports its  proceedings  and  the  condition  of  the 
schools. — The  s  '■cretury  of  the  board  is  its  chief 
executive  oflicer,  performing  the  duties  usually 
devolving  upon  the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction in  other  states.  There  is  also  a  gen 
agent  and  such  other  agents  as  the  hoard  may 
deem  necessary,  whose  duties  are  to  visit  the 
schools,  deliver  lectures,  confer  with  school  com- 
mittees and  teachers,  and  generally  to  act  as  rep- 
resentatives of  the  secretary. — Each  town  elects 
a  school  committee  consisting  of  three  persons  (or 
any  multiple  of  three),  whose  duty  it  is  to  super- 
intend the  public  schools  in  the  town,  apportion 
the  school  money  among  the  schools  or  districts, 
examine,  and  license  teachers,  select  the  text- 
books to  be  used,  anil  visit  every  school  once  a 
month  during  the  school  session,  and  make  an 
annual  report  to  the  town  or  to  the  board  of 
education.  For  this  service  they  receive  not  less 
than  one  dollar  for  each  day  actually  spent  in 
the  performance  of  their  duties,  with  whatever 
additional  compensation  may  be  allowed  by  the 
town.  In  the  cities  and  some  of  the  larger  towns, 
the  school  committee  appoints  a  superintendent, 
who,  as  it-  agent,  performs  most  of  the  duties 
above  enumerated.  The  salary  of  the  superin- 
tendent is  fixed  by  the  school  committee,  who 
by  appointing  this  officer  relinquish  all  claim 
to  compensation  for  their  own  services. — Pru- 
dential committees  are  elected  in  some  of  the 
towns,  consisting  of  one  person  in  each  district, 
who  must  be  an  actual  resident.  The  duties 
performed  are  similar  and  supplementary  to 
those  of  the  town  school  committee. —  Parents 
and  guardians  are  required,  under  a  penalty  of 
§20,  to  send  their  children  between  8  and  12 
years  of  age,  to  school  at  least  20  weeks  each 
year,  six  weeks  of  which  must  be  consecutive. 
The  only  exemptions  are  cases  of  poverty, 
physical  or  mental  incapacity  on  the  part  of  the 
child,  or  when  the  child  is  otherwise  provided 
for.  The  truant  officers  are  required  to  see  that 
truant  children,  absentees  from  school,  and  va- 
grants, are  sent  to  school ;  and  the  education  of 
orphans  and  the  children  of  drunken  parents  is 
■compulsory  on  the  cities  and  towns  in  which 
they  reside. — The  school  age  is  between  5  and 
15  years;  and  the  public  schools  of  the  state  are 
free  to  all  persons  of  school  age,  without  regard 
to  religion,  race,  or  color. — The  daily  reading 
of  a  portion  of  the  Scriptures  is  required  in 
•fcvery  school. — The  school  fund,  which,  on  the 
1st  of  January  l.S7<>,  amounted  to  .'i?2,0G.'>,23S.s(i, 
is  in  charge  of  a  board  of  commissioners,  con- 
sisting of  the  secretary  of  the  board  of  education, 
and  the  treasurer  and  receiver-general.  One  moi- 
ety of  it  is  distributed  among  the  towns  in  pro- 
portion to  the  school  population  of  each, and  the 
other  is  applied  to  the  support  of  normal  schools, 
teachers'  institutes,  etc.  A  special  fund  is  pro- 
vided for  the  education  of  Indians. 


Educational    Condition.      The    number    of 

elementary  public  schools  in  the  state,  in  L875, 

was  5,551  ;  the  number  of  high  schools,  208  ;  of 

ing  schools,  99;  incorporated  academies,  63; 

of  private  schools  and  academies,  369;  of  schools 
instate  charitable  and  reformatory  institutions, 
12;  making  a  total  of  6,302  schools.  The  es- 
timated value,  as  returned  by  committees,  of 
School-houses  and  grounds,  was  $20,856,777.50. 
The  amount  of  money  received  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  schools  was  as  follows  : 

Income  oi  state  school  fund.  $88,613.46 
Amount  raised  by  taxation, 

including    only   wages  of 

teachers,  fuel,  and  care  of 

fires  and  school  rooms. . . .  4,358,623.59 
Income  of  funds  appropriated 

for  the  support  of  public 

schools   at  the    option   of 

towns 52,050.31 

Voluntary    contributions    of 

hoard,  fuel,  apparatus,  etc.  30,787.32 
Income  of  local  fund 120,2m;. :',2 

$4,660,260.99 

Expenditures  on  public  schools  alone,  ex- 
clusive of  the  repairing  and  erecting  of 
school-houses  and  the  cost  of  school 
books $4,GG8,472.09 

Amount  expended  in  1874  tor  erecting 
school-houses -1.1  ts,i :;:',.  r,:, 

Average  wages  per  month,  male  teachers.        $88.37 
female   teachers $35.35 

The  other  most  important  items  of  the  school 
statistics  for  the  year  1874 — 5  are  the  follow- 
ing :— 

Number  of  children  of  school  acre 294,708 

No.  of   all    ages,   enrolled   in   the    public 

schools 302,118 

Average  attendance  during  the  year  216,861 

Number  under  5  years  of  age  enrolled. . . .  2,383 

Number  over  15  years  of  age  enrolled 32,'JSG 

Number  of  teachers,  males 1,169 

"         '        "  females s.047 

Total 9.21G 

Average  length  of  school  term 8  mo.  17  days 

Normal  Instruction. — There  are  five  normal 
schools  in  the  state,  exclusive  of  the  Normal 
Art-School  in  Boston.  The  first  two  were 
established  in  1839,  at  Lexington  and  Barre.but 
were  afterwards  removed, — the  first  to  Newton, 
and  afterwards  to  Framingham  ;  the  second,  to 
Westfield.  Three  have  since  been  established, — 
at  Bridgewater,  Salem,  and  Worcester. 

The  normal  school  at  Framingham  wasopened 
in  1853,  and  is  exclusively  for  females.  The 
number  of  pupils  in  attendance,  dining  the  year 
L874— 5,  was,  the  first  term.  117;  the  second 
term,  116;  the  number  of  graduates  was  35. 
The  normal  school  at  Salem  is  also  for  females. 
The  number  of  pupils,  in  1  ^7  1  -  ">.  was.  first  term, 
211  ;  second  term,  228;  number  of  graduates,  58. 
The  normal  school  at  Bridgewater  is  for  both 
sexes.  The  number  of  pupils,  in  L874 — 5,  was, 
first  term,  151, — 37  males,  114  females;  second 
term,  L60, — 45  males,  and  115  females;  number 
of  graduates,  49, — !)  males,  and  40  females.  The 
normal  school  at  Westfield  is  for  both  sexes. 
'I'he  number  of  students  in  attendance  was, 
winter  term,  L35, — 11  male.-,.  121  females;  sum- 
mer term,  126, — 11  males,  lie  females;  num- 
ber of  graduates,  42, — 3  males,  .'!!•  females.    The 


552 


MASSACHUSETTS 


normal  school  at  Worcester  was  established  in 
1874.  The  number  in  attendance  the  first  year  was 
93.  The  intention  is  to  make  these  schools  com- 
plete, in  all  aids  to  a  higher  education,  with  spe- 
cial  reference,  however,  to  the  career  of  the  grad- 
uates a.s  teachers.  For  this  purpose,  libraries, 
laboratories,  cabinets  of  specimens,  and  courses  of 
lectures  have  been  provided;  and  each  of  the 
schools  is  visited  annually  by  a  board  of  visitors 
who  report  to  the  secretary  of  the  state  board 
of  education.  —  The  Normal  Art -School,  at 
Boston,  was  established  in  L873,  and  grew  out 
of  the  necessities  first  made  apparent  by  the 
attempt  to  carry  out  the  law  of  L870,  which 
provided  that  every  city  or  town  containing 
more  than  1.0,000  inhabitants  should  establish 
and  maintain  a  school  for  the  teaching  of 
mechanical  and  industrial  drawing.  This  law 
was  inoperative  from  the  want  of  competent 
teachers  to  conduct  such  schools;  and  with  the 
view  to  supply  this  want,  the  Normal  Art-School 
was  founded.  The  number  of  pupils  the  first 
year  was  133.  This  number  was  increased,  in 
the  second  year,  to  239, — 84  males,  and  L55  fe- 
males. The  establishment  of  this  school  was  in 
answer  to  a  petition  made  to  the  legislature  by 
the  manufacturing  and  mechanical  interests  of 
Boston,  in  which  it  was  represented  that  those 
interests  were  suffering  from  a  lack  of  skilled 
employes.  The  ease  with  which  graduates  from 
this  institution  have  found  employment  since 
their  graduation  is  considered  ample  proof  of 
the  wisdom  shown  in  its  establishment.  —  Teach- 
ers' Institutes  were  first  organized  in  L845.  From 
this  time  to  1874  inclusive,  242  institutes  have 
been  held,  averaging  8  annually.  The  annual 
average  attendance  has  been  L,060,  or  133  at 
each  institute.  The  average  cost  of  each  institute 
is  about  $3,000  ;  average  cost  of  each  teacher 
attending,  between  $2  and  $3;  total  annual  cost 
to  the  state  for  eight  institutes,  about  $2,550. 

/.'■-  ning  Schools. — In  addition  to  the  schools 
for  primary  instruction  enumerated,  then'  are 
evening  schools  in  many  of  the  large  towns  and 
cities,  the  opportunities  afforded  by  which  are 
eagerly  sought  by  many  whose  early  educational 
privileges  have  been  neglected.  The  reporte an- 
nually made  in  regard  to  them  show  a  larger 
attendance  of   adults   than    in  other  schools,  and 

of  pupils  of  both  sexes,  drawn  principally  from 

the  mechanical  and  laboring  classes.  Their  sessions 

being  short,  ami  held  generally  during  only  the 
winter  months,  and  the  attendance  being  fluct- 
uating, the  results  are.  of  course,  not  as  satis- 
factory as  in  other  schools.  The  instruction  im- 
girted  also  is  necessarily  elementary  in  character. 
y  an  act  of  the  legislature,  in  1870,  all  towns 
and  cities  of  L0,00U  and  over  are  required  to 
BUppOli    free  evening  drawing  schools;    and   23 

schools  of  this  class  are  now  open. 

Secondary  Instruction.  The  number  of  high 
schools,  incorporated  academics,  and  private 
academies  in  the  state  has  already  been  stated  as 

-•us,  63,  and  369  respectively.    Of  L51   towns 

numbering  over  500  families,  and  therefore  re- 
quire!  each   to    maintain  a  high  school,  0  only 


had  failed  to  comply  with  the  law,  while  40  such 
schools  were  maintained  in  38  towns  not  required 
to  do  so.  The  high  schools  are  of  various  degrees 
of  excellence,  ranging  from  about  that  of  the 
ordinary  grammar  school  to  thai  of  the  best  pre- 
paratory school  for  admission  to  college.  It  is 
estimated  that  about  one  third  are  of  this  latter 
class,  students  passing  from  them  into  college  with- 
out difficulty.  The  former  class  numbers  also 
about  one  third,  their  condition  of  comparative  in- 
feriority being  attributed  to  the  want  of  teachers 
and  apparatus,  and  to  the  mixed  character  of 
the  pupils.  The  remaining,  or  middle  third, 
furnish  their  pupils  with  only  a  tolerable  prepa- 
ration for  college,  but  with  a  good  English  edu- 
cation. The  state  includes  among  its  academies 
and  private  schools,  a  very  large  number  of  in- 
stitutions for  the  education  of  girls.  All  these 
various  schools  draw  their  pupils  largely  from 
other  states,  the  high  reputation  of  Massachusetts- 
in  respect  to  education  securing  for  them  an  ex- 
tensive patronage. 

Denominational  <ih<1  Parochial  Shoals. — Of 
schools  of  this  class,  a  comparatively  small  num- 
ber is  reported,  the  intellectual  instruction  usu- 
ally given  in  such  schools  being  furnished  by  the 
many  non-sectarian  or  public  schools  of  the  state. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  institutions  in 
the   state    for  supplying  a  higher  education  are 

numerous  and  of  high  reputation.  Special  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  most  important  of  these  in- 
stitutions in  other  parts  of  this  volume.  Their 
names  are  given  below  : 


NAME 


Amherst  College 

liost<>n  College 

B  Bl  m  Qniversity. . . 
Coll.  of  the  Eoly  Cross 

Harvard  College 

nuts  College 

Williams  Colleg  - 


Amherst 
Boston 

Worcester 
Cambridge 
Medford 

W'illianistown 


When 
found- 
ed 


182] 

1 86 1 
L878 
1st:; 
1638 
1854 
1798 


Religious 
denomina- 
tion 


Cong. 
R.  C. 
M.  Epis. 

u.  a 

Nun  sect. 

Univers. 

Cong. 


The  principal  institutions  for  the  superior  in- 
struction  of    females  are  Ahliott    Academy.  An- 

dover;  Bradford  Academy.  Bradford ;  Gannett 
Institute.  Boston;  Mt.  Holyoke  female  Sem- 
inary. South  1 1  ad  lev:  ( tread  I  nst  it  tit  e.  Worcester  ; 

Smith  College,  Northampton;  Wheaton  female 

Seminary,  and  W'ellesley  College,  W'ellesley. 

Professional   and    Scientific    Instruction. — 

This  includes  principally  institutions  for  the 
study  of  science,  law.  medicine,  and  theology. 
Many  of  the  colleges  just  enumerated  under  the- 
head  of  superior  instruction  have  departments, 
or  courses  in  which  the  subjects  classed  as  pro- 
fessional or  scientific  may  be  pursued,  but  there 
are  in  addition  the  following  : 


NAME 


Location 


Andnver  Theol.  Seminary   \ndovor 

Epis.  Theol.  School Cambridge 

M:i>^  agricult.  College.,  Lmheral 
Mass  lnst.  of  Technology  Boston 
Newton  Theol.  Institute.  Newton  Cen, 
Net*  ChnxchTheo.  School  W'altnani 


When 

Religious 

found- 

denomina- 

ed 

tion 

1808 

Cong. 

1867 

i  pisoopat 

1867 

Non-fleet. 

1861 

Non-sect. 

1825 

Baptist 

1800 

N.  J.  C'n. 

MASTKR   OF    AIM'S 


MATIIFMATICS 


553 


Special  Instruction. — Tlic  Clarke  Institution 
for  Deaf-Mutes  was  established  at  Northampton 
in  1867.  Pupils  arc  instructed  in  the  ordinary 
branches  of  an  English  education,  besides  philos- 
ophy, zoology,  chemistry,  and  drawing.  There 
is  attached  to  the  institution,  also,  a  cabinet  shop 
iu.  which  many  nt'  the  pupils  work  a  part  of  each 
i  day.    Though  founded  by  private  benefaction, 


', 


.it  receives  an  annual  appropriation  from  the 
'state,  the  amount  from  the  utter  source  being, 
in  1875,  SI  1,415.  The  number  of  pupils  during 
the  year  was  50  ;  the  number  of  instructors.  8. 
The  Boston  Day-School  for  Deaf-Mutes  was 
founded  in  18(i9.  It  is  a  city  tree  school  for  both 
sexes,  and  is  supported  entirely  by  taxation.  The 
number  of  pupils,  in  L874 — 5,  was  (i.'i;  the  Dum- 
ber of  instructors,  7.  The  Perkins  Institution  and 
Massachusetts  Asylum  for  the  Blind  was  estab- 
lished in  1829,  Samuel  G.  Howe  being  its  first 
superintendent.  (See Howe,  S.  G.)  The  total  num- 
ber of  pupils  admitted  iuto  it  since  its  foundation 
was,  in  1874 — 5,  865.  All  blind  children  who 
are  residents  of  the  state,  who  are  suitable  sub- 
jects for  instruction,  and  who  are  recommended 
by  the  governor,  are  received  for  education.  The 
ordinary  branches  taught  in  the  common  schools 
of  the  state  form  the  course  of  study;  to  which  is 
added  instruction  in  music  and  in  some  branch 
of  manual  labor.  In  addition  to  the  original 
donation  made  by  its  founder,  it  receives  from 
the  state  an  annual  grant  of  $30,000.  Besides 
the  residents  of  the  state  who  are  educated 
gratuitously,  it  receives  pupils  from  other  states, 
upon  payment  of  a  certain  annual  sum.  The 
number  of  instructors  and  employes  was  55  ;  the 
number  of  pupils,  156.  There  is  also  a  school 
for  idiotic  ami  feeble-minded  youth  in  Boston, 
founded  in  1848,  the  number  of  instructors  and 
employes  in  which,  in  1874 — 5,  was  16,  of  pupils 
118  ;  a  private  institution  for  the  same  purpose, 
founded  in  Barre  in  1848,  with  50  instructors 
etc.,  and  75  pupils ;  and  one  for  backward  and 
peculiar  children,  in  Fayville,  with  7  instruc- 
tors and  8  pupils.  There  are  nine  industrial 
and  reform  schools  in  different  parts  of  the  state 
for  the  reformation  of  children,  principally  those 
between  the  ages  of  7  and  17  years,  who  have 
been  committed  for  poverty,  truancy,  vagrancy, 
and  petty  crimes. 

MASTER  OF  ARTS.     See  Degrees. 

MASTERY  METHOD.  See  Latin  Lan- 
guage. 

MATHEMATICS.— The  term  mathematics 
is  the  Latin  word  maihemalica,  or  the  Greek 
word  /ia&ijfiaTiKd,  anglicized.  The  Greek  word 
was  derived  from  fiav&avu,  to  learn;  whence 
fia&qoic,  learning.  Both  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans  used  the  word  mathematica  as  we  do 
the  word  mathematics.  The  use  of  the  plural 
form  indicates  that  this  department  of  human 
knowledge  was  formerly  considered  not  as  a 
single  branch,  but  as  a  group  of  several  branches, 
much  as  we  use  the  phrase  the  mathematical 
sciences.  This  group  of  sciences  is  subdivided 
into  pure  mathematics  and  mixed,  or  applied, 
mathematics.    In  this  article  we  are  concerned 


I  mainly  with  the  former.  The  branches  qf  pure 
mathematics  are  arithmetic,  algebra,  the  calculus, 
and  geometry.  In  tin's  classification,  the  calculus 
is  made  to  include  the  infinitesimal  calculus,  the 
calculus  of  finite  differences,  and  the  calculus  of 
variations;  while  geometry  includes  the  com- 
mon  or   special   geometry,   general   {analytic) 

\  geometry,  descriptive  geametrij.  trigonometry, 
conic  sections,  and  the  new  science  of  quater- 
nions.— No  at  ten  i  pi  togivea  philosophical  defini- 
tion of  the  department  of  knowledge  embraced 
under  the  term  mathematics,  has  as  yet  been  so 
successful  as  to  lie  generally  accepted.  The  stale 
ment  that  "  mathematics  is  the  science  of  quan- 
tity" is  often  flippantly  repeated  as  a  defini- 
tion, but  it  can  scarcely  serve  for  that  purpose. 
Conite  defines  mathematical  science,  as  the  sci- 
ence which  has  for  "its  object  the  indirect 
measurement  of  magnitudes,  and  constantly 
proposes  to  determine  certain  magnitudes  from 
<>///ers,  by  means  of  the  -precise  relations  existing 
between  them."  It  is  not  a  little  singular  that, 
while  this  great  thinker  rules  geometry  out  of 
the  realm  of  pure  mathematics,  he  bases  his 
definition  of  the  science  exclusively  on  the 
geometrical  conception.  That  he  does  so  is  espe- 
cially apparent  in  the  discussion  from  which  he 
deduces  the  definition.  Moreover,  it  is  not  clear 
how  the  abstract  principles  of  the  science  can  be 
included  in  this  definition.  Such  propositions  as, 
"The  product  of  the  multiplicand  and  the  multi- 
plier is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  products  of  the 
parts  of  the  multiplicand  into  the  multiplier  ;" 
"  The  root  of  the  product  of  several  quantities 
equals  the  product  of  their  like  roots  ;"  "  The 
bisector  of  any  angle  of  a  triangle  divides  the  op- 
posite side  into  segments  which  are  proportional 
to  the  adjacent  sides;"  etc.,  are  scarcely  embraced 
in  Comte's  definition  without  an  unjustifiable  ex- 
tension of  the  signification  of  its  terms.  "We  pro- 
pose the  following  definition:  Pure  mathematics 
is  a  general  term  applied  to  several  branches  of 
science  -which  have  for  their  object  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  properties  and  relations  of  quan- 
tity— comprehending  number,  and  magnitude 
as  the  result  of  extension — and  of  form.  It  will 
be  observed  that  this  definition  embraces  that 
of  Comte,  inasmuch  as  the  measurement  of 
quantities,  or  the  determination  of  unknown 
from  known  quantities,  is  effected  by  an  in- 
vestigation of  their  relations ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  can  scarcely  say  that  all  investiga- 
tions of  the  relations  of  quantities  are  for  the 
purposes  of  measurement,  or  of  determining  un- 
known quantities  from  known. — But  the  chief 
purpose  of  this  article  is  to  inquire  as  to  the 
place  which  mathematical  studies  should  occupy 
in  our  courses  of  elementary  instruction.  In 
such  an  inquiry,  the  leading  considerations  are, 
(I)  For  what  purpose  should  these  studies  be 
pursued  in  such  courses?  (II)  To  what  extent 
should  they  be  pursued?  and  (HI)  What  gen- 
eral principles  should  govern  our  methods  of 
teaching  ? 

I.  Mathematical  studies  should  be  pursued  in 
elementary  schools  primarily  as  a  means  of  mental 


554 


MATHEMATICS 


discipline.  Notwithstanding  all  that  Sir  William 
Hamilton  has  said,  and  the  formidable  array  of 
names  which  he  adduces  in  support  of  his  views, 
it  may  still  be  claimed  that  there  is  no  single 
line  of  study  pursued  in  schools,  which  develops 
the  mind  in  bo  many  ways,  and  is  so  well  adapted 
to  every  stage  of  mental  growth,  as  mathemat- 
ical studies.  It  has  heeii  I,  and  quite  gen- 
erally conceded,  that  the  power  of  observation 
is  not  developed  by  mathematical  studies  ;  while 
the  truth  is,  that,  from  the  most  elementary 
mathematical  notion  which  arises  in  the  mind  of  a 
child  to  the  farthest  verge  to  which  mathematical 
investigation  has  been  pushed  and  applied,  this 
power  is  in  constant  exercise.  By  observation, 
as  here  used,  can  only  be  meant  the  fixing  of 
the  attention  upon  objects  (physical  or  mental) 
no  as  to  note  distinctive  peculiarities— to  recog- 
nize resemblances, differences, and  other  relations. 
Now.  the  first  mental  act  of  the  child  recogniz- 
ing the  distinction  between  one  and  more  than 
one,  between  one  and  two,  tico  and  three,  etc.,  is 
exactly  this.  So,  again,  the  first  geometrical 
notions  arc  as  pure  an  exercise  of  this  power  as 
can  b.'  given.  To  know  a  straight  line,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  a  curve  ;  to  recognize  a  triangle 
and  distinguish  the  several  forms  —  what  are 
these,  and  all  perceptions  of  form,  but 
of  observations?  Nor  is  it  alone  in  securing 
these  Fundamental  conceptions  of  number  and 
form  thai  observation  plays  so  important  a  part. 
The  very  genius  of  the  common  geometry  as  a 
method  of  reasoning  —a  system  of  investigation 
— is,  that  it  is  but  a  series  of  observations.  The 
figure  being  before  the  eye  in  actual  representa- 
tion, or  before  the  mind  in  conception,  is  so 
closely  scrutinized,  that  all  its  distinctive  feat- 
ures are  perceived;  auxiliary  lines  are  drawn  (the 
imagination  leading  in  this),  and  a  new  series  of 
inspections  is  made;  and  thus,  by  means  of  direct, 
■simple  observations,  the  investigation  proceeds. 
So  characteristic  of  the  common  geometry  is  this 
method  of  investigation,  thai  Comte,  perhaps 
the  i  !'  all  writers  upon  the  philo  ophy  of 
i  itics,  is  disposed  to  class  geometry,  a,  to 
its  methods,  with  (he  natural  sciences,  as  being 
based  in  rvation.  Moreover,  when  we  con- 
sidi  I  mathematics,  we  need  only  to  notice 
that  the  exercise  of  this  faculty  is  SO  essential, 
that  the  basis  of  all  such  rea  oning,  the  very 
material-  v.:  h  which  we  build,  ha  ived 
the  name  ol  ms.  Thus  we  might  pro 
to  consider  the  whole  ran-"  ..i  the  human  facul- 

.  and  find  for  most  of   them   ample  scope  for 

exercise   in   mathematical    -    .lies.      Certainly, 

the  memory  will  not  be  found  to  he  neglected. 
The  very  firsl  Steps  in  number,  counting,  the 
multiplication  table,   etc.,  make    heavy  demands 

on  this  power;  while  tin-  higher  branches  re- 
quire the  memorizing  of  formulas  which  are 
Simply  appalling  to  the  uninitiated.**  So  the 
imagination,  the  creative  faculty  of  tie  mind, 
his  constant  exercise  in  all  original  mathematical 
investigation,  from  the  solution  of  the  simplest 
c  ,i  i  i  .  h  ■  discovery  of  the  most  recondite 
principle;  for  it  is  not  by  sure,  consecutive  si 


as  many  suppose,  that  we  advance  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown.  The  imagination,  not 
the  logical  faculty, leads  in  this  advance.  In  fact, 
practical  observation  is  often  in  advance  of  log- 
ical exposition.  Thus,  in  the  discovery  of  truth, 
the  imagination  habitually  presents  hypotheses, 
and  observation  supplies  facts,  which  it  may  re- 
quire ages  for  the  tardy  reason  to  connect  logic- 
ally with  the  known.  Of  this  truth,  mathemat-  , 
ics,  as  well  as  all  other  sciences,  affords  abundant 
illustrations.  So  remarkably  true  is  this,  that 
to-day  it  is  seriously  questioned  by  the  majority 
of  thinkers,  whether  the  Bublimest  branch  of 
mathematics- -the  infinite simal  calculus  —  has 
any  thing  more  than  an  empirical  foundation, 
mathematicians  themselves  not  being  agreed  as 
to  its  logical  basis. — That  the  imagination,  and 
not  the  logical  faculty,  leads  in  all  original  in- 
vestigation, no  one  who  has  ever  succeeded  in 
producing  an  original  demonstration  of  one  of 
the  simpler  propositions  of  geometry,  can  have 
any  doubt.  Nor  are  induction,  analogy,  the 
scrutinizing  of  premises  or  the  search  for  them, 
or  the  balancing  of  probabilities,  spheres  of 
mental  operation  foreign  to  mathematics.  No 
one,  indeed,  can  claim  a  pre-eminence  for  math- 
ematical studies  in  all  these  departments  of  iu- 
tellectual  culture,  but  it  may.  perhaps, be  claimed 
thai  scarcely  any  department  of  science  affords 
discipline  to  so  great  a  number  of  faculties,  and 
that  none  presents  so  complete  a  gradation  in  its 
exercise  of  these  faculties,  from  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  the  science  to  the  farthest  extent  of  its 
application,  as  mathematics.  'I  here  are,  however, 
two  respects  in  which,  probably,  special  pre- 
eminence may  lie  claimed  for  mathematics  as  a 
disciplinary  study:  namely,  training  the  mind  to 
i  he  habit  of  forming  clear  and  definite  concep- 
tions, and,  of  clothing  these  conci  ptions  in  exact 
and  perspicuous  language.  'I  his  pre-eminence 
arises,  in  part,  from  the  fact  that,  in  this 
branch  of  knowledge,  the  terms  convey  exactly 
the  same  meaning  to  all  minds.     Thus,  there  can 

be  no  difference  between  the  conceptions  which 
different  persons  have  of  Jiff,  six,  a  straight 
.  a  circle,  a  perpendicular,  a  product,  a 
square  root;  or  of  the  statements,  that  .'!  and  5 
make  8,  that  the  sum  of  the  angles  of  »/  plane 
triangle  is  two  right  <>•  etc.     The  concep- 

tion in  each  case  is  definite,  and  the  langu 
may  be  perfectly  clear.     That  this  i.-  not   so  in 
most   other  sciences,  no   one  needs  to  be  told. 
('an  we  be  sure  that  all   have  the  same   concep- 
tion of  the  metaphysical  terms  idea, perception, 

~>ii?    Can  any  one  discriminate  infallibly  be- 

tween  an  adjective  and  an  adverb;  between  downy, 

hirsute,  and   pubescent?      Are    the    conceptions 

designed  to  lie  conveyed  by  the  terms  schistose, 
fissile,  slaty,  laminar, foliated,  squamose,  so  dis- 
tinct that  no  two  mineralogists  will  ever  inter- 
change them?  Is  the  meaning  of  a  Greek  text 
always  unequivocal ?  Is  it  an  easy  matter  for 
any  two  persons  to  gel  exactly  the  .-ame  concep- 
tion of  the  causes  which  led  to  a  certain  political 
revolution  :  can  either  be  absolutely  certain. from 
any  language  which  he  can  use,  that  no  one  will 


M  ATI  I  KM  ATI  CS 


555 


mistake  his  conception? — That  the  habit  of 
mind  which  rests  satisfied  only  with  clear  and 
definite  conceptions,  and  the  power  oi  Bpeech 
which  is  able  to  clothe  snch  conceptions  in  lan- 
guage  perfectly  unmistakable,  are  most  impor- 
tant attainments,  need  not  be  argued;  and 
these  are  exactly  the  ends  which  mathematical 
studies,  properly  pursued,  are  adapted  to  secure. 
In  this  hasty  review,  nothing  has  been  said  di- 
rectlyof  these  studies  as  a  means  of  developing 
the  reasoning  faculties,  since  it  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  pur.'  mathematics  is  practical  Logic, 
and  that  pupils,  who  do  not  learn  to  reason  by 
their  study  of  mathematics,  fail  of  the  most  im- 
portant end  of  such  study. 

Doubtless, the  common  answer  to  the  question, 
Why  should  mathematical  studies  lie  pursued  in 
schools?  would  be,  for  their  practical  value;  by 
which  is  meant,  their  direct  application  to  the 
affairs  of  life,  as  in  reckoning  bills,  computing 
interest,  measuring'  distances,  volumes,  areas, etc. 
It  is,  indeed,  true,  that,  in  the  every-day  affairs 
of  life,  to  the  accountant,  and  to  the  man  of 
business,  a  certain  amount  of  arithmetical 
knowledge  is  essential  —  that  surveying,  civil 
engineering,  mechanics,  navigation,  geography, 
ami  astronomy,  are  based  on  geometry.  But,  let 
it  be  observed,  that  only  a  special  few  practice 
the  arts  last  named,  and  that  for  the  masses 
embraced  in  the  former  specifications,  a  very 
limited  amount  of  arithmetical  knowledge  is  all 
that  they  are  required  to  apply.  And  still 
further,  while  it  is,  indeed,  necessary  that  the 
business  man  should  be  able  to  add,  subtract, 
multiply,  divide,  and  compute  interest,  skill  in 
these  operations  can  never  form  the  basis  of  prac- 
tical success  in  life,  except  in  the  case  of  mere 
clerks.  Many  of  the  most  sagacious  business 
men  would  make  wretched  work  with  their 
ledger  columns,  and  they  know  too  well  their  own 
deficiencies  to  risk  themselves  in  any  important 
numerical  computations.  Indeed,  the  elements 
of  practical  success  in  life  are  quite  other 
than  a  specific  knowledge  of  any  branch  of  sci- 
ence whatever,  however  indispensable  a  certain 
amount  of  such  knowledge  may  be  in  particular 
callings.  The  conclusion,  therefore,  is,  that  the 
important  point  is  not,  how  much  mathematical 
knowledge  can  be  crammed  into  the  minds  of 
pupils,  but  by  what  methods  of  teaching  and 
study  such  habits  of  mind  can  be  secured,  as 
will  make  the  pupils  most  efficient  in  performing 
the  duties  of  life. 

II.  7'<  what  extent  should  uu/fhemaiical  stud- 
ies be  pursued  in  our  elementary  courses? — 
Were  we  to  judge  from  the  practice  of  most 
schools,  we  should  conclude  that  mathematical 
studies  ought  to  occupy  from  one-third  to  one- 
half  of  the  pupil's  time  throughout  his  school 
life,  unless,  indeed,  a  slight  exception  is  to 
be  made  in  favor  of  other  studies  for  the  last 
two  years  of  a  college  course  ;  that  is,  that  read- 
ing, sp-Hing,  writing,  geography,  grammar,  his- 
tory, literature,  rhetoric,  logic,  the  who]"  domain 
of  natural  science,  including  the  physical  consti- 
tution of  the  human  system,  chemistry,  languages, 


metaphysics, political  economy,  —  all  these,  and 
whatever  else  goes  to  make  up  the  furniture,  and 

secure  the  discipline,  of   a  well-cultivated    mind. 

are  only  to  receive  as  great,  or  at  most  twice  as 
great,  a  part  of  the  pupil's  time,  as  his  mathemat- 
ical studies.  And  this  is  no  exaggeration,  as  will 
be  obvious  from  an  inspection  of  the  curriculum 
of  a  graded  school,  or  college.  For  the  first  six 
or  seven  years  of  the  ordinary  evaded  public 
school  course ,  if  we  include  the  oral  lessons,  in 
number  anAform,  of  the  lowest  grade,  arithme- 
tic forms  one  of  the  three  main  studies  for  the 
entire  course  ;  and,  in  not  a  few  cases,  there  are 
two  arithmetical  exercises,  one  in  mental  (oral), 
and  one  in  writti  n  arithmetic,  or  one  in  arithme- 
tic and  another  in  algebra,  each  day,  constitut- 
ing, in  such  cases,  fully  one  half  of  the  school 
work.  During  the  entire  course  of  the  high  or 
preparatory  school,  either  algebra,  higher  arith- 
metic, or  geometry  constitutes  one  of  the  studies, 
except  for  a  part  of  one  year;  but  this  exception 
is  much  more  than  made  up  by  the  large  rela- 
tive amount  of  time  which  the  pupil's  mathe- 
matical studies  usually  occupy,  and  by  the  fact 
that  not  unfrequently  some  two  of  these  studies 
are  pursued  at  the  same  time.  In  the  college 
course,  one  of  the  three  regular  studies  for  the 
first  two  years  is.  almost  invariably,  mathematics. 
— So  far,  reference  has  been  hail  exclusively  to 
pure  mathematics,  including  only  arithmetic,  al- 
gebra, geometry,  and  perhaps  a  little  of  general 
(analytical)  geometry  and  the  calculus.  What- 
ever of  applied  mathematics,  including  surveying. 
navigation,  mechanics,  astronomy,  etc.,  is  to  be 
studied,  must  find  additional  time  in  the  course. 
The  question  then  arises,  can  the  legitimate 
purposes  for  which  mathematical  studies  shoidd 
be  pursued,  be  secured  in  any  less  time?  In  or- 
der to  answer  this,  let  us  observe  the  exact  pro- 
portion of  time  usually  given  to  the  pure  mathe- 
matics in  a  course  of  training  extending  through 
the  ordinary  college  course.  Arithmetic  has  from 
one-half  to  one-third  of  the  pupil's  time  in 
the  elementary  schools.  In  the  high  school  or 
academic  course,  to  obtain  any  creditable knowl- 
ei  Ige  of  algebra,  geometry,  and  plane  trig*  tnometry, 
and  to  review  the  arithmetic,  at  least  one-third 
of  the  time  is  consumed.  Passing  into  the  col- 
lege with  this  knowledge  of  mathematics,  the 
student  finds  onc-1hird  of  the  time,  for  the  first 
two  years,  scarcely  adequate  to  secure  a  respect- 
able knowledge  of  higher  algebra,  geometry, 
and  trigonometry,  the  elements  of  the  general 
geometry,  and  the  infinitesimal  calculus  ;  and 
whatever  of  applied  mathematics  is  learned,  as 
of  surveying,  mathematical  drawing,  mechanics, 
astronomy,  etc.,  must  find  a  place  in  the  other 
two  years  of  the  college  course.  Now.  all  this  is 
.-imply  inevitable,  unless  relief  can  be  found  in 
the  course  prior  to  entrance  upon  college  work. 
If,  however,  the  inordinate  demands  of  arithme- 
tic can  be  so  abridged  (see  Arithmetic),  (hat  the 
grammar  school  course  shall  include,  at  least, 
i  [ghteen  months' study  introductory  to  algebra 

and  geometry,  the  highschool  can  save  this  time 
for  other  studies,  and  also  secure  such  thorough- 


556 


MATHEMATICS 


ness  in  preparation,  that  the  student's  course  in  j 
college  will  be  far  more  rapid  and  satisfactory 
than  at  present.  With  the  quality  of  prepara- 
tion now  secured,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind. 
that  the  student  comes  to  college  having,  it  is 
true,  been  over  the  requisite  amount,  but  with 
so  little  of  the  real  strength  and  knowledge  which 
that  course  should  impart,  that,  if  he  does  jus- 
tice to  his  mathematical  studies  for  the  first  two 
years,  nearer  one-half  than  one-third  of  his  time 
is  consumed  upon  them.  By  rigidly  confining 
the  study  of  elementary  arithmetic  to  its  proper 
domain,  giving  a  year  in  the  grammar  school  to 
an  introduction  to  algebra,  and  half  a  year  to 
the  definitions  and  facts  of  plane  geometry,  the 
pupil  may  come  to  the  high  school  so  thoroughly 
prepared  in  the  elements  of  the  three  great 
mathematical  studies, — arithmetic,  algebra,  and 
geometry,  that  between  two  and  three  years  in 
the  high  school  will  be  amply  sufficient  to  secure 
such  further  proficiency  in  these  branches  as  is 
consistent  with  the  course  here  marked  out. 
Moreover,  if  the  pupil's  school  life  closes  with 
the  grammar  school,  the  course  thus  secured  will 
be  of  far  more  value  to  him  in  after  life,  both 
for  practical  uses  and  as  a  discipline,  than  the 
ordinary  one.  (See  ARITHMETIC,  ALGEBRA,  and 
Geometry.) — In  the  above,  it  will  be  observed. 
that  the  genera]  geometry  and  the  infinitesimal 
calculus  are  ineluiled  in  the  college  course.  The 
elements  of  the  former  are  usually  required,  al- 
though it  is  quite  common  (for  no  good  reason) 

to  make  the  latter  elective.  By  omitting  the 
Calculus,  the  graduate;  leaves  college  without  ever 
having  looked  into  on<  of  the  Bublimest  deparl 
incuts  of  human  knowledge,  or  having  even 
the  remotest  idea  of  the  language  and  methods 
of  the  mechanics  and  astronomy  of  the  day,  or 
being  able  to  read  an  advanced  treatise  upon 
any  scientific  subject  as  treated  by  the  modern 
mathematician.  Xor  can  the  beauty  and  power 
of  the  general  geometry  be  appreciated  without 
a  knowledge  of  the  calculus.  Thus  the  pupil 
who  is  allowed,  at  his  option,  to  leave  this  out 
of  his  course,  leaves  college  a  hundred  years  be- 
hind his  time,  in  one  of  the  leading  departments 
of  human  knowledge. 

HI.  What  general  principles  should  govern 
our  methods  qf  teaching  mathematics?  —This 
topic  has  been  quite  fully  treated  in  the  separate 
articles  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and  Geometry, 
to  which  reference  is  made.  It  is  proper  to 
add  here,  that,  from  first  to  last,  the  methods 
should  he  BUCh  as  will  give  absolutely  clear  per- 
ceptions and  conceptions,  and  secure  facility. 
accuracy, and  elegance  in  expression.  These  ends 
are  of  vastly  more  practical   importance  than 

the  mere   ability    "to  gel    the   answer"  of  special 

problems.    The   notion   which   prevails  among 

■Ome  teachers,  that  if    the  pupil  learns  the  prOO- 

and  incomes  expert  in  it.  he  has  obtained 
v  thing  thai  is  essential,  and  that,  whatever 

of   the    rationale    may    be    desirable    will    be.    in 

some  way,  induced  by  this  mechanical  process, 

is   an    exceedingly    vicious    one.      In    the    first 
place,  it    is   far   more    important    that    the  pupil 


should  be  able  to  comprehend  the  logic,  and  to 
express  his  ideas  in  intelligible  language  than 
merely  to  solve  any  number  of  problems,  since 
the  former  ability  he  will  have  occasion  to  use 
every  day  of  his  life,  while  he  may  never  need 
the  latter  at  all.  But  we  are  not  driven  to  the 
alternative  of  securing  ctdture  at  the  expense  of 
mechanical  skill ;  the  very  best  means  to  acquire 
expertness  in  mathematical  manipulations  is 
that  which  secures  the  best  results  in  culture. 
No  greater  intellectual  monstrosity  probably 
ever  presents  itself  than  he  who  is  usually 
known  as  a  mathematical  genius;  that  is.  one 
who  has  a  wonderful  ability  to  do  what  nobody 
else  can  do.  or  cares  to  do — to  solve  knotty  and 
often  senseless  mathematical  problems.  On  the 
contrary,  the  object  of  mathematical  study  shoidd 
be  to  develop  men  with  cultured  minds,  not  to 
make  them  mere  computing  machines. 

Mathematical  Literature. — It  is  designed,  un- 
der this  topic,  to  point  out  to  the  teacher  a  few 
treatises  which  may  be  helpful  to  him  in  extend- 
ing his  knowledge  of  the  subjects  of  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry  beyond  the  mere  rudi- 
ments; in  becoming  acquainted  with  the  history 
of  these  branches;  and  in  providing  material 
for  use  in  class-room  work.  It  is  rather  to  men- 
tion a  few  works  which  arc  presumed  to  be  acces- 
sible to  the  teacher  than  to  furnish  an  extended 
list  of  authors.  The  best  catalogues  of  writers 
on  algebra  and  geometry  accessible  to  teachers 
are  those  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  The 
list  of  writers  on  algebra  contains  171  nanus, 
and  extends  from  .'{(It)  A.  D.  into  the  present 
century.  The  catalogue  of  geometrical  writers 
covers  the  period  from  272  A.  D.  to  the  middle 
of  the  present  century. — By  far  the  most  com- 
plete history  of  arithmetic  with  which  we  are 
acquainted  is  the  article  by  Dr.  Peacock  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  Metropolitans  (vol.  i.  of  Pure 
Scit  nee.  pp.  :i(J!(—  -ls2).  The  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  also  contains  a  fair  history  of  this 
branch,  together  with  as  good  an  outline  of  tho 
history  of  algebra  and  geometry  as  the  teacher 
can  usually  find  accessible.  The  Algebra  of 
Wallis.an  Knglish  mathematician  (1616 — 170.'f), 

has    a    history    of    the    subject     prefixed. —  Of 

Mathematical   Dictionaries,   mention    may    be 

made  of  those  by  Button  I  London.  L815); 
Harlow    (London,    L814);  and    Navies  and    I'eck 

(N.  V..  L856).-  Montucla's  History  qf  Mathe- 
matics I  l  vols.,  4to).  besides  being  too  volumi- 
nous tor   most    readers,   is  brought  dow  u  only  to 

the  beginning  of  the   present   century,  and  is 

only  to   be    had   in    latin   or    blench.      A    more 

recent   work  is  Geschichte  der  Mathematik,  by 

Poppe    (Tubingen.     1828),    to    be    had    only    in 

German.     Among  other  works  in  the  German 

language,  especial    reference   should    be   made  to 

Diesterweg's    Wegweiser   (Essen,    L851).    This 

may    lie   called  a   treatise    on    the     Theory    owl 

Practice  qf  Teaching,  discussing  not  only  the 
philosophical  principles  of  pedagogy,  but  treat- 
ing, quite  in  detail,  methods  and  even  text- 
books. In  the  second  volume  (pp.  343 — «194), 
may  he  found  a  full    list   of   German   text-books 


MATRICULATE 


MEDICAL  SCHOOLS 


557 


on  arithmetic,  in  connection  with  the  discussion 
of  methods.  The  succeeding  chapter  treats  in 
like  manner  of  geometry. —  Among  arithmetics 

not  bow  specially  candidates  for  popular  fa\or. 
the  following  will  be  found  interesting  and  val- 
uable in  a  teacher's  library  :  An  Introduction  to 
Arithmetic  on  the  Lancasterian  plan,  by  John 
Euton  (Albany,  1817);  Dana  1'.  Oolbum's 
Arithmetic  will  be  found  exceedingly  suggestive 
to  the  practical  teacher;  Window's  Gomputist's 
Manual  contains  a  large  amount  of  practical 
matter  very  useful  to  the  teacher ;  ( 'base's 
Arithmetic  furnishes  a  vast  amount  of  material 
■which  can  be  utilized  by  the  teacher  in  the  reci- 
tation room  ;  Sangster's  Arithmetic  (Montreal, 
18(14)  will  be  found  quite  instructive  in  many 
respects.  To  these  the  intelligent  teacher  will  add 
the  various  series  offered  to  the  public  by  lead- 
ins  educators  in  the  United  States. — In  algebra, 
among  English  works,  Todhunter's  Algebra, 
and  Theory  of  Equation;  Bland's  Examples; 
Wood's,  Young's,  Hind's,  and  Bonnyeastle's  trea- 
tises on  algebra  will  afford  not  only  the  elements 
of  the  subject,  but  an  cxhaustless  mine  of  ex- 
amples for  practice.  Peacock's  Algebra  (2  vols., 
8vo,  London)  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
theoretical  treatises.  Serret's  is  one  of  the  best 
French  treatises.  Cirode's  and  Comberousse's 
are  also  valuable.  Hackley's  Algebra  (N.  Y., 
1840)  will  be  found  valuable  for  reference,  being 
one  of  the  most  complete  ever  published  in  this 
country.  In  reference  to  geometry,  it  may  be  sug- 
gested that  every  teacher  should  read  President 
Hill's  two  little  books.  First  Lessons  in  Geome- 
try, and  Second  Book.  Most  English  writers  on 
the  elements  of  geometry  have  contented  them- 
selves with  editing  Euclid  with  slight  modifica- 
tions.  The  student  who  wishes  a  knowledge  of  the 
modern  methods  in  elementary  geometry,  will 
find  Muleahys  work  quite  satisfactory.  Rouche 
et  Gomberousse,  a  French  treatise  (2  vols.,  8vo), 
is  the  most  complete  modern  treatise  on  element- 
ary geometry  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
and  is  a  complete  thesaurus  of  examples  for  in- 
dependent work.  All  of  De  Morgan's  (English) 
mathematical  works  are  exceedingly  valuable, 
containing  treatises  on  algebra,  geometry,  the 
calculus,  and  other  branches.  In  regard  to  the 
relative  value  of  mathematical  studies,  see  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  Discussions  on  Philosophy 
and  Literature  (N.  Y.,  1858),  art.  On  the  Study 
of  Mathematics  as  an  Exercise  of  Mind;  J.  S. 
Mill,  Examinations  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
Philosophy  (1865);  Grote,  Review  of  this  work 
(1868) ;  Barnard's  Journal  of  Education,  vol. 
xni.;  Whewell,  On  the  Principles  of  English 
University  Education  (Loud.,  1838);  T.  H.S af- 
ford, Modern  Mathematics  iii  the  Collage  Course, 
in  Proceedings  of  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, at  St.  Louis,  1871;  T.  Hill,  True  Order 
of  Studies  (N.  Y.,  1876);  Todhunter,  The  Con- 
flict of  Studies  (Lond.,  1873). 

MATRICULATE  (Lat.  matricida,  a  public 
roll  or  register),  to  admit  to  membership  in  a 
college  or  university,  by  enrollment.  (See  Col- 
lege, and  University.) 


MEDICAL  SCHOOLS.  The  earliest  prop- 
agation of  medical  science  was  effected  by 
means  of  tradition,  and  not  until  much  later  by 
written  records.  The  oldest  instructors  were  the 
priests  in  the  temples  of  .Esculapius.  Hippocrates, 
among  the  Greeks,  Galen,  among  the  Romans, 
and  Avicenna,  among  the  Arabs,  were  the  first 
savants  that  brought  into  scientific  shape  the 
written  fragments  left  by  their  predecessors.  The 

study  of  their  works  was  the  main  source  of  med- 
ical knowledge  for  centuries.  The  ancients  had 
no  special  medical  schools,  but  their  schools  gave 
scientific  and  philosophical  instruction  in  general. 
Such  institutions  could  be  found  in  Athens, 
Alexandria,  Rome,  and  other  cities.  The  name 
medical  school  was  first  used  in  the  0th  century 
in  the  city  of  Salerno,  where  an  association  of 
several  medical  teachers,  of  the  Greek,  Jewish, 
Latin,  and  Arabian  nations,  lectured  on  the  heal- 
ing art.  Their  method,  substantially,  consisted  in 
the  reading  and  explanation  of  the  old  Greek,  Ro- 
man, and  Arabian  parchment  scrolls.  After  the 
foundation  of  universities,  in  the  13th  century, 
the  medical  schools,  as  a  rule,  were  united  with 
them.  (See  University.)  The  earliest  were  those 
of  Naples  and  Messina,  founded  in  1224,  by  the 
emperor  Frederick  II.  of  Germany.  The  division 
into  faculties  was  first  made  in  Paris,  Prague, 

and  Vienna.     Highly  celebrated  medical  scl Is 

of  the  early  middle  ages  were,  together  with  these 
above  named,  at  Leipsic,  Basel,  Montpellier,  Bo- 
logna, Padua,  Pavia,  and  Salamanca;  at  the  last 
named  of  which,  the  Jews  and  Arabs  taught 
mathematics  and  medicine.  In  all  these  institu- 
tions, the  writings  of  the  ancient  physicians 
named  above  formed  the  basis  of  teaching;  and 
only  with  the  development  of  anatomy,  did  the 
scientific  efforts  attain  a  higher  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. In  1308,  the  Great  Council  of  Venice  pro- 
vided, by  a  special  decree,  that  the  medical  pro- 
fession of  the  city  should,  once  a  year,  make  the 
dissection  of  a  human  body;  and,  about  1320, 
the  first  work  on  anatomy,  based  on  his  own  dis- 
sections, was  written  by  Mondini  di  Luzzi.  It 
was  first  printed  in  Padua,  1478,  and  for  a  long 
time  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem.  Still,  the 
dissection  of  human  bodies  remained  a  very  rare 
occurrence,  a  special  permission  of  the  pope  hav- 
ing to  be  obtained  in  each  case.  The  real  father 
of  anatomy  was  Andreas  Vesalius,  professor  in 
Basel;  where  his  celebrated  work,  De  human  i 
corporis fabrica,  was  edited  in  1403.  Surgery, 
the  child  of  anatomy,  remained,  for  a  long  time, 
in  the  hands  of  empirics  ;  and  it  was  not  until 
the  17th  or  18th  century,  that  it  was  taught 
scientifically,  in  universities.  The  cultivation  and 
development  of  anatomy  also  changed  the  meth- 
od of  teaching,  in  the  medical  schools,  from  a 
simple  lecturing  to  a  more  demonstrative  course; 
and,  with  the  accumulation  of  material  for  teach- 
ing, it  was  natural  that  medical  science  should 
be  more  and  more  divided  into  specialties,  for 
which  separate  instructors  were  appointed.  The 
first  stationary  clinics  were  organized  at  Leyden, 
by  Boerhaave,  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  cent- 
ury, and  at  Vienna,  by  his  pupil  Van  Swieten. 


558 


MEDICAL   SCHOOLS 


These  two,  together  with  Van  Haen  and  Johann 
Peter  Frank,  were  the  founders  of  the  practical 
method  of  medical  instruction.  Previous  to  them, 
the  professors,  of  surgery  for  instance,  lectured 
before  their  audience  for  years,  without  even 
touching  a  patient  with  the  knife.  This  to  us, 
nowadays,  seems  hardly  comprehensible.  The 
firsl  clinic  of  obstetrics  was  established  in  17'JO. 
in  Paris,  by  th-e'goire.  A  very  celebrated  school 
of  midwifery  was  founded,  about  1730,  at  Stras- 
bourg, and  first  conducted  by  the  renowned 
Johann  Jacob  Fried.  Separate  clinics  for  other 
specialties,  as  ophthalmology,  otology,  skin  and 
venereal  diseases,  etc.,  are  of  more  recent  date. 

In  Germany,  every  medical  school  constitutes 
a  faculty  of  a  university:  this  is  also  the  rule 
in  the  other  European  countries.  England  ex- 
cepted. Considering  the  degree  of  preparatory 
instruction,  Germany  ranks  highest.  The  stu- 
dents,after  having  gone  successfully  through  the 
gymnasium,  receive  a  certificate  of  maturity, 
that  enables  them  to  matriculate  in  the  medical 
faculty  of  any  of  the  German  universities  of 
the  German  Empire,  Austria,  and  Switzerland. 
No  time  is  fixed  for  the  duration  of  the  course 
of  studies;  but,  generally,  it  takes  five  years.  At 
the  end  of  the  first  or  second  year,  the  student 
has  to  undergo  an  examination  in  natural  philos- 
ophy: and,  at  the  end  of  the  whole  term,  a  rigid 
examination  [rigorosum),  theoretical  as  well  as 
practical,  takes  place  for  the  degree  of  M.  I>. 
Besides  this,  the  several  states  require  what  is 
called  a Staatsexamen  (state  examination]  before 
granting  a  license  for  practice.  In  all  the  <  rerman 
universities,  the  students  have  absolute  freedom 
to  select  such  lectures,  and  to  follow  them  in  such 
order,  as  they  please.  Very  nearly  the  same  are 
t'i  ■  arrangements  in  the  universities  of  Austria, 
Switzerland.  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia, 
the  Netherlands,  and  Belgium. —  France  lias 
only  three  medical  faculties  (Fan's.  Montpellier, 
and  Nancy)  and  21  so-called  ('<■<,/,:<  pr6paratoires. 
At  the  former,  the  docteurs  en  mddecine  el  chi- 
rurgie  arc  educated  ;  the  latter  train  an  inferior 
class  of  physicians  [officiers  de  .-wWc),  licensed 
for  practice  only  in  certain  departments.  In 
France,  no  freedom  of  instruction  exists.  The 
lectures  and  their  order  are  strictly  prescribed. 
'The  time  of  study  is  fixed  at  .'!  years  for  the  "///- 

de  sante,  and  at    1  years  for  the  degree  of 
M.  I >.     England  has  preserved  the  old  independ- 

eiit  iii-tit  in  ions  of  the  middle  ages.  The  state 
hi  no  influence  upon  tin'  education  of  medical 
students;   and  only   a    weak   control  is  exercised 

by  the  Genera]  Medical  Council  of  London — 
the  highest  medical  authority  of  Great  Britain. 

This  body  appoints   the  corporations    that    have 

the  right  to  educate  and  license  physicians.  All 
medical  bcI Is  are  private  institutions  main- 
tained by  private  means.  Twenty  three  so-called 
"licensing  bodies"  (7  in  England,  11  in  Scotland. 
5  in  Ireland)  bestow  the  privilege  of  practicing 
the  art.  the  qualifications  tor  which  may  be  ob- 
tained at  15  medical  Schools.  Of  these.  27  are  ill 
England  ill  in  London  alone),  s  in  Scotland, 
and   loin   Ireland.     The  licensing  bodies  require 


4  years'  study,  and  a  certificate  showing  the 
scientific  acquirements  of  the  applicant  to  be 
sullicient  for  the  study  of  medicine.  The  differ- 
ent degrees  that  may  be  obtained  at  the  English 
universities  are  Bachelor  of  Medicine  (M.  B.), 
Bachelor  of  Surgery  I  1!.  S.t.  Master  in  Surgery 
(M.S.).  and  Doctor  of  Medicine  (M.  !>.).  Simi- 
lar to  the  English  medical  schools  are  those  of 
India  and  Australia. — In  Italy.  17  universities 
are  maintained  by  the  state,  and  5  by  municipal 
and  provincial  corporations.  Perfect  freedom  of 
instruction  is  allowed,  the  only  control  exercised 
over  the  students  consisting  in  6  several  exami- 
nations in  the  different  branches  of  medical  sci- 
ence :  after  passing  which  the  license  is  granted. 
For  the  diploma  laurea  di  dottore  in  medicina 
e  chirurgia,a  separate  examination  is  required. — 
Turkey  has  a  medical  school  in  Constantinople, 
divided  into  a  military  and  a  civil  department, 
and  organized  after  the  French  model.  The  same 
is  the  case  with  the  medical  academy  in  Cairo, 
Egypt,  i  stablished  by  Mehemet  Ali,  in  LVL!7. 

M  dical  Education  in  America.  —  For  more 
than  a  century  after  the  American  colonies  had 
been  planted,  they  did  not  contain  an  institution 
of  medical  learning.  Medical  instruction  was 
alone  conveyed  in  the  irregular  form  of  medical 
pupilage.  A  few  physicians,  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  eminent  for  their  skill  and  popu- 
larity, attracted  to  themselves  numerous  pupils, 
w  ho  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  the  library  and  the 
conversation  of  their  preceptor,  compounded  his 
medicines,  and  occasionally  attended  him  in  his 
visits:  these  preceptors,  after  three  or  more  years, 
Signed  certificates  of  attendance  which  supplied 
the  place  of  diplomas.  In  some  sections, a  system 
of  apprenticeship  existed;  the  young  medical 
pupil  being  indentured  for  a  period  of  time,  often 
as  long  as  seven  years.  Those  students  who  as- 
pired to  a  regular  degree  in  medicine,  and  the 
high  public  favor  accorded  to  it.  were  obliged  to 
cross  the  ocean  and  to  attend  one  of  the  European 
universities,  a  step  not  unfrequently  taken  by 
thus,,  able  to  afford  the  great  expense  of  such  a 
course.  In  some  of  the  larger  towns,  an  occasion- 
al private  course  of  lectures  on  anatomy,  surgery, 
etc..  was  attempted  with  success:  and  these  paved 
the  way  for  the  regular  and  orderly  organization 
of  medical  colleges.    The  fust  medical  faculty  in 

the  country  was   instituted    in    1  7(i~>.   under  the 

auspices  of  the  ( lollege  of  Philadelphia,  which  was 
afterwards  merged  in  the  far-famed  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  In  L767,  a  second  school  was 
founded  in  New  York,  as  a  department  of  King's 
(now  Columbia)  College,  having  six  chairs,  from 

which  lectures  were,  from  the  outset,  read  upon 
anatomy,  theory  and  practice  of  physic,  surgery, 
chemistry  and   materia    niedica.   and    midwifery. 

These  two  faculties,  the  only  ones  established  be- 
fore the  Revolution,  were  possessed  of  very 
meager  means  and  appliances  of  instruction,  but 

they  placed  their  standard  of  requirements  very 

high,  much  higher  than  it  has  since  been,  or  is 
even  now.  held.  The  principal  rules  of  the 
New  York  faculty  were  (I  I  a  preliminary  exami- 
nation, in  latin  and  some   branches  of  natural 


MKDICAD   SCHOOLS 


559 


philosophy,  was  required  of  all  matriculants  who 
bad  not  taken  a  degree  in  arts;  (2)  after  three 
years'  study  and  one  complete  course  of  lectures, 
the  bachelor's  degree  was  allowed ;  (3)  after  an- 
other year  and  a  second  full  course,  students  22 
years  of  age  were  admitted  to  examination  for 
the  doctorate  :  and  they  were  required  to  pub- 
lish and  publicly  defend  a  thesis  on  some  medical 
subject.  The  examinations  were  conducted  after 
the  pattern  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  the 
regnant  medical  school  of  that  day.  These 
schools  were  broken  up  by  the  Revolutionary 
war.  in  177(>.  at  which  time  they  had  graduated 
about  50  physicians.  With  the  return  of  pet 
these  institutions  were  resuscitated  :  and  other 
faculties  were  formed  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  principally  as  departments  of  previous- 
ly existing  literary  colleges  or  universities. — that 
of  Harvard  in  L782,  Queen's  in  1792,  and  Dart- 
mouth in  179G.  They  did  not  at  once  enjoy  the 
attendance  of  large  classes,  for  the  country  was 
impoverished  and  distressed  by  the  effects  of  a 
long  war ;  and  they  exercised  with  caution  and 
reserve  their  privilege  of  conferring  medical  de- 
grees, so  that,  with  the  close  of  the  18th  century, 
their  graduates  did  not  exceed  253  in  number  ; 
and  the  honorary  M.  D.  was  but  seldom  granted. 
Among  the  eminent  names  allied  to  these  pio- 
neer movements  are  those  of  Morgan,  Rush, 
Jones,  Bard,  Romayne,  Hosack,  Warren,  and 
Nathan  Smith.  During  the  opening  quarter  of 
the  present  century,  as  national  prosperity  re- 
vived, and  learning  began  to  flourish  and  students 
to  multiply,  a  great  degree  of  energy  marked  the 
progress  of  medical  education.  In  1825,  the 
number  of  schools  had  increased  from  four  to 
sixteen,  well  distributed,  geographically;  in  twelve 
states,  principally  the  Northern  and  sea-board 
states.  Three  were  south  of  the  Potomac,  and 
two  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  They  were,  as  a 
rule,  affiliated  with  some  previously  existing  col- 
lege, but  the  practice  of  seeking  private,  inde- 
pendent charters  had  commenced;  these  charters 
were  readily  granted  by  the  legislatures  of  the 
various  states.  The  American  medical  college 
then  began  to  take  shape  and  direction,  the  same 
essentially  that  it  retains  at  this  day.  Govern- 
ment, as  a  rule,  withheld  all  support,  endowment, 
or  control ;  and  what  little  protective  legislation 
had  previously  been  enacted  was  then,  or  soon 
after,  repealed ;  practical  anatomy  was  a  felony 
by  statute  ;  the  populace  were  still  inimical  to 
dissection,  the  last  mob-rising  being  as  late  as 
1820.  Thrown  upon  their  own  resources,  and 
recognizing  the  necessities  of  the  land  for  prac- 
titioners, the  colleges  broke  away  from  the  line 
of  European  tradition,  at  once  increasing  the 
facilities  and  lowering  the  standard  of  medical 
education.  The  minimum  of  requirements  was 
pretty  uniformly  adopted;  preliminary  qualifica- 
tions were  not  demanded;  the  time  of  study  was 
shortened ;  examinations  became  less  difficult ; 
the  printed  thesis  and  its  public  defense  wen' 
remitted  except  on  special  occasions ;  and,  about 
1812,  the  primary  degree  of  M.  U.  ceased,  and 
all  diplomas  declined  in  appreciation.  Identified 


with  this  formative  period,  are  the  names  of 
Physick,  Mott,  Drake,  Mussey,  Caldwell,  God- 
man,  McDowell.  KLnight, and  Childs.  Unprom- 
ising as  this  Bystem,  or  want  of  Bystem,  in 
medical  education,  Beemed  to  the  conservative 
and  educated  part  of  the  profession,  and  despite 

protests,    in    greal     variety,    made     as    early    as 

1827,  against  the  deuvmrate  tendencies  of  the 
now  developed  American  plan,  the  status  of  in- 
struction grew  worse  rather  than  better.  Char" 
tered  colleges  of  an  interior  grade,  often-times 
short-lived,  multiplied, — duplicated  even  in  the 
same  town;  indeed,  from  1 8 '_'.">  to  1850,  their 
number  almost  trebled.  In  some,  inferiorpro- 
fessors  lectured  to  benches  promiscuously  tilled, 
the  regulations  were  lowered,  the  lecture-term 
was  reduced  to  three  months,  and  the  attendance 
even  then  was  not  obligatory, and  few  candidates 
were  rejected.  It  is  even  said  that  diplomas, 
with  lithographed  signatures,  were  sold.  About 
this  time  (1850),  largely  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  the  American  Medical  Association,  the 
demand  for  reforms  gradually  made  itself  felt. 
No  radical  change  of  plan  has  been  adopted 
or  is  immediately  probable,  but  a  progressive 
growth  from  within  is  manifest.  Schools  of  the 
poorer  quality  are  still  unduly  multiplied;  there 
are  now  over  GO  of  all  grades,  about  30  others 
having  been  discontinued.  The  time  of  study,  and 
the  length  of  the  lecture-term,  are  yet  too  short, 
although  additional  courses  have  been  added 
which  are  for  the  most  part  optional,  and  the 
number  of  branches  taught  has  been  increased. 
The  instructor  is  still  also  the  examiner  of  the 
candidates  for  graduation,  although  some  visiting 
censor*  have  been  appointed.  The  curriculum, 
nominally  the  same  as  50  years  ago,  is  vastly  im- 
proved by  the  introduction  of  clinical  teaching, 
by  demonstrative  methods  and  illustration  that 
excite  the  admiration  of  critics  from  abroad, 
and  in  a  few  cases  by  the  grading  of  classes.  The 
superior  appointments  of  the  more  modern 
schools  facilitate  the  work  of  the  student,  and 
many  of  them  have  their  buildings  close  to  the 
hospitals.  The  study  of  anatomy  by  dissection 
is  now  as  easy  as  formerly  it  was  difficult.  The 
American  plan  favors  the  production  of  a  superi- 
or teaching  corps.  The  success  of  a  school  is 
ordinarily  in  direct  proportion  to  the  merits  of 
professors;  the  brightest  and  most  progressive 
minds,  therefore,  are  diligently  sought  out,  and 
a  fruitful  emulation  is  excited  among  them  to 
render  their  lectures  at  once  practical  and  popu- 
lar. From  these  and  other  considerations,  tin- 
conclusion  is  inevitable — that  the  colleges  of  the 
United  States  are  destined  to  advance,  however 
defective  their  origin  and  place  may  be.  In  1874, 
the  number  of  instructors  was  780;  of  pupils, 
over  7.000,  of  whom  2,000  were  graduated  as 
doctors  in  medicine;  one  student  in  ten  had  pre- 
viously obtained  a  degree  in  arts  or  science.  In 
the  above  enumeration  and  description,  only  the 
"regular"  schools  are  included.  In  this  century, 
these  schools  have  graduated  fully  7">,000  candi- 
dates. In  regard  to  the  education  of  women  as 
physicians,  a  favorable  sentiment  has  been  grow- 


560 


MEDICAL  SCHOOLS 


MEIEROTTO 


ing  up,  and  some  progress  has  been  made,  three 
good  schools  being  in  operation.  In  the  medical 
faculties  of  South  America  and  the  British  do- 
minions, the  scale  of  regulations  is  higher  than  in 
the  IT.  S.,  both  as  to  preliminary  qualifications 
and  the  term  of  study.  In  Brazil,  there  are  two 
departments  of  medicine;  in  Canada,  there  are  six, 
some  of  them  quite  small  and  poorly  sustained. 
The  subjoined  table  contains  a  list  of  the  med- 
ical colleges  and  departments  in  the  U.  S. 


Dental  Colleges. — In  the  United  States,  the 
first  institution  of  this  kind  was  the  Baltimore 
College  of  Dental  Surgery,  which  received  its 
charter  in  1839.  In  1876,  there  were  in  the 
U.  S.  the  following  dental  schools  : 


Medical  College 
or 

Location 

-c 

g.fi 

J3   = 

1  = 
-  u 

Department 

O 

1858 
1858 

aj   c 

>  ° 

2 
3 

is.S 

Med.  Coll.  of  Alabama 
Med.  C.  of  the  Pacific 

Mobile,  Ala 

?1 

San  Francisco,  Cal. . 

20 

Univ.  of  California San  Francisco,  Cal.. 

1864 

1 

40 

1812 

3 

34 

Atlanta  Med.  CoU 
Univ.  of  Georgia 

Atlanta,  Ga 

1855 
1831 

2 

17 

Savannah  Med.  Coll.  .[Savannah,  Oa 

1853 

2 

16 

Northwestern  Univ..  .Chicago,    111 

1859 

3 

39 

Bush  Med.  Coll Chicago,   111 

1844 

3 

20 

1870 

2 

32 

M.  C.  of  Evansville.  . .  Evansville,  Ind 

1847 

1 

23 

Coll.  of  rhysicians  and] 

Surgeons  of  Indiana  Indianapolis,  Ind.. . 

1874 

2 

16 

Univ.  of  Indiana 

Indianapolis,  Ind. . . 

1869 

2 

22 

Univ.  of  Iowa 

Iowa  City,  Iowa 

1868 

2 

StO 

Coll.  of  Physicians  and 

1850 

2 

16 

1*52 

2 

20 

1874 

Central  Univ 

1874 
1S69 

1 

2 

30 

Louisville  Med.  Coll. . 

24 

1837 

<> 

20 

Univ.  of  Louisiana. . . 

New  Orleans,  La... . 

1834 

3 

16 

Med.  School  of  Maine, 

1820 

3 

16 

Coll. of  Physicians  ainl 

1872 

,  , 

22 

1807 

2 

20 

1832 

2 

36 

Harvard  Univ 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich. . . 

1782 
1850 

3 
3 

26 

Detroit  Mod.  Cell 

1868 

3 

40 

Univ.  of  Missouri.... 

1873 

2 

40 

Kansas   City   Coll.    of 

Kansas  City,  Mo.... 

1869 

2 

21 

Mo.  Med.  Coll iSt.  Louis,  Mo 

1840 

2 

24 

St.  Louis  Med.  Coll.. .  St.  Louis,  Mo 

1841 

3 

22 

Dartmouth  College . . . 

lianover,  N.  H 

1796 

3 

44 

Union  Univ 

Albany,  N.  Y 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

1839 
1860 

3 
1 

24 

L.  I.  Coll.  Hospital... 

36 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

1847 

3 

20 

liellevue  Hospit.  IX,  C. 

New  York,  N.  Y 

1861 

3 

37 

Coll.  of  Phys.  and  Sur. 

New  York,  N.Y 

1807 

3 

32 

Free  M.  C.  for  Women 

New  York,  N.  Y 

1871 

3 

26 

Univ.  of  City  of  N.  Y.. 

New  York,  N.  Y 

1841 

3 

32 

Women's  Med.  Coll.  of 

the  N.  Y.  Infirmarv. 

New  York,  N.  Y 

1864 

3 

35 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

1872 

3 

39 

Cincinnati  College  of 

Medicine  and  Surg. . 

Cincinnati,  Ohio... 

1851 

3 

40 

Med.  Coll.  of  Ohio 

Cincinnati,  Ohio... 

1819 

3 

20 

Cincinnati,  Ohio... 

1852 

3 

21 

Cleveland  Med.  Coll. . 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

1843 

2 

40 

Univ.  of  Wooster 

Cleveland,  Ohio.... 

1  SCO 

2 

20 

StarliugM.O.andHosp.  Columbus,  Ohio 

1847 

2 

22 

1867 

3 

.. 

Jefferson  Med.  Coll.. . 

Oxford.  Pa 

1870 
1824 

3 
2 

37 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

22 

Univ.  of  Pounsvlvauia 

Philadelphia,  Pa.. . . 

1765 

3 

24 

■Women's  M   C.  of  l'a. 

Philadelphia,  l'a. . .  . 

1850 

3 

32 

Med.  Coll.  of  8.  C 

Charleston,  S.  C 

1826 

32 

Columbia,  S.  C 

1868 

•• 

36 

Univ.  of  Nashville*  and 

Vanderbilt  Univ., . . 

1850 

20 

Tex.  Med.  C.  andHosp. 

Galveston.  Tex 

1S73 

2 

16 

Univ.  of  Vt 

Charlottesville, Va.  . 
Kiitimond,  Va 

1809 
1SJ4 
1851 

2 
*2 

16 

Univ,  of  va 

Med. Coll. of  Va 

:n 

Georgetown  Univ Washington,  D.  C . 

1851 

3 

20 

Washington,  D.  C... 
Washington,  D.  C... 

1868 

3 
3 

40 

22 

Dental  School 

.5  a 

<"  s 

or 

Location 

-=  e: 

'-- 

iiE 

Department 

o 

>  - 

>j 

New  Orleans  D.  C 

New  Orleans,  La. . . . 

1867 

2 

17 

Baltimore   College   of 

Dental  Surgery 

1840 

2 

23 

Maryland  Dental  Coll. 

1873 

2 

26 

Boston  Dental  College 

1867 

3 

16 

Dental  School  of  Har- 

vard University 

Boston,  Mass 

1868 

2 

20 

Missouri  Dental  Coll. 

1865 

2 

17 

N.Y.  Coll.  of  Dentistry 

New  York.  N.  Y 

1866 

2 

20 

Ohio  Coll. of  Dent. Sur. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

1845 

2 

22 

Pa.  Coll.  of  Dent.  Sur. 

Philadelphia.  Pa 

1856 

2 

36 

Phila.  Dent.  Coll 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

1863 

2 

36 

Amer.  Dental  College 

1873 
1873 

2 

1? 

Univ.  of  California. . . 

Oakland,    Cal 

HbmceopatJ/ic  Colleges. —  The  homoeopathic 
system  of  medicine  was  first  definitely  propound- 
ed by  Hahnemann  (born  in  Meissen,  Saxony, 
1755  ;  died  in  Paris,  1843).  The  first  homoeo- 
pathic college  was  founded  at  Allen  town,  Pa.,  by 
Dr.  Wesselhoeft,  but  it  no  longer  exists.  In  1876, 
there  were  in  the  United  States  the  following 
homoeopathic  colleges  and  departments  : 


Homoeopathic 

College  or 
Department 


Location 


Chicago,  HI. 


Chicago,  HI 

Iowa  City.  Iowa.. 

Boston,  Mass 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich . 
St.  Louis,  Mo 


St.  Louis,  Mo 

New  York,  N.  Y. . . 

New  York.  N.  Y... 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. . 
Cleveland,  Ohio.. 


5.2 

J=    c 

c 
1876 

- 
-  t> 

eg 

§  8 

3 

1860 

1870 

3 

1873 

3 

1874 

3 

1858 

2 

1876 

3 

1860 

3 

1863 

3 

1878 

3 

1849 

2—3 

1869 

2-31 

4  o 


29 

29 
30 
86 
36 
20 

18 
24 

28 
28 
21 


ChicagoHomoeop.Coll. 

Hahnemann  Med. Coll. 

and  Hosp.  of  Chicago 

Iowa  State  University 

Boston  Univ 

Univ.  of  Michigan. . . . 
Homceop.  M.  C.  of  Mo. 
Missouri     School     of 

Midwifery 

N.Y.  Homceop.  M.  C. 
N.   Y.  Med.  Coll.   and 

Hosp.  for  Women.. 

Ptdte  Med.  C..II 

Homceop.  Hosp.  Coll. 
Hahnemann  Med.Coll  I 

of  Philadelphia (Philadelphia,  Pa. 

In  Europe,  there  are  chairs  of  homoeopathy 
in  the  universities  of  -Munich,  Germany,  and  of 
Buda-Pesth,  Hungary;  also,  a  school  of  homoeop- 
athy in  Ixmdon,  England. 

MEIEROTTO,  Johann  Heinrich  Lud- 
wig,  a  German  educator,  born  August  22.,  1742; 
died  September  24.,  L800.  He  was  appointed, 
in  1771,  professor,  and.  in  1775,  rector  of  the 
Joachimsthal  Gymnasium,  in  Berlin;  in  which 
position  lie  was  i-minently  successful,  being  called 
the  King  of  Rectors.  While  a  member  of  the 
school  council,  he  traveled  through  the  provinces 
of  Prussia,  Bilesia,and  Posen.and  displayed  great 
talent  in  organizing  common  schools.  Besides 
numerous  works  on  various  subjects,  he  wrote  a 
Latin  grammar  constructed  on  a  plan  which  bore 
some  resemblance  to  the  met  hods  of  Jacotot  and 
Hamilton,  and  which  attracted  considerable  at- 
tention at  the  time  of  its  introduction,  but  soon 
fell  into  disuse. 


MELANCIITON 


MEMORIZING 


561 


MELANCHTHON,  Philip,  one  of  the 
church  reformers  of  the  16th  century,  and  one 
of  Germany's  greatest  schoolmen  and  educators, 
was  born  at  Bretten,  a  little  town  near  Beidel 
berg,  Feb.  L6.,  1  197;  died  at  Wittenberg,  April 
19.,  1560.  [n  recognition  of  the  extraordinary 
influence  which  he  exerted  upon  the  schools 
of  Germany  in  his  own  and  the  following  cent- 
uries,he  has  been  honored  with  the  titleof  Pros- 
oeptor  Germanice.  Alter  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1507,  he  was  taken  into  the  family  of  his 
grandmother,  who  was  a  sister  of  the  celebrated 
Kcnchlin,  and  lived  at  Pforzheim.  Reuchlin, 
who  frequently  visited  his  sister,  was  delighted 
with  the  progress  of  young  Melanchthon,  gave 
him  books,  and,  after  the  fashion  of  the  times, 
chanced  his  original  name  Schwarzerd  into 
the  (jlreek  Melanchthon.  At  the  age  of  only 
twelve  years,  .Melanchthon  was  sent  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg,  which  two  years  later,  in 
1511,  gave  him  the  bacealaureale  degree,  but, 
in  1512,  by  reason  of  his  extreme  youth,  de- 
clined to  confer  upon  him  the  degree  of  .Master. 
While  at  Heidelberg,  Melanchthon  took  charge 
of  the  studies  of  the  two  sons  of  Count  Lowen- 
Stein,  and  sketched,  pi'obably  for  their  use,  the 
first  outlines  of  a  grammar  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage. In  1512,  he  went  to  the  university  of 
'fiibingen, where  he  was  involved  in  the  struggle 
between  the  old  and  the  new  era,  and  with  the 
energy  and  ardor  of  youth  strove  to  compass  all 
branches  of  knowledge.  In  L 514,  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  he  was  made  a  Master,  and  at  once 
began  to  lecture  on  Latin  classics.  His  career 
as  an  author  began  about  the  same  time ;  for,  as 
early  as  15 1(5,  he  published  an  edition  of  Terence, 
and,  in  1518,  his  Greek  grammar,  at  the  close  of 
which  he  announced  "  that  he  intended,  in  con- 
junction with  a  number  of  his  friends,  to  edit 
the  works  of  Aristotle  in  the  original".  At  the 
same  time,  he  attended  mathematical  and  med- 
ical lectures,  and  studied  the  science  of  law. 
In  1518,  Frederick  the  Wise,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  Reuchlin,  ap- 
pointed him  professor  of  Greek  in  the  university 
of  Wittenberg.  When  he  left  Tubingen,  Sinder, 
his  old  teacher,  said  of  him  :  "  As  many  learned 
men  as  the  university  can  boast  of,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  none  of  them,  learned  enough  to 
form  a  suitable  estimate  of  the  learning  of  him 
who  is  about  to  leave  us."  Melanchthon  entered 
AVittenberg  Aug.  25.,  1518,  and  remained  there 
until  the  close  of  his  life,  laboring  for  28  years  in 
intimate  connection  with  Luther.  He  lectured 
on  the  most  diverse  subjects,  —  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testaments,  dogmatics,  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classics,  ethics,  logic,  and  physics.  I  lis 
fame  spread  throughout  Europe;  and  the  number 
of  his  hearers  reached  at  times  as  high  as  two 
thousand,  embracing  not  only  Germans,  but 
Frenchmen,  Englishmen,  Poles,  Hungarians, 
Italians,  and  Greeks.  Among  the  distinguished 
educators  who  were  formed  under  his  teaching, 
were  Trotzendorf  and  Neander.  He  was  often, 
and  in  various  ways,  appealed  to  for  counsel  in 
school  matters.  The  people  of  Nuremberg  having 
3G 


resolved  to  establish  a  gymnasium,  invited  Me- 
lanchthon to  become  its  rector.    I  !e  declined  this 

in\  itation,  lest  he  might  seem  to  be  ungrateful  to 
the  Elector;  bul  consented  to  take  a  leading  pari 
in  the  inauguration  of  thegymnasium,  which  took 

place  in  152(1.  At  the  third  centennial  ceK  lna- 
tion  of  this  event,  in  L826,  a  statue  of  Melanch- 
thon was  erected  in  front  of  the  building.      Put 

1  *  *»     i 

the  most  important  event  of  his  life  in  connec- 
tion with  school  matters,  was  his  visitation,  in 
1  "'27,  of  the  churches  and  schools  of  Thiuingia, 
undertaken  by  order  of  the  Elector,  John  the 
Constant,  and  through  the  influence  of  Luther. 
In  company  with  Myconius  and  Justus  'I  homas, 
lie  traveled  over  the  whole  country. and.  in  1528, 
published  his  Report,  or  Book  of  Visitation,  & 
work  of  great  importance  in  the  history  of  edu- 
cation in  Germany.  This  book  describes  the  be- 
ginnings,  as  yet  crude,  of  a  high-school  system 
in  that  country,  without  organization,  or  well- 
regulated  activity.  Melanchthon  was  a  prolific 
author  of  text-books,  which  wire  universally 
introduced,  and  were  perpetuated  through  many 
editions.  They  comprise  a  Greek  and  a  latin 
grammar,  two  manuals  of  Logic,  one  of  rhetoric, 
one  of  ethics,  and  one  of  physics,  all  character- 
ized by  great  clearness  of  expression.  Under 
the  title  Declamationes,  we  have  a  collection  of 
Melanchthon 's orations, which  contain  a  treasure 
of  educational  wisdom.  The  best  edition  of 
Melanchthon "s  numerous  works  is  that  of  Bret- 
Schneider  and  Pindseil.  in  the  Corpus  Reformdr 
torum  (28  vols.,  1834 — 60).  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Ledderhose  (Heidelberg.  J  847  ;  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Krotel)  ;  Schmidt  (1861); 
and  many  others. 

MEMORIZING,  committing  to  memory,  or, 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  learning  by  heart, 
generally  implies  repetition  or  rote-learning; 
though  it  need  not  be  without  an  understanding 
of  what  is  memorized.  The  law  of  repetition 
has  an  important  application  in  many  processes 
of  instruction  that  are  addressed,  wholly  or  in 
part,  to  the  memory.  The  mere  memorizing  of 
words  or  sentences,  in  order  to  produce  a  show 
of  knowledge  is  a  great  abuse.  Children  may, 
however,  be  required  to  commit  to  memory  some 
statements  which  they  do  not  perfectly  under- 
stand, such  complete  understanding  requiring  a 
more  mature  degree  of  intellectual  development. 
"No  doubt",  says  Oalderwood  (On  Teaching, 
Edin.,  1874),  "all  children  must  commit  to 
memory  a  good  many  things  they  do  not  rightly 
understand.  Such  storing  of  the  memory  he 
longs  less  or  more  to  all  study."  This  is  the  view 
also  of  Thring  [Education  and  School,  Lon- 
don, 18G4):  "There  should  be  a  clear  perception 
how  far  it  is  wise  to  explain,  and  to  proceed  on 
the  principle  of  making  a  boy  thoroughly  under- 
stand his  lessons,  and  how  far  they  should  be 
looked  on  as  a  mere  collecting  of  material  and  a 
matter  of  memory.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  with  the  young,  memory  is  strong,  and 
logical  perception  weak.  All  teaching  should 
start  on  this  undoubted  fact.  It  sounds  very 
fascinating  to  talk  about  understanding   every 


562 


MEMORY 


thing,  learning  every  thing  thoroughly,  and  all 
those  broad  phrases,  which  plump  down  on  a 
difficulty,  and  hide  it.  Put  in  practice,  they  are 
about  on  a  par  with  exhorting  a  boy  to  mind  he 
does  not  go  into  the  water  till  lie  can  swim."  The 
method  referred  to  in  this  citation  is  the  other 
extreme  from  mechanical  word  memorizing,  and 
while  not  as  injurious,  or  as  likely  to  be  adopted, 
is  equally  unphilosophical.  The  extent  to  which 
memorizing  is  to  be  carried,  and  the  branches  of 
instruction  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  constitute 
important  subjects  for  the  exercise  of  the  teach- 
er's judgment  and  intelligence.  (See  Concert 
Teaching,  Memory,  and  Rote-Teachin<;.) 

MEMORY  is  often  represented  as  a  distinct 
faculty  of  the  mind  ;  but  this  may  do  harm  in 
education.  The  mind  is  one.  and  has  no  sepa- 
rate faculties  distinct  from  each  other,  the  term 
faculty  being  used  merely  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience. It  is  important  to  turn  away  from 
this  mode  of  conception,  and  to  look  at  the 
phenomena  as  they  arise  in  the  mind.  An  ob- 
ject and  a  mind  come  into  connection ;  what  is 
the  result  ?  An  impression  is  produced  on  the 
mind,  or  more  correctly  the  mind  forms  an  im- 
pression of  the  object.  What  becomes  of  this  im- 
pression? A  new  object  presents  itself,  and  then 
the  impression  disappears  before  the  new  impres- 
sion  which  the  mind  forms  of  the  new  object.  Has 
the  former  impression  disappeared  altogether? 
No.  We  believe  that,  in  some  way  or  other, 
it  still  remains  in  the  mind.  If  a  similar  ob- 
ject were  to  come  before  the  mind,  it  would  be 
conscious  that  it  had  formed  an  impression  of  it 
before,  and  the  two  impressions  would  blend  into 
one.  We  have  here,  then,  a  peculiar  power  of  the 
mind  to  retain  what  it  has  once  had;  and  this 
power  does  not  apply  merely  to  perceptions  or 
other  intellectual  acts,  but  to  feelings  and  desires. 
A  longing  for  an  object  has  been  aroused  within 
us.  The  longing  is  displaced  for  a  time  by  some 
other  pressing  passion.  But  the  longing  is  still 
in  the  mind;  and  when  the  appropriate  causes  of 
excitation  occur,  the  longing  will  come  back,  and, 
it  may  be,  blend  with  the  new  longing  which 
helps'  t«>  awaken  it,  or  repel  the  new  longing 
which  has  aroused  it  by  contrast.  This  then  is 
the  first  feature  of  memory.  The  soul  has  the 
power  of  retaining  feelings,  volitions,  perceptions, 
and  thoughts.  The  question  has  been  raised, 
can  these  feelings,  volitions,  and  thoughts  en- 
tirely and  absolutely  vanish  from  the  mind?  A 
categorical  answer  cannot,  from  the  nature  of 
the  ease,  be  given  to  this  question  :  but.  certain 
tacts  render  it  likely  that  the  mind  retains  every 
thing,  and  that  it  is  merely  the  power  of  resus- 
citation which  is  defective.  Many  circumstances 

which  seem  to  have  been   entirely  forgotten,  are, 

under  peculiar  conditions,  recalled  to  the  memory. 

It    is    said    that    often,  when    persons    have  been 

drowning,  they  have  seen,  as  in  a  rapid  vision, 
their  pail   life  in  multitudinous  details  which 

they  had  entirely  forgotten.      People,  in  diseases 

of  the  brain,  have  remembered  languages,  which 

they  had  learned  in  early  days,  bul  which  they 

i.e.i  to  have  lost  completely,    facts  like  these 


point  to  the  indestructibility  of  that  which  has 
once  had  a  place  in  the  soul. — But  besides  the 
power  of  retention,  there  is  the  other  power  of 
reproduction  ;  and  it  is  to  this  power  that  the 
educator  has  to  direct  his  attention.  What  are  the 
means  of  strengthening  the  reproductive  power 
of  the  minds  of  children  ?  We  have  to  look  at 
the  conditions  of  its  exercise  ;  and.  in  this  con- 
nection, we  must  consider  the  four  following 
principles:  (I)  It  is  plain  that  the  impression 
will  be  reproducible  in  proportion  to  the  strength 
and  vivacity  with  which  it  is  first  made.  This 
strength  depends  partly  on  the  natural  capacity 
of  the  child,  partly  on  whether  the  stimulus 
in  the  object  is  sttch  as  to  produce  a  strong 
impression.  The  educational  inferences  from 
this  statement  are  numerous.  Thus  it  follows 
that  wherever  a  real  object  can  be  presented 
to  a  child,  it  should  be  used  in  preference  to 
any  picture  of  it,  and  that  a  picture  of  it  is 
better  than  a  mere  verbal  description.  More- 
over, if  more  than  one  sense  can  be  employed,  so 
much  the  better.  Jf  any  object  is  to  be  re- 
membered, the  child  will  remember  more  easily, 
if  he  can  touch,  smell,  and  taste  it.  as  well  as  see 
it.  This  arises  partly  from  the  fact  that  these 
direct  sensations  produce  strong  impressions, but 
partly  also  from  what  we  call  our  second  prin- 
ciple of  memory: — (II)  Every  means  should  be 
used  to  concentrate  the  attention  on  the  object. 
If  we  wish  to  make  a  child  remember  an  object, 
the  object  must  be  allowed  to  lie  before  the 
child's  eve  or  mind  for  some  time.  In  the  percep- 
tion of  every  object  the  process  is  somewhat  as 
follows  :  the  perception  or  sensation  has  first  to 
displace  the  preceding  perception  or  sensation. 
It  then  gathers  strength  and  occupies  for  a  time 
the  whole  mind.  But,  soon  after,  another  object 
of  perception  or  of  thought  presents  itself ;  and 
the  mind  will  occupy  itself  with  this.  'I  his  new 
perception  will  weaken,  and  finally  expel,  the 
other.  Each  perception  is  connected  with  two 
other  perceptions  or  mental  acts — with  the  one 
which  it  expels  and  the  one  by  which  it  is  ex- 
pelled. Now.  the  power  of  reproducing  the  men- 
tal act  depends  not  merely  on  the  Btrength  with 
which  the  act  is  executed  at  its  central  moment, 
but  also  on  the  strength  of  the  connections  which 
it  may  form  with  the  antecedent  and  subsequent 
acts:  and  this  strength  depends  partly  on  the 
time  and  attention  with  which  they  can  be  kept 
together  in  the  mind  :  for,  in  every  mental  act, 
there  are  subsidiary  simultaneous  acts  which 
scarcely  reach    the    point  of  consciousness.      For 

instance,  when  I  examine  a  house,  there  is  some 
Blight  perception  of  the  intermediate  space  be- 
tween me  and  the  house,  of  the  objects,  such  as 

trees,  which  may  be  in  that  space,  and  of  the  sky 
which    is   overhead.      These    pass    from    the   one 

definite  perception  to  the  other,  and  in  a  latent 
state  help  to  recall  the  one.  when  we  get  the 
other.  The  strength  of  the  connect i< m  is  in- 
Creased,  if  there  be  a  natural  connection  between 

the  two  mental  acts,  such  as  that  of  cause  and 
effect,  means  anil  etui,  or  if  there  lie  some  points 
of  resemblance  between  them,  or  some  points  of 


MEMORY 


5G3 


contrast.  But,  in  .all  cases,  time  must  bo  given 
to  let  these  points  of  resemblance  or  contrast 
flow  over,  as  it  were,  from  the  one  to  the  other. 
The  danger  to  which  the  educator  is  here  ex- 
posed, is  that  of  attempting  to  do  too  much  and, 
therefore,  doing  what  lie  docs  too  hurriedly.  I  lc 
must  be  patient.  He  must  try  to  intensify  the 
impression  by  allowing  the  various  senses  to  deal 
with  it.  and  he  can  thus  concentrate  attention 
longeron  it  than  he  could  otherwise  do.  And 
he  must,  as  far  as  possible,  bring  only  two  objects 
or  two  ideas  at  a  time  before  the  pupil's  mind. 
These  should  be  held  together  for  sometime; 
and  they  should,  if  it  is  possible,  be  naturally 
connected.  Of  course,  there  are  occasions  in 
which  this  is  neither  possible  nor  advantageous. 
There  are  some  occasions  in  which  the  teacher 
must  pass  over  a  good  deal  of  matter  in  a  short 
time.  He  does  not  wish  his  pupil  to  remember 
the  whole,  nor  would  it  be  good  for  the  pupil  to 
do  so  ;  but  these  cases  should  be  limited  to  those 
of  necessity.  And  a  warning  should  be  given 
against  the  danger  of  indulging  too  much  in 
reading  books  which,  awakening  the  interest 
strongly  and  thus  disturbing  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, do  not  demand  of  the  reader  an  accurate 
recollection.  This  is  specially  true  of  novels. 
The  frequent  and  rapid  reading  of  these  works, 
in  which  the  reader  has  no  stimulus  and  no  occa- 
sion to  remember  the  incidents  accurately,  fills 
the  mind  with  a  great  number  of  vague  mem- 
ories.  These  memories  render  indistinct  what 
ought  to  be  distinct,  for  they  abstract  so  much 
of  the  valuable  power  that  the  mind  possesses 
for  reproduction;  and  the  habit  of  reading  with- 
out caring  to  remember,  is  apt  to  transfer  itself 
to  the  books  and  acts  which  ought  to  have  the 
closest  attention. — (III)  There  must  be  frequent 
repetition.  An  object  or  thought  is  reproducible 
easily,  when  it  has  been  made  to  occupy  a  large 
space  in  the  mind.  The  power  of  reproduction  is 
limited  by  time,  and  the  mind  can  only  reproduce 
within  certain  limits  in  this  respect.  If,  therefore, 
an  object  is  to  be  reproduced,  the  faded  impres- 
sion must  be  renewed ;  and  the  renewal  of  the 
impression  strengthens  its  hold.  It  is  thus  that 
a  fact  may  become  indelibly  imprinted  on  the 
memory.  The  value  of  the  repetition  cannot  be 
overestimated,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  make  it  wearisome. — (IV)  The  power  of  re- 
production greatly  depends  on  the  state  of  the 
health.  That  there  is  a  very  close  connection 
between  this  power  and  the  body,  is  proved  most 
conclusively  by  the  numerous  instances  collected 
by  Dr.  Abercrombie,  in  which  abnormal  states 
of  the  brain  were  accompanied  by  abnormal 
developments  of  memory.  When,  therefore,  a 
child  forgets,  it  must  not  be  always  attributed  to 
carelessness.  A  child  learns  a  word  on  Monday, 
and  knows  it  with  perfect  accuracy;  but  when  he 
comes,  on  Tuesday  morning,  to  repeat  it.  he  finds 
he  cannot.  In  all  probability,  the  impression  was 
too  weak  to  last  a  whole  day,  and  to  resist  the 
many  and  more  interesting  ideas  which  have 
intervened  ;  but  the  lesson  is  not  lost.  The  orig- 
inal impression  is  there ;  the  teacher  patiently 


and  pleasantly  renews  the  impression;  and  the 
old  blends  with  the  new.  and  strengthens,  until 
repetition  tixes  it  in  the  mind  forever.  Hut  it 
may  lie  merely  a  temporary  suspension  of  the 
child's  power  of  reproduction,  in  consequence  of 
illness:  and  there  18  no  surer  sign  of  latent  dis- 
ease than  when  a  child,  generally  ready  and 
(puck,  stumbles  and  forgets.  Some  physiologists 
go  the  length  of  affirming  that,  owing  to  the 
EreshnesBof  the  nervous  system,  the  exercise  of 
the  memory  should  be  assigned  to  the  morning: 
while  other  mental  efforts,  such  as  those  of 
imagination,  should  be  reserved  for  the  evening. 
These  four  principles  lead  not  only  to  the  power 
of  reproduction,  but  to  the  power  of  ready  and 
accurate  reproduction.  In  order  that  the  mem- 
ory may  embrace  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  it  is 
essential  that  the  mind  should  devote  itself  to 
such  a  range  of  subjects.  The  power  of  reprodu- 
cing a  subject  depends  upon  the  frequency  and 
strength  with  which  it  has  come  before  the 
mind.  It  is,  therefore,  not  quite  correct  to  say. 
that  a  person  has  a  good  or  a  bad  memory.  Every 
one  has  many  kinds  of  memory.  If  he  has  exer- 
cised his  mind  in  words,  he  will  remember  words; 
if  he  has  given  much  attention  to  numbers,  he 
will  remember  numbers;  if  to  any  other  class  of 
ideas,  he  will  remember  such  ideas.  But.  however 
great  his  practice  in  numbers  may  be,  that  prac- 
tice will  not  enable  him  to  remember  words;  and 
the  converse  is  also  true.  The  teacher  must  care- 
fully exercise  the  pupil  in  each  group  of  notions, 
if  he  expects  him  to  remember  them  readily  and 
accurately.  Perhaps,  one  of  the  questions  which 
deserve  careful  consideration  in  education  is 
what  ought  to  be  forgotten.  The  human  mind 
is  limited  in  its  range,  and  cannot  reproduce 
every  thing.  Ought  it  to  put  into  its  store-house 
any  thing  that  it  cannot  hope  to  reproduce  ?  We 
think  that  it  ought.  Where  the  aim  is  to  pro- 
duce in  the  pupil  a  clear  idea  or  notion,  many 
particulars  must  be  adduced  which,  studied  atten- 
tively for  a  short  time,  will  render  the  notion 
clear  and  distinct :  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
mind  should  retain  all  these  particulars.  This 
is  the  case,  for  instance,  in  geography.  In  order 
to  form  a  correct  notion  of  a  country,  many  par- 
ticulars must  be  carefully  weighed;  but,  after  the 
notion  has  been  attained,  the  pupil  will  wisely 
drop  a  great  deal  of  the  knowledge  which  he  has 
temporarily  mastered,  deeming  it  enough  to 
know  where  he  can  get  the  knowledge  when  he 
wants  it.  Again,  when  the  object  is  to  inculcate 
a  great  principle  of  action,  the  same  course  may 
lie  pursued.  If.  for  example,  a  teacher  wishes 
to  impress  upon  his  pupils  the  true  idea  of  tolera- 
tion, he  may  choose  many  incidents  in  history 
to  bring  it  home  to  their  minds, and  may  go  into 
the  minutest  details  of  these  incidents  in  order 
to  awaken  interest ;  but  he  succeeds  in  his  pur- 
pose, if  he  leaves  a  strong  and  accurate  general 
impression, even  though  the  pupil  forgets  most  of 
the  details  which  have  been  given  him.  The  power 
of  forgetfulness  is  one  that  can  also  be  directed,  as 
well  as  the  power  of  reproduction,  it  is,  indeed, 
true  that  the  greater  the   effort  to  forget  any 


f>64 


MEMORY 


tiling,  the  more  surely  is  it  impressed  on  the 
memory;  but  this  holds  true  mainly  in  those  mat- 
ters in  which  there  is  a  strong  personal  element; 
and  just  as  a  man  who  sleeps  iii  a  room  where  a 
clock  strikes  can  make  up  his  mind  not  to  take 
any  notice  of  the  striking  of  the  clock  in  his 
sleep,  so,  in  the  impersonal  matters  of  the  intel- 
lect, we  can  make  up  our  minds  to  l"t  such  and 
such  facts  fall  into  oblivion.  Kant  distinguished 
memory  as  the  mechanical,  the  ingenious,  and 
the  judicious.  The  mechanical  is  employed  when 
the  only  bond  of  connection  is,  thai  the  two  things 
are  in  the  mind  at  the  same  time,  the  one  im- 
mediately succeeding  the  other.  This  is  what  is 
called  committing  to  memory,  or  learning  by 
heart.  Such  kind  of  memory  must  be  frequently 
used  in  early  education.  It  is  important  for  the 
teacher  to  note  its  character.  It  depends  on 
simultaneity  and  succession,  and  any  disturbance 
of  these  circumstances  disturbs  the  memory.  For 
instance,  it  would  be  very  difficult  for  anyone  at 
first  to  repeat  the  Lord's  Prayer  backwards.  He 
has  learned  it  forwards  ;  he  has  not  learned  it 
backwards.  A.  boy  learns  aino,  Hove.  He  may 
not  have  mastered  /  Jove,  amo.  If  you  ask  him  the 
Latin  word  for  >/■■>////,  he  cannot  i  11  you;  but  if 
you  ash  him  the  meaning  of  mors,  he  can  tell  you. 
The  third  method — that  which  Kant  calls  the 
judicious,  is  no  doubt  the  best;  since  by  it, things 
are  remembered  by  means  of  th  sir  natural  con- 
nection in  thought.  Thoughts  can  be  grouped,  and 
one  of  a  group  suggests  the  other.  Phenomena 
stand  in  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect.  The 
cause  will  suggest  the  effect,  or  the  effect  the 
cause. —  As  an  example  of  tin-  b  icond  kind,  may 
be  mentioned  mnemonics;  which  is  an  attempt  to 
introduce  an  artificial  connecting  link.  Two  idea-; 
are  unconnected,  but  they  may  be  linked  by  a 
third  which  is  familiar  to  the  mind.  Thus  a  clock 
has  no  real  connection  with  hope;  but,  having  re- 
solved to  make  a  speech,  I  fix.  on  three  objects  in 
the  hall,  with  which  I  arbitrarily  connect  the  three 
heads  of  my  discourse.  The  first,  for  example, 
is  a  pillar  in  the  hall,  and  with  it  T  connect  the 
idea  of  faith ;  this  will  be  my  first  head,  and, 
when  I  see  the  pillar,  I  shall  know  how  to  begin. 
Hop''  is  my  second  and  I  have  but  to  look  at 
the  clock  to  recall  it  to  mind;  and  a  third  object 
in  the  room,  in  the  same  manner,  will  remind 
me  that  my  third  head  is  charity.  Mnemonic 
systems  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  : 
(1)  those  which  connect  the  ideas  with  localities, 
such  as  the  parts  of  a  room,  tablets  divided  into 
different  compartments,  etc. ;  (2)  those  in  which 

the  ideas  are  connected  with  letters  or  words ; 
and  (3)  those  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to 
seize  hold  of  some  natural  connection;  for  in- 
stance, lunr,  mourir,  naitre,  plaire,  rire,  vivre, 
are  irregular  French  verbs,  having  no  connection 
with  each  other;  but  the  meanings  may  be  so 
arranged  as  to  be  easily  suggestive  of  each  other; 
thus,  die  suggests  live,  live  suggests  to  be  born, 
to  be  born  suggests  laugh,  laugh  suggests  please, 
B&dplea  jests  hate.     Now,  if  two  of  these 

ideas  be  kept  steadily  in  the  mind  together,  they 

will  remain  united  in  the   mind,  and   afterwards 


the  one  will  suggest  the  other.  None  of  these 
mnemonic  systems  are  likely  to  be  of  much  use 
to  the  teacher.  They,  indeed,  often  add  to  the 
task  of  memory;  they  are  apt  to  create  confusion, 
after  a  time,  and  they  tend  to  displace  intelligent 
memory.  The  only  case  in  which  some  good  may 
be  got  out  of  them  is  in  connection  with  dates. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  dates  are  far  more  dif- 
ficult to  remember  than  letters  or  words ;  and, 
I  therefore,  a  temperate  use  of  letters  or  words  for 
figures  may  be  recommended. — One  of  the  most 
noted  systems  employing  letters  is  the  old  one 
of. Grey's  Memoria  Technica  (1730).  The  letters 
employed  are  as  follows  : 

a     e     i     o     «      cat      oi      ei     on      y 

1       2      .{       4       5         G         7        8        9        0 

b      d      t      f      I        8       p       I:       n       z 

Hen-  c  and  b  Btand  for  1  ;    e  and  (/,  for  2  ;  i  and  t, 

for  '■'<;  and  so  on. 

These    letters  are  assigned  arbitrarily  to  the 

respective  figures,  and  may  very  easily  be  re- 
membered. The  first  five  vowels  in  order  natu- 
rally represent  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  The  diphthong  au, 
being  composed  of  '/  (1  )  and  u  (."»;.  stands  for  6  ; 
oi  for  7.  being  composed  of  o  (4)  and  i  (3);  ou  for 
9,  being  composed  of  o  (4)  and  u  (5).  The  diph- 
thong ei  will  easily  be  remembered  for  eight,  being 
the  initials  of  the  word.  In  like  manner  with  the 
consonants ;  where  the  initials  can  conveniently 
be  retained,  they  are  made  use  of  to  signify  this 
number ;  as  /  for  three,  /"for  four,  s  for  six,  and 
n  for  nine.  The  rest  are  assigned  without  any 
particular  reason,  unless  that  possibly  p  may  be 
more  easily  remembered  for  7  or  septem,  k  for 
8  or  .'-.-..-.  1 1  for  2  or  duo,  b  for  1  as  being  the 
first  consonant,  and  /for  live,  being  the  Roman 
letter  for  .".II.  than  any  others  that  could  have 
been  put  in  their  places.  A  much  more  ingenious 
and  more  effective  system,  is  that  taught  by  1". 
Fauvel-Gouraud  {Phreno-Mnemotechny,  or  ^1/7 
</'  Memory,  N.  Y.,  1845;  with  Dictionary,  for  a 
ready  application  of  the  system),  which  was  a 
modification  of  Fainagle's  New  Art  of  Memory 
(London,  1812).  In  this,  as  in  other  systems,  the 
underlying  principle  is  the  law  of  association  of 
ideas  :  and.  in  order  to  facilitate  this  association, 
arbitrary  facts  and  dates  are  translated  into  the 
expressions  of  ideas  or  thoughts.  Numbers  are 
transformed  into  words  and  sentences  by  the  fol- 
lowing arrangement  of  equivalents: 

6  7  8        B 

ch  k  i       p 

g   soft)  g  ^hard)  v        b 
8h 
J 
The   vow,  1    and  the  aspirate   h,  with  the  quasi 
vowels.  ir  and  y,  are  not  represented;  and  hence, 
in  forming  a  word  for  the  mnemonic  representa- 
tion of  a  date  or  other  number,  any  of  these  can 
be  used.  Thus  the  number  32  may  be  represented 
by  iikiii.  moon, many,  human,  woman, etc.    This 
feature  of  the  system  adds  greatly  to  the  facilities 
with  which    it    may    be   applied,      for  example, 
suppose  it  isdesired  to  fix  in  the  memory  in  this 
\\a\    the  date  of  the    passage   of    the   LedScaby 
the  Israelites  (1491    B.C.);   by  a  careful  selection 
from   aiming  the   numerous  words  and  phrases 


0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

s 

t 

n 

in 

r 

1 

z 

d 
th 

MENNONITES 


MERCERSBURG    COLLEGE     565 


that  may  be  taken  to  represent  tin's  number, 
the  phrase  watery  bed  is  taken,  as  having  some 
connection  in  ideas  with  the  historical  fad  re- 
ferred to.  Then  Gouraud's  association  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  sentence,  "At  the  Passage  of  the 
aed  Sea,  the  armies  of  Pharaoh  met  their  death 
in  a  watery  bed")  and  as  long  as  this  phrase  is 
remembered,  tin'  date  involved  in  it  cannot  be 
forgotten.  The  advantage  of  this  system  is.  that 
it  need  not  bring  into  association  beta  rogeneous 
ideas.  In  the  application  of  it.  many  other  cu- 
rious devices,  such  as  homopTionic  analogies  etc. 
are  used.  —  Of  a  somewhat  similar  character  is 
I>r.  Alex.  Mackay's  Facts  <t>>'l  Dates  (Edinburgh, 
L869).  In  this,  as  in  Gouraud's  system,  every 
date  is  contained  in  a  sentence  which  is  approp- 
riate to  the  event.  Thus  the  sentence  which 
gives  the  date  of  Hannibal's  defeat  al  Zamais, 
"The  formidable  warrior  is  defeated." — The  art 
of  mnemonics  is  said  by  Cicero  to  have  been 
invented  by  the  Greek  poet  Simonides.  It  is 
described  by  Cicero,  Quintilian,  and  Pliny.  In 
more  modern  times,  works  on  the  subject  have 
been  written  by  Schenkel  (1593),  Bruno  (1582), 
Mink  (1648),  Grey  (1730),  Aretin  (1810),  Fain- 
agle  (1812),  improved  by  Aimee  (Paris  1832), 
Bemowsky  (1812),  Otto "(1843),  Kotho  {S,,stmi 
der  Mnemonik,  Cassel,  1853),  Pick  (1866),3ayer 
(1867).  Slater  {Sentential  Chronological,  edit,  by 
.Miss  Sewell,  1868),  Mackay  (1869),  Minola, 
Nemos  (1875),  and  many  others.  A  short  his- 
tory of  Mnemonics  is  given  in  Pick's  work. 

MENNONITES,  a  denomination  of  Prot- 
testante,  which  originated  at  Zurich,  Switzerland, 
in  1525.  They  spread  to  Southern  Germany, 
and  soon  after  to  the  Netherlands,  where  Menno 
Symons,  a  former  Roman  Catholic  priest,  joined 
them  in  1535.  From  him  they  took  their  name, 
though  he  was  not  their  founder,  but  only  re- 
organized them.  In  common  with  the  Friends, 
they  practice  non-resistance  and  abstinence  from 
oaths:  and,  in  common  with  the  Baptists,  they 
reject  infant  baptism,  administering,  however, 
baptism  by  pouring.  In  the  Netherlands,  in  1700, 
they  numbered  150,000  members;  but  at  present 
have  only  20,0011;  and.  in  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land, even  less  than  that  number.  In  southern 
Russia,  whither  they  have  gone  from  Germany 
as  colonists,  they  form  a  population  of  more 
than  30,000.  Their  emigration  to  the  United 
States  began  in  1683,  and  continued  throughout 
the  entire  18th  century.  At  present  their  mem- 
bership in  the  United  States  and  <  'anadi.  is  esti- 
mated at  60,000.  They  are  all  of  German  origin, 
and  most  of  them  still  employ  the  German  lan- 
guage. Nearly  all  of  them  are  fanners,  being 
favorably  known  for  their  honesty,  industry, and 
other  domestic  virtues,  but  greatly  behind  the 
age  in  the  matter  of  education.  Their  lirst  at- 
tempt to  found  a  high  school  took  place  in  1868, 
when  the  GhrisUiche  BUdungsansta.lt  (christian 
institution  of  learning),  at  Wadsworth,  Medina 
Co.,  Ohio,  was  opened.  It  is  an  academy,  hav- 
ing for  its  principal  a  theological  teacher,  Rev. 
0.  J.  Van  der  Smissen.  but  besides  him  only 
teachers  of  German  and  English  grammar,  mu- 


sic, and   the  elementary  branches.     The  number 
of    pupils,    iii    L876,    was   27.      Only    one   of    the 

various   divisions   existing   an g    the    Menno- 

nites  of  this  country,  supports  this  school,  which 
is  under  the  control  of  an  ''administrative  com- 
mittee." appointed  by  the  general  conference  of 
the  body.  The  other  divisions  of  the  Mennonitea 
haw  no  institutions  of  learning  whatever.  Even 
Sabbath  schools  e\i>t  only  in  a  minority  of  the 
churches,  and  are  of  quite  recenl  origin.  In 
Europe  also,  little  is  done  by  the  Mennonites  for 
the  education  of  the  members  of  their  order. 
They  send  their  children  to  the  public  schools, 
but  support  a  theological  seminary  of  their  own, 
founded  at  Amsterdam, in  1812, under  the  name 
I)e  KweeTcschool  der  algemeene  Doopsgezindt 
Socieieit  ter  bevordering  ran  de  predikdienst, 
i.  e.,  Seminary  of  the  General  Society  of  Bap- 
tists for  the  furtherance  of  the  ministry.  This 
seminary  is  under  the  control  of  12  curators, 
who  are  appointed  by  the  trustees  of  the  genera] 
society.  It  has  at  present  (1876)  3  professors 
and  about  30  students.  In  Germany  the  Menno- 
nites have  an  academy  at  Weierhof,  Rhenish 
Havana,  founded  in  1868. 

MERCER  UNIVERSITY,  at  Macon.  Ga., 
under  the  control  of  Baptists,  was  founded  in 
1837.  It  lias  a  fine  building,  on  grounds  com- 
prising about  10  acres,  and  is  furnished  with 
valuable  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus. 
Its  endowment  amounts  to  $250,000.  The  li- 
braries contain  about  !),000  volumes.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  $>60  per  annum  :  but  provision  is  made 
for  the  free  tuition  of  the  sons  of  ministers  and 
of  candidates  for  the  ministry.  The  university 
comprises  a  college  of  liberal  arts,  with  a  classical 
course  of  four  j-ears.  and  a  scientific  course  of 
three  years  ;  a  department  of  theology  (not  yet 
separateh"  organized)  ;  and  a  school  of  law.  In 
1874 — 5,  there  were  6  professors  in  the  college, 
and  3  in  the  law  school,  and  150  students,  of 
whom  7  were  in  the  law  school.  The  Mercer 
High  School,  at  Penfield,  Greene  Co.,  and  the 
Crawford  High  School,  at  Dalton,  are  connected 
with  the  university.  The  following  named  per- 
sons have  been  presidents  of  the  institution: 
the  Rev.  Otis  Smith,  1811  —  '1  ;  the  Rev. 
Jho.  L.  Dagg,  1).  D.,  1843  —  50;  the  Rev. 
X.  M.  Crawford,  D.  I>..  1850-  -60;  the  Rev.  H. 
1 1.  Tucker  D.D.,1867— 71  ;  and  the  Rev.  Archi- 
bald J.  Pattle,  D.  P..  appointed  in  L872. 

MERCERSBURG  COLLEGE,  at  Mercers 
burg.  Pa.,  founded  in  1865,  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States. 
It  succeeded  Marsha.  11  College  (founded  in  1835), 
occupying  its  buildings  and  grounds.  It  is  sup- 
ported chiefly  by  tuition  fees  and  contributions. 
It  has  an  endowment  of  818,000.  The  libraries 
contain  about  3,000  volumes.  The  cost  of  tui- 
tion is  $45  per  annum.  There  is  a  preparatory, 
a  collegiate,  and  a  theological  department.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  7  professors  and  75  students, 
(23  preparatory,  39  collegiate, and  1 3  theological). 
The  presidents  have  been  the  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas 
G.  Apple,  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  E.  E.  Higbee,  the 
present  incumbent  (1876). 


566 


METHODISTS 


METHODISTS,  the  collective  name  of  a 
number  of  Protestant  denominations  that  have 
sprung  from  the  peculiar  religious  character 
and  influence  of  John  Wesley,  a  Fellow  of  Ox- 
ford University,  and  ordained  as  a  clergyman  of 
the  Church  of  England.  As  early  as  1729,  while 
a  Fellow  at  Oxford,  Wesley  gathered  about 
him  a  number  of  persons  of  like  character,  and 
spent  much  time  in  religious  worship,  in  the 
study  of  the  Bible,  and  in  active  benevolent  la- 
bors among  the  poor.  Their  fellow  students,  either 
in  derision  or  as  a  happy  expression  of  their  char- 
acter, called  them  .Methodists,  a  term  which  has 
been  loosely  employed  not  only  to  describe  any 
who  are  extraordinarily  zealous  in  religion,  but 
as  the  recognized  name  of  several  denominations 
that  can  trace  their  origin,  more  or  less  directly, 
to  the  influence  of  John  Wesley.  The  principal 
Methodist  bodies  in  Oreat  Britain  are  the  Wes- 
leyan  Societies,  organized  in  1740  ;  the  Primitive 
Methodist  Church, organized  1819;  the  Methodist 
New  Connection  Church;  the  United  Methodist 
Free  Churches  ;  the  Bible  Christian  Church,  and 
the  British  Wesleyan  Reform  Union.  There  are 
also  affiliated  -Methodist  bodies  in  France. and  in 
Australia  ;  and  la  rye  and  flourishing  missions  in 
China,  India.  South  Africa, and  elsewhere,  under 
the  charge  of  British  Methodists;  and  bodies  of 
American  Methodists,  which  promise  soon  in- 
dependent and  affiliated  organizations.  In  Amer- 
ica, the  oldest  is  the  Methodist  Episcopal  <  'hurch, 
from  which  sprung,  in  L844,  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South;  the  African  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church;  the  African  Zion  M.  E. 
Church;  and  the  Colored  M.  E.  Church  of 
America.  There  are  also  several  smaller  organ- 
izations, called  The  .Methodist  Church,  Methodist 
Protestant  Church.  American  Wesleyan  Church, 
Free  Methodist,  and  Evangelical  Association.  All 
these  bodies  are  substantially  identical  in  doc- 
trine, all  maintain  a  regular  itineracy  of  the 
preachers;  and,  in  fact,  the  M.  E.  (.'hurch,  and 
M.  EL  <  'hurch,  South. embrace  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  all  the  membership  among  the  white 
population.  The  general  summary  of  Methodists 
in  the  United  States,  in  1876,  gave  in  round 
numbers  19,000  itinerant  ministers  and  nearly 
3,000,000  members,  in  Methodist  Episcopal 
churches;  and  L,500  itinerant  ministers  and 
L 60,000  members,  in   non-episcopal   Methodist 

churches.  In  the  rest  of  the  world,  Methodists 
at  the  same  time  numbered  about  5,000  itin- 
erant ministers  and  L ,000,000  members.  Ac- 
cording  to  the  I  .  S.  census  of  1870,  the  Meth- 
o  lists  had  21,337  church  edifices,  6,528,209 
hidings,  and  church  property  (edifices  and 
parsonages)  worth  969,854,121  ;  but  they  have 
rapidly  increased  since  that  time. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  leading  body  of  Meth- 
odists in  England  and  Scotland  is  composed  of 
the  Wesleyan  Societies  under  the  control  of  the 
British  Wesleyan  Conference,  which  has  also  a 
branch  in  Ireland,  and  affiliated  Conferences  in 

the     British    colonies.      As    early   as    1711,    two 

cols,  the  Eingawood  and    the    Woodhouse 

Crove,  were  established,  which  are  still  flourish- 


ing. Two  theological  institutions  were  estab- 
lished in  1838,  which  are  largely  attended,  many 
of  the  ministers  now  receiving  their  education 
at  these  schools.  They  have  also  the  Wesleyan 
Proprietary  School  at  Sheffield,  which  is  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  colleges  of  the  London  Uni- 
versity. What  are  called  day  schools  or  parish 
schools  are  established  numerously  in  England, 
complying  with  the  terms  required,  and  sharing 
in  governmental  assistance.  Also,  to  fit  teach- 
ers for  these  schools,  the  Wesleyans  have  a  large 
normal  school  at  Westminster.  They  have  also 
a  college  designed  expressly  for  the  education  of 
those  who  are  preparing  to  be  foreign  mission- 
aries. By  means  of  a  Children's  Fund  and  other 
collections,  many  needy  students  are  aided  while 
securing  an  education.  The  Irish  Wesleyan  Con- 
ference has  two  vigorous  schools  under  its  charge, 
—  the  Belfast  College  and  the  Conventional 
School  at  Dublin.  There  are  various  other 
branches  of  Methodists  in  Great  Britain,  all  of 
which  manifest  an  increasing  interest  in  edu- 
cation. The  Primitive  Methodist  Church  has 
a  theological  institute  at  Sunderland  ;  the  Meth- 
odist New  Connection  (hurch,  has  one  at  Shef- 
field ;  the  United  Methodist  Free  Societies,  at 
Manchester;  and  the  Bible  Christians.  atSheb- 
bear. 

In  C< n/i nhi.  there  are  but  two  Methodist  bodies, 
the  one  called  the  Methodist  Church  of  Canada 
and  Eastern  America  ;  and  the  other,  the  M.  E. 
Church  of  Canada.  The  former  has  a  flourish- 
ing university  at  Cobourg,  with  colleges  of  arts, 
theology,  law,  and  medicine  ;  also  the  Mt.  Alli- 
son Wesleyan  College,  at  Sackville,  N.  B. ;  the 
Wesleyan  Female  College,  at  Hamilton;  Home- 
stead College  ;  Theological  College,  at  Montreal; 
Collegiate  institute,  at  Dundas;  Manitoba  Wes- 
leyan Institute,  and  Ontario  Ladies'  College,  at 
Whitby.  These  institutions  have  an  aggregate 
property  of  about  one  million  dollars.  They  are 
all  under  the  care  of  a  board  of  education.  The 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  Canada  concen- 
trates its  educational  interests  at  Belleville,  where 
it  has  a  flourishing  institution  called  Albert  Col- 
lege, which  has  university  powers,  and  depart- 
ments in  arts,  theology,  law. and  medicine.  There 
is  also  connected  with  it  a  school  for  females, 
called  Alexandra  I  'ollege. 

In  Australia,  the  Methodists  have  several 
flourishing  academies  and  colleges. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  was  not  organized  till  1784;  but  Meth- 
odist Societies  were  established  in  New  York 
and  Maryland  as  early  as  17(>0.  Rev.  Thomas 
Coke.  LL.  D.,  one  of  the  presidents  of  the 
first  conference,  was  a  graduate  of  Oxford  Uni- 
versity,  ami  deeply  interested  in  education. 
At  this  conference,  a  "Book  Concern",  which 
has  since  become  one  of  the  leading  publi.sh- 
ing  houses  in  the  country,  was  provided  for; 
and  it  was  ordered  that  its  profits  should 
be  devoted  to  five  purposes,  one  of  which  was 
the    foundation    and    maintenance   of    a   college 

particularly  designed  for  the  education  of  preach- 
ers.    A  collection  for  this  purpose  was  also  or- 


METHODISTS 


567 


dered  to  bo  taken  in  all  the  congregations.  Thus, 
education  was  approved  as  a  part  of  the  legiti- 
mate work  of  the  church  at  the  time  of  its  or- 
ganization.    The  college  thus  established  was 

opened  in  Abingdon,  Md.,  in  17^7.  and 
called,  after  bishops  Cuke  and  Asbury,  Cokes- 
bury  College,  and  was  well  attended  till  17'.»7, 
when  the  building  was  destroyed  by  fire,  with- 
out insurance,  causing  a  loss  of  about  $50,000,  a 
great  calamity  for  the  feeble  church.  Immediately 
collections  were  ordered  in  the  societies,  and  the 
college  was  re-opened  in  Baltimore;  but  the  new 
building  was  also  soon  consumed  by  fire.  So 
disheartened  was  the  Church  by  these  losses  that 
some  hastily  inferred  that  it  was  "not  the  business 
of  Methodists  to  build  colleges",  and  it  was  im- 
practicable to  resume  the  enterprise  at  once;  and, 
for  twenty  years,  all  the  educational  work  of 
the  church  was  carried  on  in  a  few  private 
schools  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  These 
schools  were  somewhat  numerous,  and,  in  some 
instances,  formally  recognized  by  the  Church;  but, 
for  the  want  of  system  and  permanent  foun- 
dations, the  most  of  what  they  accomplished  has 
not  been  recorded  in  history.— As  a  kind  of  sub- 
stitute for  theological  schools,  the  general  con- 
ference ordered  that  all  who  entered  the  reg- 
ular ministry  should  pursue  for  four  years  a 
prescribed  course  of  literary  and  theological  study, 
aud  be  examined  annually  in  the  same;  and  their 
promotion  in  the  conference  as  well  as  their 
ordination  was  dependent  on  their  passing  the 
examinations.  This  custom,  the  course  of  study 
having  been  enlarged  and  improved  from  time 
to  time,  is  still  practiced;  and  all  Methodist 
ministers  pursue  a  uniform  course  of  reading 
and  study  for  the  first  four  years  of  their  min- 
istry. This  has  greatly  contributed  to  harmony 
of  belief  and  theological  culture.  It  has,  indeed, 
been  a  great  educating  power,  every  young 
Methodist  preacher  being  specially  charged  to 
spend  from  four  to  six  hours  in  study  daily. 

In  1817,  largely  through  the  influence  of  Rev. 
Wilbur  Fisk,  B.  D.,  of  New  England, an  alumnus 
of  Brown  University,  an  academy  was  purchased 
by  the  Conference  in  New  England,  and  opened 
as  a  conference  seminary.  Students  of  both 
sexes  were  admitted.  Tne  ensuing  general  con- 
ference approved  the  enterprise,  and  recom- 
mended all  the  annual  conferences  to  follow 
the  example.  This  has  become  the  general  prac- 
tice. The  greatest  educational  force  of  Meth- 
odists has  appeared  in  these  seminaries.  There 
have  been  nearly  a  hundred  of  these  conference 
seminaries  founded,  of  which  some  have  become 
extinct  after  doing  a  noble  work,  some  have  be- 
come female  colleges,  and  some  have  grown 
into  regular  colleges;  but  more  than  fifty 
still  remain  in  a  flourishing  condition  on  the 
old  foundation.  The  buildings  and  funds 
of  these  seminaries  are  valued  at  more  than 
$4,000,000 ;  and  they  employ  about  500  teachers, 
and  are  attended  by  about  25,000  students  of 
both  sexes.  They  have  educated  at  least  300,000 
pupils,  mostly  young  men  and  young  women 
from  16  to  25  years  of  age,  many  of  whom  have 


become  preachers  or  teachers.  Of  late,  the  lead- 
ing conference  seminaries  are  making  efforts  to 
secure  endowments  in  addition  to  commodious 
buildings.  There  are  bul  few  colleges  or  schools 
exclusively  for  women  under  the  care  of  the  M. 
E.  Church.  Perhaps  ten  such  institutions  may 
be  regarded  as  permanently  founded,  and  as  the 
property  of  the  Church.  These,  for  the  most 
part,  have  good  buildings,  but  no  considerable 
endowment  fund,  and  some  of  them  are  partly 
private  property. — The  first  regular  college  estab- 
lished by  the  Methodists  in  America,  except  the 
Cokesbury College  mentioned  above,  which  had 
an  existence  of  only  ten  years,  was  the  Wesleyan 
University,  at  .Middletown,  Ct..  in  L831.  This 
college  has  been  remarkably  successful  in  the 
character  of  its  alumni,  having  graduated  about 
I. '200  in  45  years,  besides  partially  educating 
many  more,  a  large  ftorti »f  whom  have  en- 
tered the  ministry.  Other  colleges  soon  sprung 
up  imitating  its  example;  and  there  were,  in  1 877, 
at  least  thirty  institutions  having  university 
charters,  about  20  of  which  were  doing  respect- 
able college  work.  Four  or  five  had  also  added 
to  the  literary  college,  schools  of  medicine,  law, 
or  theology.  The  Northwestern  University,  at 
Evanston,  111.,  has  associated  with  it  a  medical 
school  in  Chicago.  The  Boston  University  has  a 
medical,  a  law,  and  a  theological  department.  The 
Syracuse  University,  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  has  a 
medical  college;  and  a  college  of  missionaries  and 
a  law  school  are  a  part  of  its  plan.  The  buildings 
I  connected  with  all  these  colleges  cost  over 
$3,000,000;  the  endowments  are  about$4,000,000, 
and  the  number  of  college  students,  about  2,500. 
The  number  of  professors  is  about  300;  of  volumes 
in  the  libraries,  200,000.  Several  of  these  colleges 
are  open  impartially  to  both  sexes.  The  num- 
ber of  young  women  attending  them  and  pur- 
suing thorough  college  courses  of  study,  is  com- 
paratively small;  but  the  experiment  has  proved, 
in  all  respects,  a  success.  Even  the  medical 
schools  of  the  Boston  and  the  Syracuse  univer- 
sities are  open  equally  to  both  sexes,  and  are 
largely  attended  by  both  males  and  females. 

The  establishment  of  theological  schools  proper 
met  with  considerable  active  opposition  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  some  fearing  that 
the  teaching  would  tend  to  educate  for  the  minis- 
try,  as  a  profession,  young  men  who  had  not 
been  called  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  this  office  and 
work;  others  maintaining  that,  if  a  young  man 
were  well  grounded  in  academic  and  college  edu- 
cation, the  theological  training  might  be  well 
enough  obtained  by  the  course  of  study  and  read- 
ing furnished  for  young  ministers,  and  by  actual 
professional  work.  But,  in  spite  of  these  ob- 
jections, principally  through  the  persistent  ef- 
forts of  John  Dempster,  1).  D.,  a  Biblical  In- 
stitute was  opened  in  Concord,  N.  II.,  in 
1847,  which  was  originally  attended  by  stu- 
dents who  had  not  pursued  a  college  course 
of  study.  Br.  Dempsters  great  object  being  a 
school  exclusively  theological  for  young  ministers 
of  whatever  grade  of  scholarship.  Subsequently, 
this  school   was  removed  to   Boston,  and   its 


5G8 


METHODISTS 


courses  of  study  were  greatly  enlarged;  it  is 
now  a  department  of  the  Boston  University. 
In  1855,  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  was 
opened  in  Evanston,  111.,  founded  on  a  bequest 
by  a  Mrs.  Garrett,  of  Chicago.  In  1867,  the 
Drew  Theological  Seminary  was  opened  in 
Madison.  N.  J.  These  three  theological  schools 
are  now  largely  attended  by  college  grad- 
uates; but  they  furnish,  as  yet,  but  a  small 
portion  of  those  who  enter  the  conferences  as 
regular  preachers.  From  the  beginning,  it  has 
been  the  practice  to  admit  to  the  ministry  prom- 
ising young  men,  with  but  a  limited  school 
education  ;  but  the  relative  proportion  of  college 
graduates  is  rapidly  increasing.  Several  of  the 
colleges  offer  special  instruction  to  candidates 
for  the  ministry. 

In  tic&fareign  missions  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal  Church,  schools  have  been  established  ac- 
cording to  the  exigences  of  the  place,  some  ele- 
mentary.and  some  theological, and  even  medical. 
Martin  Institute,  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  tier- 
many,  is  a  combination  of  a  conference  seminary 
with  a  theological  school.  There  is  also  a  flour- 
ishing India  Theological  School,  at  Bareilly, 
British  India.  Several  schools  are  under  the 
charge  of  the  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary 
Society. 

Considerable  effort  has  been  made  through 
the  Freedman's  Ai  1  Society  to  open  and  sup- 
port schools  for  the  freed  colored  people  of  the 
South.  About  twenty  si Is  have  been  estab- 
lished, employing  a  hundred  teachers,  and  edu- 
cating many  young  colored  people  for  teachers 
and  preachers.  In  eight  years,  more  than  half  a 
million  of  dollars  was  expended  for  this  purpose. 
Most  of  these  schools  will,  probably,  grow 
into  permanent  and  strong  seminaries  or  colleges. 

In  1869,  a  board  of  education  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  was  chartered  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  by  request  of  the  General  Confer- 
ence, designed  to  hold  and  disburse  funds  for 
the  whole  Church,  particularly  to  aid  students 
for  the  ministry,  and  especially  for  missionary 
work:  and  also,  to  assist  Schools,  if  any  funds 
are  intrusted  to  it  for  that  purpose.  The  board 
is  designed  to  be  as  permanent  as  the  <  Jhurch  it- 
self,  consisting  <»f  two  bishops,  four  preachers, 

and  six  laymen,  appointed  in  sections,  for  twelve 

years  each,  by  the  General  Conference.  In  L872, 

Rev.  K.  I  >.  Maxell.  LL.  I>..  was  elected  by  the 
General  Conference  corresponding  secretary: 
and,  since  that  time,  many  students,  mostly  in 
Colleges    and    theological    schools,  have    annually 

received  some  assistance  from  the  board  or  its 

auxiliary   societies,    in    obtaining    an    education. 

The  General  Conference  has  also  recommended 
the  observance  of  the  second  Sunday  in  June  as 

''Children's  May."  and  that  collections  be  taken 
in  the  Sunday-schools  on    that   day  in  behalf  of 

the  board  of  education.     Tin'  beneficiaries  of 

the   board    are    all    pledged    to    repay  the  money 

after  completing  their  school  education.    They 

receive  money  as  a  loan,  not  by  gift. 

The  General  Conference  of  1876  made  a  pro- 
vision in  regard  to  education,  which  was  designed 


to  render  the  action  of  the  Church  on  that  subject 
more  Systematic  and  radical  than  ever  before.  It 
makes  it  the  duty  of  the  presiding  elder  to  bring 
the  subject  of  education,  in  individual  churches, 
before  the  first  quarterly  conference  of  each 
year,  and  secure  the  appointment  of  a  commit- 
tee, of  which  the  preacher  in  charge  shall  be 
chairman  :  to  organize,  wherever  practicable,  a 
church  lyceum  for  mental  improvement;  to  or- 
ganize free  evening  schools ;  to  provide  a  library, 
text-books,  and  books  of  reference;  to  popular- 
ize religious  literature  by  reading-rooms,  or 
otherwise  ;  to  seek  out  suitable  persons,  and,  if 
necessary,  assist  them  to  obtain  an  education, 
with  a  view  to  the  ministry  :  and  to  do  whatever 
shall  seem  best  fitted  to  supply  any  deficiency 
in  that  which  the  church  ought  to  offer  to  the 
varied  nature  of  man.  In  this  way.  it  is  hoped 
to  make  educational  work  a  part  of  the  duty  of 
every  preacher  and  of  every  congregation. 

While,  in  the  aggregate,  the  educational  work 
accomplished  by  the  direct  agency  of  the  Meth- 
odist Kpiscopal  Chinch  appears  creditable,  it 
must  be  acknowledged  that,  hitherto,  the  efforts 
of  the  denomination  have  not  been  so  systematic, 
and  so  thoroughly  wrought  out.  on  this  subject, 
as  in  many  of  its  other  enterprises.  Its  numer- 
ous Sunday-schools  are  all  carefully  organized 
and  reported,  and  thi'  circulation  of  Sunday- 
school  literature  is  immense.  Through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Rev.  J.  II.  Vincent,  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  S.  S.  Union,  nearly  every  eiin- 
day-School  in  the  whole  Church  feels  the  power 
of  a  central  life  and  controlling  spirit.  The 
seminaries  and  colleges  have  acted  less  in  con- 
cert, and  some  conferences  have  done  compara- 
tively little  for  education:  but.  at  last,  a  con- 
dition has  been  reached,  in  which  every  society 
is  requested  to  have  a  committee  on  education  ; 
nearly  every  annual  conference  has  an  education 
society  practically  auxiliary  to  the  board  of  edu- 
cation; every  congregation  is  requested  annually 
to  contribute  for  education  :  and  the  seminaries. 
«ol leges,  and  theological  schools  are  nearly  all 
Steadily  receiving  additions  to  their  property; 
an  increasing  proportion  of  the  ministers  are 

graduates  of  colleges  and  theological  schools; 
and  the  sentiment  is  strong  in  the  Church  that 
education  will  be  far  more  thoroughly  advanced 
in  the  second  century  of  American  Methodist 
history  than  in  the  first. 

The    Methodist  Church    is  decidedly    in   favor 

of  the  public-school  system,  particularly  of  the 
elementary  schools  attended  by  children  residing 

at  home.  Several  times,  the  General  Conference 
has  expressed  the  sent  iiueiil  of  the  <  'htirch  against 
using  the  funds  of  the  state  to  aid  parochial  or 
sectarian  schools.  It  is.  however,  in  favor  of  fol- 
lowing the  practice  that  has  grown  up  among 
Americans,  as  a  christian  people,  of  having  the 

Bible  read  as  a  sacred  book  in  the  public  schools; 
though  some  leading  Methodists  do  not  recom- 
mend even  insisting  upon  that.  This  Church 
favors  supplementing  the  work  of  the  state  by 
whatever  may  be  deemed  necessary  to  secure- 
popular  elementary  education.     It   claims  that, 


METHODISTS 


560 


if  the  state  does  no1  provide  for  education,  the 
Church  should.  Colleges  and  universities  should 
not  be  trammeled  by  political  partisanship  or 
control.  The  Church  is  competent  to  establish* 
and  sustain  colleges  and  universities  in  which 
the  broadest  and  best  culture  shall  be  given  in 
science,  philosophy,  and  religion.  Neither  of 
these  should  be  absenl  from  a  college  ora  univer- 
sity ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  them  all  in  a 
college  controlled  by  the  state. — The  literary  in- 
stitutions of  every  grade,  under  the  care  of  the 
Church,  are  so  numerous,  and  their  condition  is 
so  constantly  changing  that,  for  an  exact  enu- 
meration of  these,  attention  is  directed  to  the 
Methodist  Almanac  and  other  current  publica- 
tions of  the  Church. 

When  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, in  1844, 
divided  itself  into  two  sections,  that  which  be- 
came the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  South, 
retained  all  the  schools  of  every  grade  within  the 
boundary  created  by  what  was  called  the  Plan 
of  Separation.  Among  these  schools,  were  se\  era! 
chartered  colleges  of  high  standing.  Randolph 
Macon  College  had  been  established  in  1832, 
one  year  after  the  Wesleyan  University  at 
Middletown,  Ct.,  and  is,  therefore,  next  to  the 
oldest  Methodist  ( 'ollege  in  America.  Emory 
College,  at  Oxford,  Ga.,  had  been  founded  in 
1837,  and  Emory  and  Henry  College,  at  Emory, 
Va.,  in  1838.  Between  1844  and  the  breaking 
out  of  the  civil  war,  other  institutions  were 
added.  Centenary  College,  which  had  been  es- 
tablished by  the  state  of  Louisiana  in  1825, 
passed,  in  184."),  into  the  hands  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South.  Trinity  College,  in 
Randolph  Co.,  X.  C,  arose  (1852)  from  a  school 
commenced  by  the  Rev.  B.  Craven,  D.  D.  Wof- 
ford  College,  S.  C,  named  after  the  Rev.  Ben- 
jamin Wofford,  who  gave  §100,000  for  its  en- 
dowment, was  opened  in  1855  ;  Central  College, 
at  Fayette,  Mo.,  in  the  same  year;  the  Southern 
University,  at  Greenboro,  Ala.,  in  1856  ;  the 
Kentucky  Wesleyan  University,  at  Millersburg, 
Ivy.,  in  1858.  The  civil  war  had  a  most  dis- 
astrous effect  upon  the  Methodist  as  well  as  upon 
the  other  literary  institutions  of  the  Southern 
states.  A  number  of  colleges  and  other  institu- 
tions wholly  perished  ;  others  were  closed  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  war,  and  have  been,  since 
then,  but  gradually  revived.  Thus,  there  were 
in  the  state  of  Alabama  three  colleges  for  males, 
all  in  a  flourishing  condition,  two  of  which  had 
their  entire  endowments  swept  away;  while  the 
third,  the  Southern  University,  was  greatly  re- 
duced in  its  means,  and  only  kept  open  in  some 
of  its  departments.  Since  the  close  of  the  war, 
great  efforts  have  been  made  by  the  Church  to 
enlarge  her  educational  work.  The  unfortunate 
condition  in  which  the  finances  of  most  of  the 
Southern  states  found  themselves,  proved,  of 
course,  a  great  obstacle;  but,  more  recently,  great 
strides  in  advance  have  been  made,  and;  at  pres- 
ent, the  Church,  possesses,  in  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sity, at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  the  best  endowed  in- 
stitution of  learning  in  the  South.  The  movement 
for  the  establishment  of  this  institution  began  in 


L871,  when  delegates  were  appointed  to  a  con- 
tention to  consider  the  subject  of  a  university, 

such  as  would    meet    the  wants  of   a  church   do 

mantling  a    higher  Christian    education    than 

could  be  obtained  in  the  South  and  South-west. 
It  declared  that  one  million  of  dollars  was  neces- 
sary to  perfect  the  plan,  and    refused   to  anil 

i/.e  steps  towards  the  selection  of  a  site,  until  the 
public  showed  itself  in  sympathy  with  the  mo 

ment,  by  a  valid  subscription  of  half  that 
amount.  It  was  early  discovered  that,  in  the 
exhausted  condition  of  the  South,  so  soon  after 
the  war,  it  was  not  practicable  to  pursue  the  en- 
terprise. The  project  was  in  abeyance,  when 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  of  the  Cityof  New  York, 
donated  8500,000,  to  which  he  subsequently 
added  $200,000.  The  institution  was  dedicated 
and  inaugurated  in  Oct.,  1875.  (Sec  VANDEB- 
nu.T  UNIVERSITY.)  In  Texas,  a  convention  was 
called  in  1869,  to  consider  the  propriety  of  con- 
solidating four  chartered  colleges  of  the  Church, 
the  oldest  of  which,  Rutersville  College,  had 
been  chartered  in  1860  by  the  Congress  of 
the  Republic  of  Texas.  The  convention  met  in 
I  870.  resolved  upon  the  establishment  of  a  united 
central  institution,  and  declared  not  less  than 
$500,000  necessary  to  carry  out  the  design.  The 
new  institution  was  opened,  in  1874,  as  Texas 
University,  and.  in  1875,  chartered  as  South- 
western University  (q.  v.).  The  total  number  of 
chartered  colleges  enumerated  in  the  Deport  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1875,  was  1G. 
All  of  them  are  in  the  Southern  states,  with  the 
exception  of  one  in  <  'alifornia,  and  one  in  Ore- 
gon. rihe  latter,  Corvallis  College  (q.  v.),  was 
opened  in  18G5,  and  the  legislation  of  the  state, 
in  1869,  placed  the  agricultural  college  of  the 
state  in  connection  with  it.  The  Church  has  a 
large  number  of  female  colleges  and  high  schools 
under  her  control.  The  Wesleyan  Female  (  ol- 
lege. at  Macon,  Ga.,  is  the  oldest  institution  of 
this  kind  in  the  United  States,  having  been 
chartered  by  the  Legislature  of  Georgia, in  183G, 
under  the  name  of  the  Georgia  Female  College. 
The  Greenboro  Female  College,  at  Greenboro, 
N.  C,  is  only  a  few  years  younger,  having  been 
founded  in  1841.  Other  prominent  institutions 
of  this  class  are.  the  Montgomery  Female  Col- 
lege, at  Christiansburg,  Va.;  the  Central  Female 
College,  at  Lexington,  Mo.;  the Thomasville  Fe- 
male College,  at  Thomasville,  N.  C;  the  Wes- 
leyan Female  Institute,  at  Staunton.  Ya.;  Dav- 
enport Female  College,  at  Lenoir,  N.  (.'.;  Mar- 
tin Female  College,  at  Pulaski.  Tenn.;  the 
Martha  Washington  College,  at  Abington,  Ya.; 
the  Wesleyan  Female  College,  at  Murfreesboro, 
N.  C. — One  of  the  most  interesting  and  impor- 
tant institutions  in  connection  with  the  Southern 
Methodist  Church,  is  the  Culleoka  Institute,  in 
Mora*  'o./LVnn.  It  is  a  model  high  school,  as  well 
as  an  academy  affiliated  to  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sity. There  has  always  been  a  strong  feeling  in 
this  Church  against  special  schools  of  theology. 
Biblical  instruction  in  connection  with  the  reg- 
ular college  course  is,  however,  afforded  in  most 
Southern  Methodist  Colleges. 


570 


MEXICO 


MEXICO,  a  republic  of  North  America;  area, 
741,800  sq.  miles;  population,  about  9,276,000, 

made  up  of  whites,  I  Teoles,  Indians,  half-breeds, 
and  a  few  negroes.  The  language  of  the  country 
is  Spanish:  and  the  ruling  religion,  the  Roman 
Catholic.  Mexico  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards 
early  in  the  1 6th  century,  and  was  conquered  by 
Cortes,  1519 — 21.  It  continued  in  the  possession 
of  Spain  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  cent- 
ury, when  it  established  its  independence.  Since 
that  time,  it  has  passed  through  a  number  of  rev- 
olutions and  civil  wars.  When  the  Spaniards 
came  to  Mexico,  they  found  there  the  intelli- 
gent and  highly  cultivated  Aztecs.  This  people 
had  been  preceded  by  others  who  had  also  at- 
tained a  high  degree  of  civilization.  In  many  of 
the  arts  and  sciences,  the  ancient  Mexicans, 
when  conquered  by  Cortes,  had  made  great 
progress.  Their  calendar  was  more  correct  than 
that  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  They 
knew  how  to  manufacture  paper,  and  possessed 
maps,  on  which  even  the  roads  were  marked 
which  their  ancestors  had  used  when  they  came 
to  Mexico.  The  education  of  children  was  of  a 
very  severe  character.  In  each  family  of  the  higher 
classes,  the  boys  remained  with  their  mothers 
up  to  the  6th  or  7th  year,  when  they  received  a 
carefully  selected  companion;  and  in  their  10th 
or  12th  year,  they  were  sent  to  the  temple,  to  be 
educated  by  the  priests.  Here  they  were  sub- 
jected to  a  strict  discipline,  and  were  instructed 
in  the  liturgy,  and  in  various  other  subjects.  The 
girls  were  also  received  into  the  temple,  which 
they  did  not  leave  until  they  were  married.  For 
the  hoys,  there  were  also  military  schools.  As  in 
the  other  Spanish  colonies,  very  little  was  done 
for  education  by  the  Spaniards.  A  university  and 
-a  number  of  colleges  had  been  established,  in 
which  the  teachers  were  generally  priests  who  had 
been  educated  in  Spain.  But  insufficient  as  the 
instruction  was,  under  Spanish  rule,  it  became 
worse  under  the  republic.  The  continual  civil 
wars  prevented  all  progress  in  education  ;  while 
the  hatred  for  every  thing  that  came  from  Spain, 
tended  to  destroy  ad  educational  institutions 
previously  established.  Hence,  the  education  of 
the  whites,  who  alone  had  been  cared  for  by  the 
Spanish  government,  was  now  neglected  ;  while 
the  native  population  continued  to  be  neglected. 
By  the  law  of  1846,  the  federal  government 
transferred  the  care  of  the  schools  to  the  separate 
states,  in  some  of  which  considerable  progress 
has  been  male.  Recently,  the  federal  govern- 
ment has  again  established  secondary  schools  in 
the  capital,  principally  for  the  education  of 
teachers.  Compulsory  education  laws  have  been 
passed  in  most   of   the   states;  but    in  some  they 

are  entirely  inoperative.  In  1875, president  Lerdo 

de  Tejada,  in  his  message  to  congress,  referred 
to  education  in  the  following  words  :  "Public 
instruction  has  continued  to  merit  particular  at- 
tention.     Both  in  the  primary  and    in    the   pro- 

fessional   schools,  efforts   have   constantly  1 a 

made  to  afford  the  elements  of  instruction,  by 
establishing  new  professorships,  as  well  as  by 
providing  all  the  instruments  and  other   useful 


apparatus  for  practical  teaching.  With  the  same 
desire  to  obtain  the  most  complete  practical  in- 
struction, various  pupils  of  the  national  schools 
have  continued  to  be  sent  abroad  upon  the  suc- 
cessful conclusion  of  their  studies."  —  Primary 
schools  have  now  been  introduced  in  almost  all 
of  the  states.  The  schools  are  supported  by  the 
state  governments,  with  pecuniary  aid  from  the 
federal  government,  the  municipalities,  and  sev- 
eral private  associations,  among  which  the  Lan- 
casterian  Society  and  the  Benevolent  Society 
in  Mexico  occupy  a  prominent  position.  The 
Lancasterian  Society  supplies  the  government 
schools  with  teachers.  There  are  also,  in  all  the 
principal  cities,  private  schools;  but  these  are 
open  only  to  the  children  of  the  rich.  The  plan 
of  instruction  comprises  only  the  most  necessary 
subjects,  and  the  text-books  are  written  in  ac- 
cordance with  this  plan.  In  1^~74,  the  total 
number  of  private  schools  was  8,040;  of  which 
5,691  were  for  boys;  1,615,  for  girls;  and  the 
rest  were  common  to  both  sexes.  Of  the  total 
number,  603  were  supported  by  the  federal  and 
state  governments;  5,240, by  the  municipalities; 
378,  by  private  corporations;  and  117,  by  relig- 
ious associations  ;  1,518  were  private  schools,  in 
which  tuition  is  paid  for  ;  and  184  were  without 
classification.  The  proportion  of  the  number  of 
schools  to  the  population,  was  one  primary  school 
to  every  1,1-11  inhabitants.  The  attendance, 
during  the  same  year,  was  about  349,000,  or 
something  less  than  one-tilth  of  all  the  children 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  1 3  years.  There  are 
also,  in  some  of  the  larger  cities,  evening  schools 
for  adults  of  both  sexes.  The  total  expenditure 
for  primary  instruction,  during  the  year  1874, 
was  SI. 632,436,  of  which  $1,042,000  was  fur- 
nished by  the  municipalities  ;  $417,000.  by  the 
federal  and  state  governments  ;  and  §173,000,  by 
individuals  and  private  corporations. 

Seconditri)  instruction  is  imparted  in  national 
and  state  colleges,  and  in  Catholic  seminaries. 
The  course  of  studies,  in  these  institutions,  com- 
prises Spanish,  French,  and  Latin  grammar,  his- 
tory, geography,  natural  philosophy,  and  math- 
ematics. In  some  colleges,  other  branches  are 
added;  as  the  English  language,  law.  medicine, 
engineering,  agriculture,  and  theology.  In  1874, 
there  were  54  state  and  national  colleges,  with 
9,337  .students;  and  24  Catholic  seminaries,  with 
3,800  students.  Law  was  taught  in  .33  of  the 
colleges;  medicine,  in  11  ;  engineering,  in  9; 
agriculture,  in  2:  and  theology,  in  21.  There 
were,  also,  15  higher  schools  for  girls,  with  2,300 
students.  The  University  of  Mexico  only  grants 
diplomas,  no  studies  being  pursued  there,  as  all 

the  instruction  is  given  in  the  colleges.   The  total 

expense  of  supporting  the  government  colleges, 
in    1874,   was   $1,100,000,   of   which   $200,000 

was  expended  in  fellowships,  which  entitle  those 
who  hold  them  to  free  board  and  lodging  in  the 
college  building.  There  were,  in  the  same  year, 
">  special   schools   in   the   federal   district  ;    1 ,   of 

mines  and  engineering;  and  1.  each,  of  medicine, 

law.  agriculture,  and  the  tine  arts  ;  the  last  men- 
tioned was  attended  by  about  700  pupils  of  both 


MIAMI   UNIVERSITY 


MKIIIC.W 


571 


sexes.  The  city  of  Mexico  has  also  a  school  for 
deaf-mutes.-  See  Schmid,  P&dagogische  Ency- 
chpddie,  art.  S'dd-America;  Report  of  the  U.S. 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1874. 

MIAMI  UNIVERSITY,  at  Oxford,  Ohio. 
■was  organized  in  1824.  It  lias  a  preparatory,  an 
undergraduate,  and  a  post-graduate  course,  and 
is  composed  of  six  schools;  namely,  Lit  in  lan- 
guage and  literature  ;  Greek  language  and 
literature;  modern  languages  and  English  phi- 
lology; mathematics;  natural  science:  and  philos- 
ophy and  literature.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $40  a 
year.  The  libraries  contain  about  !)  ,000  volumes. 
The  university  has  valuable  cabinets  and  appa- 
ratus. In  1872 — 3,  there  were  6  instructors  and 
86  students.  The  university  is  temporarily  closed. 

MICHIGAN,  one  of  the  western  states  of 
the  American  Union,  was  at  first  included  in 
the  North-west  Territory,  set  apart  by  the  ordi- 
nance of  1787.  Subsequently  it  formed  a  part 
of  the  territory  of  Indiana ;  but,  in  1805,  was 
organized  as  a  separate  territory.  In  January, 
L837,  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state, 
Wisconsin  Territory  having  been  formed  from 
its  western  portion.  At  the  next  census,  in  1840, 
the  population  of  Michigan  was  212,267;  in  1870, 
it  was  L,184,059,  of  whom  11,84!)  were  colored 
persons,  and  4.!)26  Indians.  The  land  area  of  the 
state  is  56,451  sq.  m. 

Educational  History. —  One  of  the  first  acts 
of  the  first  legislature  of  Michigan,  in  the  year 
1836,  required  the  governor  to  appoint  a  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  and  male  it  the 
duty  of  such  superintendent,  "  to  prepare  a  sys- 
tem for  the  common  schools  and  a  plan  for  a 
university  and  its  branches."  The  appointment 
was  given  to  the  Rev.  John  D.  Pierce,  who  still 
lives  (1876);  and  few  men  have  ever  lived  to  see 
so  abundant  fruit  from  the  seed  of  their  plant- 
ing. In  1837,  he  reported  the  "system"  and  the 
'"plan,"  and  both  were  adopted,  without  material 
change,  by  the  legislature.  The  primary  school 
law  comprised  45  sections  originally  ;  and  though, 
from  subsequent  legislation,  the  same  code  now 
numbers  nearly  two  hundred  sections,  yet  the 
general  features  of  the  system  have  been  changed 
in  no  essential  respect.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  original  plan  of  the  university  ;  and  now, 
after  a  trial  of  forty  years,  the  educational 
system  of  Michigan  has  the  reputation  of  being 
one  of  the  best  in  the  Union.  Since  the  adop- 
tion of  the  constitution,  in  1850,  the  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction  has  been  elected  bien- 
nially, with  other  state  officers.  He  has  a  general 
supervision,  without  much  actual  power,  over  all 
the  educational  institutions  of  the  state,  includ- 
ing local  colleges  and  incorporated  private 
schools  ;  and  all  such  institutions  are  required  to 
make  an  annual  report  to  him.  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  office,  there  have  been  eight 
incumbents,  serving  in  the  order  and  for  the 
time  here  named  :  John  I).  Pierce,  5  years;  F. 
Sawyer,  Jr.,  2  years ;  0.  0.  Comstock,  2  years  ; 
Francis  W.  Sherman,  6  years ;  Ira  Mayhew,  8 
years  ;  John  M.  Gregory,  6  years  ;  Oramel  IIos- 
ford,  8  years  ;  and  Daniel  B.  Briggs,  the  present 


incumbent, 4  years. —  A  state  teachers'  association 

was  organized  in  ls.Vj.  |t  holds  its  meetings  an- 
nually, in  December;  and  is  sustained  qow,  as 

heretofore,  by  the  leading  teachers  ami  educators 
in  the  state.  -The  primary-school  fund  of  the 
state,  most  of   which  pays  7  per  cent,  is  $3, I  30,- 

911.05.  There  are  398,080  acres  of  primary- 
school  lauds  yet  unsold,  and  held  at  four  dollars 
per  acre. 

School  System. — Each  township  has  aboard  of 
three  school  inspectors,  whose  main  duty  is  to 
organize  and  regulate  the  boundaries  of  school- 
districts.  Each  district  has  an  executive  board 
of  three  members,  who  make  provision  for  such 
length  of  school  terms,  as  is  determined  by  the 
votes  of  the  district ;  but  which  must  be  nine 
months,  in  districts  having  800  children  of  school 
age;  five  months,  in  districts  having  30  children  ; 
and  three  months,  in  all  districts  containing  a 
number  less  than  30,  under  a  penalty  of  forfeit- 
ure of  their  share  of  the  interest  derived  from 
the  primary-school  fund  (about  50  cents  per  ca- 
pita), and  the  tax  of  2  mills  on  each  dollar  of  the 
property  in  the  district,  which  amounts,  on  an 
average,  to  about  one  dollar  per  child.  This  con- 
stitutional provision  assures  a  school  in  nearly 
every  district  in  the  state.  The  district  board 
determines  the  amount  of  taxes  to  be  raised  each 
year  in  addition  to  the  statutory  two-mill  tax, 
and  primary  school  money  for  the  support  of  the 
school ;  but  taxes  for  building  purposes  must  be 
voted  by  the  district.  The  districts  are  not  com- 
pelled by  law  to  build  houses ;  but  the  greater 
portion  must  have  a  house  or  no  school,  and  few 
districts  are,  for  any  length  of  time,  without  a 
school-house.  The  district  boards  make  their  an- 
nual reports  to  the  inspectors,  by  whom  these 
are  collated,  in  the  several  townships,  and  for- 
warded to  the  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion. All  contracts  with  teachers  must  be  in 
writing,  and  no  public  money  can  be  legally  paid 
to  a  teacher  who  has  not  a  certificate  in  the  form 
prescribed  by  law.  All  school  officers  are  liable  to 
a  fine,  and  district  officers  to  removal,  for  delin- 
quency in  the  discharge  of  their  duty.  Parents 
are  liable  to  a  fine,  if  they  fail  to  send  their 
children  to  school  three  months  in  the  year, 
while  over  eight  and  under  fourteen  years  of  age; 
but  little  respect  is  paid  to  this  law.  Districts 
having  100  children  of  school  age,  may  have  a 
board  of  6  trustees  ;  but,  since  the  enactment  of 
this  provision,  the  powers  of  all  districts  have 
been  so  enlarged  that  these  districts  —  styled 
graded-school  and  high-school  districts  —  have 
hardly  any  superior  privileges,  except  that  they 
may  establish  a  high  school,  in  which  a  charge 
may  be  made  for  tuition,  instruction  in  all  other 
departments  being  free.  A  very  small  number, 
however,  of  the  districts  (nearly  300)  organized 
under  this  law,  have  ever  charged  tuition  to  the 
resident  pupils.  These  high  schools  are,  many 
of  them,  of  a  superior  grade;  and  pupils  graduat- 
ing  from  them  after  a  satisfactory  examination, 
are  admitted  to  the  state  university  without  re- 
examination. The  working  of  the  school  system 
is  generally  satisfactory,   except    in   regard  to 


\ 


572 


MICHIGAN 


supervision.  After  eight  years'  trial  of  a  county 
superintendence,  the  state,  in  L875,  returned  to 
&  township  superintendency,  each  township  (not 
including  the  cities)  having  a  superintendent, 
who  examines  teachers,  grants  certificates,  and 
visits  schools.  The  presenl  system  of  supervision 
is  not,  however,  giving  that  satisfaction  which 
insures  its  long  continuance.  It  may  also  be 
said  that  the  supply  of  really  competent  teachers 
is  not  equal  to  the  demand  ;  although  a  marked 
improvement  in  the  qualifications  of  teachers 
was  manifest  under  the  county  superintendency. 
Educational  Condition.  -There  are  (1876) 
5,411  ungraded-school  districts,  each  employing 
a  single  teacher,  and  297  graded-school  districts 
requiring  about  2,000  teachers.  The  graded 
schools  have  regular  courses  of  study,  from  the 
lowest  primary  grade  to  that  of  the  senior  year 
of  the  high  school.  The  whole  number  of  school 
buildings  in  the  state  is  5,787,  valued  in  the 
aggregate  at  8'.'.!  L 5,354.  The  297  graded-school 
districts  have  539  buildings,  valued  at  $5,775,790, 

showing  an  average  of  $10,716  each.     Twenty- 
five  of  these  buildings  cost  over  $20,000  each,  and 

several  cost  from  $50,000  to  $100,000  each. 

The   support    of   the   schools,  during   the  year 
1874  -5,  was  derived  from  the  following  sources  : 

Balance  from  preceding  year  $675,892.40 
Primary  school  interest  fund     218,030.29 

District  taxes 2,341,923.71 

Statutory  tax  (2  mills  on  $1).  508,551.87 
Tuition  of  non-resident  pupils  37,453.65 
All  other  sources 401,722.97 


Total $4,183,580.80 

Expenditures  during  the  year  1  sT4 — 5  : 

Teachers'  salaries $1,958,481.15 

Buildings 550,661.64 

Bonded  indebtedness 398,106.41 

Other  purposes 619,112.98 

Total. $3,52(;,3C2.18 

The  principal  items  of  school  statistics,  for  the 
year  L875     6,  are  the  following: 

Number  of  children  <>t'  school  age  (5—20) 449,181 

Number  "        "        attending  school 343,981 

Number  of  teachers,  males 3,156 

females 9,120 

Total ""  12,276 

Average  monthly  wages  of  teachers,  mule-;  .    .$51.29 

females.. ..$23. 19 

Normal Instruction. — The  state  normal  school, 
at Tpsilanti, was  opened  in  L852.  It  is  under 
the  general  supervision  of  a  board  of  education 
consisting  of  three  members,  elected  on  a  state 
ticket    for  si\  years,  and  the  superintendent  of 

public  instruction,  ex  t>f/iri<>.  It  has  an  endow- 
ment fund  of   $69,255,  the  balance  necessary  for 

its  support  being  derived  from  appropriations  by 
the  legislature.  The  value  of  its  buildings  and 
other  property  is  about  $75,000.    The  annual 

current  expenses  are  nearly  $25,000.  The  iiuiu- 
ber  of  students,  in  l^7.~>.in  the  normal  depart 
meiit.  numbered  409,  L87  males  and  222  fe- 
males: in  the  experimental  department,  there 
were  200  pupils,  making  a  total  of  609.  All  stu- 
dents, mi  entering  the  normal  department,  are 
required  by  law  to  tile  a  declaration  of  their  in- 
tention to  teach.  The  tuition  fee  is  $10  per  year; 


but  each  member  of  the  lower  branch  of  the  legis- 
lature may  appoint  two  students,  residents  of  his 
district,  who  are  entitled  to  admission,  and  to 
receive  instruction  free  of  charge.  Many  avail 
themselves  of  this  privilege.  The  diploma  of  the 
school  licenses  the  holder  to  teach  in  any  of  the 
public  schools  of  the  state.  Nearly  7000  teach- 
ers have  received  instruction  in  this  school  dur- 
ing its  existence.  The  board  of  instruction  con- 
sists of  a  principal  and  12  assistants. 

Secondary  Instruction. —  Under  this  head  may 
he  classed  high  schools  and  academies.  There 
were,  in  L874,  311  graded  schools  in  the  state. 
Of  these.  144  made  reports  as  to  organization 
etc..  and  84  were  reported  as  having  high-school 
departments,  with  an  aggregate  of  5,642  pupils, 
and.  in  L873,  303  graduates.  The  subject  of  high 
schools  has  assumed  unusual  interest  and  impor- 
tance in  this  state.  (1)  on  account  of  an  effort 
recently  made  to  have  their  existence  declared. 
by  the  courts,  illegal ;  and  (2)  on  account  of  their 
peculiar  status  as  direct  tributaries  to  the  state 
university.  The  first  effort  failed,  the  court  rul- 
ing that,  though  there  was  nothing  in  the  school 
law  expressly  directing  their  establishment,  there 
was  nothing,  on    the   other   hand,   forbidding    it. 

This  decision  has  been  regarded  asfinahnol  only 
for  the  state  of  Michigan,  but  for  other  states  in 
which  the  school  law  is  so  worded  as  to  raise  a 
doubt  on  this  point.  (See  High  Schools.)  The 
peculiar  relation  of  the  public  high  schools  to  the 
state  university  is  the  result  of  an  arrangement 
by  which  high  schools  that  wish  to  be  recognized 
by  the  university  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit 
their  graduates  to  enter  the  latter  without  further 
examination,  are  visited  anil  examined  as  to 
course  of  study  and  methods  pursued,  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  faculty.  This  examination  lasts 
one  day  for  each  school;  and.  if  the  school  is 
rejected  by  the  committee,  the  reasons  are  dis- 
tinctly stated.  If  the  school  is  accepted,  its  gradu- 
ates are  admitted  to  the  freshman  class  of  the? 
university    without   examination.      This  method 

facilitates  their  admission  only. their  continuance 
depending  entirely  upon  their  proficiency,  which 
is  tested  by  the  usual  term  examination.  The 
effect  upon  the  high  schools  has  been  beneficial 

by  raising  the  grade  of  scholarship  for  graduates, 
and  by  maintaining  the  schools  on  that  higher 
level  produced  by  the  dignity  of  their  position 
as  Stepping-StoneS  to  the  university.  In  the  latter, 
the  direct  effect  has  been  uniformity  of  scholar- 
ship, and  a  decrease  of  necessary  watchfulness 
on  the  part  of  professors  and  tutors,  for  individ- 
ual deficiencies.     Though,  by  the  old  method. 

there  may  have  been,  in  individual  cases,  greater 
proficiency  at  the  time  of  admission,  the  great 
diversity  of  attainment  shown  by  members  of 
the  same  class    was    likely    to   lie   maintained  to- 

the  end  of  the  college  course,  and  the  diplomas 
given  to  graduates  had.  therefore,  widely  differ- 
ent values.     By    the    new   method,  uniformity  of 

attainment,  by  being  insisted  on  at   an  earlier 

period,  produces  uniformity  of  attainment  at 
graduation.  This  plan,  though  regarded  at  first 
with  misgiving,  if  not  positive  disfavor,  is  gradu- 


MICHIGAN 


573 


ally  working  its  way  to  general  approval.  Those 
more  immediately  interested  in  it  and  best  capa- 
ble of  judging  of  its  effects  the  teachers  of  the 
schools,  ami  the  faculty  of  the  university  —  regard 
its  success  in  the  near  future  as  assured.  The 
private  schools  of  the  state  are  reported  by  the 
present  superintendent  of  instruction  as  ■•  few 
and  feeble,  owing  to  the  excellence  of  our  tree 
public  schools."  The  number  reported  in  1873 
was  133,  with  6,761  pupils.  This  is  thought  t<> 
be  much  below  the  actual  number.  Business 
colleges  exist  hi  several  of  the  cities  and  towns. 
13  being  reported  in  1874,  with  .'i'J  instructors 
and  1,506  students.  Of  the  latter,  196  are  fe- 
males. 

Denominational  >t>td  Parochial  Schools. — 
These  institutions  are  not  numerous.  A  few  are 
reported  in  different  parts  of  the  state,  managed 
by  Catholics  and  German  Lutherans,  where  in- 
struction is  given  to  a  few  thousand  children,  but 
a  vast  majority  of  the  children  and  youth  of  the 
state  find  their  only  source  of  education  in  the 
public  schools. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  names  etc.  of  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning  are  contained  in 
the  following  table.  For  further  information 
in  regard  to  them,  see  the  respective  titles. 


NAME 


Location 


.V'hen 

bund- 
ed 


Religious 
denomina- 


Adrian  College Adrian  1859  M.  Epis. 

Albion  College Albion  1864  M.Epis. 

Battle  Creek  College Battle  Creek  1ST")  Advent. 

Grand  Traverse  CoHege  Benzonia  ls.jo  Chiili. 

Hills  lale  College Hinsdale  L855  F.W.Bap. 

H  .pa  College. Holland  City  186:1  Ref.(D'ch) 

Kalamazoo  College Kalamazoo  1855  Bap. 

Olivet  College.. Olivet  1858  Con.&Pr. 

University  of  Michigan  Ann  Arbor  1811  Non  sect. 

In  none  of  these  institutions  is  any  distinction 
as  to  sex  made  in  the  admission  of  pupils;  but 
there  are,  besides, several  institutions  specially  for 
the  education  of  females,  among  which  may  be 
particularly  mentioned  the  following:  Michigan 
Female  Seminary,  at  Kalamazoo,  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  Presbyterians,  was  organized  in 
1867,  and  conducted  on  the  plan  of  the  cele- 
brated Mt.  Holyoke  Seminary  in  .Mass.  Its  prop- 
erty is  valued  at  $70,000,  and  its  annual  income 
is  about  §10,000.  The  Young  Ladies'  Seminary 
and  Collegiate  Institute,  at  Monroe,  was  incor- 
porated under  the  laws  of  the  state,  and  has  been 
in  operation  about  30  years.  It  holds  property 
valued  at  810,000.  It  has  a  regular  college 
course,  besides  post-graduate  courses.  Music, 
drawing,  painting,  and  the  modern  languages  are 
taught.  Degrees  are  conferred  as  in  colleges  for 
young  men.  The  number  of  instructors  is  8;  and 
the  number  of  students,  in  ls7.">,  was  103. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.  — 
There  are  two  institutions  for  this  kind  of  in- 
struction, —  the  State  Agricultural  ( 'ollege  at 
Lansing,  and  the  Detroit  Medical  College.  Near- 
ly all  the  institutions,  however,  enumerated  under 
superior  instruction  have  departments  in  which 
professional  or  scientific  instruction  is  given.  The 
Agricultural  College  of  Michigan  was  the  first 
state  institution  of  its  kind  established  in  the 


United  States.  By  an  act  of  the  legislature,  in 
1855,  it  came  Into  existence  and  was  opened  for 
students  in  the  spring  of  1857.  Until  recently, 
it  has  been  supported  wholly  by  appropriations 

tf the  state  treasury,  aside  from  $56,320  real- 
ized from  appropriated  state  lands,  The  appropri- 
ations from  the  state  treasury  for  the  college,  np 
to  the  present   time,  amount  to  $397,787.    The 

farm  consists  of  676  acres,  situated  on  both  Bidee 

of  the  Cedar  river,  three  miles  distant   from  the 

capital  of  the  state:  ami  300  acres  are  under  cul- 
tivation. The  property  of  the  college  is  valued  at 
$250,000.  The  agricultural  land  -rant  by  Con- 
gress.in  1  si >_V  gave  Michigan  240,000 acres.  From 

this  has  been   realized   $228,933,  and  t  he  portion 

yet  unsold  is  valued  at  $496,543.  These  avails 
go  into  the  state  treasury  and  constitute  a  perma- 
nent fund,  on  which  the  state  pays  7  per  cent. 
The  number  of  students  in  attendance  during 
the  past  year  (1875—6)  was  120.  The  student's 
receive  board  and  lodging  at  the  institution  at 
cost,  which  is  about  $2.60  per  w.ek  :  but.  quite 
one  half  of  this  expense  is  met  by  allowance-; 
granted  the  students  for  manual  labor  performed. 
Tuition  is  free,  and  the  incidental  fees  are  a  mere 
trifle.  The  faculty  and  other  officers  number  1  I. 
The  control  of  the  college  is  rested  in  aboard 
of  agriculture,  the  members  of  which  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor,  for  a  term  of  six  years. 
The  governor  of  the  slate  and  the  president  of 
the  college  are  members,  ex  officii). 

Special  Instruction. — The  State  Public  School 
at  Coldwater,  partakes  of  the  nature  both  of  a 
school  and  an  asylum.  The  object  is  to  educate 
the  dependent  children  from  the  poor  houses. 
It  originated  in  1871. when  a  state  appropriation 
of  $30,000  was  made,  and  three  commissioners 
were  appointed  to  carry  it  into  effect.  A  gift  of 
20  acres  in  the  town  of  Coldwater  and  of$25,000 
towards  the  buildings,  led.  to  its  location  at  that 
place,  and  this  was  supplemented  by  an  additional 
appropriation  of  $38,000  by  the  legislature.  The 
plan  of  the  buildings  consists  of  a  large  central 
edifice,  and  surrounding  cottages  for  the  home 
residence  of  the  children.  It  receives  children 
between  the  ages  of  1  and  1  (i  years  from  the 
county  poor-houses,  and  provides  for  and  edu- 
cates them  till  good  homes  are  found  for  them. 
They  are  strictly  the  wards  of  the  state  till  21 
years  of  age.  There  is  an  agent  in  each  county 
whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after  those  who  are  in- 
dentured to,  or  adopted  by,  individuals,  and,  in 
case  of  any  violation  of  the  terms  of  indenture, 
to  return  them  to  the  school.  The  school  was 
opened  in  1874,  with  nearly  200  children;  the 
number,  in  September  1875,  was  171.  The  num- 
ber of  officers  is  18  consisting  of  a  superintend- 
ent, teachers,  matrons,  etc.  The  aim  of  the  insti- 
tution is,  to  give  a  fair  elementary  education. 
Since  its  establishment,  the  legislature  has  made 
appropriations  for  its  support  to  the  amount  of 
SI *7, at')."). — The  State  Reform  School,  at  Lan- 
sing, was  established,  in  L85C,  for  the  purpose 
of  rescuing,  if  possible,  from  a  life  of  crime,  chil- 
dren and  youths  convicted  of  offenses  against  the 
law.    It  receives  boys  of  from  10  to  16  years  of 


574 


MICHIGAN   UNIVERSITY 


age,  and  is  strictly  an  industrial  school.  It  is 
managed  by  a  board  of  control,  consisting  of  three 
members  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  is  sup- 
ported by  annual  appropriations  from  the  state 
treasury,  and  the  earnings  of  the  inmates.  Five 
hours  of  each  day  are  spent  in  school ;  and  four, 
in  manual  labor.  The  officers  are  a  superintend- 
ent and  an  assistant,  and  '.i  teachers,  besides  over- 
seers of  the  farm  and  shops.  The  annual  ex- 
penses are  from  $25,000  to  $30,000.  The  school 
has  at  present  220  inmates.  Over  1,600  boys 
have  been  cared  for  by  the  institution  since  its 
establishment. — The  Michigan  Institution  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Blind,  was  organized  at 
Flint  in  L854.  About  94  acres  are  contained 
in  the  grounds  and  the  farm  connected  with 
them.  It  is  managed  by  a  principal,  steward. 
matron,  assistant  matron,  physician,  and  17  teach- 
ers in  all  departments,  with  a  few  minor  assist- 
ants. In  addition  to  the  usual  mental  instruction 
given  in  such  institutions,  the  pupils  are  trained 
in  mechanical  and  industrial  occupations.  In 
some  of  these  departments  the  sale  of  wares  pro- 
duced has  more  than  paid  expenses,  and  the  sur- 
plus has  been  devoted  to  the  support  of  the  libra- 
ry. About  200  inmates  were  receiving  instruc- 
tion in  1874. 

The  educational  journals  published  in  the  state 
are.  The  Michigan  T tocher,  a  monthly,  published 
at  Kalamazoo,  and  The  School,  a  monthly,  pub- 
lished in  Ypsilanti.  The  publication  of  the 
former  was  begun  nearly  20  years  ago.  Both  are 
ably  edited,  and  have  a  very  general  circulation 
in  the  state. 

MICHIGAN,  University  of,  at  Ann  Arbor, 
owing  its  foundation  to  a  grant  by  Congress,  in 
]H'J(i,  of  two  townships  of  land,  to  the  territory 
of  Michigan,  was  established  by  a  legislative  act, 
March  18.,  1837,  and  was  first  opened  for  stu- 
dents, Sept.  20.,  1  8  12.  It  is  a  part  of  the  public 
educational  system  of  the  state,  and  is  governed 
by  a  board  of  regents,  elected  by  popular  vote, 
each  for  a  term  of  eight  years.  ('nder  certain 
conditions,  the  graduates  of  the  public  high 
schools  of  the  state  are  admitted  without 
examination.  The  university  comprises  the  de- 
partments of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts 
(including  the  school  of  mines,  organized  in  L875); 
the  department  of  medicine  and  surgery,  organ- 
ized in  L850;  the  department  of  law,  L 859  ;  the 

hom pathic    medical    college,    1>S7">.    and    the 

dental  college,  L875.  Bach  oi  these  departments 
and  colleges  has  its  special  faculty  of  instruc- 
tion, having  charge  also  of  its  management. 
The    University   Senate   is  composed   of  all   the 

faculties,  and  considers  questions  of  common 

interest  and  importance  tt)  them  all.  The  de- 
partment of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts  em- 
braces six  regular  courses  of  four  years  each. 

and    two    -holler    special    courses.     The  regular 

courses,  with  the  degrees  that  are  conferred,  upon 
their  completion,  are  as  follows:  classical  [Bach- 
elor of  Arts),  scientific  [Bachelor  of  Science), 
Latin  and  scientific  (Bachelor  of  Philosophy), 
Greek  and  scientific  (Bachelor of  Philosophy), 
civil  engineering  (Civil  Engineer),  mining  engi- 


neering (Mining  Engineer).  A  full  course  in  ar- 
chitecture and  design  was  opened  in  1876.  The 
special  courses  are  one  in  analytical  chemistry, 
and  one  in  pharmacy.  On  the  completion  of 
a  two  years'  course  in  pharmacy,  the  degree 
of  Pharmaceutical  Chemist  is  conferred.  Stu- 
dents may  also  pursue  selected  studies  for  any 
,  period  not  less  than  one  term.  Postgraduate 
courses  are  provided,  leading  to  the  degrees 
of  Master  of  Arts,  of  Philosophy,  or  of  Science, 
and  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  as  well  as  for  those 
not  candidates  for  a  second  degree.  After  1  v77, 
the  master's  degrees  are  not  to  be  conferred  "in 
course."  The  technical  courses  of  the  depart- 
ment of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts,  are 
grouped  together  and  known  as  the  Polytechnic 
School.  The  regular  courses  in  the  professional 
departments  are  for  two  years.  Both  sexes  are 
admitted  to  all  the  departments;  but  the  courses 
of  lectures  for  women,  in  the  medical  depart- 
ments, are  distinct  from  those  for  men.  The  only 
charges  made  by  the  university  are  to  residents 
in  Michigan,  an  admission  fee  of  810,  and  the 
annual  payment  of  81  -r>;  to  those  who  come  from 
other  states  or  countries,  an  admission  fee  of 
825,  and  the  annual  payment  of  820.  The  num- 
ber of  instructors  and  students  in  the  different 
departments,  in  1875 — G,  was  as  follows  : 

Departments                  Instructors  Students 

Literature,  etc.                          31  452 

Law                                            6  321 

Medicine  and  surgery               10  312 

Dental  college                            3  20 

Homoeopathic  med.  college       2  24 

Total,  deducting  repetitions    49  1,127 

The  students  in  the  department  of  literature, 
science,  and  the  arts  were  classified  as  follows  : 
resident  graduates,  15  ;  in  the  regular  classes,  339; 
in  selected  studies,  19 ;  in  pharmacy,  79.  Of 
these,  149  were  in  the  Polytechnic  School.  The 
university  grounds  embrace  -\\\  acres,  and  con- 
tain an  astronomical  observatory;  a  central  build- 
ing, called  Cniversity  Hall,  for  the  department 
of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts;  buildings 
for  the  departments  of  law  and  medicine;  a 
hospital;  a  chemical  laboratory ;  and  residences 
for  the  president  and  the  professors.  The  observ- 
atory, erected  |iy  citizens  of  I 'etroit, was  opened 
in  L854,  and  is  supplied  with  the  most  approved 
instruments.  The  university  museum  contains 
valuable  and  constantly  increasing  collections, 
illustrative   of    natural    .science,    ethnology,    art. 

history,  agriculture,  anatomy,  and  materia  med- 
ico.   The  geological,  zoological,  and   botanical 

cabinets  together  are  estimated  to  contain  about 

."> 7. '-'•"> n  entries  and  255,000  specimens.  The  li- 
braries accessible  to  the  students  contain  about 
31,000  volumes.  The  university  fund,  being  the 
proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  universily  lands. 
amounts  to  aboul  $550,000.    Tt  is  held  in  trust 

by  the  state,  which  pays  interest  thereon   at  the 

rate  of  7  percenl  per  annum.  The  present  an- 
nual income  of  the  university  amounts  to  nearly 
3120,000. 

Previous  to  1S52.  under  the  regulations  then 
in  force,  there  was  no  president  of  the  university. 


MIDDLEBURY   COLLEGE 


MILITARY   SCHOOLS 


575 


Since  that  time,  the  office  1ms  been  filled  as  fol- 
lows :  Henry  P.  Tappan,  I>.  D.,  1852—63; 
Erastua  0.  Haven,  D.D.,  1863—9;  Henry  S. 
Erieze,  LL.  L).  (acting),  1  S{J1) — 71  ;  James  B. 
Angell,  LL.D.,  appointed  in  1871  and  still  (1870) 
in  office. 

MIDDLEBURY  COLLEGE,  at  Middle- 
bury,  Vt.,  founded  in  1800,  though  not  denomi- 
national by  its  charter,  is  under  the  direction 
of  Congregationalists.  The  grounds,  embracing 
about  30  acres,  occupy  a  commanding  eminence. 
It  has  productive  funds  to  the  amount  of 
1180,000,  a  library  of  more  than  12,000  volumes. 
and  valuable  cabinets  of  natural  history.  The 
cost  of  tuition  is  $45  per  annum.  There  aiv 
several  scholarships,  besides  other  beneficiary 
funds,  for  the  aid  of  needy  students.  In  1875 — (], 
there  were  8  instructors  and  53  students.  Ac- 
cording to  the  triennial  catalogue  of  1871,  there 
were  1,100  alumni,  of  whom  721  were  living. 
Of  the  whole  number  481  (274  living)  became 
clergymen.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows  : 
the  Rev.  Jeremiah  Atwater,  S.  T.  D.,  1800— 
1809  ;  the  Rev.  Henry  Davis, S.  T.  D.,  1810—17; 
the  Rev.  Joshua  Bates,  S.  T.  D„  1818—39  ;  the 
Rev.  Benjamin  Labaree,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  1).,  1840 
— 66  ;  the  Rev.  Harvev  Dennison  Kitchel,  S.  T. 
D.,  1866—1875 ;  and  the  Rev.  Calvin  B.  Hulbert, 
D.  D.,  the  present  incumbent,  elected  in  1875. 

MILITARY  SCHOOLS.  Special  institu- 
tions for  the  education  of  army  officers  now  exist 
in  all  European  countries,  though  they  are  of 
comparatively  modern  origin.  The  first  military 
school  in  Erance  was  established  by  Louis  XV., 
at  Vincennes,  in  1751.  It  was,  soon  after,  re- 
moved to  the  Champ  de  Mars,  Paris,  but  it  has 
long  ceased  to  exist  as  an  institution  for  instruc- 
tion. The  Special  Military  School  of  St.  <  Yr. 
near  Versailles,  was  founded  by  Bonaparte  in 
1802,  and,  for  the  first  fewT  years,  was  located  at 
Fontainebleau.  Candidates  are  admitted  by 
competitive  examination,  and  must  be  between 
17  and  20,  or.  if  from  the  army,  not  over  25 
years  of  age.  The  course  is  for  two  years,  and 
embraces  geography,  German,  literature,  drawing, 
legislation  and  administration,  hygiene,  topog- 
raphy, military  art  and  history,  artillery,  for- 
tification, and  military  exercises.  The  pupils 
pass  either  to  the  Staff  School,  in  Paris,  the 
Cavalry  School,  at  Saumur,  or  to  the  army  as 
sub-lieutenants  of  infantry.  The  St.  <  Yr  School 
has  about  700  pupils.  The  Polytechnic  School, 
in  Paris,  opened  in  1794,  and  organized  by  I. a 
Place  in  1799,  though  not  specially  military  in 
character,  affords  theoretical  instruction  in  vari- 
ous military  and  related  branches.  There  are 
also  the  Artillery  and  Engineers'  School,  at  Fon- 
tainebleau, for  officers;  for  the  education  of 
officers,  the  artillery  schools  at  Valence  and 
N imes,  the  School  for  Non-commissioned  In- 
fantry Officers,  at  Camp  d'Avor; — also  the  Mil- 
itary Orphan  School,  at  La  Fleche.  the  Military 
School  of  Medicine  and  Pharmacy,  in  Paris,  the 
Military  Pyrotechnic  School,  in  Bourges,  and  the 
Normal  School  for  Gymnastics,  in  Vincennes. — 
In  Great  Britain,  the  most  noted   institutions 


are  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  at  Woolwich, 
founded  in  1711. ami  the  Royal  Military  College, 
at  Sandhurst,  founded  in  1799.  The  former  is 
intended  tor  officers  of  the  artillery  and  engineers. 

The  course  is  tor  two  years  and  a  half,  and  em- 
braces mathematics,  elementary  chemistry  and 
physics,  French  or  German,  military  drawing 
and  reconnaissance,  fortification,  artillery,  mil- 
itary history  and  geography,  drills,  and  exercises. 
Candidates  are  admitted  by  competitive  exam- 
ination, and  must  be  between  16  and  18  years 
of  age.  The  number  of  pupils  is  about  200. 
The  college  at  Sandhurst  is  intended  for  officers 
of  the  cavalry  and  infantry.  Admission  is  by 
competitive  examination.  The  course  is  for  one 
year,  and  embraces  the  elements  of  tactics,  in- 
fantry and  field-artillery  drill,  the  regulations 
and  orders  of  the  army,  accounts  and  correspond- 
ence, gymnastics,  riding,  regimental  interior 
economy,  military  topography  and  reconnois- 
sance,  field  fortification  and  the  elements  of 
permanent  fortification,  and  military  law.  There 
are  250  students.  The  Staff  <  iollege,  at  the  same 
place,  for  the  instruction  of  staff  officers,  former- 
ly the  senior  department  of  the  Royal  Military 
College,  is  now  a  distinct  institution.  The  course 
is  for  two  years,  and  embraces  French.  German, 
or  Hindoostanee,  military  administration  and  law, 
fortification  and  field  engineering,  geology,  mil- 
itary art,  history  and  geography,  artillery,  riding, 
topography,  reconnaissance,  and  military  teleg- 
raphy and  signaling.  Admission  here,  also,  is 
by  competitive  examination,  open  to  officers 
of  all  arms  who  have  served  five  years.  The 
number  of  students  is  40.  Besides  these  insti- 
tutions, may  be  mentioned  the  Royal  School  of 
Military  Engineering,  at  Chatham, the  School  of 
Gunnery,  at  Shoeburyness,  the  School  of  Mus- 
ketry, at  Hythe,  the  Military  Medical  School,  in 
London,  and  the  Royal  Hibernian  Military 
School,  in  Dublin. —  In  Germany,  military  in- 
struction is  given  in  the  following  institutions: 
for  officers,  the  war  academies  in  Berlin  and 
Munich  (for  higher  scientific  education,  especial- 
ly for  the  general  staff)  ;  for  the  education  of 
officers,  the  united  artillery  and  engineers'  schools 
in  Berlin  and  Munich,  the  war  schools  at  rots- 
dam,  Erfurt,  Xeisse,  Engers,  Kasscl,  Hanover, 
Anclam  (Prussia),  Metz  (Lorraine;,  and  Munich 
(Bavaria),  the  Prussian,  the  Bavarian,  and  the 
Saxon  cadet  corps  ;  six  schools  for  the  education 
of  non-commissioned  officers  ;  also  the  Medico- 
Surgical  Frederick  William  Institute,  the  Med- 
i(  (i  Surgical  Military  Academy  in  Berlin, the  Mil- 
itary Veterinary  School  in  the  same  place ;  the 
musketry  schools  at  Spandau  and  Augsburg,  the 
School  of  Gunnery,  the  Superior    Pyrotechnic 

School,  and  the  Central  Gymnastic  Institution 
in  Berlin  ;  and  the  military  riding  institutes  in 
Hanover.  Dresden, and  Munich.— in  Prussia, the 

senior  cadet  school  is  in  Berlin,  and  to  this  the 
junior  cadet  schools  are  preparatory.  The  usual 
course  is  for  four  years  in  the  junior  schools, 
and  two  years  in  the  senior  school,  from  which 
the  pupils  pass  to  a  war  school,  though  some 
remain  an  additional  year  in  the  senior  cadet 


576 


MILITARY   SCHOOLS 


school.  There  is  an  examination  for  admission 
to  the  junior  schools,  and  to  the  senior  school  for 
those  who  have  not  passed  through  the  junior 
schools.  The  age  of  admission  to  the  junior 
schools  is  about  1  o  years;  to  the  senior,  about  15. 
In  the  former,  the  course  embraces  arithmetic, 
elementary  algebra  and  geometry.  I  lerman  gram- 
mar and  composition.  French,  Latin,  Bible  his- 
tory, natural  philosophy,  drawing,  writing,  his- 
tory, drill,  gym  nasties,  fencing,  and  dancing;  in 
the  latter,  geography,  mathematics]  physics,  drill, 
fencing,  imitative  drawing.  Latin,  German, 
French,  history,  military  drawing,  religious  in- 
struction, riding,  and  gymnastics.  For  the  ad- 
ditional year,  the  branches  are  topography,  mil- 
itary service  and  correspondence,  science  of  arms. 
military  exercises,  fortification,  tactics,  military 
.surveying  and  drawing,  French,  etc.  Each  junior 
school  has  about  200  pupils;  and  the  senior 
school,  about  TOO.  The  war  schools  are  intended 
for  officers  of  the  infantry  and  cavalry,  and  as 
preparatory  to  the  Artillery  and  Engineers' 
School.  The  course  is  for  about  nine  months, 
and  embraces  musketry  practice,  tactics,  science 
of  arms,  riding,  fencing,  fortification,  military 
surveying  and  drawing,  gymnastics,  manual  of 
tic  piece  in  artillery,  drill  in  infantry  exercises, 
with  about  six  weeks'  field  exercise  in  applied 
tactics,  reconnoissance,  and  surveying,  The  War 
Academy  is  intended  for  the  education  of  officers 
for  the  staff,  as  military  instructors,  and  for 
other  high  duties.  Candidates  are  admitted  by 
competitive  examination,  open  to  officers  of  all 
arms  of  three  years' active  service.  The  course 
is  for  three  years,  and  embraces  French,  Rus- 
sian, military  hygiene  and  law,  general,  physical, 
and  military  geography,  tactics,  history  of  liter- 
ature, geodesy,  mat  hematics,  science  of  arms, 
history  of  the  art  of  war.  fortification,  military 
administration,  history,  surveying,  art  of  siege, 
chemistry,  staff  duty,  physics,  with  practical  field 
instruction  in  staff  duty,  surveying,  field-sketch- 
ing, etc.  There  are  about  275  students  in  this 
institution.  The  military  schools  of  other  Euro- 
pean countries  are  similar,  in  their  general  feat- 
ures, to  those  already  described. — -In  Austria- 
Hungary,  there  are  the  following:  for  officers,  the 
War  School  (for  the  general  staff),  the  higher  Ar- 
tillery and  the  Higher  Engineering  Course,  the 
Preparatory  Course  for  Candidates  for  the  Artil- 
lery Staff,  the  Central  Infantry*  oursc.  the  intend- 
ancy  <  "oursc  (affording  a  preparation  for  the  mili- 
tary intendancy),  all  in  Vienna,  and  the  Royal 
Hungarian  Landwehr-Cavalry  School,  at  Jasz- 
b&eny;  for  the  education  of  officers,  the  Mil- 
itary Academy,  in  Wiener  Neustadl  (for  infantry 
and  cavalry),  the  Technical  Military  Academy, 

in  Vienna  (for    the   art  illery  and   engineers),  the 

Ludovica  Academy,  in  Buda-Pesth  (for  the  Hun- 
garian Landwehr);  preparatory  to  the  academies, 

the  Military  Superior  Ileal  School,  in  Weiss- 
kirchen,  the  military  inferior  real  schools  at  St. 
Polten  and  Guns;   the  Military  Medical   ( 'oursc 

and  the  Military  Riding  Institute,  in  Vienna. — 

The  Russian  Institutions  arc  as  follows:  for 
Officers,  the  Nicholas  Academy  (for  the  general 


staff),  the  Michael  Artillery  Academy,  the  Nich- 
olas Engineering  Academy,  the  Military  Jurid- 
ical Academy,  all  in  St.  Petersburg ;  for  the 
education  of  officers,  six  war  schools  (two  for  in- 
fantry, and  one  each  for  cavalry,  artillery,  and 
engineers  in  St.  Petersburg, and  one  for  infantry 
in  Moscow),  the  imperial  Page  Corps,  in  St. 
Petersburg,  the  Finnish  ( 'adet  I  !orps,  in  Ilelsing- 
fors,  eleven  infantry,  two  cavalry,  and  four  Cos- 
sack schools  for  young  noblemen  ;  as  preparatory 
institutions.  17  military  gymnasia  and  !t  military 
progymnasia ; — for  special  instruction,  the  Mil- 
itary Law  School,  the  Military  Topographical 
School,  the  Preparatory  School  for  the  Guards, 
the  Military  Surgical  School,  the  Technical  and 
Pyrotechnic  School,  all  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  two 
gunsmithery  schools. — Italy  has  the  following: 
for  officers,  the  War  School,  in  Turin  (for  the  high- 
i  ^t  instruction  and  the  general  staff),  the  Artil- 
lery and  Engineers' School,  at  the  same  place; 
for  the  education  of  officers,  the  Military  Acad- 
emy, in  Turin  (for  the  artillery  and  engineers), 
the  Military  School,  in  Modena  (for  infantry  and 
cavalry);  as  preparatory  institutions  to  the  Mil- 
itary Academy  and  Military  School,  the  military 
colleges,  in  Naples,  Milan,  and  Florence;  also 
the  Normal  Infantry  School,  in  Parma, and  the 
Normal  Cavalry  School,  in  Pinerolo. — Besides 
the  schools  for  officers  of  the  character  already 
indicated,  there  are  in  nearly  every  European 
country  regimental  or  battalion  schools  for  the 
instruction  of  privates  or  non-commissioned 
officers  in  the  common  branches  of  learning. — 
In  Brazil,  military  instruction  is  given  in  reg- 
imental schools,  for  training  non-commissioned 
officers;  preparatory  schools;  the  Military  School, 
in  Rio  de  Janeiro ;  the  Depot  of  Artillery  Ap- 
prentices, iii  the  same  place;  the  Cavalry  and 
Infantry  School  of  the  Province  of  Sao  Pedro 
do  Rio  Grande  do  Sul :  and  the  General  Gun- 
nery School  of  Campo  Grande. — In  the  Military 
Academy, at  West  Point,  N.  Y..  founded  in  1802, 
the  United  States  has  an  institution  second  to 
none  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  organization, 
course,  etc.,  are  described  tinder  the  appropriate 
title,  i See  West  Point.)  There  is  also  an 
Artillery  School  at  Fortress  Monroe,  organized 
in  1867.  The  act  of  Congress  of  I8C2.  donating 
land  to  the  states  for  the  establishment  of  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  colleges,  includes  milita- 
ry tactics  among  the  branches  to  he  taught  in 
those  institutions.  An  act  of  18(H)  authorizes 
the  president  to  detail  officers  of  experience  to 
act  as  professors  of  military  science  in  institu- 
tions of  learning,  having  over  1  ."HI  male  students. 
A  Dumber  of  institutions  have  availed  them- 
selves of  this  privilege.  By  the  same  act.  provi- 
sion is  made  for  the  instruction  of  enlisted  men 
in  the  common  I'.nglish  branches  of  education  at 

every  post,  garrison,  or  permanent   camp.    In 

nearly  every  military  department,  there  arc 
schools  for  instruction  in  military  signaling  ami 
telegraphy.  A  number  of  academies  or  high 
schools  in  the  United  States  are  organized 
upon  military  principles,  in  imitation  of  West 
Point,  daily  drill   being  required  of  the  pupils. 


MILTON 


sn 


Some  of  those  are  designed  for  boys  not  ame- 
frftble  to  the  milder  discipline  of  the  ordinary 
schools.  Several  institutions  providing  instruc- 
tion of  a  collegiate  grade,  in  classics,  modem 
languages,  and  scientific  branches,  have  a  similar 
organization.  Of  these  the  principal,  having 
Separate  articles  in  this  work,  are  as  follows: 
fhe  Kentucky  Military  Institute,  at  Farmdale, 
Ky.  ;  Louisiana  State  I'niversity.  at  Baton 
Rouge,  La.;  Norwich  I'niversity.  at  Northfield, 
\'t.  ;  Pennsylvania  Military  Academy,  at  Ches- 
ter, Pa.  :  Texas  Military  Institute,  at  Austin. 
Tex.;  and  Virginia  Military  Institute,  at  Lex- 
ington, Va. — (ien.  Hazen.  in  contrasting  (1872) 
the  French  and  Prussian  system  of  military  edu- 
cation, remarks  that  only  about  one-third  of  the 
French  officers  are  of  necessity  educated  men. 
while,  in  Prussia,  all  must  be.  In  the  French 
schools,  there  is  almost  a  total  absence  of  moral 
control  :  while,  in  Prussia,  the  opposite  is  true. 
In  France,  the  great  lack  of  a  good  preparatory 
education  is  loudly  complained  of,  and  the  almost 
total  neglect  of  mathematical  subjects  in  the 
special  schools  is  noticeable  :  while  great  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  drawing  and  all  practical  subjects 
of  a  military  character.  In  the  French  system, 
the  entire  school  course  is  given  before  service 
is  seen;  but,  in  Prussia,  a  certain  amount  of 
actual  service  must  precede  any  theoretical  course 
at  the  schools;  nor  is  there  in  France,  as  in 
Prussia,  any  provision  for  recognizing,  utilizing, 
and  educating  the  talent  of  young  men  who 
have,  by  a  few  years'  service,  developed  mental 
superiority.  In  Prussia,  nothing  is  more  strik- 
ing than  the  connection  between  the  military  and 
civil  education  of  the  country.  The  competitive 
system  is  almost  universally  objected  to,  and 
mathematics  are  thought  worthy  of  attention  up 
to  the  highest  grades  only  by  those  of  peculiar 
aptness.  The  Academy,  which  gives  a  superior 
education  to  the  first  men  of  the  army,  is  of 
great  merit  and  usefulness.  The  greatest  pos- 
sible care  is  bestowed  upon  methods  of  study  and 
instruction;  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the 
system  is  the  attention  paid  to  forming  and  dis- 
ciplining the  mind  and  encouraging  habits  of 
reflection.  The  education  is  eminently  practical. — - 
In  reference  to  West  Point  he  says  :  -After  see- 
ing much  of  the  best  European  armies,  I  believe 
that,  at  the  breaking  out  of  our  war,  our  little 
regular  army  was  officered  by  better  technical 
soldiers  than  any  army  in  the  world  :  and  this 
I  believe  to  be  due  to  West  Point." — See  II. 
Barnard,  Militant  Education;  an  Account  of 
Institutions  for  Military  Education  in  France, 
Prussia,  Austria,  Russia,  Sardinia,  Sweden, 
Switzerland,  England,  and  the  United  States 
'  (2  vols.). — A  list  of  the  military  schools  of  all 
European  States  is  given  by  Brachelli,  Die 
Staaten  Eurqpa's  (1875). — See  Gen.  W.  B.  II  \- 
zen,  U.  S.  A..  The  School  and  the  Army  in  Ger- 
many  and  France. 

MILTON,  John,  a  celebrated  English  poet, 
born  in  London.  Dec. 9.,  1  608;  died  there  Nov.8., 
1674.    His  father,  being  disinherited  on  chang- 
ing his  religion  —  which  had  been  the   Roman 
37 


Catholic, — followed  (he profession  Of  a  scrivener. 

by  which,  we  are  told, he  "got  a  plentiful  estate.'' 

Young  Milton  was  carefully  educated.    A  private" 

tutor  gave  him  instruction  in  Latin,  and  perhaps1 
in  Greek,  and  imbued  his  mind  with  a  love  for 

poetry,  and  the  writing  of  Latin  and  English 
\erse.     Ilencxt  pa.-sed  to  St.  Paul's  School,  where 

he  was  prepared  for  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
which  he  entered  in  L625.  Here, for  seven  years, 
he  devoted  himself,  with  great  assiduity,  to  such 
studies  as  would  tit  him  for  a  career  of  author- 
ship instead  of  the  usual  01 f  a   profession,  all 

desire  for  which  he  had  abandoned.  At  this 
time,  his  singular  personal  beauty  and  intellectu- 
al independence  made  him  a  marked  character 
among  his  fellow  collegians.  On  leaving  Cam- 
bridge, in  K>.'!'_>.  he  .-pent  five  years  in  study  and 
reading,  chiefly  classiqal,  and  the  composition  of 
poetry.  The  most  beautiful  of  his  shorter  poems' 
were  written  at  this  period  of  his  life.  In  1637, 
he  set  out  upon  his  travels,  visiting  Prance  and 
Italy,  in  both  of  which  countries  lie  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  men  eminent  in  science  and 
literature.  Paris.  Florence  and  Rome  were 
among  the  places  visited  by  him  at  this  time:  and 
Grotius  and  Galileo,  among  the  acquaintances1 
thus  formed.  On  receiving  word  of  the  struggle 
impending  between  the  people  of  England  and 
the  king,  he  abandoned  further  travel,  and  hast- 
ened home.  For  several  years,  his  energies  were 
devoted  to  the  cause  of  the  revolution,  to  which 
he  contributed  many  pamphlets,  which  estab- 
lished not  only  his  great  ability  as  a  controver- 
sialist, but  his  mastery  of  vigorous  and  eloquent 
English  prose.  In  1643,  he  was  married;  but, 
within  a  month,  a  separation  took  place,  owing 
to  incompatibility  of  temper.  This  led  to  an  at- 
tempt on  his  part  to  change  the  law  relating  to 
marriage,  in  the  course  of  which  he  published 
some  of  the  the  most  famous  of  his  prose  pam- 
phlets. In  K')44.  he  published  his  Tractate  on 
Education  and  his  ArrojxKjitica.  a  S/,rerh  far 
tin'  Liberty  of  Unlicensed  Printing.  In  1645.  a 
reconciliation  took  place  between  him  and  his 
wife  :  and.  for  several  years,  he  resided  in  Lon- 
don, devoting  himself  to  literature.  About  1654, 
he  became  totally  blind,  the  malady  being  hast- 
ened by  his  zeal  in  writing  a  defense  of  the  people 
of  England  against  the  usurpations  of  the  king. 
I  lis  wife  dying  in  1652,  or  1653,  he  married 
again  in  1656.  and  again  in  1603.  About  1665, 
he  completed  Paradise  Lost  and  began  Paradise 
Regained  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  passed 
in  domestic  disquiet,  obloquy,  and  the  contem- 
plation of  the  defeat  of  the  public  measures  and 
principles  he  had  labored  so  long  to  establish. 
The  prominence  accorded  to  Milton  by  educa- 
tionists rests  principally  upon  his  Tractate  on 
Education,  addressed  in  the  form  of  a  letter  to 
Samuel  Ilartlili  (q.  v.).  In  this  tractate  is  pre- 
sented Milton's  view  of  "a  complete  and  generous 
education,  to  tit  a  man  to  perform  justly,  skill- 
fully, and  magnanimouly  all  the  offices,  both 
private  and  public,  of  peace  and  war.''  His  first 
injunction  is  "  to  find  out  a  spacious  house  and 
ground   about   it   fit  for  an  academy,  and  big 


578 


MILTON 


MILWAUKEE 


enough  to  lodge  120  persons,  whereof  20  or 
thereabouts  may  be  attendants,  all  under  the 
government  of  one  who  shall  be  thought  of  desert 
sufficient,  and  ability  either  to  do  all,  or  wisely 
to  direct  and  oversee  it  done."  Such  an  academy 
is  to  be  both  "school  and  university"  —  the  sole 
place  of  instruction  for  the  youth  it  contains, 
from  the  time  of  their  admission  to  the  time 
when  they  enter  upon  the  duties  of  mature  life. 
Their  studies,  their  exercise,  and  their  diet  are 
separately  considered.  For  the  first,  grammar  is 
to  be  used  as  an  introduction,  giving  special  at- 
tention to  the  practical  use  of  it,  as  in  con  vet 
pronunciation  and  a  knowledge  of  the  rules 
most  commonly  used.  Advantage,  also,  should 
be  taken  to  cultivate  indirectly  the  moral  sense 
by  the  use,  as  text-books,  of  such  works  as  have 
become  classics.  Fortius  he  recommends  several 
in  the  Greek  language,  lie  attaches  great  im- 
portance,  also,  to  the  personal  magnetism  of  the 
teacher,  as  a  means  for  inciting  his  pupils  to  an 
"ingenuous  and  noble  ardor."  Arithmetic  is  to 
be  taught  at  this  period;  and,  shortly  after, 
geometry.  In  the  evening,  the  instruction  is  to  be 
moral  only.  The  next  step  is  the  study  of  agri- 
culture, as  found  in  the  writings  of  Cato,  Varro, 
and  ( 'olumella.  These  authors  are  chosen  for  the 
double  purpose  of  acquiring  a  mastery  of  "any 
ordinary  prose,"  and  for  inciting  in  the  pupils  a 
desire  in  alter  life  to  ■•improve  the  tillage  of  their 
country."  It  will  then  be  proper  to  go  on  to 
the  Study  of  maps,  globes,  ami  natural  philoso- 
phy. Greek  should  then  be  taken  up,  and  in  a 
short  time,  trigonometry,  fortification,  architect- 
ure, enginery  or  navigation, and  anatomy.  Medi- 
cine, both  theoretical  and  pracl ical,  should  next 
be  pursued.  These  studies  should  all  lie  supple- 
mented, as  far  as  possible,  by  an  observation  of 
their  application  in  practical  pursuits.  Moral 
instruction  should  now  predominate.  The  les- 
sons ineuieated  should  lie  enforced  by  reading 
tin'  moral  works  of  Plato,  Xenophon,  Cicero, 
Plutarch,  etc.,  ending  at  evening  with  the  Bible. 

The  next  study  should  lie  that  of  political  econo- 
my, followed  by  politics  and  law.  Sundays  and 
evenings  should  he  devoted  to  theology,  church 
history,  and  the  study  of  Bebrew  -the  latter  in 
order  that  the  Scriptures  may  be  read  in  the 
original.  Then  follow  ■•choice  histories,  heroic 
poems,  and  attic  tragedies,"  with  "political  ora- 
tions," some    of   which    Should    be  committed  to 

memory,  and  declaimed.  Rhetoric,  the  art  of 
composition, logic, and  poetry  uexl  succeed;  after 
which,  he  says,  "whether  they  [the  students]  be 
to  speak  in  parliament  or  council,  honor  and  at- 
tention would  be  waiting  on  their  lips."  He  nexl 
speaks  of  physical  exercise.  Wrestling  and  i  lie 
USe  of  tli  .-word  are  specially  commended,  the 
hivat  hiii-- spells  to  be  filled  with  music.      About 

two  hours  before  Bupper,  the  students  are  to  be 
summoned  to  their  martial  exercises,  on  fool  or 
on  horseback,  in  fair  weather  or  foul.  These  w  ill 
give  personal  prowess  and  hardihood,  and  ac- 
"iii  the  youths  to  halms  of  discipline, 
and  the  practical  conduct  of  armies.  Visits  to 
the  country,  also,  al  favorable  seasons,  and  for- I 


eign  travel,  are  recommended  to  supplement  the 
studies  and  exercises  of  the  academy.  Lastly,  the 
students'  food  should  be  "plain,  healthful,  and 
moderate,"  and  served  in  the  same  house.  The 
proper  age  in  which  to  pursue  this  curriculum  is 
from  the  12th  to  the  21st  year.  It  will  be  seen 
from  this  synopsis,  that  Milton's  view  of  a  liberal 
education  differed  widely  from  that  of  the  school- 
men of  his  day,  in  its  estimate  of  the  classics  and 
natural  science ;  while,  in  many  respects,  it  ex- 
ceeds  the  liberal  tendencies  of  the  most  advanced 
educators  of  the  present  time.  The  period  of  child- 
hood, which  is  now  claiming  so  much  of  the  at- 
tention of  the  educators  throughout  the  civilized 
world,  is  not.  indeed,  considered  by  him  ;  not, 
however,  because  it  was  overlooked,  nor  because 
he  undervalued  its  importance;  but,  because 
"brevity"  was  his  "scope."  On  nearly  all  of  the 
great  subjects  that  now  agitate  the  educational 
world,  this  tractate  is  silent.  Compulsory  educa- 
tion, sectarianism,  the  relation  of  schools  to  the 
state,  the  education  of  women,  the  co-education 
of  the  sexes — none  of  these  arc  mentioned.  Yet, 
if  the  reader  of  today,  wondering  at  its  fame,  and 
doubting  its  claim  to  special  consideration,  will 
transport  himself  to  Milton's  time,  and  note  the 
influences  by  which  he  was  surrounded  —  the 
almost  universal  disregard  of  the. practical  in 
education,  and  the  blind  worship  of  book  knowl- 
edge—this "letter  to  Master  Samuel  Ilartlib" 
will  appear  almost  a  daring  innovation;  and  the 
moral  courage,  as  well  as  the  sagacity,  of  its 
author  will  be  unquestioned. 

MILTON  COLLEGE,  at  Milton,  Wis., 
founded  as  an  academy  in  1  8  II  and  as  a  colli  ge 
in  1807,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Seventh-Day 
Baptists.  It  is  supported  chiefly  by  tuition 
lees.  Its  endowment  amounts  to  $6,000.  The 
libraries  contain  about  2.1(10  volumes.  It  has 
philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus  and  cab- 
inets of  botany,  mineralogy,  etc.  The  academic 
department  has  a  teachers'  course,  an  English 
ami  business  course,  ami  a  preparatory  course; 
the  collegiate  department  has  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  260 
students  in  all  courses.  Both  sexes  are  admitted. , 
The  principals  and  presidents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: the  Rev.  Bethnel  ('.  Church,  1  year;  the 
Rev.  S.S.  Bicknell,  .'>  years  ;  the  Rev.  Amos  W. 
Conn,  l'  years;  Prof.  A.  C.  Spicer,  7  years;  and 
i  he  Rev.  \V.  C.  Whit  ford,  the  present  incumbent 
(1876),  L8  years, 

MILWAUKEE,  the  chief  city  and   port    of 
entry  of   the   state  of    Wisconsin,  was  settled  in 

1835,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  L846.     Its 

population,  according  to  the  census  of  L870,  was 
89,930;  and  its  school  population  (between  the 
ages  of  I  and  2<>  years)  27,359,  which,  in  August 
L875,  had  increased  to  33,919.  The  total  popu- 
lation of  the  city,  at  present  (1876),  is  about 
120.11(111.  Of  the'sehool  population,  in  L875,  the 
number   attending  the   public   schools    was  ,'i(),7 

per  cent;  attending  private  schools,  21..'!  percent. 

(If    the    children    between    the    apes    of     I    Mini   15 

years,  more  than  75  per  cent  attended  either 
public  or  private  schools. 


MILWAUKEE 


57!) 


Educational  ERstory. —  The   history  of  the 

public  schools  of  Milwaukee,  in  its  general  char- 
acter, does  do!  differ  greatly  from  that  of  other 
western  cities  which  have  grown  into  importance 

during  the  last  thirty  years.  In  all.  the  advance 
has  been  from  the  rude  frontier  school  of  the 
early  settlers,  in  which  only  the  rudiments  of  a 
common  English  education  were  taught,  to  the 
highly-organized  system  of  the  large  city,  with 
its  several  grades  of  schools,  crowned  with  its 
high  or  normal  school,  ami.  sometimes,  with  a 
university.  The  first  school  taught  in  the  city, 
was  the  private  school  of  a  Methodist  minister, 
opened  in  the  winter  of  1835 — f>,  in  a  building 
in  Bast  Water  Street.  The  following  year,  the 
first  public  school  organized  under  the  school 
laws  of  the  territory,  was  opened  in  Third  Street 
Since  the  incorporation  of  the  city,  in  18d6,  the 
progress  of  the  schools  has  been  rapid  and  steady. 
Two  steps  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  noted. 
are  the  introduction  of  German  as  a  regular 
study  in  the  district  schools,  which  took  place  in 
1857,  and  the  introduction  of  drawing  and 
music,  in  1873.  The  present  school  system  was 
organized  in  184-6.  The  first  school  superintend- 
ent was  Rufus  King,  1859 — 60.  His  successors 
were,  Jonathan  Ford,  1860 — 62  ;  A.  C.  May, 
8  days  in  1862;  J.  R.  Sharpstein,  1862—3; 
Edwin  De  Wolf,  1863—5;  F.  C.  Pomeroy, 
1865—70  ;  G.  H.  Paul,  1870—71 ;  F.  C.  Law, 
1871 — 4;  James  MacAlister,  the  present  in- 
cumbent (1877),  elected  in  1874. 

School  Si/stem. — The  supervision  and  control 
of  the  public  schools  are  vested  in  a  board  of 
education, consisting  of  26  members,  2  from  each 
ward,  who  are  appointed  biennially  by  the  alder- 
men, subject  to  confirmation  by  the  common 
council.  The  board  elect  annually  from  their 
number  a  president,  who  is  required  to  preside 
at  all  meetings,  and  to  deliver  an  annual  ad- 
dress. The  school  board  is  required,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  common  council,  to  establish 
and  organize  a  sufficient  number  of  schools  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  children  of  the  city, 
for  which  the  common  council  must  purchase,  or 
lease,  lots  and  buildings,  erect  school-houses,  and 
provide  the  necessary  furniture.  The  board,  is,  al- 
so, authorized  to  define  the  boundaries  of  school- 
districts,  to  adopt  suitable  text-books,  which  must 
be  uniform,  and  must  continue  in  use  without 
frequent  change,  and  to  enforce  uniformity  in  the 
system  of  instruction  employed  in  the  schools. 
They  also  elect  biennially  a  superintendent  of 
schools,  whose  duties  are  to  exercise  a  general 
supervision  over  the  public  schools,  to  examine 
into  their  organization  and  condition,  to  suggest 
to  the  teachers  such  changes,  consistent  with  the 
school  law,  as  he  may  deem  expedient,  and,  in 
connection  with  a  committee  of  the  board,  to  ex- 
amine teachers,  to  employ  and  classify  them,  and 
to  dismiss  them  when  necessary.  The  school  law 
requires  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
a  high  school,  in  which  must  he  organized  an 
academic  department  and  a  normal  course  for 
the  special  training  of  teachers  for  the  public 
schools  of  the  city.     The  course  of  study  in 


the  academic  department  embraces  four  years; 
that  in  the  normal  course,  three.  Pupils  from 
the  district  schools,  who  are  L 5  years  of  age  or 
over,  of  studious  habits  and  good  moral  char- 
acter, and  who  have  passed  an  examination  of 
the  tirst  grade,  and  received  the  superintendent's 
diploma  tor  such  examination,  are  admitted  to 

the  high  school ;    but    candidates   who    have    not 

attended  the  district  schools,  may  be  admitted 
to  the  high  school  upon  passing  a  special  ex- 
amination. A  certificate  of  gradual  ion,  entitling 
the  holder  to  tea<  h  in  the  public  schools,  may  be 
given  to  each  student  in  the  normal  department 
of  the  high  school,  who  is  not  less  than  18 yean 
of  age,  and  who  lias  maintained  a  satisfactory 
standing  in  that  department  for  one  year.  There 

are  three  kinds  of  schools,—  branch  schools,  dis- 
trict schools,  ami  the  high  school.  The  liist  are 
only  adjuncts  of  district  schools,  and  are  opened 
whenever  any  of  the  latter  are  not  adequate  to 

the  public  needs.  The  work  in  the  branch 
school  is  graded,  but  is  of  an  elementary  char- 
acter.      In    the    district  schools,    there    are    ten 

grades,  occupying  about  eight  years.   The  course 

of  study  embraces  all  the  ordinary  branches  of 
an  English  education,  together  with  German 
(graded  like  the  other  studies,  and  taught  by  a 
special  teacher),  and  music,  free-hand  drawing, 
and  calisthenics,  graded  and  systematically 
taught  by  the  class  teachers.  There  are  special 
superintendents,  however,  for  each  of  these 
branches,  who  regularly  inspect  and  supervise 
the  work,  and,  in  the  case  of  drawing  and  music, 
hold  all  the  examinations  for  promotion.  In 
th  •  high  school,  there  are  two  courses — the  clas- 
sical and  the  English  —  each  occupying  four 
years.  Three  grades  of  certificates  are  granted 
to  teachers,  examinations  for  which  ate  held  in 
March,  June,  August,  and  December,  din; 
schools  are  supported  principally  by  an  annual 
city  tax,  levied  by  the  common  council  on  all 
taxable  property.  In  L875 — 6, this  tax  amounted 
to  1.85  mills  on  the  dollar.  The  school  age  is 
from  4  to  20  years.  The  number  of  schools, 
in  1875 — 6,  was  21,  consisting  of  the  following: 
high  school,  1;  normal  department,  1:  district 
schools,  13  ;  branch  schools,  6. — The  following 
are  the  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for. 
the  same  year: 

X i ii niter  of  pupils  of  school  age 34,:>:;t 

"         "      "      enrolled  in  public  schools. . .   13,881 

Average  daily  attendance 8,453 

Number  of  teachers 107 

Total  receipts $168,949.22 

"      expenditures $164,210.15 

"      valuation  of  school  property $486,500.00 

Connected  with  the  public  schools,  is  a  teach- 
ers'library,  the  privileges  of  which  are  free  to 
all  teachers  employed  in  the  public  schools,  and 
to  the  pupils  of  the  normal  department  of  the 
high  school.  In  addition  to  the  means  of  in- 
struction afforded  by  the  public  schools,  there 
are  many  private  and  denominational  schools. 
The  number  of  the  former,  in  L873,  was  17,  in 
which  instruction  was  given  to  7,000  pupils,  the 
number  of  whom,  in  1875,  was  increased,  to 
9,26«J. 


.580 


M1XETCALOCY 


MINERALOGY.  Under  the  bead  of  mvn- 
entl  substances,  or  those  which  constitute  the 
mineral  kingdom,  are  included  all  inorganic 
bodies;  that  is  to  say,  by  strict  definition,  all  sub- 
stances that  are  not  the  products  of  life.  By  a 
similar  strictness,  we  mighl  be  led  to  say  that, 
the  mineral  kingdom  being  a  division  of  nature, 
artificial  products  should  be  excluded  from  it. 
Nature,  however,  is  not  to  be  limited  by  our 
verbal  definitions;  organisms  appropriate  and 
use  mineral  substances  without  altering  their 
composition,  or  they  may,  in  the  complex 
chemical  reactions  of  vitality,  give  rise  to  a  min- 
eral Bubstance,  especially  as  a  resull  of  organic 
decomposition,  'thus  we  have  in  bones  mineral 
matter:  and  the  carbonic  aciil  breathed  out  by 
the  visitor  to  the  Grotto  del  Cane  belongs  as 
much  to  the  mineral  kingdom  as  that  evolved 
from  the  floor  of  the  cave.  Again,  nature  right- 
fully claims  as  true  mineral  substances  many 
which  owe  their  existence  to  the  art  of  man,  be- 
ing altogether  identical  in  form,  composition, 
and  character  with  those  of  her  own  production. 

We  can  make  no  distinction  between  the  crystal 

of  salt  formed  by  the  artificial  evaporation  of 

brine,    and    a   similar    crystal    produced    by    the 

natural  evaporation  of  sea-water  ;  or  between 
the  crystals  of  augite  formed  as  furnace  products 
and  those  of  volcanic  origin.     Hence  we  see  that, 

in  reality,  the  mineral  kingdom  embraces  all  sub- 
stances, in  their  constitution  essentially  inorganic, 

which  occur  in  nature,  even  though  they  may 
have  been  formed  under  organic  or  under  artifi- 
cial conditions:  and  we  thus  include  in  this 
kingdom,  not  merely  all  solid  bodies  formed  in 
the  crust  of  the  earth,  but  also  all  inorganic 
fluids,  whether  liquid  or  gaseous,  within,  upon, 
or  above  the  earth.  Among  these,  we  are  at 
once  culled  upon  to  recognize  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  different  kinds  of  molecules  that  are 
presented  to  our  notice,  and  the  different  forms 
under  which  these  are  aggregated  :  in  ordinary 
language,  we  recognize  materials  and  structures. 
To  the  materials  we  apply  the  term  minerals. 
A.  material  must  be  homogeneous;  hence  the 
definition  of  a  mineral  is  "  a  natural  homogene- 
ous Bubstance  of  inorganic  origin."  To  mineral 
aggregates  we  apply  the  term  rocks;  but  as  thud 
minerals,  whether  gaseous  or  liquid,  can  hardly 
lie  said  to  have  structure   in   the  sense   in  which 

the  geologisi  uses  the  term,  he  defines  a  rock  as 

"  any  aggregation  Of  solid  mineral  particles  which 
Constitutes  an  essential  pari  of  the  earth's  crust." 
Imbedded  within  rocks,  we  meet  with  certain 
mineral  holies  that  presenl  forms  and  structures 
undoubtedly  of  organic  origin  ;  to  these,  provided 
they  are  of  a  certain  geological  antiquity,  is  ap- 
plied the  term  fossil.  (See  PaljEontology.) — 
Bach  mineral  is  theoretically  assumed  to  be  ca- 
pable of  taking,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
the  form  of , i  geometrical  solid.  This  capability 
lue  '"  Forces  inherent  in   inorganic  matter. 

which  causes  its  molecules  to  arrange  themselves 

to  fixed  laws  about  certain  mathemat- 
ically   related    axes.      A    perfect    crystal   is  thus 

the  outward  expression  of  symmetrica]  internal 


structure,  and  is  defined  as  "an  inorganic  solid 
bounded  by  plane  surfaces  symmetrically  ar- 
ranged, and  resulting  from  the  forces  of  the  con- 
stituenl  molecules."  (See  Dana.  System  of  Min- 
eralogy,vo\.  1.)  As  the  molecules  of  different  kinds 

are  variously  affected  by  the  molecular  forces,  the 
crystalline  forms  of  different  minerals  vary  ac- 
cordingly. The  form  of  the  same  mineral  is 
always  constant  :  not  that  it  always  occurs  in 
crystals  of  identical  form,  but  that  all  its  forms 
are  referable,  under  mathematical  conditions,  to 
one  fundamental  type.  Its  crystalline  form  is, 
therefore,  regarded  as  an  essential  characteristic 
of  a  mineral  species,  which  will  embrace  vari- 
eties resulting  from  modifications  of  the  type; 
and.  in  this  light,  any  particular  crystal  maybe 
regarded  as  a  mineral  individual.  Ihe  existence 
of  such  mineral  structures  is  not  incompatible 
with  the  definition  of  a  rock  given  above,  since 
crystals  are  not  structures  essential  in  the  earth's 
crust.  The  formation  of  a  crystal  is  interfered 
with  bySO  many  external  and  varying  influences, 
that  forms  of  exact  symmetry  are  almost  im- 
probabilities; or,  to  quote  Dana,  "this  sym- 
metrical harmony  is  so  uncommon  that  it  can 
hardly  he  considered  other  than  an  ideal  perfec- 
tion."-   The  law  that  the  same  mineral  is  always 

limited  to  its  own  crystalline  form  is  apparently 
contravened  in  many  instances; — thus,  we  may 
have  minerals  of  similar  composition,  as  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  or  even  elements,  as  carbon 
and  sulphur,  crystallizing  under  two  or  more 
different  fundamental  forms  [dimorphism, poly- 
morphism); or.  we  may  have  minerals  of  differ- 
ent but  related  chemical  composition  assuming 
identical  or  similar  forms  [isomorphism,  Immceo- 
morphism);  or,  finally,  we  may  have  a  mineral 
assuming  the  form  of  another  mineral  of  essen- 
tially different  chemical  composition  [pseudo* 
morphism).     As  the    molecular   arrangement 

known  as  crystalline  structure  is  thus  intimately 
controlled  by  the  laws  that  govern  chemical 
combination,  the  explanation  of  the  above  men- 
tioned apparent  exceptions  to  law  lies  within 
the  province  of  the  chemical  physicist.  Thus, 
whilst  the  mathematician  deals  with  the  forms 
of  crystals  and  their  properties  as  geometrical 
solids,  to  the  chemist  and  physicist  must  be 
assigne  I  that  part  of  crystalology,  or  the  science 

of  crystals,  which  treats  of  the  law s  and  condi- 
tions that  give  rise  to  such  forms.  To  the 
mathematical  branch,  is  assigned  'he  name  crys- 
tallography, to  the  physical,  crystaUogeny.  As 
crystalline  form  and  chemical  composition  are 
the   essential    characteristics  of  mineral   sj>ecics, 

chemiBtry,  physics,  and  solid  geometrj   are  the 

sciences  upon  which  mineralogy  is  based.  In 
turn,  it  is  an  essential  subordinate  of  geology, 
necessarily  throwing  light  upon  the  character 
ami  history  of  rocks.  Prom  a  more  general 
educational  Stand-point,  mineralogy  is  important 
as  making  us  acquainted  with   the   results  of  the 

forces  that  are  restricted  in  their  action  to  in- 
organic matter,  and  enabling  us  to  contrast 
them  with  the  results  of  that  combination  of 
lores   which    we  call   vitality.      The    projK'rties 


M I N KRALOGY 


MIWI-.SOT  A 


58 1 


of  minerals  also  throw  light  on  physical  problems 
by  affording  data  tor  the  discussion  of  questions 
affecting  light,  electricity,   magnetism,  etc — In 
its  applications  to  the  arts,  the  value  of  mineral- 
egj  rests  upon  a  chemical  basis.     It  may  thus 
he  regarded,    educationally,  as    supplementing 
chemistry,  as  complementary  to  geology,  as  of 
great  technical  importance  to  the  practical  chem- 
ist and  as  a  necessary  study  to   the    metallurgist 
and  mining  engineer. — It  will  be  at  once  apparent 
that  the  study  of  mineralogy,  with  whatever  end 
in  view,  must    lie  deferred  to  a  late  stage  in  ad- 
vanced education.      At  the  same  time,  it  may  he 
noted   that   minerals,   regarded   merely   as  the 
materials  of  which  the  earth's  crust  is  composed, 
offer  examples  of  so  many  physical   properties 
that  come  under  the  cognizance  of   the  senses, 
either  unaided  or  aided  by  the   simplest    experi- 
ments,  that  they  afford    excellent    material    for 
the  cultivation  of  the   powers  of  observation  in 
the  lower  stages  of  education.     Minerals  present 
these  properties  in  the  simplest  conditions,  un- 
complicated, as  in  vegetable  or  animal  materials. 
by  the  effects  of  vitality;  and  they  are  superiorto 
artificial  objects  for  objective  teaching,  because, 
if  rightly  used,  they  may  he  made  to  elucidate 
all  that  can  be  elucidated  by  the  former,  whilst 
they  become,  in  addition,  foundation  stones  upon 
which  a  more  advanced  and  scientific  study  may 
be  satisfactorily  based.  In  this  manner. they  may 
be  used  to  inculcate,  in  its  most  elementary  form. 
a  scientific  method  of  research.    Thus,  by  means 
of  the  physical  characters  of  minerals,  observa- 
tion, accurate  as  far  as  our  unaided  senses  can 
make  it.  and  exactness  of  thought,  and  conse- 
quently of  speech,  may  be  cultivated  in  regard 
to  external  form,  interned  structure  (including 
elementary  notions  of  crystalline  structure  and 
cleavage),  color,  diaphaneity,  luster,   hardness, 
tenacity,  fracture,  etc.   Observations,  elementary 
it  is  true,  but  still  of  a  fundamental  character, 
regarding  specific  gravity,  solubility,  andfusibil- 
ity,  may  be  induced  by  simple  experiments  with 
the  balance,  the    test-tube,  and  the   blowpipe. 
Such   knowledge,   acquired    from    the  common 
minerals  around  us,  will  undoubtedly  be  a  val- 
uable stepping-stone  to  further  acquisitions.    At 
a  later  stage,  if  practicable,  instruction  in  the  use 
of  the  blowpipe  might  be  made  to  yield  a  further 
insight  into  ample  chemical  phenomena,  and.  if 
carried  far  enough,  might   be  made  an  excellent 
starting-point  for  systematic  scientific  investiga- 
tion by  analysis. 

In  connection  with  mineralogy,  attention 
should  be  given  to  lithology,  or  the  science  of 
mineral  aggregates,  or  rocks.  This  subject 
presents  many  points  of  interest  both  from  a 
scientific  and  an  educational  point  of  view  :  and 
in  its  connections,  on  the  one  hand;  with  geology, 
and,  on  the  other,  with  mineralogy,  affords  the 
materials  for  practical  study  as  well  as  useful 
mental  culture,  thus  constituting  an  element  of  ) 
both  technical  and  liberal  education.  The  works 
necessary  to  the  general  reader  for  reference  on  j 
topics  of  mineralogy  and  lithology  are  few  :  and 
those  only  are  here  named  that  are  perfectly  ac-  | 


|  oessible. — See  Dana,  .1  System  of  Mineralogy ; 
and   .1    Mimual of  Mineralogy;  the  formei 
the  standard  work  of  reference  on  minerals:  the 
latter  is  a  brief  compendium  for  beginners,  but 

requiring  adaptation  to  late  advances;    \ .. 

Elements  of  Mineralogy;  Bristow,  Glossary 
of  Mineralogy;  Mitchell,  Mineralogy,  in 
Obr's  Circle  of  the  Sciences,  useful  in  presenting 
the  subject  of  crystallography.  Elementary  anil 
concise  information  wiil  he  found  in  the  standard 
manuals  of  geology.    (Sec  Geology.) 

MINES;  SCHOOL  OF.  See  Schsntifio 
Schools. 

MINISTRY  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUC- 
TION. How  far  it  is  right  or  expedient  for 
state  governments  to  assume  the  control  of  the 

primary,  secondary,  and  Superior  schools  of  a 
country,  is  a  question  which  is  still  unsettled, 
receiving  -various  answers  in  different  countries. 

(See   State    and    Sci i..)     'I  his   difference  of 

views  finds  an  expression  in  the  way  in  which 
the  different  national  govern nn  nts  have  arranged 
the  administration  of  those  educational  affairs  Of 
which  they  have  taken  charge.  Some  states  have 
a  special  minister  ot  public  instruction  who  has 
charge  only  of  the  educational  affairs  of  the 
country.  Such  states  are.  in  Europe,  Prance, 
Italy.  Russia,  Norway.  Turkey:  among  the  Amer- 
ican states,  only  Nicaragua  was  reported  (in  the 
Goiha  Almanac  for  L876)  as  having  a  special 
minister  of  public  instruction.  In  many  other 
countries,  one  of  the  members  of  the  state  min- 
istry bears  the  title  of  Minister  of  Public  in- 
struction, but  performs  also  the  duties  of  some 
other  department.  'I  hits,  in  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Sax- 
ony. Wurtemberg,  Denmark,  Greece,  Sweden, 
Bolivia,  Chili,  and  Costa  Rica,  the  minister  of 
education  was,  in  1875,  also  minister  of  public 
worship;  and,  in  some  of  these  states,  even  a 
third  ministerial  department  was  connected  with 
the  office.  In  Spain,  commerce,  education,  and 
public  works:  in  Guatemala,  foreign  affairs  and 
education:  in  San  Salvador,  the  interior  and 
education,  were  assigned  to  one  member  of  the 
ministry.  In  none  of  the  other  states  of  Europe 
or  America,  do  any  of  the  members  of  the 
ministry  hear  the  special  title  of  minister  of  edu- 
cation, cither  exclusively  or  jointly  with  that  of 
another  ministerial  department.  In  Belgium  and 
in  the  Netherlands,  there  is  a  special  bureau  for 
educational  affairs  in  the  ministry  of  the  inte- 
rior :  and,  in  the  same  way.  in  the  I  'nited  States, 
a  bureau  of  education,  with  a  commissioner  of 
education  at  its  head,  as  a  section  of  the  de- 
partment of  the  interior.  In  England,  there  is  a 
committee  of  the  council  on  education;  in  Por- 
tugal a  supreme  study  council  :  and,  in  the  new 
German  Empire,  an  imperial  school  commission. 

Fuller  information  on  this  subject  may  he  found 
in  the  special  articles  in  this  work  on  the  differ- 
ent countries  of  the  globe. 

MINNESOTA,    one    of    the  north-western 
states  of  the  American  Union,  formed  a  part  of 

the  territory  of  the  same  name,  which  was  or- 
ganized by  Congress  in  lsl'.».  The  state  of  Min- 
nesota was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1858, 


682 


MINNESOTA 


taking  rank  as  the  19th,  in  the  order  of  admission. 
lis  area  is  83,531  8q.  in.;  and  its  population,  in 
1  -7t>.  was  439,706,  including  438,257  whites,  7.~>!> 

Colored  persons,  and  690  Indians. 

Educational  History.  —  The  importance  of 
general  education  was  recognized  in  Minnesota 
at  the  commencement  of  its  existence,  the  first 
constitution  of  the  state  making  provision  for  a 
free  public-school  system  ami  a  state  university. 
Every  township  containing  not  less  than  five 
families  was  constituted  a  school  -  district,  in 
which  school  trustees  were  annually  elected  ;  and 
tiic  majority  of  the  voters  had  authority  to  levy 
a  tax  not  exceeding  $600  ;  besides  which  a 
county  tax  was  also  sanctioned  for  school  pur- 
p  »ses.  Tin'  general  direction  and  supervision  of 
tin:  school  system  was  assigned  to  a  state  super- 
intendent. In  1860,  there  were  879  public 
schools,  having  .'}l,U<s;5  pupils,  and  4  colleges 
having  366  students.  The  income  of  the  public- 
school  fund  was  $27,712,  besides  which  $56,608 
was  raised  by  taxation  for  the  support  of  coin- 
iii  »u  schools.  In  1858,  the  first  normal  school  was 
established,  by  an  act  of  the  legislature;  and.  in 
L8G0,  it  was  organized  and  opened  at  Winona. 
This  school  was  suspended  from  .March.  L862,  to 
Noveml  4,  when  it  was  re-opened  in  pur- 

suance of  a  law  passed  in  Februaryof  that  year. 
A  second  state  normal  school  was  opened  a1 
Mankato,  in  L868;  and.  the  following  year, 
$30,000  was  appropriated  by  the  legislature  for 
a  permanent  building  for  its  accomodation.  A 
third  normal  school  was  opene  I  at  St.  (  'loud  in 
1869.  A  state  normal  board  was  constituted  by 
law  to  have  the  supervision  of  these  institutions, 
the  state  superintendent  being  made  a  member, 

-  V  officio.  The  preparatory  department  of  the 
state  university  was  opened  in  1867,  but  the  in- 
stitution did  not  receive  its  charter  till  L868.  It  ' 
was  fully  organized  in  1870.  After  several  years' 
experience  of  (he system  as  originally  established. 
t  he  legislature,  in  1 873,  subjected  it  to  a  thorough 
revision,  prescribing  the  system  mainly  as  it  j 
iniw  exists.    I  'urine  the  session  of  the  legislature 

in  that  year,  a  bill    was    proposed  providing   for 

universal  compulsory  education  and  for  the  pre- 
vention of  truancy;  bul  it  was  nut  passed.    The 

.-i  ite    S  hool  fund.,  at    that    time,   amounted   to 

nearly  •'!  millions  of  dollars,  realized  from  the 
.sale  of  about  one-eighth  part  of  the  laud  belong- 
ing to  it. — Since  L870,  the  state  superintendents 
have  been  Horace  It.  Wilson,  who  in  that  year 

BUCCeeded    Mark    II.    Dunnell,    and    served   until 

1875;  and  David  Burt,  the  present  incumbent 
(1876). 

School  System. — The  supervision  of  the  edu- 
cational interests  of  the  state  is  committed  to  a 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  who  is  ap- 
pointed   bj     the   governor   for   two   years.       His 

duties  are  similar  to  those  of  state  superintendents 

rally  ;  while  his  (lowers  are  greater  from  the 
let  that  he  is  called  upon  to  perform  the  func- 
tions usually  intrusted  in  other  states  to  state 
boards  of  education,  lie  establishes  normal 
.training  schools,  convenes  teachers'  institutes, 
apportions  the  school  funds  among  the  several 


counties  twice  a  year,  and  issues  to  teachers, 
upon  examination  by  himself,  or  by  a  committee 
of  teachers  appointed  by  him,  state  certificates. 
This  officer,  the  secretary  of  state,  and  the  pres- 
ident of  the  university,  constitute  a  board  for 
the  recommendation  of  text-books  to  be  used 
in  the  common  schools  of  the  state.  He  is  also 
a  member  and  secretary,  ex  officio,  of  the  state 
normal  board,  which  has  charge  of  the  state 
normal  schools. —  County  commissioners  are  also 
chosen,  whose  duty  it  is  to  appoint  county  supt  r- 
intendents  for  two  years,  at  a  salary  of  not  less 
than  $10,  for  each  organized  district.  The  duties 
of  the  latter  are  to  examine  teachers  and  grant 
certificates,  to  visit  the  schools  in  their  respective 
counties  once  during  each  session,  and  each  to 
make  an  annual  report  to  the  state  superintend- 
ent. No  one  is  eligible  to  the  position  of  county 
superintendent  who  cannot  obtain  from  the  state 
superintendent  a  lirst-grade  certificate.  In  each 
district,  there  is  a  director,  a  treasurer,  and  a 
clerk  elected  for  three  years.  'I  heir  duties  are 
the  same  as  those  of  such  officers  in  other  states, 
and  relate  to.the  special  and  immediate  wants  of 
the  schools  under  their  charge.  Independent 
districts  may  also  be  organized  in  any  city,  town, 
township,  or  village.  In  such  cases,  the  govern- 
nieiit  ot  these  districts  is  intrusted  to  a  board  of 
six  directors,  who  perform  the  duties  usually 
b,  longing  to  the  officers  of  school-districts.  '1  hey 
also  appoint  three  school  examiners  for  the 
independent  district. who  examine  applicants  for 
the  position  of  teacher.     'I  he  school  age  is  from 

5  to  '1 1   years. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school  districts,  in  ls7.">.  was  3,362  ;  the  number 
of  school-houses,  2,975 ;  the  number  of  winter 
schools.  2,682;  of  summer  schools.  2,643.  The 
number  of  graded  schools  reported  in  that  year 
was  222.  The  receipts  for  the  support  of  the 
schools,  were  derived  from  the  following  sources: 

Balance  from  previous  war  .  .$23]  ,089.98 

Special  tax  collected.. 669,427.60 

Apportioned  by  conn ty  auditor  ,v  1  ,v:'.7.17 

Sale  ofbonds.. " 48,870.51 

<  Ither  sources R4,*?66.34 

Total. ...  .T"  ~" $1,576,081.60 

Th<'  expenditures  were  as  follows: 

For  teachers'  wages $702,662.66 

Furnishing  and  supplies 57,56 

1!(  pairing  honses  and  grounds    64,206.98 
Purchasing  sites  and  building 

houses 187,667.74 

Renl  of  sites  and  renins 3,158.64 

Payment  of  distiict  bonds....   151,567.79 

For  ether  purposes 132.796.30 

Total -  $1,289,629.01 

The    other    important     items    of     the    school 
statistics,  for  1875,  are  the  following  : 

Pupil-  enrolled  107,044 

Average  attendance  in  summer 32,660 

••  winter 38,1 

"  "  mean,  for  the  year 35,646 

Number  of  teachers  in  ungraded  scl Is: 

winter,    male-  1,262 

females  .  .  ..1.147 

Total....  2,399 

summer,  male- 

females  . . .  l.'.Mti 

Total....  2,301 


MINNESOTA 


583 


Number  ol  teachers  in  graded  schools: 

males 120 

females  ....    444 

Total...!  6(J4 

Number  of  different  teachers  employed: 

males 1,372 

females 1,591 

Total 2,963 


Normal  Instruction. — The  normal  schools  of 
the  state  are  three  in  number,  located  at  Winona, 
Mankato,  and  St.  Cloud.  In  that  at  Winona, 
the  course  of  study  embraces  the  English  lan- 
guage, mathematics,  physical  and  natural  sciences, 
political  economy,  vocal  music,  and  the  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching.  The  number  of  pupils 
enrolled  in  the  normal  department  was  (in  1875), 
males,  75;  females.  220.  The  number  enrolled 
in  the  model  classes  was,  males.  105;  females,  93; 
total  enrollment,  499;  the  number  in  actual 
Attendance  in  the  normal  department,  220.  The 
faculty  consists  of  a  principal  and  ten  assistants. 
The  class  of  graduates  of  May,  1875,  numbered 
18;  the  whole  number  of  graduates,  since  its 
organization,  was  227. — The  second  state  normal 
school  is  at  Mankato.  It  is  divided  into  a  nor- 
mal and  a  model  department,  and  has  a  faculty 
of  one  principal  and  five  professors  or  assistants. 
Both  sexes  are  admitted.  Its  course  of  study  is 
similar  to  that  pursued  in  the  normal  school  at 
"Winona.  The  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  in  1875, 
was,  in  the  normal  department,  males,  03  ;  fe- 
males, 150;  in  the  model  department,  males,  30; 
females,  Hi.  The  average  attendance  in  the  nor- 
mal department  was  59  ;  in  the  model  depart- 
ment, 20.  There  were  11  graduates  during  the 
year. — The  normal  school  at  St.  Cloud  is  the 
youngest  of  the  three  state  institutions,  having 
been  established  in  18IJ9.  Its  organization  and 
■course  of  study  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  two 
oiler  schools  at  Mankato  and  Winona.  It  is  open 
to  both  sexes,  and  has  a  faculty  consisting  of  a 
principal  and  six  instructors.  The  enrollment  was 
as  follows:  in  the  normal  department,  males,  50; 
females,  121;  in  the  model  department,  males,  1(5; 
females,  32  ;  average  number  in  the  normal  de- 
partment, males,  28 ;  females,  64 ;  average  in 
model  department,  males,  10;  females,  1 5.  In 
addition  to  the  privileges  afforde  1  by  these  three 
institutions,  special  instruction,  to  those  desiring 
to  teach  in  the  public  schools,  is  given  in  several 
of  the  high  schools  of  the  state.  A  large  number 
of  teachers  of  both  sexes  is  supplied  annually 
from  this  source.  —  Teachers'  institutes  are  con- 
vene 1  by  the  sup  ■rintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, and  are  presided  over  by  the  superintendent 
•of  the  county  in  which  they  are  held.  The  effort 
made  by  the  normal  board  to  induce  teachers 
and  pupils  in  the  normal  schools  to  attend  the 
annual  institutes,  and  take  part  in  the  proceed- 
ings, has  been  successful.  Eleven  institutes  were 
convened  in  1875,  the  exercises  in  which  were 
•conducted  largely  by  the  teachers  and  pupils  of 
the  schools  referred  to;  and  the  increased  interest 
manifested,  and  the  good  feeling  produced  by 

bringing  together  the  county  teachers  and  those 
of  the  normal  schools,  are  thought  to  be  full  of 
jproniisc. 


Secondary  Instruction. — The  number  of  high 
schools  in  the  state  is  not  reported.  'I  hey 
are  confined  principally  to  the  cities  and  large 
towns,  many  of  the  222  graded  schools  having 
high-school  courses  attached.  Recommendations 
have  been  made  that  the  high  schools  be  pro- 
vided with  a  uniform  course  of  study  so  as  to 
constitute  them  stepping-stones  to  the  state 
university,  as  in  some  oth<  r  states;  but  decided 
action  in  this  regard  has  not  yet  been  taken. 
.Many  private  schools  exist  in  various  parts  of 
the  state,  which  were  reported,  in  1875,  as  em- 
ploying I  15  prof essors  and  teachers,  and  afford- 
ing instruction  to  5.447  pupils.  The  Baldwin 
School,  the  preparatory  department  of  Macalister 
College,  was  incorporated  in  1853.  Its  curric- 
ulum is  reported  as  substantially  the  same  as 
that  of  Phillips  Academy,  in  Massachusetts.  The 
St.  Croix  Valley  Academy,  at  Afton,  received 
its  charter  in  1867  ;  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  first 
regularly  incorporated  academy  in  the  state.  This 
institution  has  fitted  a  large  number  of  teachers, 
who  are  satisfactorily  employed  in  the  district 
schools.  Among  the  most  important  private  in- 
stitutions for  secondary  instruction,  are  Taylor's 
Select  Graded  School,  at  St.  Paul,  organized  in 
1  < i T  1  ;  the  Minneapolis  Business  College,  and  the 
St.  Paul  Business  College,  the  latter  established 
in  1865,  said  to  be  the  oldest  and  the  largest  in- 
stitution of  the  kind  in  this  part  of  the  North- 
west. The  number  of  teachers,  in  1875,  was  6  ; 
lecturers,  3  ;  students.  209. 

Denomini  lit, mil  and  Parochial  Schools. — The 
chief  institutions  of  this  character,  according  to 
the  report  of  lb75,  are  the  Schools  of  the  Fpis- 
<  opal  <  hurch,  at  Faribault,  including  Shattuck 
School,  a  collegiate  and  business  school  for  boys, 
which  has  a  military  organization,  under  the 
care  of  an  experienced  officer  of  the  U.  S.  Army; 
and  St.  Mary's  Hall,  now  in  its  eleventh  year, 
established  to  provide  a  Christian  home  for  young 
ladies,  with  opportunities  for  the  highest  mental 
culture.  The  Stabury  Divinity  College  is  con- 
nected with  this  group  of  institutions  ;  also  a 
cathedral,  which  cost  $50,000,  in  which  the  stu- 
dents meet  for  public  worship.  Besides  these, 
there  is  AVesleyan  Seminary,  at  Wasioja,  under 
the  control  of  the  Minnesota  conference  of  the 
Wesleyan  Methodists,  which  in  1875,  had  98 
students  ;  and  St.  John's  Seminary,  near  St. 
Joseph,  Stearns  Co.,  which  is  conducted  by  the 
Benedictine  Fathers,  and  provides  five  courses  of 
study:  an  elementary,  a  scientific,  a  commercial,  a 
a  classical,  and  an  ecclesiastical  course.  (See  below.) 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  University  of 
Minnesota  (q.  v.),  at  Minneapolis,  is  the  only 
institution  of  this  grade  controlled  by  the  state. 
The  following  table  includes  all  the  institutions 
for  superior  instruction  : 


NAME 


Location 


(ail.  t<ui  College Northfleld 

Hamlin^  University lied  Wing 

Macalister  CoUege Minneapolis 

St.  Jo] m's  Seminary St.  Joseph 

t"ni\  ersity  of  Minnesota. . ,  Minneapolis 


When 

found- 
ed 


Denomi- 
nation 

Cong. 
M.  Epis. 
Presb. 
E.  C. 


1866 
1854 

ls?i 
1857 
1870    Kou-sect. 


584      MINNESOTA   UNIVERSITY 


MISSISSIPPI 


Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — The 
Seabuiy  Divinity  College,  Episcopalian,  ami  St. 
John's  Seminary.  Roman  Catholic,  already  re- 
ferred to  as  institutions  for  superior  instruction, 
have  full  courses  in  theology  :  and  besides  these, 
(here  is  Augsburg  Seminary,  at  Minneapolis, 
under  Evangelical  Lutheran  control.  Scientific 
instruction,  in  several  grades  and  departments,  is 
affonle.1  by  the  State  University  (q.  v.). 

Special  Instruction. — The  Minnesota  Institu- 
tion for  tin-  Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
and  the  Blind,  located  at  Faribault,  was  opened 
in  1st;.'!,  for  residents  of  the  state,  between  till- 
ages of  10  and  25  years.  The  course  of  study 
embraces  all  the  ordinary  branches,  with  the 
special  teaching  of  industrial  pursuits.  During 
the  year  1875,  there  were  L09  deaf-mutes  and  2L 
blind  pupils  in  the  institution. 

The  only  educational  journal  published  in  the 
state  was  The  Minnesota  Teacher  and  Journal  of 
Educalion,vrhich,ia  June,  I  875,  was  consolidated 
with  The  Chicago  Teacher  scad  published  at  Chi- 
cago, un  ler  the  title  of  The  Western  Journal  of 
Education. 

MINNESOTA,  University  of,  at  Min- 
neapolis, Minn.,  was  established  upon  grants 
of  land  by  Congress  for  the  endowment  of  a 
university  and  of  a  college  of  agriculture  and 
the  mechanic  arts,  amounting,  in  all,  to  202,000 
acres.  The  firsl  ac1  for  its  organization  was 
passed  by  the  territorial  legislature  in  L851. 
The  present  charter  was  granted  in  L868,  and 
amended  in  1*72.  A  preparatory  school  was 
opened  in  L867;  and.  in  L869,  the  firsl  college 
class  was  organized.  1  fader  the  organic  law,  the 
board  of  regents  are  authorized  to  establish  anj 
desired  number  of  departments  or  colleges,  the 
following,  however,  being  specified  :  "A  depart- 
ment of  elementary  instruction;  a  college  of 
science,  literature,  and  the  arts:  a  college  of 
agriculture:  a  college  of  mechanic  arts:  a  col- 
lege or  department  of  medicine;  a  college  or 
department  of  law."  The  colleges  of  law  and 
medicine  have  not  yet  been  organized.  The  de- 
partment of  elementary  instruction,  otherwise 
designated,  by  virtue  of  a  by-law  of  the  board  of 
regents,  the  "collegiate  department,"  is  intro 
ductory  to  the  permanent  colleges  of  the  uni- 
versity. It  includes,  together  with  the  work  of 
the  freshman  and  Bophomore  classes  of  the  or- 
dinary college  courses,  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment. The  colleges  provide  for  the  junior  and 
senior  years  .'111(1  tor  post-graduate  courses.  The 
first  preparatory  year  has  been  dropped  ;  and  a 
rule  has  been  adopted  excluding  from  the  re 
maining  preparatory  classes  all  st  udents  who  can 
obtain  the  same  instruction  in  their  local  high 
-ehools.  The  collegiate  department  offers  three 
courses  of  Btudy,  called  classical,  scientific,  and 
modern.    The  college  of  Bcience,  literature,  and 

the  arts  presents,  likeu  be.  three  COUTSeSOf  studv: 
a  COUTSe  m  arts:  a  course  in  science:  and  a  course 

in  literature.     The  college  of  agriculture  offers 

two  courses:  I  1  )  an  advanced  or  univer.dtN  course, 

based  on  the  scientific  course  of  the  collegiate 
department,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 


Agriculture;  (2)  an  elementary  course, coincid- 
ing, to  a  considerable  extent,  with  the  scientific 
course  of  the  collegiate  department.  The  college 
of  mechanic  arts  otters  three  advanced  or  uni- 
versity courses,  leading  to  appropriate  bacca- 
laureate degrees :  a  course  in  civil  engineering; 
!  a  course  in  mechanical  engineering;  a  course  in 
architecture.  These  courses  are  based  on  the 
scientific  course  of  the  collegiate  department. 
Tuition  is  tree,  the  institution  being  supported 
by  the  annual  income  of  its  endowment, amount' 

ing,  in  1875,  to  $1  t,000,  and  an  annual  appro- 
priation of  &19,000  from  the  state.  The  univer- 
sity grounds  comprise  about 25  acres,  well  wooded 
with  native  trees,  and  contain  two  fine  build- 
ings. There  is  also  an  experimental  farm.  The 
library  contains  nearly  10,000  bound  volumes. 
The  general  museum  comprises  the  collections  of 
the  geological  and  natural  history  survey  of  the 
j  state  (carried  on  by  the  professors  of  the  uni- 
versitj  I,  augmented  by  purchases  and  donations. 

The  chemical  and  physical  apparatus  is  valuable. 
Both  sexes  are  admitted.  In  1875     6,  there  were 

1(1  instructors  and  267  students  (196  males,  and 
71  females),  of  whom  118  were  of  the  college 
grade;  111.  preparatory;  and  .'!'.».  special  William 
\V.  Folwell,  M.A..  has  been  the  president  of  the 
universitj  since  its  organization. 

MISCHIEVOUSNESS,  as  applied  to  the 
disposition  of  a  child,  or  school  pupil,  is  the  oc- 
casional transgression  of  an  established  rule  in  a 
playful  spirit,  but  without  a  malicious  intention. 
This  disposition  is  usually  the  result  of  the  union 
of  humor,  or  love  of  fun.  with  sound  bodily 
health.  The  exuberance  of  Bpirits  thus  produced 
generally  finds  vent  in  actions  which  are  denom- 
inated mischievous.  This  spirit  is  bo  widely 
different  from  the  willful  breaking  of  rules  with 

an  evil  intent,  that  the  easy  Suppression  of  a  con- 
tinued exhibition  of  it  rests  entirely  with  the 
teacher;  the  good  nature  with  which  the  mis- 
chievous act  is  accompanied  generally  causing  the 
perpetrator  to  desisl  on  a  slight  warning.  To 
bring  the  mischievous  spirit  under  speedy  con- 
trol, two  qualities  only  are  necessary  in  the 
teacher:  quick  discernment  of  its  real  nature, 
and  tact  in  collecting  it.  The  want  of  these 
sometimes  leads  to  needless  irritation  on  both 
sides,  and  may  end   disastrously  to  the   teacher's 

influence,  and,  through  that,  to  the  discipline  ol 

the    school.      It',    on    the    other    hand,    the    good 

humor  of  the  transgressor  is  met  by  a  similar 
feeling  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  the  task  of 

correction  is  usually  easj  .  and  causes  no  offense  : 
while,  in  the  end.  it  secures  a  respecl  till  obedience 

on  the  part  of  the  pupil.     If.  however,  the  mi 
chievous disposition  is  not  corrected  in  this  way, 
it   in a\   lead  to  vicious  habits,  which  will  tend  to 

undermine,  or  permanently  deprave  the  moral 
character. 

MISSISSIPPI,  one  i if  the  southern  states 
of  the  American  Union,  formed  at  first  a  part  of 
the  Mississippi  Territory,  which  was  organized 

by  act  of  Congress.  April  7..  1798,  and  included 
nearly  all  the  territory  now  comprised  within 
the  siates  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama.  This  wits 


MISSISSIPPI 


585 


enlarged  by  successive  additions,  in  1802  and 
L812;  and,  in  lsiT.  AJabama  Territory  was 
formed  from  the  eastern  portion  of  it.  and  in 
the  same  year  Mississippi  was  admitted  into  the 

Onion  as  a  state.  Its  area  is  47,156  sq.  m.; 
and  its  population,  in  1870,  was  827,922,  of 
whom  382,896  were  whites;  444,201,  colored 
persons;  809,  Indians;  and  I 6,  Chinese. 

Educational  History. — The  constitution  of 
the  stair,  at  the  time  of  its  admission  into  the 
Union, recognized  the  importance  of  encouraging 
education  as  the  means  of  promoting  "liberty 
and  the  happiness  of  mankind;"  but  no  effective 
or  properly  organized  system  of  public  schools 
was  established  in  the  state.  In  Is  UK  the  census 
returns  showed  that  there  were  382  common 
and  primary  schools,  with  8,263  pupils,  and  VI 
academies,  with  2,553  students.  There  were 
also  several  colleges  in  the  state,  having,  in  the 
aggregate,  250  students.  In  1850.  the  number 
oxpublic  schools  had  increased,  to  762  :  and  the 
number  of  academics,  to  ft!9.  In  18G0,  there 
were  reported  1 .1 1 6  public  schools,  having  3 < > , ; » 7 « » 
pupils,  and  an  income  of  $385,679.  'The  number 
of  academics  and  other  schools  was  169,  with 
7.97  i  pupils;  and  there  were  13  colleges,  with 
856  students.  The  state  constitution  of  1 
recognized  the  need  of  provi  ling  the  means  of 
popular  education,  and  hence  made  it  the  duty  of 
the  legislature  to  establish  "a  uniform  system  of 
free  public  schools  by  taxation,  or  otherwise,  for 
all  coil  Iren  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21  yeas." 
and  also,  as  soon  as  practicable,  "to  establish 
schools  of  a  higher  grade."'  The  same  constitu- 
tion also  required  the  election  of  a  "superintend- 
ent of  public  education."  to  hold  office  for  four 
years,  and  also  that  there  should  be  a  "  board  of 
education,"  consisting  of  the  secretary  of  state,  the 
attorney-general,  and  the  state  superintendent; 
and  that  there  should  be  a  school  superintendent 
in  each  county,  and  that  school  should  be  kept 
in  each  district  for  at  least  four  months  in  each 
year.  It  also  provided  for  a  school  fund  from 
the  proceeds  of  lands  belonging  to  the  state, 
granted  by  the  United  States,  and  the  lands 
known  as  swamp  lands,  and  authorized  a  poll- 
tax  not  exceeding  S'2  a  head,  in  aid  of  the  school 
fund.  It  prescribed  the  establishment  of  an 
agricultural  college,  and  that  "  no  religious  sect 
is  ever  to  control  any  part  of  the  school  or  uni- 
versity funds  of  the  state".  In  pursuance  of 
these  constitutional  requirements,  the  legislature. 
at  its  session  of  June.  1870,  passed  a  school  law, 
organizing  the  present  school  system,  except  as 
amended  in  some  particulars  by  the  revised  code 
of  1871. — The  first  state  superintendent  under 
this  law  was  II.  R.  Pease,  who  served  till  1874; 
hi-  sii ecessors  being T.  YV.  <  'ardozo,  from  1874  to 
1876;  T.  S.  Gathright,  from  dan.  to  Sept..  1876; 
and  Rev.  Jos.  Bardwell,  now  in  office  (1876). 

School  System. — The  general  supervision  and 
control  of  the  public  schools  of  the  state  are 
committed  to  a  state  board  of  education,  consist- 
ing of  the  secretary  of  state,  the  attorney-gen- 
eral, and  the  superindendent  of  public  education. 
This  board  has  charge  of  all  property  and  funds 


devoted  to  school  purposes,  the  income  of 
which  they  pay  to  the  local  authorities.  'I'hey 
make  an  annual  report  to  the  superintendent  of 
public  education,  which  is  incorporated  in  his 
report  to  the  legislature.  The  immediate  super- 
vision and  control  of  the  schools  are  entrusted 
to  the  superintendent  of  public  education,  who 
is  elected  every  four  years.  There  is.  in  each 
county,  a  county  superintendent,  appointed  by 
the  hoard  of  education,  and  confirmed  by  the 
senate,  for  two  years.  The  duties  of  these  officers 
are  .similar  to  those  of  county  superintendents 
in  other  states.  Each  county  <•<  institutes  a  school- 
district,  which  is  governed  by  a  board  of  school 
directors,  elected  by  the  parents  or  guardians  of 
the  children  attending  school.  The  number  of! 
schools  in  each  county  must  be  one  or  more, 
and  the  school  session  not  less  than  four  months. 
Each  city  of  3.000  inhabitants,  also,  forms  a 
school-district,  governed,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
counties,  by  six  school  directors  chosen  by  the 
resident  voters.  Each  county  is  required  to 
furnish  a  free  scholarship  to  each  of  the  uni- 
versities of  the  state'  :  and  to  each  normal  school, 
as  many  students  as  it  has  representatives  in  the 
lower  house  of  the  legislature.  It  is  provided  by 
law  that  "  the  Bible  shall  not  be  excluded  from 
the  schools  of  the  state".  The  school  age  is  from 
5  to  21  years. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
schools,  in  1875,  was  3,434, — first  grade,  764; 
second  grade.  2,670  ;  high  schools,  8;  private 
schools,  606.  The  support  of  the  schools  was 
deri veil  from  the  following  sources: 

State    four-mill  tax $489,443.8? 

(  Sty  and  county  taxes 354,8  i  2.40 

(  Ihickasaw  fund  63,466.63 

Collected  on  loans  of  school  funds 20,000.00 

Sale  and  rental  of  school  lands 50,000. no 

Aid  from  Peahod y  Fund 9,500.00 

Total $yb7,'282.fctf 

Expenditures: 

For  teachers'  salaries $857,950.44 

Salaries  of  county  superintendents 48,650.00 

Miscellaneous  expenditures 80,000.00 

Total    $986,600.4  t 

The  other  items  of  school  statistics  are  the 
following: 

Number  of  children  of  school  age: 

Whites, 141,514 

Colored, 176,945 

Total 318,459 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 168,217 

Average  monthly  enrollment 13U, :;;;() 

Average  daily  attendance 106,894 

Number  of  teachers 4.1.'  8 

Average  monthly  wages  of  teachers $55.47 

Normal  Instruction. — There  are  two  normal 
schools  in  the  state,  one  at  Holly  Springs,  the 
other  at  Tougaloo.  The  first  was  opened  in 
1  870,  and  three  years  after,  graduated  3  pupils, 
The  limited  appropriation  made  for  its  support, 
has  impaired  its  efficiency  by  rendering  it  diffi- 
cult to  secure  the  sendees  of  competent  persons 
as  instructors.  The  normal  school  at  Tougaloo- 
is  a  part  of  the  Tougaloo  University,  to  which 
the  American  Missionary  Association  contributed 
gl 5,000.  and  the  state  SI  0,1)00.  The  faculty  of 
the  school  consists  of  a  principal,  preceptress, 


586      MISSISSIPPI   UNIVERSITY 


MISSOURI 


and  five  teachers.  Manual  labor  is  a  feature  of 
the  curriculum,  each  student  being  required  to 

occupy  himself  one  hour  daily  in  this  way  In- 
struction is  given  principally  in  the  English 
branches  and  mathematics.  Facilities  are  also 
afforded  for  the  study  of  vocal  and  instrumental 
music.  There  is  a  reference  library  of  1.000 
volumes,  and  philosophical  apparatus. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  reports  received 
from  high  schools  and  academies  have  been  so 
ivw  in  number  as  to  give  very  little  ground  on 
which  to  base  an  estimate  of  the  work  that  is 
being  done  in  this  grade  of  instruction. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  chief  institu- 
tions of  this  grade  are  enumerated  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 


When 

;ious 

NAME 

Location 

found- 

denomina- 

ed 

u   ii 

Mississippi  College, . . 

Clinton 

1830 

Bap. 

Pass  i  Iuim  Lan  i 

lJass  Christian 

1866 

K.  C. 

Holly  Springs 

1868 

Meth. 

'i  ings  I-"  1    ii\  ersity.. 

Tougaloo 

L869 

i  nil  in. 

t  ni\ ,  of  Mississippi . . 

Oxford 

1814 

Non-SQct. 

The  report,  for  1874,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education  mentions  7  colleges  for  the  superior 
instruction  of  women,  of  which  <i  were  author- 
ized 1  •  confer  degrees.  These  colleges  are  located 
at  Brookhaven  (Whitworth),  Clinton  (Central 
Institute),  Columbus  (Female  Institute),  Holly 
Springs  (Franklin),  Meridian,  Oxford  (Uni 
ami  Pontotoc  (( 'hickasaw). 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. 
Alcorn  University,  at  Rodney,  was  ereated  by 
at  ut'  the  legislature  in  1*71,  and  occupies  the 
site  of  the  institution  formerly  known  as  Oak- 
land College,  the  oldest  academic  institution  in 
the  state.  To  the  university  was  granted  three- 
fifths  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  agricult- 
ural college  land-scrip,  amounting  to  $113,400, 
besides  a  legislative  appropriation  of  $50,000 
for  ten  years.  It  is  open  to  students  of  either 
trace.  It  has  an  agricultural  department,  with 
a  farm  of  27.")  acres.  Its  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus  is  very  elaborate  and  com- 
plete. Means  for  scientific  instruction  is  also 
afforded  by  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts,  a  department  oi  the  I  iiiveraity  of 
Mississippi.  This  institution  has  also  a  law  de- 
partment ;  and  there  is  a  theological  class  in 
raloo  Univer  i  j . 

Special  Instruction.     The  Mississippi  Institute 
for  the  Blind,  at  Jackson,  is  the  only  institution 

this charac  er  in  tha  state.    It  was  founded  in 
1852,  and  is  supported  by  state  appropriations. 

MISSISSIPPI,  University  of,  at  Oxford, 
Miss.,  was  chartered  in  L844  and  opened  in  L848, 
receiving  the  proceeds  of  the  grant  of  land  by 
Congress  to  the  state  for  the  support  of  a  semi- 
nary of  learning.  In  lS71,it  was  awarded  by 
the  legislature  two-fifths  of  the  congressional 
land  -rant  for  the  establishment  of  a  college  of 
iculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  The  insti- 
tution possesses  complete  chemical,  philosophical, 
and  astronomical  apparatus;  a  cabinet  of  shells 
and  mineralogica]  specimens;  collections  of  fos- 


sils, soils,  and  other  geological  apparatus ;  be- 
sides instruments  to  illustrate  mathematics 
and  engineering,  and  a  large  farm.  The  library 
contains  more  than  6,000  volumes.  The  in- 
vested resources  of  the  university  do  not  ex- 
ceed §200,0(10.  The  income,  in  1876,  from  en- 
dowment  and  state  appropriations  was  $30,000. 
The  plan  of  instruction  embraces  three  general 
departments;  namely,  (1)  preparatory  educa-^ 
i  it  >ii  (including  a  commercial  course);  (2)  sci- 
ence, literature,  and  the  arts;  (3)  professional 
education.  The  second  department  includes 
five  distinct  courses  of  study,  three  of  which 
are  undergraduate  parallel  courses,  two  being 
post  -  graduate  courses.  The  undergraduate 
courses  are  known  as  (1)  The  Course  for 
Bachelor  of  Arts  (4  yrs.)  ;  (2)  The  Course 
for  Bachelor  of  Science  (4  yrs.);  (3)  The 
Course  for  Bachelor  of  Philosophy  (3  yrs.).  A 
student  has  free  choice  of  these  coursi  8,  but  the 
studies  prescribed  for  each  course  are  all  com- 
pulsory for  that  course.  'I  he  postgraduate 
courses  are  fur  the  degrees  of  Master  of  Arts  and 
Doctor  of  Philosophy.  Under  the  third  general 
department  are  embraced  three  professional 
schools;  namely.  (1)  law:  (2)  medicine  and 
.surgery  (not  yet  organized]  ;  (3)  agriculture 
and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  which  the  regular 
course  is  for  four  years,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
belor  ui  Scientific  Agriculture  (B.  S.  A.). 
The  cosl  of  tuition  in  the  first  general  depart- 
ments is  $25  a  year;  iii  the  law  school,  §50  a 
year.  In  L875-  6,  there  were  13  instructors 
and  131  students.  The  presiding  officers  have 
been  as  Follows:  George  F.  Bolmes,  LL.  D. 
(president),  1848 — 9;  the  Rev.  Augustus  B. 
Longstreet,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  (president),  1849— 56 ; 
the  Rev.  Frederick  A.  P.Barnard,  D.  D.,  LL.D., 
L856 — 9  as  president,  and  1859 — Gl  as  chan- 
cellor; the  Rev.  John  N.  WaddeLD.D.,  LL.D., 
(chancellor)  L86£  71  ;  and  Gen.  Alexander  P. 
Stewart, the  present  chancellor  (1876), appointed 
in  1874. 

MISSISSIPPI  COLLEGE,  at  Clinton, 
Miss.,  unilcr  Baptist  control,  was  chartered  in 
1830.    It  has  libraries  containing  3,000  volumes, 

and  extensive  apparatus  and  cabinets.  Its  pro- 
ductive funds  amount  to  $50,000.  The  regular 
tuition  lee  is  $25  a  Mar.  The  college  consists 
uta  preparatory  department,  and  the  following 
six  schools:  (1)  mental  and  moral  science, 
(2)  Greek, (3)  Latin, (4)  mathematics, (5) natural 

sciences,  and  (6)  Knglish.  Any  student  complet- 
ing the   six   schools    is  entitled  to  the  degree  of 

A.  15. ;  those  completing  the  schools  of  moral 

science,   mathematics,   natural   sciences,  and   the 

English,  to  the  degree  of  B.  S.;  those  complet- 
ing the  Bchools  of  mural  science,  Greek,  Latin, 
and  English,  to  the  degree  of  B.L.  In  L873-  t. 
there  were  7  instructors  and  1  •'>.'»  students.  The 
Rev.  W.  S.  Webb,  A.  M.,is  the  president  (1876). 

MISSOURI,  one  of  the  western  states  of  the 

American  Union,  was  originally  a  part  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase  of  L803,  and  on  the  admis- 
sii f  the  state  of  Louisiana,  in  1812,  formed 

part  of  the  MissOUri  Territory.    It  was  admitted 


MISSOURI 


587 


into  the  Union  as  a  state,  with  its  present  limits, 
in  1821.  Its  area  is  65,350  Bq.  in. :  and  its  popu- 
lation, in  1870, was  l,721,295,of  whom  1,603,146 
were  whites,  1  L8,071  colored  persons,  75  Indians, 
and  3  Chinese. 

Educational  History.  —  This  subject  will  be 
considered  under  three  heads:  (I)  The  establish- 
ing of  schools;  (II)  The  mode  of  maintaining 
them;  (III)  The  mode  of  supervising  them. 

I.  The  first  recorded  school  established  in  the 
present  state  of  Missouri,  was  an  academy  in  the 
town  of  Genevieve.  There  are  no  means  of 
knowing  when  it  was  established;  hut.  in  1808, 
it  was  incorporated  under  a  hoard  of  trustees, 
.  the  act  of  incorporation  requiring, "that  an  insti- 
tution for  the  education  of  females  shall  he  estab- 
lished by  the  trustees  as  soon  as  the  funds  of  the 
academy  will  admit  of  it ;  and  that  the  trustees 
shall  cause,  at  all  times,  the  French  and  English 
languages  to  be  taught  in  the  said  academy."  In 
1812,  Congress,  in  erecting  the  territory  of  Mis- 
souri, made  general  provision  for  the  cause  of 
e  lucation,  which  took  practical  shape  shortly 
after  in  special  grants  of  town  lots  and  other 
lands  to  specially  named  communities,  or  school 
corporations;  but  the  territorial  government 
niah' no  effort  to  establish  a  general  system  of 
public  schools.  It  contented  itself  with  extend- 
ing aii I,  encouragement,  and  protection  to  all 
communities  showing  enterprise  in  this  respect; 
but  further  than  this  it  could  not  prudently  go, 
owing  to  the  numerical  weakness  of  the  popula- 
tion and  its  widely  scattered  character.  An  act 
was  approved  January  22.,  1817,  establishing  "a 

^  lottery  for  the  benefit  of  Potosi  Academy."' which 
institution  consisted  of  two  houses,  built  and  in 
part  furnished  by  the  inhabitants  of  Washington 
county  at  Mine  a  Burton.  On  the  30th  of  Janu- 
ary, in  the  same  year,  an  act  to  incorporate 
trustees  of  this  academy  was  approved.  The 
board  was  to  consist  of  seven  members.  Two 
classes — junior  and  senior — -were  established, 
the  instruction  given  in  the  former  being  prepar- 
atory, that  in  the  latter,  "the  English  language, 
with  such  other  languages  and  sciences  as  were 
usually  taught  in  seminaries  of  learning."  The 
name  of  the  school  had  previously  been  Mine  a 
Burton  Academy.  This  is  the  first  school  men- 
tion.; 1  in  the  public  records  between  1812  and 
1821).  On  the  same  day  (January  30.,  1817),  an 
act  was  approved  authorizing  the  commissioners 
of  public  buildings,  in  the  town  of  Jackson,  Cape 
Girardeau  Co.,  to  convey  to  five  persons, 
named  in  the  act,  four  acres  of  land  on  which  to 
erect  a  school-house.  They  were  permitted  to 
dispose  of  a  portion  of  this  land,  for  the  purpose 
of  creating  a  building  fund.  ( >n  the  same  day,  an 
act  to  incorporate  a  board  of  trustees  for  the 
superintendence  of  schools  in  the  town  (now  city) 
of  St.  Louis  was  approved.  The  board  was  lim- 
ited to  thirteen  members, and  when  incorporated, 
consisted  of  William  ('lark,  William  C.  Omit, 
Thomas  II.  Benton,  Bernard  Pratte,  Auguste 
.Chouteau,  Alexander  McNair,  and  John  I'. 
Cabanne — names  ever  after  prominent  in,  and 
■intimately  associated  with,  the  development  and  i 


history  of  St.  I.ouis  and   the   state.     They  were 
authorized  to  take  and  hold  all  real  and  personal 

property  given  to  the  schools  by  individuals  or 
Congress,  and  to  dispose  of  the  same  to  advan- 
tage, by  lease  or  sale.  The  establishment  of  these 
schools  embraces  the  whole  educational  history 
of  the  eight  years  of  territorial  existence,  so  far 
as  is  indicated  by  the  public  records.  Five  years 
elapsed,  after  the  formation  of  the  state  govern- 
ment, before  any  effort  was  made  to  establish  a 
general  and  uniform  system  of  public  schools. 
Puring  this  period,  the  three  academies  already 
mentioned  were  re  incorporated,  with  slighl 
modifications  and  improvements  of  the  acts  of 
incorporation,  and  several  new  ones  were  estab- 
lished. This  closed  the  first  period  of  the  Mate's 
educational  history;  since,  thereafter,  the  legis- 
lature pursued  the  policy  of  encouraging  edu- 
cation by  the  establishment  of  a  general  system, 
and  by  the  enactment  of  general  instead  of  spe- 
cial laws.  In  the  act  of  Congress.  March,  1820, 
authorizing  the  people  of  Missouri  Territory  to 
form  a  constitution  and  state  government,  prop- 
ositions were  offered  providing  for  the  establish- 
ment and  support  of  common  schools,  which 
were  accepted  by  the  state  and  incorporated  into 
the  constitution,  the  first  section  of  the  sixth 
article  of  which  reads,  "Schools  and  the  means 
of  education  shall  forever  be  encouraged  in  this 
state;  and  the  general  assembly  shall  take  meas- 
ures to  preserve  from  waste  or  damage  such  lands 
as  have  been,  or  hereafter  maybe,  granted  by  the 
United  States,  for  the  use  of  schools  within  each 
township  in  the  state,  and  shall  apply  the  funds 
which  may  arise  from  such  lands  in  strict  con- 
formity to  the  object  of  the  grant;  one  school 
or  more  shall  be  established  in  each  township  as 
soon  as  practicable  and  necessary,  where  the  poor 
shall  be  taught  gratis."  Section  2d  of  the  same 
article  provided  that  the  assembly  should  take 
measures  for  the  improvement  of  such  land  as 
had  been  already,  or  might  be  thereafter,  granted 
by  the  United  States,  the  funds  accruing  from 
the  rent  or  lease  of  which,  together  with  all 
other  funds  given  for  the  same  purpose,  were  to 
constitute  a  permanent  fund  for  the  support  of 
"a  university  for  the  promotion  of  literature  and 
the  arts  anil  sciences."  The  state  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  upon  the  terms  of  this 
constitution;  and.  hence,  a  general  public-school 
system,  of  a  high  or  a  low  grade,  is  one  of  her 
permanent  institutions.  The  statutory  provisions 
in  relation  to  school  lands  and  public  education 
have  been  very  numerous,  being  suggested  from 
time  to  time  by  the  condition  of  the  rapidly 
growing  state,  and  by  the  needs  of  its  increas- 
ing population.  In  1820,  the  legislature  directed 
the  several  county  courts  to  appoint  five  commis- 
sioners of  school  lands,  to  exercise  a  general 
supervision  over  the  same,  to  rent  or  lease  them, 
and  to  invest  the  proceeds,  but  without  power  to 
sell.  In  1822,  the  act  of  1820  was  amended  so 
as  to  require  the  appointment  by  the  courts  of 
two  commissioners  in  each  township,  whose  duly 
it  should  be  to  erect  "a  sufficient  school-house  for 
the  benefit  of  education,"  whenever  the  funds 


588 


MISSOURI 


derived  from  the  renting  or  leasing  of  the  school 
lands  were  sufficient  to  justify  it.  In  1824,  an 
act  was  passed  by  which  ea<  h  township  was  con- 
stituted a  school-district,  and  a  board  of  five 
trustees  was  appointed  in  each,  who  were  em- 
powered to  "build  or  procure  school-houses,  and 
repair  the  same."  "to  appoinl  teachers  and  visit- 
ors of  schools,  and  to  make  rules  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  schools.'"  All  subsequent  legislation 
in  regard  to  tin'  common  schools  consists  of  modi- 
fications of  the  law  of  L82  1.  In  1835,  there  was 
a  general  revision  of  the  statutes.  Among  them 
was  a  revised  school  law,  reported  by  a  commit- 
tee of  three,  appointed  by  the  governor,  "to  form 
a  system  of  common  primary-school  education  as 
nearly  uniform  as  possible  throughout  the  State." 
By  this,  each  congressional  township  constituted 
a  school-district,  in  which  three  trustees  were 
elected  annually,  who  were  empowered  to  build 
school  houses,  employ  teachers,  anil  maintain 
schools  si*  months  in  the  year,  or  throughout 
the  year,  if  a  majority  of  the  patrons  petitioned 

therefor.  The  constitution  adopted  in  L865  con- 
tains still  further  provisions  for  the  establishment 
of  free  s  hools  for  all  persons  in  the  state  between 
the  ages  of  5  and  21,  and  permits  the  establish- 
ment of  separate  schools  lor  children  of  African 
descent,  requiring  the  distribution  of  all  public- 
school  moneys  (not  funds)  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  children,  without  regard  to  color.  Sec- 
tion 4.  of  the  state  constitution  requires  the  legis- 
lature to  establish  and  maintain  a  state  univer- 
sity with  departments  for  teaching  "agriculture 
ami  natural  science,"  as  soon  as  the  public-school 
fund  will  permit.  The  school  law  was  siill  further 
amended,  hut  not  materially,  in  L870,  and  again 
by  the  new  constitution,  adopted  in  convention, 
in   1ST;'). 

II.    The  earliest  record  of  measures  taken   tor 
tdie  maintenance  of  schools  in  Missouri  extends 

back  to  the  school  incorporated  in  St.  ( ieiievieve. 

in  L808.  The  first  means  employed  for  creating 
a  school  revenue  was  by  grants  of  land,  in  L812, 
already  referred  to.  In  L817,  the  income  of  the 
Mine  a  Burton  Academy  was  increased  by  the 
election  of  seven  trustees,  each  of  whom  was  re- 
quired  to    pay  SHI   as  a    necessary   qualification 

for  the  office,  and  by  a  fee  of  $5  previously  paid 
by  each  elector  voting  for  said  trustees.    When 

the  people  of  Missouri  applied,  in  I  820,  for  ad- 
mission into  the  Union,  Congress,  for  the  sake 
of  providing  for  the  establishment  of  schools. 

Bubmitted  the  following   proposition  :   "  that  the 

section  numbered  In'  in  every  township,  and 
when  such  section  has  Keen  sold  or  otherwise  dis- 
posed of ,  other  lands  equivalent  thereto,  and  as 
contiguous  as  may  be,  shall  be  granted  to  t  he  state 
for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants  of  such  township, 

for  the  use  of  schools";    that  "thirty-six  sections, 

or  one  entire  township,  which  shall  he  designated 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  together 

with  the  other  lands  heretofore  reserved  for  that 
purpose,  shall  he  reserved  tot  the  use  of  a  semi- 
nary of  learning,  and  rested  in  the  legislature  of 
siid  state.  ti>  he  appropriated  solely  to  the  use  of 
such  seminar}  bj  the  said  legislature."  This  prop- 


osition was  accepted,  and  embodied  in  the  state 
constitution;  and  the  same  year  five  commis- 
sioners were  appointed  to  nut  or  lease  the  school 
lands,  and  securely  invest  the  proceeds.  In  1824, 
similar  measures  were  adopted,  three  commis- 
sioners being  appointed  in  each  township.  They 
were  authorized  to  assume  control  of  and  manage 
the  school  lands  of  the  township,  to  "loan  mon- 
eys," and  "lease  real  estate."  They  could,  also, 
on  petition  of  two-thirds  of  the  householders, 
lew  and  collect  a  special  tax  for  the  maintenance 

of  the  schools,  or  of  those  Sending  pupils  to  them, 

when  the  public  funds  were  insufficient.  In  1831, 

an  act  was  passed  authorizing  the  sale  of  the 
saline  lands  given  hv  Congress  to  the  state.  In 
the  same  year,  the  sale  of  the  10th  section  WW 
directed  by  law.  by  an  agent  appointed  by  the 
county  court  of  each  county,  when  three-fourthg 
of  the  inhabitants  of  any  township  petitioned  for 
such  sale.  The  interest  of  the  money  thus  de- 
rived was  to  be  used  for  school  purposes.  The 
sale  of  the  "seminary  lands" — two  entire  town- 
ships—  was.  in  L 832,  directed  by  the  legislature 
for  not  less  than  $2  per  acre  It  is  estimated 
that  $400,000  was  lost  hv  this  sale  alone;  and 
that  the  losses  by  injudicious  sales  of  other  lands: 
belonging  to  the  state,  andby  insecure  investments 
of  the  proceeds,  have  amounted  to  a  sum  suili- 
cient  to  have  supported  the  public  schools  of  the 
state   forever,   exclusive   of    any    local    taxation. 

The  revised  school  law  of  L835  empowered  town- 
ship trustees  to  levy  a  s)  ecial  tax  for  the  purp  so 
of  keeping  the  schools 0]  en  as  long  as  a  majority 

of  the  patrons  desired,  whenever  two-thirds  of 
the  voters   of    the   school-districts  demanded   A. 

These  trustees,  also,  were  required  to  subscribe 
si  each  to  the  school  fund.  The  state  constitu- 
tion, adopted  in   L865,  established  a  permanent 

school  fund. and  provided  forthe  annual  distribu- 
tion of  the  income  of  the  same,  together  with  so 

much  of  the  annual  revenues  as  might  he  necessary 

to  maintain  free  schools  three  months  in  the  year. 
These  funds  were  to  he  invested  in  bonds  of  the 

United  States.  In  case  the  public-school  funds 
should  prove  insufficient  to  sustain  free  schools 
at  least   four  months  every  year,  power  is  given 

to  increase  the  school  revenue  by  local   taxation. 

The  genera]  assembly,  also,  was  required  to  re- 
duce all  property  in  the  state  held  tor  school 
purposes  into  the   public  school  fund,  and  in  the 

annual  distribution  to  equalize  apportionments 

by  a   consideration   of  the  amount  of  county  or 

i  its  funds  appropriated,1]  he  constitution,  adopted 
in  1876,  does  not  materially  alter  the  provisions 
of  that  of  1865;  like  that,  it  perpetuates  the 
public-school  fund,  setting  apart  annua  Is  25  per 
cent  of  the  state  revenue,  exclusive  of  the  in- 
terest and  sinkiti":  fund,  for  the  support  of  the 
schools.      It  places  in  the  county  school   fund  the 

net  proceeds  of  estrays,  tines,  forfeitures,  and 
penalties;  while  the  constitution  of  L865  placed 

this  in  the  state  school  fund.  All  moneys  paid 
for  exempt  ion  from  military  duty,  also,  are  placed 

in  the  county  fund.  The  article  on  Revenue  and 

Taxation  in  the  new  constitution  limits  taxation 
for  school  purposes  to  10  cents  on  the  S100,  uti- 


MISSOURI 


589 


loss  increased  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  tax-payers. 
By-such  vote,  it  may  be  increased,  In  cities  and 

towns,  to  SI ,  ami.  in  country  districts,  to  65  cents. 
For  building  purposes,  it  can  be  still  further  in- 
creased. 

The  permanent  public-school  funds  of  the  state 
arc  the  following  : 

Tim  v  te  Fund,  consisting  of  U.  S.Reg'd 
6  per  cent  bonds,  U.S.  (i  per  cent  coupon 
bonds,  Mo. 6 per  cent  coupon  bonds,  and 
Mo.  ■>  per  cent  certificates  of  indebted- 
ness (#900,000) $2,634,354.00 

Seminary  Fund  (University),  consisting 
of  V .  s.  Reg'd.  and  coupon  •',  per  cent 
bonds $108,700.00 

Tomiship  Funds $2,079,182.96 

County  Funds  (including  swamp  land)..  .$2,257,716.83 

Township  and  county  funds  under  the  control 
of  the  county  courts,  may  be  invested  in  state  or 
U.  S.  bonds,  or  loaned  upon  personal  and  real 
estate.  It  is  an  almost  invariable  custom  to  loan 
them.  The  proceeds,  like  the  proceeds  of  the  state 
fund,  and  25  percent  of  the  revenue,  are  annually 
distributed  to  the  districts  in  which  schools  were 
taught  the  previous  year  for  not  less  than  three 
months,  in  the  ratio  of  school  population. 

III.  For  many  years,  the  method  of  super- 
Vising  the  few  schools  and  academies  in  the  ter- 
ritory was  by  local  trustees,  specifically  named 
for  the  purpose, or  elected  by  the  people.  Their 
power,  also,  was  very  great,  comprehending  al- 
most all  that  is  now  divided  among  several 
grades  of  officers.  Thus,  the  board  appointed, 
in  1817,  to  supervise  the  schools  of  St.  Louis, 
was  authorized  not  only  to  establish  schools,  but 
to  take  and  hold  all  real  and  personal  property 
given  to  the  schools  by  individuals  cr  by  Con- 
gress, and  to  dispose  of  the  same  to  advantage  by 
lease  or  sale.  In  1820,  the  division  of  duties  first 
appears,  county  commissioners  being  then  ap- 
pointed to  manage  the  school  lands;  but,  in  1824, 
the  boards  of  trustees  are  again  required  to  as- 
sume control  of  the  school  lands,  in  addition  to 
their  other  duties,  among  which  duties  was  that 
of  appointing  visitors  to  the  schools.  These  visit- 
ors were  nine  in  number  in  each  district.  They 
were  required  to  visit  the  schools  once  in  three 
months,  to  examine  teachers,  and  to  issue  certifi- 
cates of  qualification,  without  which  no  one  was 
allowed  to  teach,  and  to  exercise  a  general  super- 
visory power.  In  1835,  the  revised  school  law 
placed  the  supervision  of  the  schools  in  the  hands 
of  three  trustees  annually  elected  for  the  purpose 
in  each  school-district,  who  reported  to  the 
county  courts,  the  latter  reporting  biennially  to 
the  secretary  of  state.  The  first  system  of  gener- 
al supervision  of  the  schools  was  inaugu- 
rated at  this  time,  the  law  constituting  the 
governor,  the  auditor,  the  treasurer,  and  the  at- 
torney-general, a  state  board  of  education.  In 
1853,  an  act  was  passed,  requiring  the  election 
of  a  state  superintendent.  The  constitution 
adopted  in  1865,  created  a  state  board  of  educa- 
tion, to  consist  of  the  secretary  of  state,  the  at- 
torney-general, and  the  superintendent  of  public 
schools,  the  latter  being  chairman  of  the  board 
and  eligible  for  four  years.     In  1874,  the  school 


law  was  again  changed,  the  general  supervision 
of  the  schools  remaining  with  the  state  board, 

and  the  immediate  supervision  with  district 
directors.  The  state  superintendents  have  been 
as  follows:  (1)  Peter  <i.  Glover  (of "Common 
Schools"),  elected  by  the  legislature  in  1839,  for 
two  years.  Alter  his  term  the  office  was  abol- 
ished, and  its  duties  devolved  on  the  secretary 
of  state.  In  1853,  the  office  was  re-established, 
and  (2)  John  \V.  I  lenry  (of  "Public  Instruction") 
was  appointed  by  the  governor  to  serve  until 
after  the  election,  in  1854,  when  (3)  E.  C.  Da- 
vis was  elected.  He  was  succeded  by  (4)  Wil- 
liam B.  Starke,  elected  in  1856,  and  re  elected  in 
1858  and  18(10.  From  December.  1 8(11 ,  to  March, 
1863,  the  duties  of  the  officii  were  discharged  by 
the  secretary  of  the  state,  who,  at  the  latter  date, 
became,  by  law,  superintendent,  ex  officio.  In 
I8li5,  the  office  was  restored,  and  (5)  Janus 
L.  Robinson  was  appointed  by  the  governor 
superintendent  of  public  schools.  The  .succeed- 
ing incumbents  have  been:  (6)  T.  A.  Parker, 
elected  in  1866  for  four  years  (office  then  consti- 
tutional) ;  (7)  Ira  Divoll.  elected  in  1870,  died  in 
1871  ;  (8)  John  Monteith,  appointed  to  fill  the 
vacancy  ;  and  (9)  Richard  I>.  Shannon,  elected 
in  November,  1874,  and  still  in  office  (1876). 

School  System. —  The  general  control  of  the 
educational  interests  of  the  state  is  lodged  with 
a  state  board  of  education,  which  consists  of  the 
secretary  of  state,  the  attorney-general,  and  the 
state  superintendent.  In  addition  to  a  super- 
visory power,  it  is  charged  with  the  duty  of 
investing  all  moneys  received  by  the  state  for 
educational  purposes.  The  state  superintendent 
is  elected  for  four  years,  and  is  chairman  of  the 
state  board.  He  has  general  jurisdiction  over 
the  whole  school  system,  with  power  to  compel 
all  school  officers  to  furnish  him  with  any  statis- 
tics or  information  respecting  their  trusts  he  may 
deem  proper.  In  addition  to  the  duties  usually 
performed  by  this  officer,  he  is  required  to  estab- 
lish colored  schools  whenever  the  proper  officers 
fail  to  do  so.  He  makes  an  annual  report  to  the 
legislature,  or  to  the  governor  when  the  legislature 
is  not  in  session.  County  commissioners — one 
in  each  county —  are  elected  biennially,  in  April. 
Their  duties  are  to  examine  teachers,  grant  certif- 
icates (graded,  limited  to  one  county,  and  valid 
for  one  or  two  years),  and  exercise  a  general 
supervision  over  the  schools  of  the  county.  Dis- 
trict directors,  three  in  number,  are  elected  for 
three  years,  one  being  chosen  annually.  They 
are  required  to  examine  into,  and  report  upon, 
the  condition  of  the  schools,  to  purchase  the  nec- 
essary apparatus  and  furniture,  to  employ  teach- 
ers, and  to  make  all  regulations  requisite  forthe 
proper  organization  and  management  of  the 
schools.  They  may  levy  a  tax,  when  neces- 
sary for  the  maintenance  of  the  schools,  at  a  rate 
not  exceeding  one  per  cent  of  the  taxable  proper- 
ty of  the  district,  for  teachers'  salaries  ;  and  not 
exceeding  the  same  rate,  for  buildings  and  inci- 
dental purposes  ;  but  no  tax  can  be  levied  for 
the  continuance  of  the  schools  for  more  than  four 
months  in  the  year,  except  by  a  majority  vote  of 


590 


MISSOURI 


the  district  at  the  annual  meeting.  The  school 
system  is  divided  into  departments  as  follows  : 
(1)  the  university,  supported  by  a  distinct  fund 
and  Legislative  appropriations;  (2)  normal  schools, 
supported  by  permanent  legislative  appropria- 
tions of  $10,000  each;  (3)  schoolsin  -cities,  towns, 
and  villages,''  under  the  general  law  of  1870  for 
their  organization.  These  schools  have  boards  of 
education,  witli  special  privileges, each  consisting 
of  six  members,  two  of  whom  are  elected  annual- 
ly in  September.  The  schools  must  be  taught  not 
less  than  '■'>",  nor  more  than  40,  weeks  each  year; 
(4)  schools  in  cities  having  special  school  char- 
ters, which  charters  confer  almost  unlimited 
powers  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  their  school 
interests;  (5)  general  district  public  schools ;  and 
(6)  colored  schools,  specially  provided  for;  those 
belonging  to  the  classes  marked  above  (3),  (4), 
(")),  and  (6)  being  supported  by  the  state  public- 
school  fund  and  local  taxation.  "  Central  schools" 
may  be  established  by  the  union  of  two  or  more 
districts  for  that  purpose.  These  are  graded 
schools  kept  for  six  months,  or  longer,  if  the  dis- 
tricts interested  so  vote.  They  are  controlled  by 
boards  —  composed  of  the  presidents  of  the 
boards  of  these  districts — and  by  the  districts 
themselves,  to  about    the   same   extent    that    the 

district  schools  are  managed  by  their  boards.  The 
tax  for  the  maintenance  of  the  colored  schools 
is  levied  on  the  taxable  property  of  the  townships 
in  which  the  schools  are  located.  To  these  schools, 
persons  over  21  years  of  age  are  admitted.  The 
school  month  consists  of  I  weeks  of  .">  days  each: 
and  the  school  day, of  (i  hours.  The  legal  school 
age  is  from  •">  to  21  years.  A  meeting  of  the  pres- 
idents of  the  various  boards  of  directors,  with  the 
county  commissioners,  is  held  at  every  county  seat 
once  in  t  years,  to  secure  uniformity  in  text-books. 
Appropriations  from  any  public  fund  in  aid  of 
sectarian  instruction  are  strictly  prohibited. 

Educational  Condition.  The  estimated  num- 
ber of  school-districts,  in  ls7">.  was  7,932;  the 
number  of  public  schools,  lor  whites,  7,061  ;  for 
colored  persons,  326;  the  number  of  private 
schools,  661,  in  which  there  were  enrolled 
33,525  pupils.  The  support  of  the  schools  was 
derived  from  the  following  sources: 

From   public  funds  (state,   county,   and 

township)    8857,785 

From  taxation $'2.1  ">■'». vin 

Total *:s,oi:i,a!»5 

Expenditures. 
For  salaries,  buildings,  rent,  etc $1,638,353 

School  Statistics. 
Number  of  persons  of  school  age  1 5    21): 

Whites 678,270 

Colored 41,016 

T..tal 720,186 

Niunli'T  enrolled  in  public  BChOOls: 

Whites 379,948 

Colored ■  ■  ■  .14,832 

Total 394,780 

Average  daily  attendance 192,904 

Number  of  teachers,  males 5,904 

"  "  females 3.747 

Total 9,651 

The  average  monthly  wages  of  teachers,  males, $38.00 
"  "  "  "       females,  $29.50 


Normal  Instruction. — There  are  four  normal 
schools  under  the  control  of  the  state,  and  one 
at   St.  Louis,   the    latter    intended    principally 
for  supplying  teachers  to  the  schools  of  the  city. 
This  school  has  recently  been  made  more  useful 
by  the  addition  of  a  model   department.     The 
course  is  for  two  years,  and  instruction  is  given, 
during    the   first   year,  in  the   higher  branches, 
the  second  being  devoted   to  review,  with  special 
reference  to   the   methods  of   teaching.     Pupils 
of   tlii'   high    school   are   admitted   to  the  nor- 
mal school  without  examination.     In   1874 — 5, 
the   total    enrollment    was    254.     The  ITuilland 
Normal  Institute,  at  Jackson,  was  organized  in 
1864.  It  reported,  in  1874, 3  resident  and  2  non-res- 
ident instructors,  53  male. and  21  female  students. 
Three  years  constitute  the  school  course.     The 
North  Mo.  State  Normal  School,  at    Kirksville, 
was  organized  for  the  purpose  of  fitting  teachers 
for  the  country  district  schools.    The  qualifica- 
tions for  admission  are  those  necessary  to  secure 
a  teachers'  certificate  of  the  lowest   grade.    In 
I  875,  the  number  of  instructors  was  9  ;  number 
of  students,  709  :  number  of  graduates.  72.    The 
South  Mo.  State  Normal  School,  at  Warrensburg, 
pro\  ides  three  courses  of  study,  —  an  elementary, 
an  advanced,  and  a  professional.    Two  terms,  or 
twenty    weeks,  are    necessary   to   complete    the 
course  of  study.     Some  embarrassment  has  been 
occasioned  to  the  institution  from  lack  of  funds. 
It  reported,  in  L875,  11  instructors,  and   1(1^  stu- 
dents. 'Idle  South-east  Mo.  State  Normal  School, 
at  Cape  Girardeau, was  opened  in  InT.'J.  with  35 
students.     In  1875,  it  had  5  instructors  and  1(14 
students.  Each  of  the  state  normal  schools  is  un- 
der the  care  of  a  state  board  of  regents.  Lincoln 
Institute,  at    Jefferson   City,  was   organized  in 
L866,forthe  instruction  of  colored  teachers.    It  is 
supported  by  a  permanent  state  appropriation  of 
s-.'.iKKt.  and  by  private  subscriptions.  It  is  divided 
into  a  primary  and  a  normal  department,  and, 

in  L874,  had  i''  instructors  and  -1(1  students.  Its 
graduates,  according  to  the  report  of  the  state 
superintendent,  for  1875,  are  teaching  colored 
schools  in  a  large  number  of  counties,  and  arc 
giving  genera]  satisfaction. 

Teachers'  Institutes. — The  practice  of  holding 
teachers'  institutes  was.  in  1875,  comparatively  i 
abandoned,  the  law  not  requiring  them   except; 
in  counties  which  employ  the  whole  time  of  the 
coi issioner,  and  there  being  only  one  (Jasper) 

in  which  this  is  the  ease.  Probably  not  o\er  20 
institutes  were  held  during  the  year.  Efforts, 
however,  are  to  be  made  to  increase  the  number 

and  efficiency  of  the  institutes. 

Secondary  Instruction.  The  question  of  the 
supporl  of  high  schools  by  the  state  has  been 
raised  in  Missouri,  as  it  was  in  Michigan,  and 
Superintendent  Motiteith.  in  L873,  in  discuss- 
ing this  question,  expressed  the  opinion,  that, 
though  their  existence  is  the  logical  result  of  the 
establishment  of  a  public-school  Bystem  and  a 
state  university,  ye1  as  the  need  of  them  is  local, 

their  establishment  should  rest  with  the  local 
school  boards,  and  their  support  be  derived  from 
local    taxation.     There   are   several   business  col-  ■, 


MISSOIK1 


MODKRN   LANGUAGES 


591 


leges,  situated  in  various  parts  of  the  state,  lint 
chiefly  in  St.  Louis, 8  of  which,  in  1874,  reported 
bo  the  I  •  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  48  teachers 
and  ti.<>77  pupils.  Their  courses  of  study  range 
bom  three  months  to  I  years. 

Superior  Instruction.     -The  universities,  col- 
leges, and  institutions  for  higher  education   are 


enumerated  in  the  following  tablt 

When 

Religious 

NAME 

Location 

found- 

■luna- 

ed 

tion 

lsTl 

M   E  S 

Christum  University. .  . 

i  anton 

1856 

Christian 

College  of  the  Christian 

1859 

R.  C. 

Springfield 
Hannibal 

1873 

Hannibal  College 

1868 

W.  E.  S. 

Lewis  College 

( Uasgow 

1865 

Iff.  Epis. 

Lincoln  College 

Greenwood 

1870 

M.  Epis. 

IfcOee  College 

i  '.'11.  Jlmmd 

1853 

U.  Pivsb. 

31     Ibseph 

1867 

Cumb.Pr. 

St.  Louis  University. . . . 

St.  Louis 

1832 

R.  C. 

St.  Paul's  College 

Palmyra 

1844 

Prot.  Ep. 

St.  Vineeut's  College 

i '.  i  m-anlcau 

1*44 

B.  C. 

Washington  University. 

St.  Louis 

1857 

Non-sect. 

Westminster  College... 

Fulton 

185'2 

Presb. 

William  Jewell  College  . 

Liberty 

1853 

Bap. 

Independence 

1S69 

Christian 

Besides  these  institutions,  there  are  11  acad- 
emies and  colleges  for  the  higher  education 
of  women,  9  of  which,  in  1874,  reported  97  in- 
structors and  1,136  students. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — 
Many  of  the  colleges  and  imiversities  furnish 
opportunities  for  professional  and  scientific  in- 
struction, but  special  schools  have  been  established 
for  the  same  purpose  in  many  places.  Of  these, 
the  principal  are  the  Vardeman  School  of  Theol- 
ogy, at  Liberty;  the  Kansas  City  College  of 
physicians  ami  surgeons  ;  the  Missouri  Medical 
College,  the  St.  Louis  Medical  College,  the 
Homoeopathic  Medical  College  of  Missouri,  the 
Missouri  Dental  College,  and  the  College  of 
Pharmacy — the  last  five,  at  St.  Louis. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Missouri  Asylum 
for  the  Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was 
organized  at  Fulton,  in  1851.  It  is  supported  by 
state  appropriations,  which  have  not  been  large 
enough,  thus  far,  to  admit  of  giving  instruction  in 
the  trades — a  prominent  feature  in  several  other 
institutions  of  the  kind.  Board  and  tuition  for 
all  deaf  and  dumb  persons  between  the  ages  of 
7  and  .'!(>  years  are  furnished  Jive  of  cost, but  it  is 
estimate!!  that  onlyabout  one  half  the  persons  so 
afflicted  in  the  state  can  be  accommodated.  There 
were  8  instructors,  in  1874,  and  153  pupils — 75 
males,  and  78  females.  Besides  this, there  is  an- 
other institution  (St.  Bridget's  institute), founded 
in  St.  Louis,  in  1 800,  for  the  same  purpose.  The 
Missouri  Institution  for  the  Education  of  the 
Blind  was  opened  in  St.  Louis,  in  1 851 .  It  receives 
from  the  state  an  annual  appropriation  of  about 
82 1 ,000.  In  addition  to  the  branches  of  an 
ordinary  education,  instruction  is  given  in  music, 
and  the  pupils  are  taught  some  kind  of  industrial 
or  mechanical  occupation.  .V  normal  class  has 
also  been  formed,  for  the  purpose  of  fitting  some 
of  the  more  advanced  pupils  to  teach  in  the  pub- 
lic schools.  There  were,  in  1874,27  instructors 
and  employes  of  all  kinds,  and  93  pupils. 


Educational  Journals.  —  There  are  several 
journals  either  wholly  or  partly  educational 
published  in  the  stale,  among  which  may  be 
specially  mentioned  The  Western,  a  monthly 
published  at  St.  Louis,  and  now  in  its  eleventh 
year;  and  the  American  Journal  if  Education, 
a  monthly,  also  published  at  St.  Louis,  and  at 
present  in  its  ninth  year.  These  journals  are 
well  conducted,  and  have  exerted  an  important 
influence  in  advancing  the  cause  of  education  in 
the  state. 

MISSOURI,    University    of    the    State 
of,  at  Columbia,    Mo.,  was  chartered  in  1839, 
and  organized  in  L840,  receiving  the  proceeds  of 
the  lands  granted  by  Congress  to  the  state  for 
the  support  of  a  seminary  of  learning.    In  1870, 
it  was  awarded  the  benefit  of  the  congressional 
land  grant  for  the  establishment  of  a  college  of 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.     During  the 
civil  war,  the  university  was  partially  suspended; 
but  after  its  close,  it  was  re-organized,  and  it  now 
consists  (besides  the  preparatory  department)  of 
(1)  the  College  proper,  with  courses  in  arts,  sci- 
ence, letters,  and  philosophy,  and  of  the  following 
professional  schools:  (II)  The  Normal,  or  College 
of    Instruction   in    Teaching,  opened   in  1868; 
(III)  The  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College, 
1870  ;  (IV)  The  School  of  Mines  and  Metallurgy 
(at  Rolla),  1871  ;  (V)  The  College  of  Law.  1872  ; 
(VI)   The  Medical    College,  1873;    (VII)  The 
Department  of  Analytical  and  Applied  Chem- 
istry, 1873.     Both  sexes  are  admitted  to  all  the 
departments.     The    university   has  appropriate 
buildings,  all   necessary  apparatus,  and  an  ex- 
tensive farm.     The  libraries  contain  about  8,500 
volumes.     The  income  of  the  institution  (from 
endowment  and  state  appropriations)  is  $68,467 
per  annum.     The  charges  to  students  who  are 
residents  of  Missouri,  cannot  exceed  $20  a  year. 
The  school  of  mines  and  metallurgy  has  exten- 
sive and  valuable  lands  in  the  mining  district 
in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  state.     In  1875 
— 6,  there  were,  in  all  the  departments  of  the 
university,  29  instructors  and  391  students.    The 
presidents  have  been  as  follows :  John  H.  La- 
throp,  LL.  D.,  1840 — 50  ;   .Tames  Shannon,  LL. 
D.,  1850—5li  ;  WAV.  Hudson.  A.  M..  Is5(i_ 7  ; 
B.  B.  Minor  1 858—60  ;  and  Daniel  Read,  LL. 
D.,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in  L866. 
MNEMONICS.     See  Memory. 
MODEL  SCHOOLS.  See  Normal  Schools. 
MODERN   LANGUAGES,    in  the   literal 
ami  widest  sense  of  t lie  term. are  the  languages  DOW 
in  use.  in  contradistinction  to  those  which  were 
formerly  spoken,  but  are  now  extinct.  Taken  in 
this  sense,  the  term  embraces  the  mother-tongue, 
in  which  the  home  education  of  the  child  is  con- 
ducted, the  national  or  ruling  language  of  the 
country,  which  is  the  medium  of  instruction  in 
the  schools,  and  the  living  languages  of  foreign 
nations.     It  is  the  general  tendency  of  the  age, 
to  make  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  national 
language    the  center  and  the    chief  aim   of  all 
school  instruction  ;  though  it  has  been  demanded, 
from  an  educational    point  of  view,   that    wher- 
ever the  mother-tongue  of  a  large  portion  of  the 


59'J 


MODERN   LANG T AGES 


hihabitantB  of  a  country  is  different  from  that  of 
the  national  language,  the  claims  of  the  mother- 
tongue  should  not  he  ignored.  When  the  modern 
languages  are  spoken  of  as  a  hranehof  school  in- 
struction, they  are,  however,  generally  understood 
in  the  sense  of  the  languages  of  foreign  nations. 
The  admission  of  modern  foreign  languages  into 
a  regular  course  of  instruction  isof  comparative- 
ly remit  date,  and  the  credit  of  having  first  <>1, 
tained  tin's  recognition  belongs  to  the  French 
language  (q.  v.).  Until  very  recently,  French 
has  enjoyed,  in  this  respect,  an  acknowledged 
superiority  over  any  other  language  of  the  globe; 
and  it  is  but  recently  that  English  and  German 
have  to  any  considerable  extent  begun  to  com- 
pete with  it.  At  present,  French,  English,  and 
German  are  studied  a.11  over  the  world,  as  the 
chief  representatives  of  modern  culture.  The 
Italian  language  (q.  v.)  is  learned  by  many  of  the 
students  of  line  arts  and  of  music  in  preference 
to  any  of  the  three  principal  modern  languages; 
but  more  in  courses  of  private  instruction  than 
in  schools.  It  is,  however,  chiefly  in  the  second- 
ary schools,  that  the  study  of  modern  languages 
has  dow  been  generally  admitted.    There  are  but 

few  colleges,  gymnasia,  lyceums,  Latin  schools, 
real  schools,  academies,  seminaries,  or  boarding- 
schools  which  do  not  provide  for  instruction  in 
one  or  two  of  the  modern  languages.  The  adop- 
tion of  more  than  two  modem  languages,  in  a 
regular  course  of  studies,  is  met  with  in  only  a  few 
cases,  and  finds  but  few  advocates.  Scientific  and 
real  schools  (or departments). especially  the  latter, 
Cultivate   the   modern   languages,  frequently  to 

tl Kclusion  of   the  classical;    but  even  classical 

schools  have  now  quite  generally  opened  their 
gates  to  the  at  first  unwelcome  rival. — In  the 
highest  institutions  of  learning,  such  as  the  Euro- 
pean  universities,  the  modern  languages  are  still 
far  from  occupying  a  position  of  equality  with 
the  classical,  or  even  some  of  the  oriental  lan- 
guages. In  England,  Oxford  and  Cambridge  had, 
in  1875,  professorships  of  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Arabic,  and  Sanskrit:  Oxford,  also  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  comparative  philology,  but  not  of 
either  French  or  German.  In  the  21  universities 
of  '  rermany  (including  the  academy  of  M  iinster), 
classical  philologists  had,  in  1874,  the  oppor- 
tunity to  attend  l.'U  courses  of  lectures,  which 
occupied  an  aggregate  of  100  hours  weekly. 
Besides,  tin- exercises  in  the  philological  seminaries 
occupied  I2h  hours,  making  a  total  of  528  hours. 
Of  the  professors  teaching  the  classical  languages. 
fi4  were  ordinary,  I  C>  extraordinary,  besides  1  1  /</•/- 
tiat-docenten  (lecturers);  total  :>l.    To  the  oriental 

languages,  .'{.'ill  hours  were  devoted;  but  to  French 

and  English,  only  172  horns.  The  German  govern- 
ments show,  however,  a  readiness  to  reconsider 
the  claim  of  modem  languages  to  a  better  repre- 
sentation; and  a  Dumber  of  new  chairs  were, 
therefore,    created    during    the    years    |s7.">    and 

1876.     In  regard  to  the  lowest  classes  and  schools 

in    which    the   study   of   nioclern    languages    nicy 

advantageously  be  admitted,  there  is  a  variety 
of  opinion  at  present  iii  school  legislation,  and 
among  educational  writers.    It  is  evident  that,  in 


this  respect,  a  marked  difference  exists  between 
those  localities  where  only  one  language  is  spoken, 
and  those  where  two  or  more  languages  arc  in 
the  daily  use  of  large  portions  of  the  people.  In 
the  latter  case,  the  language  which  is  spoken 
by  a  large  portion  of  the  children  who  attend 
school,  is  by  many  not  regarded  in  the  light  of  a 
foreign  language;  and  school  regulations  for 
giving  instruction  in  it  are  often  different 
from  those  for  the  teaching  of  languages  to- 
tally foreign.  The  latter,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  most  educators,  should  not  be  begun 
too  early.  It  is.  however,  on  the  other  hand, 
urged  that  the  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage is  best  learned  at  a  time  when  the  organs  of 
speech  are  still  flexible,  and  that  a  good  pro- 
nunciation of  a  foreign  tongue  is  rarely  acquired 
except  by  those  who  learn  it  in  childhood. — 
The  French  language  had  been  long  and  exten- 
sively studied  in  other  European  countries  before 
it  was,  in  the  1  7th  century,  introduced  in  some 
of  the  German  schools  as  a  part  of  the  regular 

course  of  studies.  Toward  the  close  of  the  1  - 1 1 1 
century,  the  German  real  schools  made  the 
superior  advantages  of  the  study  of  French,  in 
comparison  with  the  classical  languages,  a  main 
issue  of  their  war  against  I  he  classical  schools; 
and.  from  that  time,  the  admission  of  blench  into 
the  schools  of  other  countries  has  been  rapid  and 
extensive.  In  Prussia,  the  efforts  made  to  secure 
to  the  French  language  a  prominent  place  in  the 
course  of  instruction  were  so  successful,  that  the 
Prussian  government  became  alarmed,  and,  in 
181(i,  excluded  it  altogether  from  public  instruc- 
tion. A  rescript  of  18."i7  re-admitted  it.  how- 
e\er,  "out  of  regard  for  its  usefulness  for  practical 
life."  That,  from  the  stand-point  of  practical 
usefulness,  modern  languages,  as  a  branch  of 
instruction,  have  an  advantage  over  the  classical, 
is  now  scarcely  disputed.  French.  English,  and 
German  bring  the  student  into  living  contact 
with  the  great  standard-bearers  of  modern  civ- 
ilization, and  thus  afford,  in  many  cases,  mental 
enjoyments,  material  and  business  advantages. 
and  impulses  to  esthetic  culture,  which  classical 
studies  obviously  cannot  afford.-  Being  the  keys 
to  the  three  great  literatures  of  the  world,  the  En- 
glish. German,  and  French  languages,  as  branches 
of  instruction,  have  challenged  a  comparison 
with  the  Latin  and  the  ("J reek.  Here  also  it 
will  be  readily  and  generally  admitted,  that 
modem  literatures  contain  a  vast  amount  of 
information    unknown    to   the    ancients;   and 

that,  viewing  their  contents  as  a  whole,  they  are. 
in  many  respects,  vastly  superior  to  the  liter- 
atures of  the  ancient  world.  Classical  scholars, 
in  fact,  are  among  the  first  to  recognize  the 
gnat  value  of  modern  literatures;  and  there 
are  few  among  them  who  cannot  read  the  three 
great  modern  languages,  at  least,  as  fluently  as 
the  two  classical.  The  contest   has  been  narrow,  d 

down  to  the  question  whether  Latin  and  Greek 

classics,  as   literary  master-works,  and  in  view  of 
the  superior  advantages  claimed  for  the  langu;e 
themselves,  still   afford  such   advantages   for  de- 
veloping the  mental   faculties  as  to  recommend 


MODERN    LANGUAGES 


693 


their  retention  in  every  course  of  studies.  (See 
Classical  Studies.) 

Upon  the  held  of  comparative  linguistics,  the 
superior  value  of  the  richly  inflected  Latin  and 
Greek  by  the  side  of  the  less  inflected  German 
and  the  mutilated  Kurdish  and  French,  is  not 
likely  to  be  ever  disputed.  But  since  the  labors 
of  Bopp,  Grimm,  and  their  numerous  followers, 
have  opened  an  insight  into  the  degree  of  kin- 
ship existing  between  the  prominent  languages 
of  the  present  and  former  times,  the  question 
has  been  toned  upon  the  attention  of  gram- 
marians, how  far  a  comparison  of  kindred  lan- 
guages may,  even  at  an  early  stage  of  instruc- 
tion, elucidate  the  structure  of  the  native  tongue, 
and  thus  be  made  serviceable  in  giving  to  the 
youthful  scholar  a  better  command  even  of  his 
native  speech  than  otherwise  would  be  attain- 
able. The  elucidative  power  which  belongs  to 
comparison,  in  grammar  no  less  than  in  other 
branches  of  instruction,  cannot  be  disputed; 
though  the  precise  point  of  time  when,  and  the 
manner  in  which,  it  may  be  put  to  use  in  the 
course  of  instruction,  still  remain  open  ques- 
tions. It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  the  degree 
of  usefulness  which  may  be  attributed,  from  this 
point  of  view,  to  one  particular  language,  is  by 
no  means  commensurate  with  the  advantages 
which  the  same  language  may  afford  as  the  key 
to  the  superior  civilization  or  the  rich  literature 
of  one  of  the  great  nations  of  the  globe.  It  will, 
on  the  contrary,  be  chiefly  dependent  on  the 
relationship  existing  between  the  language  to 
D  studied  and  the  language  of  the  student.  In  a 
.French  school,  the  Latin,  Italian,  and  Spanish 
languages  will,  in  this  respect,  be  of  more  use 
than  English  or  German;  in  German  schools,  the 
English  will  be  more  important  than  French  or 
Latin;  and  in  English  schools,  the  German  more 
than  Latin  or  French. 

Since  modern  languages  have  come  to  be 
studied  on  a  much  more  extended  scale  than  the 
classical,  a  great  variety  of  methods  have  been 
proposed.  The  authors  of  some  of  these  methods 
are  by  no  means  distinguished  for  modesty,  and 
do  not  hesitate  to  declare  all  former  modes  of  in- 
struction absolutely  useless,  as  having  been  wholly 
superseded  by  their  own.  In  most  cases,  they 
have  wholly  forgotten  that  the  method  of  teach- 
ing and  learning  a  modern  language  must,  to  a 
very  great  extent,  be  dependent  upon  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  learned.  If  the  student  chiefly 
aims  to  acquire  the  ability  to  express  his  thoughts 
in  the  language  of  another  person  belonging  to 
a  foreign  nation,  the  methods  which  make  con- 
versation the  basis  of  instruction  will  justly  com- 
mend themselves  to  the  attention  of  the  in- 
structor. When  a  foreign  language  is  learned 
as  a  means  of  understanding  the  literature  of  a 
particular  nation,  an  early  knowledge  of  the 
inflectional  part  of  the  language,  of  all  its  pecu- 
liarities in  etymology  and  syntax,  and  of  its 
vocabulary,  will  be  felt  as  an  urgent  want ;  and 
grammar  lessons  connected  with  translating  exer- 
cises, will  form  the  chief  means  of  instruction. 
In  the  combination  of  grammar  and  translation, 
38 


every  possible  method  has  been  tried:  the  strictly 
synthetical,  which  starts  from  the  parts  of  speech, 
and  teaches  them  singly,  before  proceeding  to  a 

regular  system  of  translations:  the  strictly 
analytical,  which  begins  with  the  analysis  of 
foreign  sentences,  and  from  them,  by  degrees, 
derives  the  knowledge  of  grammatical  forms;  and 

the  synthetico-analytical.oranalylico  synthetical, 
which,  from  the  first,  endeavors  to  combine  in- 
struction in  the  grammatical  structure  with 
practice  in  using  the  foreign  language.  ( )f  these, 
the  former  may  be  said  to  have  been  almost 
entirely  abandoned,  the  latter  being  the  one 
generally  preferred  in  schools.  In  regard  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  grammatical  rules,  an  in- 
finite  variety  may  be  observed  in  the  numerous 
grammars  of  modern  languages.  It  was  espe- 
cially Mager  (q.  v.),  one  of  the  most  ingenious 
writers  on  the  subject  of  language,  who  attacked 
the  traditional  order  of  article,  noun,  adjective. 
pronoun,  and  verb,  and  demanded  the  first 
place  for  the  verb,  so  as  to  be  able  to  begin 
with  whole  sentences,  that  is,  with  a  complete 
thought.  In  regard  to  translating  exercises,  in- 
structors generally  •  agree  in  introducing  their 
students  as  soon  as  practicable  to  the  reading 
of  standard  writers  in  the  foreign  language.  The 
shortness  of  time  allowed  for  the  study  of  foreign 
languages  will  recommend  the  use  of  a  good 
reading-book  in  order  to  familiarize  the  student 
with  the  peculiar  style  of  several  writers. 

It  is  not  possible  in  this  article  to  attempt  an 
enumeration  or  a  criticism  of  the  different  meth- 
ods which  have  been  specially  proposed  for  teach- 
ing modern  languages.  Among  those  whose  sys- 
tems have  obtained  any  general  reputation  or 
acceptance,  may  be  mentioned  Aim,  Jacotot. 
Hamilton,  Mager,  Ollendorff,  and  Robertson. 
Ahn's  and  Ollendorff's  methods  have  had 
numerous  imitations,  of  very  unequal  value,  and 
have  been  applied  to  nearly  all  the  living  languages 
of  Europe,  and  even  to  Latin  and  Greek.  Of  the 
elementary  books  based  on  Ahn's  method,  P. 
Ilenn's  Rudiments  of  the  German  Language 
(4  parts,  New  York),  written  with  a  special 
view  to  the  requirements  of  the  public  schools  in 
the  United  States,  and,  in  particular,  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  has  deservedly  gained  very  great 
popularity.  Among  recent  attempts  to  teach 
living  languages  "without  grammar  or  dictionary," 
solely  by  means  of  conversation,  that  by  Heness 
{Introduction  to  the  Leitfaden;  a  Guide  for  In- 
struction  in  German  without  Grammar  or 
Dictionary,  Boston,  1874)  has  attracted  the  at- 
tention and  won  the  approval  of  many  eminent 
scholars.  Prendergast's  The  Mattery  of  Lan- 
guages  (London,  1872)  is  a  new  effort  to  introduce 
the  pupil  to  a  practical  knowledge  of  language  in 
an  analytical  way,  by  proceeding  from  sentences 
committed  to  memory  and  learning  the  inflec- 
tional forms  from  their  position  in  sentences. 
Whitney's  Compendious  German  Grammar 
(  New  York,  1869),  to  a  higher  degree  than  any 
former  English  grammar  of  a  foreign  language, 
embodies  the  results  of  comparative  grammar, 
and  directs  special  attention  to  the  points  of 


'594 


MONITORIAL  SYSTEM 


correspondence  between  English  and  German.  It 
need  hardly  be  added  that  the  study  of  modern 
languages,  and  especially  that  of  their  pronun- 
ciation, should  be  pursued,  whenever  it  is  pos- 
sible, under  the  guidance  of  an  intelligent  pro- 
fessional teacher.  Among  the  attempts  to  teach 
these  languages  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher, 
the  method  proposed  by  Toussaint  and  Langen- 
scheidt  has  received  the  best  recommendation, 
the  special  articles  on  French,  German, 
Italian,  Spanish.)  See  also  Whitney,  Language 
and  ike  Study  of  Language  (1867);  and  Life  and 
<; ' rmrth  of  Language  (New York,  1875)  ;  Quick, 
Firxt  S/i'ps  in  Ti'tirhhig  a  Foreign  Language 
(London.  isT"));  Maucei,,  Study  of  Languages 
(New  York,  L874) ;  Schmitz,  Encychpadie  des 
philologischen  Studiums  der  neueren  Spracken 
(2d  id..  Leips.,1875  ;  4  parts  and  3  supplements); 
Pfalz,'  JJeber  den  Bildungswertk  der  fremden 
Spracken  im  Schidunterricht  (Fx'ips.,  1875)  ; 
Mager,  Ueber  (I*,*  Unterricht  in  fremden  Spra- 
cken (Essen,  1S38).  A  periodical  specially  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  modern  languages  is  the 
ArcJiivf&r  das  Studium  der  neueren  Spracken 
by  Herrig  (2  vols.,  in  1  parts  annually,  55th 
and  56th  vols.,  1876.). 

MONITORIAL  SYSTEM,  sometimes  ca  lied 
the  Madras  system,  because  it  was  introduced 
into  England  from  Madras,  by  Andrew  Bell; 
also  the  Lancasterian  system,  after  one  of  its 
most  enthusiastic  advocates,  Joseph  Lancaster. 
It  is,  moreover,  often  designated  the  system  of 
mutual  instruction,  because  conducted  on  the 
principle  of  requiring  the  pupils  of  a  school  to 
teach  eaeii  olher.  The  name  monitorial  instruc- 
tion is  derived  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
pupil  teachers  employed  to  carry  on  the  system 
were  called  monitors. — This  plan  of  teaching  is 
very  old;  bul  whether  Bell  or  Lancaster  deserves 
the  merit  of  first  introducing  it  into  EGurope,  has 
been  warmly  disputed.  (See  Bei.l,  and  Lan- 
caster.) By  means  of  the  efforts  and  publical 
of  these  ardent  philanthropists,  the  system  mel 
with  a  rapid  and  extensive  adoption  both  in 
Europe  and  America.  Inthecityof  NewYork, 
free  schools  were  organized  upon  this  plan,  which 
continued  to  lie  the  prevailing  method  <>t  organ- 
ization and  instruction  in  the  public  schools  of 
that  city  tor  nearly  fifty  years.  In  Philadelphia 
and  other  large  cities  of  the  Union,  it  was  also 
employed;  in  Boston,  i1  was  soon  pronounced  a 
failure,  and  abandoned.  The  25th  Beporl  (1830) 
of  the  liiitish  and  Foreign  School  Society  (Lan- 
casterian) stated  thai  measures  had  been  taken 
b\  the  governments  of  Belgium,]  'en  mark. Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Russia,  to  introduce  the  system ; 
that  more  than  30  monitorial  schools  had  been 

for  a ■  time  in  operation  in  Tuscany;  and  thai 

the  duke  of  Lucca  had  also  caused  several  of 
Buch  schools  to  be  established;  thai  even  the 
governmenl  of  Naples  had  opened  20  of  these 
schools  in  Sicily,  and  designed  to  establish  one 
in  each  parish.     The  reporl  also  stated  that  the 

society    had   constantly    a    number   of   prisons  in 

training  as  teachers,  and  at  the  previous  anni 
iry.  had  under  its  cue  20  Arab  youths,  sent 


to  England  for  education  by  the  Pacha  of  Egypt. 
The  rivalry  that  had  existed  for  years  between 
this  society  and  the  National  School  Society, 
which  favored  Bell's  system. increased  the  efforts 
of  both.  In  the  American  Annals  of  Education 
(1831),  it  was  stated  that,  in  Denmark,  2,000 
monitorial  schools  were  established  in  the  course 
of  four  years;  in  Sweden,  there  were  1,800  of 
such  schools,  in  many  of  which  music,  linear 
drawing,  and  gymnastics  were  taught.  The 
system  had  also  been  introduced  into  France. 
Spain,  and  Sardinia.  'J  he  French  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Education  sent  books  and 
tables  of  the  system  to  the  principal  countries  of 
South  Amerii  a  and  to  liayti.  and  oj  em  d  schools 
at  St.  Louis  and  Senegal,  in  Africa,  which  were 
attended  by  the  native  chiefs.  There  were,  also, 
numerous  schools  in  ( 'ape  Colony,  Madagascar, 
and  the  l'a-t  Indies,  both  continental  and  insular. 
The  system  was  also  said  to  have  been  adopted  in 
one  of  the  first  classical  schools  of  Paris,  and  in 
the  High  School  of  Edinburgh. — The  opinions 
entertained  of  the  advantages  of  this  system  were 
at  first  very  extravagant.  Dr.  Bell  said,  "The 
system  has  no  parallel  in  scholastic  history.  In  a 
school,  it  gives  to  the  master  the  hundred  eyes  of 
Argus,  the  hundred  hands  of  Briareus,  and  the 
wings  of  Mercury.  By  multiplying  bis  ministers 
at  pleasure,  it  gives  him  indefinite  powers ;  in 
other  words,  it  enables  him  to  instruct  as  many 
pupils  as  his  school  room  "will  contain."  '1  his 
principle  was  carried  into  effect  by  Lancaster, 
whose  school  had  L,000  pupils,  he  being  the  only 

adult  teacher.  "Crowds",  says  Donaldson  [Lect- 
ures on  Education,  1874),  "flocked  to  see  this 
performance  :  one  master  with  a  thousand  schol- 
ars. It  seemed  to  solve  the  question  of  educa- 
tion." De  Witt  Clinton,  in  New  York,  expressed 
the  most  unbounded  admiration  for  this  system 
as  an  instrument  for  educating  large  masses  of 
children.     But   not  only  as  a    means  of  teaching 

i  numbers  was  it  commended.  The  system 
of  mutual  instruction  was  thoroughly  discussed 
at  a  meeting  of  the  American  Lyceum  held  in 
New  York,  in  1836  :  and.  while  the  New  England 
meml  med  to  condemn  il  as  unsatisfactory 

andd  ,o1  hersgave  it  their  unqualified  ap- 

proval. -'It  '.said  S.  W.  Scion,  the  public-school 

:  of  New  York  u'ly.  "I  had  a  School  of 
twenty,  nay  of  ten,  I  would  make  otic  teach 
another.  If  I  had  but  three.  I  would  make  two 
of  them  monitors."-  This  system,  when  carried 
into  operation  by  a  master  of  energy  and  tact, 
was  showy  and  attractive:  and.  doubtless,  was 
an  effective  instrument  in  giving  an  elementary 
education  to  many  thousands  of  children  ;  thai 
is,  in  teaching  them  to  read,  write,  and  cipher;' 
but.  as  remarked  by  Donaldson,  it  "ignored  alto- 
gether the  tact  that  the  work  of  the  leaeher  is  to 
evolve  the  powers  of  the  mind,  and  that  for   this 

work  a  wise  and  cultivated  mind  is  required." 
The  arguments    advanced    in    its    favor  were 

(I)    that    it    provided    for  the   tuition    of    a    far 

greater  number  of  pupils  than  could  be  taught 

by  the  ordinary  method  of  managing  an  ungraded 
school,  in  which  only  one  teacher  was  employed; 


MONMOUTH    COLLEGE 


MONTAIGNE 


595 


(2)  that  tin's  w.is  accomplished  by  an  economy  of 
the  time  and  labor  of  the  teacher;  (3)  thai  it  kepi 
every  pupil  of  the  school  constantly  employed ; 
(■I)  that  the  monitors,  nr  pupil  teachers,  were 
benefited  by  giving  instruction  to  their  fellow 
pupils;  (5)  that,  as  children  learn,  by  a  kind  of 
natural  sympathy,  from  each  other,  the  pupils 
made  rapid  progress.  These  principles,  without 
doubt,  arc  sound  to  a  certain  limited  extent,  and 
under  circumstances  which  prevented  a  thor- 
oughly organized  system  of  instruction  by  compe- 
tent teachers.  The  monitorial  system  required 
very  remarkable  ability  in  the  master — such  an 
ability  as  few  could  be  found  to  possess.  The 
monitors  required  a  special  training;  and  the 
whole  school,  when  thus  conducted,  needed  a 
peculiarly  efficient  discipline,  and  an  adroit  man- 
agement, to  prevent  it  from  degenerating  into  the 
most  chaotic  condition  :  and  this  was  often  the 
case.  That  the  system  was  an  expedient,  and  a 
very  useful  one,  is  obvious.  That  it  is  applicable 
to  the  condition  of  a  large  ungraded  school  under 
a  single  teacher,  is  also  indisputable.  "When", 
said  a  writer  in  the  American  Annals  of  Edu- 
cation (1831),  in  a  despairing  tone,  "will  our 
common  and  primary  schools  be  so  divided  into 
different  departments  in  regard  to  age  and 
studies,  and  so  furnished  with  a  competent  sup- 
ply of  assistant  teachers,  as  to  keep  each  pupil, 
during  school  hours,  cheerfully  and  industriously 
employed?"  The  impossibility  of  obtaining  the 
means  for  such  an  organization,  led  to  the 
adoption  of  the  monitorial  system;  but,  wdierever, 
at  the  present  time,  as  in  the  large  cities  of  the 
United  States,  such  means  are  afforded,  mutual 
instruction  is  found  not  to  have  even  a  modified 
existence  ;  indeed,  the  reaction  against  it  has 
been  so  strong,  that,  for  years,  it  has  not  only 
made  no  progress  anywhere,  but  has  been  very 
generallv  abandoned. 

MONMOUTH  COLLEGE,  at  Monmouth, 
111.,  chartered  in  1857,  is  under  United  Presby- 
terian control.  It  has  a  fine  college  building,  a 
library  of  about  2,000  volumes,  a  cabinet,  and 
extensive  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus. 
Besides  the  collegiate  department,  with  a  clas- 
sical and  a  scientific  course,  there  is  a  prepara- 
tory school,  a  grammar  and  high  school,  and  a 
normal  course,  and  a  musical  and  an  art  depart- 
ment. Both  sexes  are  admitted.  The  tuition 
fee  in  the  collegiate  department  is  $30  a  year. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  Id  instructors,  and  .'IDT 
students,  of  whom  200  (128  classical  and  72 
scientific)  were  in  the  collegiate  department. 
The  Rev.  David  A.  Wallace,  D.D.,LL.D.,  is 
(1870)  the  president. 

MONTAIGNE,  Michel,  Seigneur  de,  a 
celebrated  French  essayist,  born  at  the  chateau  of 
Montaigne,  in  Perigord,  in  1533  ;  and  died  there 
September  13.,  1592.  His  father,  having  ideas 
on  the  subject  of  education  far  in  advance  of  his 
age,  provided  for  his  son  a  German  tutor,  who, 
knowing  nothing  of  French,  conversed  with  him 
entirely  in  Latin,  so  that  the  young  Montaigne 
spoke  that  language  with  ease  at  the  age  of  six. 
He  graduated  at  the   College  of   Guienne,  in 


Bordeaux,  and  studied  law;  but,  being  possessed 
of  ample  means,  and  having  no  inclination  for 
public  life,  he  retired  to  his  castle  at  Montaigne, 
where  he  wrote  his  famous  essays.    The  subjeel 

of   education    is    touched    upon    incidentally   all 
through     the    works    of    this    writer:     but    his 
conclusions  are  nearly  all    condensed    into   one 
remarkable  essay,  addressed  to  the  Countess  of 
Gurson,  and  entitled  Of  (In-  "Education  of  Chil- 
dren.    Many  of  the  principles  there  announced 
were  afterwards  amplified  by  John  I  ocke.    In 
this  essay,  a  scheme  of  education   is   laid   down 
for  a  young  gentleman  of  quality,  which  is,  in 
nearly  every  essential  respect,  in  accordance  with 
our  most  advanced   modern  ideas.     The  subject 
isconsideied  in  its  various  branches,     physical, 
intellectual,   and    moral.      'I  lie   dominant    idea 
throughout,  is  the  modern  one.  derived  from  the 
etymology  of  the  word  education,  i.  e.,  <t  draw- 
ing out  or  developm*  nt  of  the  mind  according  to 
its  individual  bent,  rather  than  a  moulding  of 
all  minds  after  a  preconceived  pattern.  1 1  c  would 
have  the  pupil  educated  away  from  home,  be- 
cause his  parents  "  can  neither  find  in  their  hearts 
to  give  him  due  correction  for  the  faults  he  com- 
mits, nor  suffer  him  to  be  brought  up  in  those 
hardships  and  hazards  he  ought  to  be,"  and  be- 
cause "  the  respect  the  whole  family  pay  him,  as 
their  master's  son,  and  the  knowledge  he  has  of 
the  estate  and  greatness  he  is  heir  to.  are,  in  my 
opinion  no  small  inconveniences  at  these  tender 
years."     He  would  have  him  taught  to  use  the 
knowledge  he  has  gained,  illustrating  his  position 
as  follows  :    "  I  could  wish  to  know  whether  Le 
Paluel  or  Pompey,  famous  dancing-masters  of 
my  time,  could  have  taught  us  to  cut  capers  by 
only  seeing  them  do   it,  without  stirring  from 
our  places,  as  these  men  pretend  to  inform  our 
understandings   without   ever  setting   them   to 
work,  etc."     Physical  education,  also,  was  fully 
appreciated  by  Montaigne,  his  conclusions  on  this 
branch  of   the   subject   being  quite  up  to  the 
standard  in  our  day.     The  advantages  of  sound 
moral  instruction  also  are  strenuously  insisted 
upon  and  admirably  set  forth  in  man}'  weighty 
sentences.     The  advantages  of  foreign  travel,  in 
freeing  the  mind  from  narrowness,  receive  full  at- 
tention, though  the  age  at  which   this  should  be 
undertaken    will    probably   be   excepted   to   by 
modern    educators.      Finally,   the    idea,    more 
peculiarly  modern,  perhaps,  than  any  other,  that 
education  should  not  end  with  school  or  college, 
but  should  be  continued  through  life,  is  every- 
where enforced.     This    entire   essay,  indeed,  is 
worthy  of  the  careful  attention  of  educators;  and, 
making  allowance  for  the  difference  in  condition 
of  the  civilized  world  in  Montaigne's  days  and 
ours,  it  maybe  considered,  generally  speaking, 
an  admirable  resume  of  all  that  has  been  settled 
in  regard  to  educational   aims  up  to  the  present 
time. — !n  1  580-  -81,  Montaigne  visited  <  iermany, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy  for  his  health,  and  wrote 
a  journal  of  his  tour,  which  remained  hidden  in 
the  family  chest  at  Montaigne  till  1774,  when  it 
was  published  at  Paris.     The  principal  English 
translation  of  his  works  is  that  of  Charles  Cotton 


59  G 


MONTANA 


MOORE'S  HILL  COLLEGE 


(published  about  1680),  revised  in  1842,  by  the 
younger  I  lazlett  (Phila.,  1849).  An  edit  ion  in 
6  volumes,  by  De  Coste,  was  published  at  the 
Hague,  in  1772;  and  one  by  Victor  l.e  <  lerc,  at 
Paris,  in  L826.  Bayle  St.  .John  published  a  biog- 
raphy of  .Montaigne  (London,  L857). 

MONTANA,  one  of  the  territories  of  the 
United  States,  set  off  from  Idaho,  and  organized 
with  an  independent  territorial  government  in 
1864.  Its  area  is  145,776  sq.  m.,  and  its  popu- 
lation, in  1870,  was  20,595,  of  whom  1"-:!  were 
colored,  L,949  Chinese,  and  157  civilized  Indians. 

Educational  History. ^-The  legislature  of  the 
territory,  at  its  first  session,  passed  a  law  for  the 
establishment  of  schools,  but  the  spareeness  of 
the  population  and  its  migratory  character,  de- 
prived the  law  of  its  practical  value.  In  1872, 
the  subject  was  again  taken  up,  and  a  new  law 
was  passed,  under  which  about  80  Bchool-districts 
were  organized.  In  1874,  the  law  was  again 
amended,  resulting  in  the  present  system,  'flic 
first  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was 
Cornelius  Hedges,  appointed  in  1872,  re-ap- 
pointed in  1874,  and  still  in  office  (1876). 

School  System. — The  supervision  of  the  schools 
is  entrusted  to  a  superintendent  of  instruction, 
who  is  nominated  by  the  governor  for  two  years, 
and  confirmed  by  the  council,  lie  prescribes 
all  needful  regulations,  designates  the  coui'se  of 
Study  and  the  text-books  to  be  used  in  the 
school-,,  and  makes  a  biennial  report  of  their  con- 
dition to  the  governor.  Cox/////  superintendents 
are  elected  each  for  two  years.  They  are  eight  in 
lumber,  and  perform  the  usual  duties  of  such 
officers.  They  make  annual  visits  to  the  schools 
m  their  counties,  and  receive  not  more  than  810 
for  each  district  under  their  supervision.  They 
are  also  allowed  to  charge  S2  for  each  teacher*.-, 
certificate  granted.  Under  the  present  law,  these 
certificates  are  of  one  grade  only,  and  are  given 
for  only  two  years  ;  but  the  character  of  the  ex- 
amination, depending,  a  3  it  does,  upon  the  caprice 
of  the  county  superintendent,  leads  to  a  want  of 
uniformity  in  the  value  of  the  certificates, which 
has  been  a  cause  of  complaint.  District  trustees 
are  also  chosen  for  three  years,  three  iii  each 
district  constituting  a  board.  Their  duties  are  to 
employ  teachers,  furnish  hooks,  take  charge  of 
school-houses,  furniture,  etc.,  and  exercise  an  im- 
mediate supervision  over  the  schools,  subject  to 
the  direction    of  the    territorial    superintendent. 

With  these  hoards,  also,  rests  the  power  of  sub- 
mitting to  the  voters  of  the  district  the  question, 
whether  money  shall  be  raised  by  taxation,  when- 
ever additional  school  facilities  are  needed.  They 

may, also, establish  a  high  scl 1  in  each  district. 

grade  it.  and  employ  teachers  to  conduct  it, 
whenever  such  school  is  needed.  Resident  voters 

may  decide,  at  the  annual  election,  what  amount 

they  shall  raise  by  taxation  for  the  building  of 

school-houses;    but    they    are    not    authorized    to 

Issue  bonds,  nor  incur  any  indebtedness  for  the 

purpose.  Provision  is  made  for  the  separate  edu- 
cation of  colored  children  in  each  county,  by  the 

establishment  6f  special  schools,  on  application  of 

the  par.  nt S    or   guardians  of   not    less    than   ten 


colored  children,  to  the  board  of  trustees.  Less 
than  ten  may  be  provided  for  in  any  manner 
deemed  advisable.  '1  he  school  age  is  bet  ween  4  and 
21  years  ;  the  legal  school  year.  '6  months  ;  and  the 
school  day.  (I  hours.  The  school  revenue  is  derived 
from  the  school  fund,  which  is  the  interest  on  all 
moneys  derived  from  land  grants,  and  from  the 
school  tax,  which  is  levied  by  the  county  com- 
missioners annually,  at  a  rate  of  from  three  to 
five  mills  on  every  dollar  of  taxable  property. 
The  school  fund  is  apportioned  according  to  the 
number  of  children  of  school  age. 

Educational  OondiUon. — The  number  of  or- 
ganized school-districts,  in  1875,  was  96 ;  the 
number  of  school-houses,  76  ;  the  average  dura- 
tion of  schools.  !''_'  days.  The  scltool  revenue  was 
derived  from  the  following  sources: 

County  tax $30,011.01 

Local  tax  for  school-houses    17,069.63 
Other  sources 4,043.62 

Total "$51,114.26 

Expenditures  for  the  year $31,821,68 

School  population.  .  .  * 

Number  enrolled  in  schools  2337 

Number  of  teachers,  males 66 

females 43 

Total T~     ~99 

Normal  Instruction. — Xo  provision   lias   yet 

been  made  for  the  special  instruction  of  persons 

intending  to  teach  in  the  schools  of  the  territory. 

Teachers'  Institutes. — The  first  convention  of 

school-teachers  in  the  territory  was  held  in  1874. 

This  was  composed  of  the  teachers  of  Deer  Lodge 

Co.,  and  the  territorial  superintendent  was  the 
president  during  its  temporary  organization. 
.Measures  were  taken  for  the  establishment  of  a 
permanent  teachers'  institute,  and  several  edu- 
mal  Subjects  Were  discussi  d. 

Secondary  Instruction. —  In  1875,  the  number 
of  private  schools  was  14,  with  292  pupils.  There 
are,  besides,  a  small  number  of  high  schools,  and 
denominational  schools  and  academies. 

Superior,  Professional  ami  Scientific,  ami 
Special  Instruction. — No  opportunities  for  this 
kind  of  education  are.  as  yet.  afforded,  the  ener- 
gies of  the  people  being  almost  entirelj  devoted 
io  the  development  of  the  mines  and  the  cultiva- 
te  f    the   soil.      In   the    report    for  bs7.'i.  the 

superintendent,  Cornelius  [ledges,  said:  "Our 
people  are  generally  poor  and  very  scattered. 
.Many  of  our  school-districts  are  of  greater  ana 
than  whole  counties  in  the  Eastern  states."  Again. 
in  1^7"'.  he  .--aid:  "Only  •'>  state?,  and  none  of  the 
territories,  unless  the  District  of  Columbia  he 
SO  reckoned,  surpass  Montana  in  the  amount  of 
money  raised  per  capita  of  its  school  population, 
and  this  without  any  aid  derived  from  perma- 
nent   funds,   such    as    most    of    the   older  .states 

possess." 

MOORE'S  HILL  COLLEGE,  at  Moore's 
Mill,  liul.,  founded  in  1856,  is  under  Methodist 
Episcopal  control.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees,  and  an  endowment  of  $18,000.  It  has  ap- 
paratus, a  cabinet,  and  a  small  library.  Both 
Bexes  are  admitted.  There  is  a  preparatory  and 
a  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  ami  a 


MOJJ.VL    KIH CATION 


597 


scientific  course,  ami  also  a  musical,  ;i  normal, 
and  a  commercial  department.  The  cost  of  tui- 
tion in  the  collegiate  department  La  $30  per  an- 
num. In  L875 — 6, there  were  5  instructors, and 
120  students,  of  whom  23  were  of  the  collegiate 
grade.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows. 
the  Rev.  Samuel  R.  Adams,  A.  \1..  8  years:  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Harrison.  A.  M..  6  years.;  the  Rev. 
John  H.Martin,  A.  ML,  2  wars;  the  Rev.  F.  A. 
Hester,  l>.  1)..  4  years;  and  the  Kev.  J.  P.  D. 
John,  A.  ML.,  th"  present  incumbent  ( lST(i). 

MORAL  EDUCATION  has  for  its  sphere 
of  operation  the  culture  of  those  principles  which 
influence  or  control  the  voluntary  action  of  hu- 
man beings.  The  elements  of  self-control  exist, 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in  every  mind,  as  a 
part  of  its  original  constitution.  They  are  dis- 
tinct from  its  intellectual  faculties,  and  need  a 
special  education,  which  is  far  more  important 
than  intellectual  education, because  it  contributes 
in  a  much  higher  degree  to  the  good  both  of  the 
individual  and  of  society.  The  subject  of  moral 
education  is  duty,  and  its  office  is  both  specula- 
tive and  active;  that  is  (1)  to  implant  correct 
principles  of  rectitude  in  the  pupils  mind  —  to 
teach  what  duty  is,  and  (2)  to  cultivate  a  desire 
to  do  what  is  right  for  its  own  sake  —  to  respect 
duty,  or  moral  obligation;  in  other  words,  to 
feel  a  sens j  of  right  —  to  listen  to  the  voice  of 
conscience  (q.  v.);  to  which  may  be  added,  as  an 
important  additional  object,  to  implant  in  the 
youthful  mind  such  motives  as  wOl  aid  the  moral 
B  iso,  and  enable  it  to  triumph  over  the  natural 
propensities  an  I  desires,  when  the  latter  are  in 
conflict  with  it.  The  means  employed  in  moral 
education  are  the  following:  (1)  precepts,  ad- 
dressed both  to  the  understanding  and  to  the 
conscience,  the  object  being  to  enlighten  the  lat- 
ter, which  of  itself  does  not  recognize  specific 
right  and  wrong  ;  (2)  example,  appealing  to  imi- 
tation as  well  as  to  conscience,  and  enforced  by 
the  love  and  respect  felt  by  the  child  toward  its 
educator,  lea  ling  the  former  to  feel  that  whatever 
is  done  by  the  latter  is  right,  and  hence  should 
be  imitated  (see  Example)  ;  (3)  habit,  inducing, 
by  means  of  repetition,  an  inclination  to  act  in 
the  same  way  under  the  same  circumstances  (see 
Habit);  (4)  exercise,  for  the  purpose  both  of 
strengthening  the  moral  feelings  brought  into 
play,  and  of  forming  habits.  Exercise,  in  moral 
education,  is  just  as  important  as  in  physical  or 
intellectual  education ;  indeed,  there  can  be  no 
training  or  culture  without  it;  and,  in  carrying 
this  on,  tli  ■  teacher  must  avail  himself  of  every 
possible  circumstance  that  arises  in  connection 
with  his  intercourse  with  the  pupils,  or  their 
intercourse  with  each  other,  to  give  occasion  for 
this  exercise. and  thus  form  a  basis  for  the  desired 
culture  of  the  moral  faculties.  This  culture  or 
training  must  have  a  twofold  object:  (1)  to  cul- 
tivate virtues,  and  (2)  to  correct  vices.  Among  the 
former,  as  especially  necessary,  may  be  enumer- 
ated truthfulness,  honesty,  justice,  candor  and 
modesty,  kindness  or  benevolence,  diligence,  obe- 
dience to  proper  authority,  gratitu  le,  fidelity  to 
every   promise   or   trust,   and   patriotism ;   and 


among  the  latter,  the  opposites  of  these,  as  lying 
and  deceit,  a  disposition  to  steal,  cruelty  to  ani- 
mals, unkindness  and  injustice  to  playmates, 
violence  and  combativeness,  ill  temper,  angei 
and  irritability,  obstinacy,  laziness,  irresolution, 
leading  to  procrastination,  excessive  .self-cstcclll. 
leading  to  arrogance  and  self  conceit,  etc.    These 

are  specific  qualities  of  character  which  need  a 

particular  recognition  and  treatment  on  the  part 
of  the  educator  :  but  when  the  moral  sense  has 
been  thoroughly  developed,  the  (  hristian  moral 
principle,  to  do  unto  others  as  we  would  that 
I  hey  should  do  unto  us,  will  comprehend,  in  ap- 
probation or  condemnation,  every  class  of  actions, 
and  give  the  means  of  a  just  discrimination  as 
to  what  is  virtuous  and  what  is  vicious.  Put 
the  conscience  is  not  developed  in  children  ;  and 
very  often,  not  (  ven  in  adults.  Hence,  the  need 
of  moral  discipline,  in  order  to  afford  to  the  edu- 
cator the  means  of  bringing  to  bear  upon  his 
pupils  external  restraint,  as  preliminary  to  self- 
restraint;  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  any 
government  that  does  not  contemplate  the  culti- 
vation of  the  elements  of  self-control  can  scarcely 
be  considered  as  forming  a  part  of  moral  educa- 
tion. The  three  elements  of  sensibility  usually  ap- 
pealed to  in  connection  with  moral  discipline  or  re- 
straint, are  fear  (q,  v.),  hope  (q.  v.).  and  love  (q.v.). 
(See  also  Authority.)  The  conscience  being 
very  imperfectly  developed  in  childhood,  second- 
ary motives,  such  as  the  love  of  approbation,  the 
hope  of  reward,  the  desire  to  excel,  may  properly 
be  appealed  to,  in  order  to  promote  well-doing  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  thus  lead  to  the  for- 
mation of  good  habits.  Caution  should  be  exer- 
eised,  however,  in  employing  such  incentives;  and 
the  educator  should  always  keep  in  view  the  just 
limits  of  their  use,  the  injurious  consequences  of 
depending  too  exclusively  upon  them,  and' the  im- 
portance of  so  employing  them  that  they  may 
lead  on  to  the  primary  motive — the  desire  to  do 
right  for  its  own  sake.  (See  Emi  lation.)  '1  lie  prac- 
tical application  of  the  system  here  briefly  out- 
lined, is  attended  with  very  great  difficulty,  and 
requires  peculiar  intelligence  and  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  educator;  and  not  alone  this,  but 
moral  culture,  involving  self  control,  patience, 
and  a  delicate  appreciation  of  moral  distinct  ions, 
as  well  as  a  full  sympathy  with  the  general  pecu- 
liarities and  wants  of  childhood.  To  this  may  be 
added,  with  emphasis,  the  ability  to  discern  the 
peculiarities  of  individual  character,  as  depend- 
ent on  both  mental  and  physical  constitution; 
for  the  processes  of  moral  education  cannot,  like 
many  of  those  employed  in  intellectual  training, 
be  applied  to  children  in  large  masses.  Suitable 
modifications  must  be  made  in  the  application 
of  general  principles  and   rules,  or  much  injury 

may  1  e  done.    (SeeDlSCJ  RNMENT  OP  CHARACTER.) 

Iii  this  important  department  of  education,  the 
teacher  may  find  very  useful  suggestions,  both 
for  information  and  guidance,  in  the  following 
works:  Spencer,  Education;  Intellectual,  Moral, 
and  Physical  (X.  V..  1866)  :  Currie,  Common- 
School  Education  (Edin.  and  London)  ;  Aber- 
crombie,  The  Philosophy  qf  the  Moral  Feelings, 


598 


MORALIZING 


MORAVIAN"   BRETHREN 


edited  by  Jacob  Abbott  (Boston,  1836) ;  Dv- 
mond,  Principles  qf  M6rality(T8  .Y .,  L851);  Gow, 
Good  Murals  and  Gentle  Manners  (Cincinnati, 
I  373)  ;  Rosenkbanz,  Pedagogics  as  a  System, 
trans,  by  Anna  C.  Bbackett  (St.  Louis.  L872). 
(Sue  also  Moralizing.) 

MORALIZING,  the  formal  inculcation  of 
moral  truth  by  means  of  precept,  or  of  stories 
related  for  the  sake  of  the  moral,  with  the 
view  of  influencing  conduct.  This  practice, 
common  in  the  home  circle  and  in  the  school,  is 
the  result  of  a  consciousness  on  the  part  of  the 
1 i  irent  or  teacher  of  a  duty  unperformed,  the  dis- 
charge of  which  is  attempted  in  this  perfunctory 
way.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  it  almost 
always  fails;  since  it  is  either  an  attempt  to 
reason  with  the  young — a  process  for  which 
their  minds  are  not  yet  sufficiently  mature — or 
an  effort  to  impose  mechanically  on  their  minds 
generalizations  which  can  only  be  reached  natu- 
rally after  the  observation  of  many  individual  in- 
stances. In  either  case,  the  abstract  nature  of 
the  appeal  is  so  far  beyond  their  powers,  that 
the  attention  which  is  given,  if  indeed  it  is  given, 
is  only  the  amiable  toleration  of  a  discourse 
which   arouses  no    interest.       <>f    course,    moral 

lessons  received  in  such  a  spirit  accomplish  do 
Useful  purpose,  if  indeed  they  are  not  positively 
hurtful;  since  they  tend  to  produce  disgust  for 
an  important  branch  of  education,  which  in 
maturer  years,  would  be  interesting.  The  con- 
ceptions existing  in  the  minds  of  children  and 
youth  being  in  large  measure  concrete,  the  true 
method  of  approaching  their  intelligence  is 
through  concrete  images.  In  intellectual  train- 
big,  this  is  usually  done,  and  is  always  the  most 
successful  method.  In  one  of  the  methods  of 
moral  training  above  referred  to— that  of  moral 
stories — this'  is  attempted,  and  doubtless,  it  is 
supposed,  with  success;  but  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  interest  aroused  is  not  extended  to  the 
moral  deductions  drawn  from  the  acts  of  the 
persons  introduced,  but  ends  with  the  acts  or 
actors  themselves.  Thus  the  fables  of  .  Ksop  are 
interesting  to  the  young  only  as  long  as  the 
men  and  animals  are.  so  to  speak,  in  motion. 
When  the  moral  is  reached  which  is  not  till 
aft  'l-  the  narrative  has  been  brought  to  a  climax, 
and  the  actors  nave  been  dismissed — their  inter 
esl  is  at  a, i  ebb;  aid  not  till  many  years  later  is 
that  moral  brought  home  to  them  by  the  mani- 
fold exp  n  snees  of  life.  This,  therefore  is  the  pe- 
cuhar value, and  the  only  proper  use  of.  the  fables 
of  JEsop,  namely,  that  they  present  in  a  striking 
way  the  truth  desired  t<>  be  impressed  on  the 
mind.  qoI  with  the  design  of  making  it  imme- 
diately influential,  but  with  an  effort  which. 
for  the  moment,  is  apparently  without  result-— 

the  feeling  which  attends  the  planting  of  a  seed. 
I.  -'.,  the  certainty  of  future  development.      ii    is 

difficult,  of  course,  for  the  parani  or  teacher  who 

liis   the  well-being  of  a  child    sincerely  at    heart. 

to  leave  him  in  that  seeming  neglect  which  a  for- 
bearance from  moral  discourse  appears  to  coun- 

nce;  and  the  pseudo-maxim, thai  Mime  train- 
ing is  better    than    none,  here    intervenes    i"    in- 


crease the  difficulty  ;  but  it  should  never  be  for- 
gotten  that  the  object  to  be  attained  is  not  a 
present,  but  a  future,  and  a  far  more  important, 
one — the  determination  of  the  pupils  conduct 
through  life  :  and  any  course  which  shall  hazard 
this  is  not  only  valueless,  but  evil.  The  mind  of 
youth,  in  fact,  is  not  given  to  that  sober,  con- 
templative process  which  we  call  moralizing.  Its 
natural  disposition  is  one  of  gaiety,  ceaseless 
activity,  and  even  boisterousness.  '1  he  exuber- 
ance of  spirits  natural  to  this  period  of  life,  there- 
fore, makes  the  child  indisposed  to  give  patient 
attention  to  any  purely  speculative  process  of 
thought.  That  this  is  a  wise  provision  of  nature 
for  the  development  of  the  physical  powers,  has 
long  been  recognized  by  observant  educators; 
and  any  attempt  to  curb  this  spirit,  with  the 
view  of  inculcating  moral  truth,  only  inverts  the 
natural  order  of  development,  and,  in  healthy 
children  is  apt  to  result  disastrously.  The  only 
method  of  moral  training  effective  with  youth 
is  that  which  discards  formal  precepts,  and  by 
restraint  of  actual  vice,  or  practice  of  the  desired 
virtue,  engrafts  it  insensibly  on  the  daily  conduct. 
'I  he  habit  of  right  acting  is  thus  unconsciously 
at  quired,  but  not  till  a  much  later  period  is  the 
mind  disposed  to  survey  critically  this  action, 
and  pass  judgment  upon  its  propriety.  The 
maturity  of  the  mind  is  an  indication  of  the 
prop,  r  se  ing. 

MORAL  SUASION.  See  Corporal  Pun- 
ishment. 

MORAVIAN  BRETHREN,  or  Moravi- 
ans, a  conn. inn  designation  of  the  Unites  Fra* 
trum,  a  body  of  Protestant  christians,  distin- 
guished for  activity  in  missionary  work  among 
the  heathen,  and  also  in  the  education  of  the 
vming.  The  church  was  founded  in  1457  A.  I).. by 
followers  of  .John  lluss.  the  Bohemian  reformer 
ami  martyr  (died  at  Constance.  July  6.,  1  1 15)  ; 
and  flourished  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Poland 
until  the  anti-reformation  under  Ferdinand  IL, 
L621  —7.  A  ••hidden  seed."  however,  remained  ; 
and,  in  1722 — 7,  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Church  of  the  Brethren,  to  the  number  of  about 
300,  settled  at  Herrnhut,  in  Saxony,  on  an  estate 
belonging  to  Count  Zinzendorf,  forming  the 
nucleus  of  the  Renewed  brethren's  Church,  to 
which  other  em  h<  mia  ami  Mo- 

ravia, with    many  of  the   inhabi  oi   other 

countries  of  Europe,  joined  themselves.  Since 
time,  the  church,  though  still  small  in 
numbers,  has  spread  over  the  world,  carrying  on 
a  vast  mis  ion  work:  and.  at  the  present  time, 
it  supports  many  educational  institutions.  There 
are  three  thief  missionary  provinces:  <  Continental 
Europe,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States. 

I.  Ancient  Church  (1457  —  Ki'27).  —  Very 
soon  after  tin'  founding  of  the  church,  the 
brethren  began  to  devote  themselves  to  educa- 
tion; the  first  si  1 Is  were  held  in  the  parson- 
ages of  the  ministers,  the  scholars  being  chiefly 
candidates  for  the  ministry.  Soon,  however, 
parochial  schools  were  est  tblished  for  thorough 
training  in  the  elements  <>i  knowledge,  including 
the    Latin  language;  many  of  the  pupils  were 


MORAVIAN   BRETHREN 


599 


not   members   of  the  church.      Classical  schools 
or  colleges  were  founded  at  Eibenschuti  (under 
Esrom   Rudinger,  of  Wittenberg),  Meserritsch, 
and    Fulneck,  in   Moravia;    Lissa,  in  Poland; 
and  other  places;  these  colleges  were  well  at- 
tended, many  of  the  students  being    Roman 
Catholics.   In  L585,  there  were, in  addition,  three 
theological  seminaries, — at  Jungbunzlau,  Bohe- 
mia :  and  Prerau  and  Eibcnschiitz.in  Moravia; 
in  these  was  afterwards  added  one  at  Lissa.  in 
Poland.  The  most  distinguished  educators  in  the 
ancient  Church  of  the  Brethren  were  Blahoslav, 
the  author  of  a  Bohemian  grammar,  still  in  use  ; 
Riidinger;   and  John  Amos    Comenius.     The 
latter  was  a  skillful  educator, and  his  new  meth- 
ods of  teaching  gained  him  great  celebrity.     He 
is  one  of  the  forerunners  of  the  so-called  "mod- 
ern "  system  of  object-teaching  and  of  the  kin- 
dergarten.    He  was  in  constant  correspondence 
with  prominent  educators   throughout  Europe, 
and  traveled  much  in  the  cause  of  education. 
He   finally  settled  at  Amsterdam,  in  Holland, 
where  he  died  Nov.  22.,  1670.     Up  to  the  day 
of  his  death,  he  was  unwearied  as  a  writer  in  be- 
half of  education  and  of  his  beloved  church,  of 
which  he  had  become  the  senior  bishop.     (See 
Come.vhjs.)     Though  that  church  was  now  seem- 
ingly stamped  out  of  existence,  he  hoped  against 
hone  that  it  would  be  restored.     And  this  hope 
was  fulfilled.     Emigrants,  for  conscience'  sake, 
from  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  were  the  first  settlers 
of  Herrnhut,  in  Saxony.     The  first  little  band 
arrived  in  June,  1722  ;  and,  on  May  12.,  1721,  the 
c  uner-stone  of  the   first  school-house  was  laid. 
This  building  was  erected  in  pursuance  of  a  plan 
formed  by  Zinzendorf  to  establish  institutions 
similar  to  those  at  Halle,  wdiere  he  had  studied 
under  Francke.     Though  the  project  was  soon 
abandoned,  particularly  as   this  first  school  in 
Herrnhut  proved  a  failure  ;  still,  from  that  day. 
May  12.,  1724,  dates  the  educational  activity  of 
the  Renewed  Brethren's  Church. 

II.  Renewed  Brethren's  Church  (1727— 187G). 
The  school,  therefore,  preceded  the  organization 
<>i  the  church.  As  additional  congregations  were 
founded,  parochial  schools  were  introduced  ; 
with  the  spread  of  missions,  schools  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  converts  were  begun  ;  theological 
schools  were  needed  for  the  education  of  minis- 
ters ;  and  friends  of  the  church  urged  the  estab- 
lishment of  boarding  schools.  The  most  promi- 
nent educators  within  the  church,  and  especially  in 
the  German  province,  have  been  Johann  Nitsch- 
mann.  Sr.;  Polycarp  Midler,  the  founder  of  the 
scientific  internal  development;  Paul  Eugen 
Layritz  (author  of  a  Latin  dictionary  long  in 
use),  who,  with  his  son-in-law.  Christian  Theodor 
Zembsch,  the  latter  for  55  years  teacher  and 
president  of  the  Poedagogium,  may  be  con- 
sidered the  real  founder  of  the  Moravian  school 
system.  Bishop  Johann  Friedrich  Reichel, 
though  not  directly  employed  as  an  instructor, 
deserves  special  mention,  as  he  was  very  active 
in  the  establishment  of  boarding-schools,  the 
Poedagogium,  and  the  theological  seminary.  By 
his  wise  counsel  he  assisted  those  more  actively 


engaged  in  teaching  to  overcome  many  of  tin' 
difficulties  which  attended  the  establishment  of 
the  new  school  enterprises. — Up  to  the  year 
1769,  the  Hallean  or  pietistic  mode  of  educa- 
tion prevailed.  With  the  rise  of  the  philan- 
thropic school    (Voltaire,    Basedow,  etc.),  the 

Brethren  adopted  those  of  the  new  ideas  which 
seemed  to  them  good,  suitable,  and  not  in  con- 
ilict  with  Christian  principles  ;  and.  thus,  in 
place  of  the  pietistic  asceticism  of  Halle,  there 
came  a  tendency  which  was  more  humanistic, 
and  more  friendly  disposed  toward  the  culture 
both  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  The  present 
educational  activity  of  the  church  will  be  con- 
sidered under  the  following  six  heads  : 

(1 )  Primary  Schools. — Great  stress  is  laid  by 
the  Brethren  on  the  importance  of  home  train- 
ing ;  and  it'  is  officially  recognized  that  "  the 
foundation  of  the  future  good  or  evil  conduct  of 
a  child  is  laid  at  home,  and  that  the  faults  and 
defects  which  there  develop  themselves  are  sel- 
dom or  never  remedied  elsewhere." 

(a)  Infant  schools — up  to  the  7th  year  of  age. 
In  many  of  the  congregations,  especially  in  Eu- 
rope, infant  schools  are  kept,  the  main  object  of 
which  is  "  to  employ  the  little  ones  with  short 
and  easy  lessons,  and  to  awaken  their  faculties, 
— not  to  burden  the  mind  at  the  expense  of  their 
health,  and  of  the  future  development  of  mind 
and  body."  The  main  requisite  is  held  to  be  "a 
suitable  teacher,  fond  of  children,  who  can  enter 
into  their  feelings,  and  understand  how  to  man- 
age and  interest  them." 

(b)  Parochial  schools — from  the  7th  to  the  14th 
year.  In  Europe,  generally,  and,  in  America,  in 
several  places,  there  are  parochial  schools,  open 
to  children  of  the  congregation,  and  also  to 
others.  Religious  instruction  forms  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  education,  the  object  being  to 
care  for  the  heart  and  soul  as  well  as  for  the  in- 
tellect. In  these  schools,  all  the  fundamental 
branches  are  taught;  too  rapid  development  is.  on 
principle,  avoided.  Wherever  parochial  schools, 
from  the  nature  of  the  case,  cannot  be  kept, 
other  schools,  public  or  private,  are  used,  prefer- 
ence being  had  for  those  in  which  Christian 
principles  prevail.  In  these  cases,  religious  in- 
struction is,  in  part,  supplied  by 

(<■)  Sunday-schools,  which  are  more  common  in 
America  than  in  England  or  Germany.  In  these 
latter  countries,  they  are  more  confined  to  their 
original  purpose. — to  impart  instruction,  secular 
or  religious,  to  those  who  are  unable  to  obtain  it 
during  the  week. 

(2)  Boitrding-Schools — from  the  7th  to  the  1 8th 
year,  and  upward.  The  first  boarding-school 
was  opened  at  Neuwied  on  the  Bhine,  Prussia, 
in  1756.  The  number  of  church  boarding- 
schools  had  increased  to  51  at  the  close  of  the 
year  1875.  The  number  of  scholars,  each  year, 
ranges  from  2,500  to  3,000.  In  the  German 
province,  there  are  30  schools,  14  for  boys  (COO 
pupils),  16  for  girls  (759),  including  the  two 
boarding-schools  and  the  primary  department 
for  the  children  of  missionaries,  In  the  British 
province,  there  are  15  schools ;  6  for  boys  (281 


600 


MORAVIAN   BRETITREN 


pupils),  and  9  for  girls  (302),  one  of  those  for 
boys  being  a  primary  boarding-school.  In  the 
American  province,  there  are  6  schools;  2  for 
boys  (180  pupils), namely,  Nazareth  Ball,  Naza- 
reth, Northampton  Co.,  Pa.  (125  to  150  pupils]  : 
Salem  Boys'  School,  Salem.  Forsyth  Co.,  N.  C. 
(30  pupils);  and  4  for  girls  (750  pupils);  namely, 
Seminary  for  Young  Ladies,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
(j?50  pupils);  Linden  Ball,  Litiz,  Lancaster 
Co.,  Pa.  (80  to  100)  ;  Salem  Female  Academy 
(about  225  pupils);  and  Hope  Seminary,  Hope. 
Bartholomew  Co..  End.  (60  to  80  pupils).  The 
course  of  study,  in  all  these  schools,  embraces, 
first,  the  fundamental  branches,  and  after  that, 
whatever  accomplishments  are  deemed  necessary 
by  the  parents,  and  by  the  demands  of  the  times. 
Special  attention  is  paid  to  music,  mathematics, 
and  the  classical  and  modern  languages.  As  far 
as  is  known,  the  Seminary  at  Bethlehem,  which 
was  opened  as  a  school  for  girls  in  1749,  and  as 
a  boarding-school  in  178.").  is  the  pioneer  school 
in  America  in  the  education  of  women.  At 
Nazareth  Ball,  there  are  special  classes  to  prepare 
boys  to  enter  either  a  college  or  a  polytechnic  or 
scientific  school  ;  the  former  with  a  special  view 
to  the  theological  seminary.  One  peculiarity  of 
the  method  of  training  is  the  constant  super- 
vision of  all  the  scholars  by  the  teachers,  the 
ideal  being  the  watchful  care  of  parents  over  the 
family.  Though  irksome  to  boys  and  girls,  this 
principle  of  -Moravian  education  still  commends 
itself  to  those  who  have  the  responsible  charge 
of  the  pupils.  The  aim  of  all  the  boarding- 
schools  is  not  brilliancy  of  attainments,  but  a 
solid  foundation;  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  be 
equal  to  the  standard  of  modern  requirements. 
Due  and  careful  attention  is  paid  to  moral  and 
religious  training.  Besides  the  church  schools, 
there  are  other  private  boarding-schools  con- 
ducted by  members  of  the  church,  notably  those 
for  boys  at  Litiz.  The  same  principles  of  edu- 
cation prevail  in  all. 

(3)  Classic  d  Schools  ana  Colleges. — The  prin- 
cipal college  is  that  at  Nisky,  in  Prussia,  official- 
ly stylel  the  posdagogium,  with  60  students. 
Th'-  course  of  study  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
German  gymnasia  of  the  higher  class,  and  special 
attention  is  paid  to  the  Bebrew  language.  In  the 
schools  at  Fulneck,  England,  and  Nazareth.  Pa., 
classical  studies  are  pursued  bythe  higher  classes 
of  boys  who  prepare  for  college  or  the  university. 
Many  of  those  at  Nazareth  Ball, especially  those 
who  are  candidates  for  the  ministry  in  the  Mo- 
ravian Church,  continue  their  classical  studies  in 
the  Theological  Seminary  ai  Bethlehem,  I';'.  The 
preparatory  classical  course  continues  two  years. 

(I)  Theological  Seminaries.  —  The  seminary 
of  the  German  province,  founded  in  17M.">.  is 
now  located  at  Gnadenfeld,  Prussia.  The  num- 
ber of  students  averages  25,  in  3  classes,  with  I 

professors.    The  theological  course,  of  three  years. 

u  very  thorough.    The  seminary  of  the  British 

province  is  the  Training  Institution,  founded  in 
I860,  at  Fairfield,  near  Manchester;  it  combines 

a  seminary    proper   and    a    normal  school.     The 
seminary  of  the  American  province,  founded  in 


1807,  at  Nazareth,  since  1858  permanently  located 
at  Bethlehem,  incorporated  in  1864  as  The 
Moravian  College  and  Theological  Seminary, 
though  familiarly  known  by  the  latter  half  of 
its  title,  averages  30  students,  with  4  pro* 
ors.  The  course  of  study,  after  two  years'  pre; 
atory  training  at  Nazareth,  is  for  6  years  ;  three 
and  a  half  devoted  to  the  classics,  mathematics, 
natural  science,  Hebrew,  and  philosophy,  and  two 
and  a  half  years  to  theological  studies.  Special 
attention  is  paid,  throughout  thecourse,  to  the 
study  of  German.  The  full  course  of  training 
for  a  minister,  therefore,  occupies  8  years,  or  its 
equivalent  in  work.  Classes  are  formed  bien- 
nially. The  endowment  fund  is  very  small ;  but 
the  charge  for  students  preparing  for  the  Mo- 
ravian ministry  is  nominal,  the  expenses  being 
defrayed  by  the  church. 

(5)  Special  Schools. — In  Germany,  there  are 
two  normal  schools  for  training  young  men  and 
women  as  teachers ;  a  missionary  institute  for 
training  missionaries  ;  and  a  technical  school  at 
Gnadenberg,  Prussia.  In  connection  with  the 
mission  work,  there  are  normal  and  industrial 
schools  ;  in  the  latter,  instruction  is  given  in  agri- 
culture, mechanics,  printing,  book-binding.  <  tc 

(6)  Schools  in  On'  missionary  Provinces. — The 
instruction  of  old  and  young  in  religion,  general 
knowledge,  and  industrial  art,  is  a  chief  part  of 
the  duty  of  the  missionaries  of  the  church.  Their 
labors  in  education  cover  the  following  field: 
Greenland,  Labrador,  the  North  American  In- 
dians. Mosquitia,  the  English  and  Danish  West 
Indies.  Dutch  Guiana  or  Surinam.  South  Africa, 
Australia,  and  Vest  Himalaya.  In  these  mission 
provinces,  there  are  the  following  schools:  (1)  a 
theological  seminary,  in  Jamaica.  W.  I.;  (5)  nor- 
mal schools — 2  in  Jamaica,  1  each  in  Antigua, 
in  Surinam,  and  in  South  Africa;  in  Greenland, 
4  normal  classes:  and  in  Labrador.  .'!.  at  dif- 
ferent stations,  as  the  isolation  prevents  com- 
plete union  in  a  normal  school.  The  pupils  num- 
ber, in  all.  about  LOO;  but  the  number  increases 
each  year.  There  are  maintained  21  7  day  schools, 
at  or  near  the  92  mission  stations.with  756  teach- 
ers and  1.5,173  scholars:  besides  Sunday-schools. 
With  the  most,  infant  schools  are  also  connected; 
many  adults  attend  special  classes.  Many  of  the 
scholars  are  not  connected  with  the  church.  'I  he 
instruction  ranges  front  a  primary  to  a  grammar- 
school  grade.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  "amoi  g 
1 ,200  colonial  schools  in  Gippsland,  Australia,  the 
school  for  natives  at  I'amahyuk.  consisting  of 
perhaps  the  lowest  and  most  degraded  of  heathen 
tribes,  the  aborigines  of  Australia  gained,  in  1873, 
the  highest  prize  offered  by  the  government." 

Principles  of  Education. — The  schools  of  the 
Brethren  are  con  lucted  on  religious,  though  not 
sectarian,  principles.     In    regard   to   the   method 

of  teaching,  the  I  feneral  Synod  of  1 869  reiterates: 

"While    we   would   earnestly  endeavor    to  keep 

pace  with  other  schools  in  imparting  a  store  of 

solid  useful  knowledge,  we  would  not  aim  at 
that  extent  or  display  of  learning  which  tends 
to  foster  vanity,  to  lead  to  the  neglect  of  proper 
regard  for  health,  and  to  destroy  that  simplicity 


MOROCCO 


M  OTHER-TONGUE 


601 


of  in  it  id  and  buoyancy  of  spirit  which  are  es- 
sential to  the  success  01  our  efforts." 

The  Renewed  Churchof  the  Brethren  haspro- 

dUced  no  educator  with  a  world-wide  influence  like 

Gomenius ;  the  energies  of  her  school-men  have 

a  directed  to  the  improvement  of  the  church 

schools.  Indirectly,  however,  the  Moravians  have 

done  much  for  the  cause  of  general  education. 
By  impressing  on  all  their  schools  the  essential 
points  of  the  German  method  of  instruction, 
-which  is  unostentatious,  patient,  laborious,  and 
therefore,  likely  to  be  thorough."  (W.  C.  Rei- 
chel.  Nazareth  Hall  and  its  Reunions.)  In  the 
majority  of  the  schools,  there  is  instruction  in 
physical  training.  There  is  no  opposition  to  the 
common-school  system.  On  the  question  of  the 
co-education  of  the  sexes  there  has  been  no  dis- 
cussion or  action,  as  no  necessity  for  it  has  arisen. 
Statistical  Summary.— On  the  1st  of  January, 
1875,  with  a  home  membership  of  1  7,993  com- 
municants (total  membership,  including  children, 
2!>. 305),  there  were  under  the  care  of  the  Mo- 
ravians I  theological  seminaries,  with  83  students; 
•1  colleges  and  classical  schools,  with  140  students: 
!)  normal  schools  and  7  normal  classes,  with  L50 
students:  f>l  boarding-schools,  with  about  2, 7 HO 
pupils;  217  common  schools  in  the  mission 
provinces,  with  15,173  pupils;  also  about  200 
pupils  in  the  technical  and  industrial  schools; 
and  about  .'5,000  pupils  in  parochial  and  infant 
schools— a  total  of  persons  under  instruction  of 
,21.1  Ki.  Adding  the  Sunday-school  pupils,  the 
grand  total  swells  to  43,500.  The  number  of 
professors  and  teachers  in  the  seminaries, colleges, 
boarding-schools,  and  parochial  schools  ranges  be- 
tween 500  and  600;  of  teachers  in  the  mission 
held,  750;  of  Sunday-school  teachers,  about  1,500. 
Further  information  in  regard  to  the  Moravian 
schools  and  school  system  may  be  found  in 
Comenius,  School  of  Infancy  (London,  1858); 
Plitt,  Das  theologisclie  Seminarium  (of  the 
German  province) ;  Gammert,  Geschichte  des 
Pcedagogiums  (at  Xisky,  Prussia)  ;  W.  C.  Rei- 
chei,.  History  of  Bethlehem  Female  Seminary, 
and  Nazareth  11  ill  and  its  Reunions,  which 
contains  a  brief  sketch  of  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary of  the  American  province ;  Verbeek,  An- 
leitung  fur  Lehrer  und  Lehrerinnen;  and  the 
Synodal  Results  of  1869. 

MOROCCO,  or  Marocco,  an  empire  in  the 
north-western  part  of  Africa;  area,  259,000 
sq.  m.;  population,  about  6,000,000.  In  ancient 
times,  it  formed  part  of  the  territory  known  as 
Mauritania,  and  subsequently  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, with  which  it  remained  up  to  429  A.  I)., 
when  it  was  overrun  by  the  Vandals.  After  its 
reconquest,  in  534  A.  D.,  it  formed  a  province  of 
the  Eastern  Empire.  Upon  its  conquest  by  the 
Arabs,  in  the  7th  century.  Mohammedanism  was 
introduced,  to  which  religion. at  present,  the  whole 
population,  with  the  exception  of  several  hundred 
thousand  dews,  belongs.  Education,  in  Morocco, 
is  in  a  very  low  state.  All  that  remains  of  the 
ancient  universities,  at  the  present  day,  is  the 
university  of  Dar-eMbn,  which,  in  the  middle 
ages,  had  an  extensive  reputation,  and  was  at- 


tended by  Arabs  from  all  parts  of  Africa.  It 
still  confers  academic  degrees  ;   and  its  head,  the 

Mufti,  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  in  the 

empire,  young  men  destined  to  letters.  law,  or 
the  service  of  religion,  are  instructed  here  in 
grammar.  Arabic  poetry,  and  Mohammedan  law 
and  religion;  otherwise,  education  is  confined  to 
reading   and    reciting   passages  of  the    Koran. 

The  libraries  of  Fez  and  Morocco,  which  wen; 
once  celebrated  throughout  the  Arabic  world 
have  disappeared;  and  the  study  of  medicine, 
which  at  one  time  had  been  brought  to  a 
great  degree  of  proficiency,  has  completely  de- 
generated. As  in  other  Mohammedan  countries, 
whatever  primary  instruction  is  afforded  is  given 
in  schools  connected  with  the  mosques ;  but, 
there  are  no  statistics  to  show  to  what  extent 
this  exists. 

MOTHER.     Sec  Home  Education. 

MOTHER-TONGUE,  the  language  in  which 
the  child  utters  the  first  articulate  sounds,  and  in 
which  his  education  is  conducted  until  he  is  sent 
to  school.  It  is  so  called  because  the  mother  is 
the  child's  natural  teacher  during  this  period ; 
and  it  is  the  mother's  vocabulary,  construc- 
tion, and  pronunciation  that  are  copied  by 
the  child,  and  that  constitute  the  germ  from 
which  the  child's  own  language  gradually  develops 
itself.  That  this  prerogative  of  the  mother- 
tongue  should  be  sacredly  respected,  and  that  no 
circumstances  should  be  permitted  to  weaken  its 
influence,  will  not  be  disputed  by  any  educator. 
It  is,  however,  no  interference  with  this  that 
children,  by  associating  with  companions  who 
speak  a  different  language,  should  learn,  at  an 
early  period,  to  converse  in  a  second  tongue ; 
since,  when  the  mother  exerts  her  legitimate  in- 
fluence, the  language  in  which  she  communes 
with  the  child  will  continue  to  be  the  first 
moulder  of  the  youthful  mind. — The  privileged 
position  of  the  mother-tongue  during  the  first 
years  of  a  child's  life,  ceases  with  the  beginning 
of  school  instruction.  The  language  of  the  school 
is  not  necessarily  the  mother-tongue,  but  the 
national  language.  The  terms  are  by  no  means 
identical,  as  is  frequently  assumed.  It  is  obviously 
a  great  advantage  that  children,  on  entering 
school,  should  find  there  the  language  with  which 
they  are  familiar,  and  through  which  the  first 
development  of  their  mental  powers  has  been 
conducted,  and  their  little  stock  of  knowledge  has 
been  obtained.  It  is  thus  easy  for  the  intelligent 
teacher  to  establish  at  once  the  most  complete 
harmony  between  family  education  and  school 
instruction.  But  millions  of  children,  even  in 
civilized  countries,  are  still  growing  up  without 
this  advantage  :  and,  upon  being  sent  to  school, 
are  placed  under  the  instruction  of  ateacher  whose 
language  they  understand  either  very  imperfectly 
or  not  at  all.  In  consequence  of  the  extensive 
intermigration  which  characterizes  this  age, 
the  children  of  foreigners,  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  are  quite  frequently  received  into  public 
schools  the  language  of  which  is  unknown  to 
them;  and  it  is  evident  that  all  that  is  pos- 
sible, in    such   cases,  is  some  special  attention 


C02     MOUNT  ST.  MARY'S  COLLEGE 


MURRAY 


on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  the  educational 
wants  and  to  the  progress  of  the  little  .strangers. 
But  as  few  countries,  at  the  present  time,  arc 
inhabited  by  people  of  only  one  nationality,  it  is 
also  very  common  to  find  localities,  or  even 
large  districts,  where  a  large  portion  of  the  chil- 
dren—indeed, sometimes  the  majority — speak  at 
home  a  language  different  from  that  in  which 
they  are  instructed  at  school.  Thus  the  Celtic 
and  the  German  mother-tongues  are  extensively 
rn.t  with  in  English  schools;  the  Polish,  Wendish, 
and  French,  in  German  schools ;  the  German, 
Polish,  Finnish,  and  many  other  languages,in  Rus- 
sian schools;  and  the  Italian,  in  French  schools. 
[n  such  cases,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  that 
nearly  all  the  young  pupils  understand  some  other 
language  better  than  that  through  which  they 
receive  their  school  instruction,  and  in  which 
they  are  expected  to  reach  the  highest  state  of 
perfection.  Wherever  this  state  of  things  exists, 
it  forces  upon  the  attention  of  teachers  and  school 
legislators  the  question  to  what  extent  any  claims 
in  behalf  of  the  mother-tongue, either  asa  means 
or  as  a  branch  of  public  instruction,  deserve  con- 
sideration. The  legislation  on  this  subject  has 
been  very  vacillating,  and  still  greatly  differs  in 
various  countries ;  but  the  general  tendency,  at 
present,  is  to  ext  snd,by  means  both  of  school  leg- 
islation and  sch  >ol  education,  the  domain  of  the 
national  language.  (See  National  Language.) 

MOUNT  SAINT   MARY'S   COLLEGE, 
a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  chartered  in  L830, 

is    situate  I    about     2    luiies    from     Fminettsbuig, 

i\ld.  [t  has  a  prepara  orj  a  i  I  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, and  possesses  excellent  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus,  a  mineralogical  collection, 
and  libraries  containing  about  LI, 000  volumes. 
The  regular  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is 
$150  per  session  of  iive  months.  The  system 
of  education  is  a  combined  classical  and  com- 
mercial one,  including  the  various  arts  and  sci- 
ences usually  taught  in  colleges  of  the  first  class. 
In  L875— 6,  there  were  L2  professors,  L8  other 
instructors,  and  180  students.  The  Rev.  John 
McCloskey,  D.D.,isthe  president  (1876). 

MOUNT  SAINT  MARY'S  SEMINARY 
OF  THE  WEST,  a  Etonian  Catholic  institu- 
tion in  Cincinnati.  Ohio,  was  founded  in  1848. 
The  course  of  instruction  is  of  two  gra 
preparatory  and  theological.  In  the  preparatory 
department,  all  branches  pertaining  to  a  regular 
collegiate  coins  ■  are  taught  in  seven  different 
elasses,  embracing  as  many  years  of  study;  of 
these,  the  Last  four  correspond  to  a  regular  col- 
lege course,  the  first  three  embodying  the  pre- 
{ oratory  studies.  The  theological  course1  em- 
uraces  a   period  of    three  years.    The  library 

< tains    about     L5.000    volumes.      All   students 

are  required  to  pay  $160  a  year  inward  boar.  1 
and  tuition.  In  L875— 6,  there  were  8  instrui 
tors,  and  111  students,  all  preparing  for  the 
priesthood.  The  Very  Rev.  F.J.  Pabisch, D. D., 
LL,  D.,  has  been  the  president  of  the  institution 
once  L863. 

MOUNT    UNION  COLLEGE,   at    Mount 
1  oion,  near  Alliance,  Ohio,  was  organized  asa 


seminary  in  1846,  as  a  college  in  1858.  Among  its 
distinguishing  features  are  entire  liberty  in  the 
choice  of  studies,  the  prominence  given  to  practical 
studies,  its  Christian,  but  not  sectarian  nor  par- 
tisan character,  the  admission  of  females  to  equal 
privileges  in  all  the  departments,  and  its  econ- 
omy for  students.  The  college  has  productive 
funds  to  the  amount  of  over  $45]  ,000,  and  valu- 
able apparatus  and  extensive  cabinets.  There 
are  four  general  courses  of  four  years  each, 
namely,  science,  philosophy,  liberal  literature 
and  arts,  and  classics.  1  he  special  courses  are 
music,  fine  arts,  normal,  and  commercial.  There 
is  a  preparatory  department.  The  degrees  of 
Master  of  Arts.  Master  of  Science,  and  Master 
or  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  are  not  honorary  de- 
grees, but  are  conferred  on  those  who  have  com- 
pleted, and  sustained  an  actual  examination  in,  a 
suitable  post-graduate  course  of  one  year's  study. 
hi  187;"). — 6.  there  were  IS  instructors  and  842 
students,  of  whom  .'544  were  in  the  collegiate  de- 
partment. The  Rev.  0.  N.  Hartshorn,  LL.  D., 
is  (l87<i)  the  president. 

MUHLENBERG  COLLEGE,  at  Allen- 
town,  Fa.,  is  under  Evangelical  Lutheran  con- 
trol. It  was  opened  as  a  seminary  in  1848,  and 
as  a  college  under  its  present  name  in  L867.  It 
is  supported  by  tuition  tees,  synodical  aid,  and 
the  income  of  an  endowment  of  $50,000.  The 
buildings  are  surrounded  by  about  five  acres  of 
ground.  The  libraries  contain  about  3,600  vol- 
umes, 'i  he  institution  embraces  a  collegiate  de- 
partment, with  a  course  of  four  years,  and  an 
academic  department,  with  a  course  of  three 
years.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  collegiate  de- 
partment is  $50  a  year.  In  L874 — .*».  there  w<  re 
8  instructors  and  1 1 1  students  (42  collegiate  and 
69  academic).  The  Few  Frederick  A.  Muhlen- 
berg, D.  I).,  has  been  the  president  of  the  college 
from  its  organization. 

MURRAY,  Lindley,  was  born  in  1745  at 
Swetara,  near  Lancaster,  Pa.;  died  near  York, 
England,  in  L826.  He  at  first  devoted  himself 
to  the  law,  but  abandoned  it  for  commerce  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  disputes  with  the  mother 
country,  and  retired  with  a  competency,  on  the 
establishment  of  American  independence.  In 
L  784,  he  went  to  England  for  his  health:  and, 
■  some  months,  fixed  his  residence  at  Bold- 
gate,  near  York,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death.  Murray  never  was  a  professional  teacher. 
His  Grammar  arose  out  o\  some  lessons  which 
he  gave  to  the  assistants  at  a  girls'  school  in 
York.  His  pupils  appreciated  his  efforts,  and 
urged  him  to  write  an  English  grammar.  This 
appeared  in   L795,  ■was  followed  by  a  book  of 

exercises  and  a   key,  and    has   passed  through  a 

great   number  of   editions,    l»>t!i    in    England 

and    America.      It    was  compiled    from     Harris, 

l.owth.  Blair,  Campbell,  and  others;  and  the 
larger  edition,  at  least,  contains  many  good  points. 
It.- faults  arc  too  frequent  vagueness  and  want 
of  simplicity  in  the  language,  together  with  de- 
ficiencies in  the  accidence,  which  were  perhaps 
inseparable  from  a  work  written  at  that  date. 
\  good  teacher  might  occasionally  gather  useful 


MUSIC 


G03 


matter  from  Murray's  Grammar,  but  would  not 
Use  it  as  a  class-book.  Mr.  Washington  Moon,  in 
Bad  English  (London.  L868),  lias  drawn  atten- 
tion to  passages  in  the  Grammar  in  which  Mur- 
ray has  violated  his  own  rules.  A  few  of  Mr. 
M, inn's  criticisms,  however,  it  is  impossible  to 
agree  with.  Murray  published  several  reading 
books  also,  besides  some  works  of  a  religious 
nature.  He  was  a.  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  and  a  man  of  great  benevolence.  The 
Autobiography  of  Murray,  down  to  L 809,  ap- 
peared after  his  death,  with  a  continuation  by 
Elizabeth  Frank.  This  autobiography  was  writ- 
ten in  the  form  of  letters,  and  contains  some  in- 
teresting passages.  The  continuation  is  an  undis- 
eriininating  eulogy  of  Murray  and  his  works; 
it  heaps  up  testimonies  as  to  their  value,  but 
Bays  not  a  syllable  of  those  who,  like  Orombie, 
ha  1  criticised  various  points  in  the  Grammar. 

MUSIC,  according  to  the  Old  Testament,  was 
Cultivated  by  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the 
earth.  However  this  may  be,  there  is  unques- 
tionable proof  that  Joseph,  and  further  on  in 
Hebrew  history.  Moses  and  his  sister  Miriam, 
Were  well  versed  in  the  customs,  and  were 
measurably  acquainted  with  the  arts,  of  the 
Egyptians,  which  included  the  use  of  the  lyre 
an  1  other  musical  instruments,  rude  sculptured 
forms  of  which  may  be  seen  in  ancient  Egyptian 
temples  to  this  day. —  It  is  an  interesting  study, 
to  trace  the  progressof  music  among  the  Israelites, 
who  not  only  employed  it  religiously  to  express 
their  joy  and  gratitude  to  Jehovah  for  their  safe 
deliverance  from  the  hauls  of  their  enemies,  but 
in  war  and  on  social  occasions,  sought  its  in- 
spiriting power  to  encourage  the  soldier  to  re- 
newed effort,  on  the  one  hand;  or,  in  friendly 
gatherings,  to  "assuage,  pacify,  and  amuse,  on  the 
other.  The  priests  themselves  assisted  in  this 
work  among  the  ancient  people  of  God.  These 
■musical  influences  were  cultivated  and  advanced 
"with  the  increasing  number  and  power  of  the 
Jews,  until  they  arrived  at  the  height  of  their 
glory  during  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon. 
The  immortal  lyrics  of  King  David  are  called  the 
national  songs  ami  hymns  of  the  ancient  Hebrews. 
Much  his  been  written  to  show  the  character  of 
th  ■  music  formerly  sung  in  the  temple  to  the  ex- 
'  dingly  varied  sense  of  the  psalms.  Antiphonal 
'effects  were  probably  produced  by  choirs  under 
separate  leaders,  but  the  gran  I  director  of  them 
all  was  David  himself.  The  instrumental  ac- 
companiments must  have  been  of  no  mean  order. 
We  find,  on  examination,  that  the  harp,  the  psal- 
tery, the  shawm,  the  cornet,  the  lute,  the  tabret, 
the  cymbals,  —  ''every  thing  that  has  breath," 
that  is,  every  thing  that  had  a  resonant  body 
which  would  vibrate  through  the  action  of  the 
air  upon  it, — all  were  to  be  used  in  carrying  out 
the  divine  injunction,  "  Praise  yethe  Lord!" — 
Four  hundred  years  later,  while  Daniel  stood 
high  in  the  favor  of  Nebuchadnezzar  at  the 
court  of  Babylon,  we  read  of  the  setting  up  of 
agolden  image  by  the  king,  which  Daniel  was 
required  to  worship  at  the  moment  when  he 
should  hear  the  sound  of  the  "  cornet,  flute,  harp, 


sackbut,  psaltery,  dulcimer,  and  all  kinds  of 
music."  Of  these  ancient  musical  instruments, 
the  harp,  the  psaltery,  the  lute,  and  the  dulcimer 
were  stringed;  while  the  cornet,  the  trumpet, the 

flute,  and  the  sackbut  were  wind  instruments. 

'The  sackbut  was  the  precursor  of  the  trombone, as 
the  tabret  or  timbrel  was  of  the  tambourine  and 
drum.  Egyptian,  Babylonian,  Assyrian,  Phoeni- 
cian, as  well  as  Hebrew,  were  familiar  with  the 
use  of  these  instruments,  their  music  being  prob- 
ably of  a  unisonant  character,  and  destitute  of 
what  is  known  to  modern  (  hristian  nations  as  har- 
mony, technically  so  called.  A  II  these  elder  peoples 
contributed  to  that  beautiful  union  of  the  arts 
and  letters  which  found  in  Greece,  during  con- 
temporary and  later  days,  a  perfection  of  detail 
and  a  consummate  working  of  available  means 
to  desirable  ends,  which  all  succeeding  time  must 
recognize  as  more  thoroughly  harmonious,  in  the 
sense  of  combining  all  departments  of  human 
labor  to  produce  effective  results,  than  any 
which  preceded  them.  Pythagoras  was  the  orig- 
inator of  those  ideas  of  harmony  which,  tested 
by  vibrations  produced  by  the  mathematical 
divisions  of  a  string,  have  no  clearer  foundation 
for  the  whole  modern  system  of  concords  and 
discords  than  his  simple  theory.  Laws  and  gov- 
ernment, as  well  as  the  fine  arts,  and  the  customs 
of  social  life,  seemed  blended  together  for  intel- 
ligent recognition  by  means  of  the  chanted,  in- 
toned, or  musical  presentation  of  the  leaders. 
We  cannot  look  toward  more  remote  Eastern  or 
Asiatic  nations  for  so  magnificent  results,  nor 
indeed  for  any  thing  that  deserves  the  name  of 
music,  as  this  word  is  now  understood  by  the 
civilized  European  or  American.  Modern  Asiatic 
music  is  unmitigated  "  confusion  worse  con- 
founded/' The  musical  succession  did  not  pro- 
ceed in  that  direction.  The  mantle  of  Creek 
scholarship  and  Etruscan  art  fell  upon  Koine. 
Homer  walked  with  Virgil,  Demosthenes  with 
Cicero,  Pythagoras  with  Seneca.  Subsequently, 
the  Christian  bishop  linked  the  logic  of  Aristotle 
and  the  philosophy  of  Socrates  and  Plato  with 
the  Pentateuch  and  the  prophecies  of  the  elder 
dispensation,  and  sang  without  unrest  his  love 
of  Christ  in  Latin  lines  surmounted  with  Orcek 
letters,  to  denote  the  rising  and  the  falling  inflec- 
tions. St.  Ambrose,  bishopof  Milan  (A.D.  386) 
composed  many  hymns;  and  the  tradition  of  a 
majority  of  the  western  European  churches 
assigns  the  authorship  of  the  Te  Deum  to  his 
pen,  lovingly  memorizing  that  St.  Ambrose  and 
St.  Augustine  chanted  it  antiphonally  at  the 
baptism  of  the  latter.  This  statement  does  not 
assume  the  certainty  of  tin  historic  fact  ;  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  St.  Ambrose  improved 
the  church  music  of  his  day  by  adopting  the 
four  authentic  modes  founded  upon  the  Greek 
tetrachords.  The  Ambrosian  chant  continued 
to  be  used  as  the  music  for  the  hymns  and  dox- 
ologies  of  the  church  for  more  than  two  hundred 
years,  until  bt.  Gregory  added  four  more,  thus 
completing  what  have  since  been  known  as  the 
Eight  Oregorian  Tones.  Thirteen  hundred  years 
have  only  served  to  make  the  Oregorian  Tones 


G04 


Ml' SIC 


as  acceptable  as  they  were  in  the  earlier  ages  of 
the  church.  The  reason  is  obvious.  Whether 
it  be  tin'  Greek,  the  Latin,  or  the  Anglican  ser- 
vice, intoning  can  be  inure  distinctly  heard  than 
ordinary  speaking ;  and,  therefore,  it  is  more  ef- 
fective to  large  auditories  The  vehicle,  or  agree- 
able musical  sounds,  employed  for  this  purpose, 
must  necessarily  move  within  a  limited  compass, 
so  that  the  celebrant,  of  either  bass  or  tenor  voice, 
can  render  the  service  acceptably.  The  Eight 
Gregorian  Tones  contain  all  the  variety  of  mel- 
ody and  pitch  suitable  for  this  purpose;  and  priest, 
choir,  and  people  can  all  participate  in  the  ser- 
vice, by  using  these  ancient  chants,  without  extra- 
ordinary effort,  it  only  the  gift  of  a  correct  ear 
bevouchsafed  them.  The  Anglican  Church  has  a 
rieh  and  beautiful  variety  of  Single  chants  founded 
directly  upon  the  Gregorian  Tones,  and,  during 
the  past  thirty  years,  has  used  them  more  gener- 
ally than  at  any  period  since  the  Reformation. — 
St.  Gregory's  pontificate  was  also  distinguished 
musically,  by  the  erection  of  the  organ,  as  the 
permanent  musical  instrument  of  tin-  church.  Its 
origin,  according  to  some  writers,  was  the  syrinx, 
or  Pandean  pipes;  although  others  mention  as 
a  fact  that  Ctesiphon,  six  hundred  years  before 
Christ,  constructed  a  plain,  rude  "chest  of 
Whistles",  with  water  as  the  motive  power  for 
the  supply  of  wind.  Not  until  St.  Gregory's  day. 
however,  did  it  assume  proportions  sufficiently 
dignified   to  take   its  place  as    the    combined 

orchestral  support  of  the  music  of   the  church,  so 

far  a3  wind  blown  through  pipes  could  make  it 

orchestral,  li  never  can  yield  the  intense,  pen- 
etrating tone  of  the  violins  and  other  stringed 

instruments,    by  reason  of    the    difference  in    the 

application  of  the  motive  power.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  approaches  more  nearly  die  tone  of  the 
human  voice :  and  organ -builders  and  organists 

are  vying  with  each  other  in  developing  its  la- 
test achievement,  the  vox  humana,  to  a  degree  so 
near  to  perfection  in  the  beautiful,  that  some  have 
ventured  to  pronounce  it  angelic  ami  heavenly. 

— The  history  of  concords  and  discards  as  em- 
ployed in  music. — in  other  words,  the  origin  of 
the  whole  system  of  modern  harmony,  may  be 
said  to  date  from  the  use  of  the  organ  in  the 
church.  Not  until  the  pressing  of  one  key  with 
another,  producing  the  pure  harmony  of  thirds, 
ST  sixths,  did   the    idea  of   a    science  of   concord- 

and  discords,  remotely  outlined  a  thousand  years 
before,  present  itself  to  the  human  mind  through 
the  tympanum  of  the  human  ear,  acted  upon  by 

the  living,   breathing  tones   that    came    from    the 

pipes  of  an  organ.  Thenceforth,  music  began  to 
assume  the  aspect  and  proportions  of  a  positive 
language.  Bui  the  progress  was  slow.  After 
St.  Gregory,  ten  parallel  lines  were  used  instead 
of  one,  to  denote  the  ascent  ami  descent  of  the 

musical  phrase;  and  points  on  the  lines  only.  Op- 
posite I"  each  other.  Were  Used  to  represent  the 
Agreem  ait.  of  the  parts  with  each   other.      Hence 

the  term  counterpoint.    The  staff  was  afterward 

reduced  to  live  lines,  and   the   spaces    were   used 

as  well,  through  the  teaching  of  Guido  d'Axezzo, 

a  monk  of  the  1  1th  century,  who    must   lie  cred- 


ited also  with  the  establishment  of  the  gamut. or 
scale,  through  the  use  of  the  syllables  It.  /<•■. 
Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si,  selected  from  Latin  words 
in  honor  of  the  apostle  John. —  A  period  of  two 
centuries  followed,  in  which,  according  to  l>r. 
Bimbault,  no  remnants  or  record.-  of  secular 
music  can  he  found,  except  those  of  the  Trouba- 
dours. These  Provencal  minstrels  served  to  in- 
crease both  the  fancy  and  the  language  of  Dante, 
Petrarch,  and  other  Tuscan  poets,  in  the  lMth 
and  14th  centuries.  Little  variety  of  notation 
appeal's,  and  no  time  is  marked  in  their  produc- 
tions, yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  discover  in  them 
germs  of  the  future  melodies. as  well  as  the  poetry, 
of  I'' ranee  and  Italy.  'I  he  stanza  and  the  rhyme 
crept  into  the  church  also:  and  the  trochaic 
measure  generally  prevailed,  by  reason  of  the 
boldness  of  the  accent  at  the  commend  ment  of 
the  lines,  and  by  reason  also  of  the  inherent 
superiority  of  twofold  over  threefold  measure. 
'!  he  Latin  hymns.  Dies  Jrce  and  Stabat  Mater, 
are  well-known  examples  of  this.  The  harmonies 
of  the  church  music  and  of  the  secular,  thus  far, 
had  been  entirely  founded  upon  pure  concords, 
save  an  occasional  mild  discord  by  suspension. 
'I  he  union  of  this  sweet  harmony  with  quaint 
and  charming  rhythmical  devices  resulted  in  the 
construction  of  a  form  of  composition,  the 
madrigal,  than  which  nothing  more  satisfactory 
for   human    voices   has   vet    been  heard.      Roger 

North's  history  of  the  rise,  development,  and 
decline  of  this  delightful  music  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  contributions  to  English  musical 
literature  which  the  art-.M  udeiit  can  possess.      In 

ltaly.it  rose  with  Tasso ;  and  in  England,  with 
Spenser  and  Shakespeare,  and  the  grand  galaxy 
oi  ports  and  authors  who  have  shed  immortal 
luster  upon  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.     And 
it  declined  with  them.  Although  immense  strides 
in  variety  of   harmonic    progression    have    been 
taken  since  these  lovely  idyls  were  composed.} 
although   I'alestrina.   Pergolesi,  Scarlatti,  Bach, 
Handel,    Haydn.  Mozart.    Beethoven,  and   .Men- 
delssohn   have  left    immortal    works  which   can 
hardly  be  equaled,  and  can  never  he  excelled; 
although    1  iszt.  Wagner,  and    Rubinstein  have 
written  as  representative  composers  of  a  school 
of    music    founded    upon  sudden    ami    strange 
transitions   and    car  splitting    discords:    yet    the 
madrigal  of  the  Kith  and  Llth  centuries  remains 
a  living,  breathing,  visible  proof  that   the  truest, 
sweetest,  most   permanent   progressions  m  vocal 
harmony    are   those  which  recognize   this   fun- 
damental axiom  as  a  necessity;  namely,  that  <»,//- 
cords  are  the  rule,  and  discords  are  the  excep- 
tion.    And  here,  again,  the  church  is  the  source 
of  the  harmony  employed   in   constructing  the 
madrigal.     One   need   not   examine  long  with- 
out a  thorough  conviction  of  this  tact.     Com- 
pare the  harmony  of    Palestrinas  church  music 
with  that  of  the  earliest  madrigal  composers, and 

the  origin  of  the  latter  is  apparent.  The  differ- 
ence lies  not  so  much  in  the  harmonic  progn  ssion, 
as  in  the  words  and  the  cunning  rhythmic  How. — 
With  the  Reformation,  came  the  choral,  the 
people's  congregational  song.  And  here  stands  out 


MUSIC 


605 


M  irtin  Luther,  who  as  singer  ami  musician,  as  well 
as  theologian  ami  preacher,  exerted  an  influence 
second  to  none  in  liis  day.  From  the  time  when, 
as  a  boy,  he  Bang  the  song  of  the  Virgin  ami  the 
birth  of  Christ  in  Madam  Cotta's  house,  to  the 
dav  of  liis  death,  at  the  age  of  sixty-four.  he 
ceased  not  to  encourage  the  cultivation  of  this 
beautiful  art,  in  the  family,  in  the  parish  school, 
in  the  church,  in  the  social  gathering,  ami  in  the 
united  conferences  of  the  churches.  Every-where 
the  people's  congregational  song,  the  choral,  was 
used  to  arouse,  to  animate',  to  incite  to  new  ami 
enduring  effort  in  fighting  the  battle  of  life.  That 
this  view  of  the  important  part  which  Luther  ami 
his  music  bore  in  that  terrible  religious  struggle 
is  shared  by  impartial  judges,  will  be  obvious  to 
the  Student  of  music  who  examines  the  treatment 
of  Luther's  grand  old  choral.  Erne  feste  Burg 
is/  unser  Goti,  by  Meyerbeer  in  his  opera.  The 
Huguenots,  which  is  the  deliberate  and  admiring 
testimony  of  a  Hebrew  who  has  composed  the 
most  elaborate  operas  of  modern  times.  German 
scholars  truthfully  refer  to  the  examples  of  Luther 
ami  Melanchthon  as  pioneers  in  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion, literature,  and  art,  in  modern  Germany; 
and  musicians  can  certainly  point  to  Luther's 
establishment  of  the  study  and  practice  of  music' 
in  his  native  land  as  the  particular  cause  of  the 
nearly  general  and  complete  musical  intelligence 
of  that  people  in  modern  times. — Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  America  may  be  said  to  constitute  a 
triple  alliance  for  the  preservation  and  perpetua- 
tion of  the  choral.  It  was  the  sacred  song  that  came 
to  this  country  with  the  pilgrims  of  New  Eng- 
land, with  the  Hollanders  of  New  Amsterdam, 
and  with  the  loyalists  of  Maryland  and  Virginia. 
Events  wdiich  transpired  previous  to  and  during 
the  Revolutionary  war  quickened  and  invigorated 
its  rhythmic  pace,  as  we  see  and  feel  when  we 
sing  Old  Coronation ;  but  it  is  so  strongly  in- 
trenched within  the  hearts  of  the  people,  that 
wars  cannot  silence  its  perpetual  vibrations,  nor 
misfortune  and  disaster  impede  its  steady,  irre- 
sistible course.  Innovations,  in  the  shape  of 
rhythmic  irregularities  and  too  extended  melodic 
compass,  may  occasionally  mar  its  stately  pro- 
portions ;  but  it  finally  returns  to  its  original  and 
permanent  form,  one  note  to  each  syllable  of 
words,  supported  by  a  pure,  chaste  harmony  of 
concords.  He  who  softened  and  elaborated  the 
choral  until  it  became  to  the  ear  what  a  picture 
of  ever  varying  tints  is  to  the  eye,  was  Johann 
Sebastian  Bach,  a  tower  of  musical  strength  to 
his  own  and  to  every  other  civilized  land.  Of 
all  who  have  striven  to  preserve  a  lofty  and  en- 
during style,  in  the  musical  treatment  of  sacred 
subjects,  none  occupies  higher  ground  than  does 
this  modern  king  of  harmony  and  the  organ. 
It  is  impossible  to  review  the  state  of  music 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  1  "th  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  lNth  century,  without  recognizing  in 
almost  superlative  terms  his  claims  to  the  most 
genuine  and  unbounded  admiration.  From  single 
air  and  accompaniment,  through  movements  of 
two.  three,  four,  five,  six,  eight,  and  even  twenty- 
two  parts,  this  tireless  musician  spent  fifty  years 


of  continuous  labor  for  the  pleasure  and  instruc- 
tion of  his  sons  and  the  circle  in  which  he  moved. 
Originally  of  a  musical  family,  he  commenced 
bis  active  life  with  the  fullest  preparai  ion  for  his 
work;  and  never  did  he  falter  for  a  moment  in 
considering  his  efforts  as  little  less  than  a  divine 
duty.  Not  all  of  his  manuscripts  have  yet  been 
published;  and  a  new  and  deep  interest  has,  of 
late,  been  developed  in  every  thing  thai  emanated 
from  his  prolific  brain  and  pen. — This  new  and 
larger  liberty,  ushered  in  by  the  Reformation,  ap- 
peared in  the  masses  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  in  the  services  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  Composers  have  generally  been  willing 
to  adapt  themselves  to  the  musical  exigencies  of 
the  occasion.  "When,  under  the  /•<'■<//»<<■  of  pope, 
bishop,  or  stalwart  reformer,  the  boy  and  the 
man  singer  could  be  confined  to  the  Gregorian 
Tones,  the  strict  (anon  and  fugue,  and  the  digni- 

tied  choral,  the  music  was  certainly  irreproach- 
able in  form,  the  effect  was  direct  and  strong, 
and  the  people  were  satisfied.  When,  in  the 
course  of  time,  the  ecclesiastical  regime  became 
less  rigid  ;  when  composers  were  less  tied  to  strict 
contrapuntal  effect ;  and  when,  especially,  the 
female  voice  was  permitted  to  take  part  in  the 
separate  musical  services  of  the  sanctuary,  then, 
indeed,  the  church  music,  and  all  other  kinds  of 
music  felt  the  force  of  the  newr  influence.  The 
beautiful  masses  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  their  suc- 
cessors, give  evidence,  as  Ceo.  Hogarth  remarks, 
of  the  melodic  and  rhythmic  changes  which 
have  been  named  ;  but,  it  may  be  questioned 
whether,  with  all  the  grace  and  symmetry  which 
these  compositions  possess,  they  can  excel  the 
Gregorian  Tones  in  simplicity,  strength,  and 
directness,  or  in  permanency  of  effect. 

After  the  Gregorian  Tones,   the  canon,  the 
fugue,  and  the  choral,  associated  with  the  ser- 
vices, liturgical,  psalmodic,  and  hymnic,  of  the 
Church,  arose  a  new  combination,  dating  from 
the  mysteries,  or  portions  of  biblical  narrations 
in   dramatic  and  musical   form.      These   were 
presented  for  the  contemplation  of  the  faithful, 
with  the  brilliant  accessories  of  costume,  scenery, 
and  instrumentation.    This  seems  to  have  been 
the  thought  wdiich  moved  the  religious  teachers 
of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries:  since  those  who 
were  to   be   instructed  in   religious  knowledge 
could  not  see  Moses,  and  Joshua,  and  Samuel 
and  the  prophets,  and  David,  and  Solomon,  and 
the  apostles,  in  their  living  visible  forms,  wdiat 
more  proper  than  that  their  young  imaginations 
and  memories  should   be  assisted  with  the  next 
most  obvious  and  most  effective  instrumentality? 
Poesy  lent  her  inexhaustible  attraction   to  the 
scene  ;  and  music,  that  is,  poetry  sung,  fired  the 
emotions  with  an  ardor  and  an  inspiration  that 
reached   to  heaven.      Costume  and   scenery,  in 
the  secular  musical  drama,  the  opera,  were  ad- 
ded to  make  this  new   development  in  music 
more  natural  and  picturesque  ;  while  the   relig- 
ious drama,  the  oratorio,  was  content  to  appear 
in  a  certain  lofty  and  spiritual  attitude  without 
these  adjuncts.     The  opera  indulged  in  melodic 
flights  which  dazzled  and  bewildered  —  a  con- 


f50G 


MUSIC 


sistent  musical  reflection  of  the  wild  license  of 
most  of  its  libretti;  but  the  oratorio  could  not 
depart  from  the  truth  of  sacred  history,  nor 
could  it  allow  those  fantastic  flights  of  melody 
and  rhythm,  which  characterized  the  opera.  Now 
appeared  the  man  who  succeeded  in  reconciling 
these  apparently  antagonistic  elements  of  the  two 
styles.  George  Frederick  Handel  was  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  operatic  school  of  his  day.  He 
was  violinist,  pianist,  organist,  and  operatic  com- 
poser, when  he  attempted  tin's  hold  experiment. 
Depressed  by  the  competition  of  his  contemporary 
Italian  enemies,  and  even  neglected  by  his  former 
royal  and  noble  friends,  this  great  musician, 
whom  Beethoven  called  " the  musical  father  of 
us  all,"  deliberately  proposed  and  carried  out  the 
plan  of  appropriating  all  that  was  then  worthy 
of  being  pres  >rved  of  the  free  style  of  music,  and 
combined  with  it  the  stricter  forms  to  give  it  a 
solidity  and  character  which  could  be  obtained 
in  no  other  way.  Nothing  daunted  by  the  cold 
and  indifferent  reception  which  heat  first  met 
with,  he  continued  to  work  on  until  he  achieved 
an  entire  success.  No  one  who  has  studied 
and  heard  his  Israel  in  Egypt  and  his  Messiah 
can  doubt  the  reason  of  his  triumph.  Haydn, 
Mozart,  Beethoven,  Neukomm,  Spohr,  and  Men- 
delssohn have  left  verbal,  and  above  all,  writ- 
ten musical  testimony  of  their  admiration  for 
him;  and  succeeding  students  of  music  continue 
to  swell  tli'  number  of  his  devote  1  disciples. 
Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Mendelssohn  should  prob- 
ably be  placed  next  in  the  order  of  composers  of 
the  first  rank.  In  the  United  States,  during  the 
fir-l  fifty  years  after  the  establishment  of  the 
national  independence  of  the  country,  attention 
was  chiefly  given  to  the  study  of  the  simpler 
forms  of  psalmody,  and  to  the  appropriation 
of  whatsoever  of  European  melody  could  be 
made  to  subserve  a  local  or  temporary  pur- 
pose. Music,  during  the  second  fifty  years  of 
the  century,  has  signally  advanced  as  an  art;  but 
as  a  science,  except  in  a  frw  localities,  it  has 
made  little  progress.  Musical  instruments  of  all 
kinds  have  been  improve!,  from  a  piccolo  flute 
to  a  hundred  thousand  dollar  organ;  but  tins 
improvement  by  no  means  implies  that  a  know  I- 
edge  of  the  harmony  which  lies  at  the  founda- 
tion of  both  vocal  and  instrumental  music  has 
correspondingly  advanced.  How  many  can 
write  in  strict  two-part, three-part, and  four-part 
harmony?    How  many  can  write  the  four-part 

har iy  for  the  quartel  of  strings  lying  at  the 

ba   i  of  orchestral  work  ?  How  many  can  write 

in   chaste,    pure,   and    simple    harmony    for   four 

mixed  voices?    Etather.il  is  suspected  and  even 
I  thai  the  number  of  good  readers  of  vocal 
music,  taking  into  consideration  our  larger  pop- 
ulation as  compared  with  that  of  fifty  years  ago, 

i<    less    in    proportion    than    it    was  at  that  time. 

The  multiplication  of  pianos,  melodeons.  and  other 
rumenta  has  tended  to  produce  this  result. 
There  is,  therefore,  the  greater  necessity  for  sys- 
tematic instruction  in  Bcnoolsand  families, where 
by  i  he  rising  generation  may  be  so  drilled  in 
exerci  e   on  the  scale,  in  a  knowledge  of  the  key- 


notes, the  relationship  of  the  keys,  the  various 
signs  of  notation,  and  the  fundamental  rules  of 
harmony,  that  they  may  be  able  to  sing,  that  is, 
to  read  music,  with  or  without  an  instrument. 

Musical  Education.  —  From  the  preceding 
sketch  of  the  general  history  and  advancement 
of  music  in  the  church,  on  the  rostrum,  and  in 
the  family,  the  transition  to  the  systematic  music 
school  or  conservatory  of  music,  is  natural  and 
easy.  This  institution  had  an  earlier  foundation 
than  is  generally  supposed.  Originally  designed 
as  a  high  learning  hall  for  music,  in  which 
young  and  inexperienced  persons  were  built  up 
in  musical  knowledge,  the  name  shows  the  object 
of  such  an  institution — to  cultivate,  and  to  pre- 
serve in  their  purity,  the  science  and  the  art  uf 
music.  rl  he  entire  contrivance  of  this  sort  of 
music  school  sprung  from  Italy,  where  the  greater 
part  of  the  charitable  institutions  of  an  earlier 
time  were  located  :  and  the  Italian  nation,  before 
all  others,  had.  in  that  respect,  the  formation  of 
an  almost  infinite  number  of  artists  and  art-in- 
spiring nestling-places,  and  diffused  very  gener- 
ally sweet  songs,  the  whole  land,  indeed,  rejoicing 
in  tlie  cultivation  and  possession  of  good  music. 
The  oldest  conservatories  were  frequently  asso- 
ciated with  hospital  and  orphan  asylums,  through 
the  contributions  of  private  persons  supporting 
pious  establishments,  whereby  the  musically- 
gifted  scholars  boys  and  girls,  were  distinguished, 
and  enjoyed  free  lodging,  board,  and  clothing,  as 
well  as  instruction,  partly  in  Binging,  and  partly 
in  instrumental  music.  Boarding  scholars  were 
associated  for  the  payment  of  fees  toward  sup- 
porting the  establishment;  but  hoys  and  girls 
were  not  indiscriminately  received  into  the  house. 
The  oldest  and  most  renowned,  and.  at  the  same 
time,  the  pattern  of  all  others,  was  that  founded 
in  Naples,  by  a  Spanish  clergyman  named  Gio- 
vanni di  Tappia.  in  L537,  called  Conservatorio 
Santa  Maria  di  Loretto.  This  conservatory 
became,  in  succession,  the  foundation  of  th 
others,  afterward  established  in  Naples,  for  the 
exclusive  use  of  boys.  Leo,  Durante,  Scarlatti, 
Borpora,  and  others,  were  herein  course  of  time, 
instructors:  Piccini,  Sacehini.  <  'imarosa.  Gugliel- 
mi,  Anfossi,  Paisiello,  and  others,  fellow-teach- 
ers. Next  to  these,  the  more  advanced  scholars 
of  Tappia'B  Institute  established  gradually  the 
Conservatorio  ^m  Onofrio,  later,  the  Conser- 
vatorio deUa  Pietfr,  and  lastly,  in  1589,  the 
Conservatorio  dei  Poveri  di  Qesu  Cristo,  in 
which  last-named    Durante  was  chapel  master, 

about  1715  or  I  71  S.  and  which  continued  until 
within  a  short  time  since.  Burney  (General 
Histoi  t/of  Music,  L789)  gives  a  detailed  account 
of  these  conservatories,  Bhowing  thai   the  first 

had  90,  the  second.  L20,  and  the  third.  300 
scholars:  and  the  fourth  was  extinct.  Each  of 
these  three  establishments  had  thirty  laws,  and 
stood  under  the  direction  of  tWO  guardians,  who 

Beveralhj  bore  the  title  of  High  Chapel-Master ; 

and  of    the  two.  one  examined  and  corrected  the 

compositions  of  the  scholars,  and  the  other  gave 
lessons   and   superintended   the    singing.       I'Vom 

these  scholars,  were  chosen  teachers,  with  the 


MUSIC 


607 


title  of  maestri  scalar  i.  to  assist  in  instruction 
upon  instruments.  The  genera]  call  was  only 
for  pupils  from  8  to  20  years  of  age;  and 
tin1  time  that  each  one,  for  himself  or  for  her- 
self, must  swear  to  remain  was  tirmly  fixed  at 
eight  years  for  the  younger  members.  Mean- 
while, if  a  member  exhibited  aught  of  a  different 
kind  of  talent,  he  was  quickly  accommodated 
with  a  chance  in  his  new  capacity.  During  the 
political  inquietude  of  L789,  the  conservatories 
of  Loretto,  Onq/rio,  and  Pieta  were  reduced  to 
one,  which,  in  1813,  was  called  the  Real  Collegio 
di  Musica;  and,  in  1818,  was  removed  to  the 
former  nunnery  of  San  Sebastiano.  The  director 
of  this  institution,  from  L861  to  his  death,  in  INTO, 
was  the  blind,  but  highly  and  deservedly  distin- 
guished, Saverio  Mercadante  ;  and.  in  his  place, 
Lauro  Rossi,  from  the  conservatory  of  Milan, 
was  appointed  in  1871. — In  Venice,  are  found 
four  conservatories,  established  upon  a  basis 
similar  to  those  in  Naples,  which,  in  their  time, 
have  been  very  celebrated  for  their  education  of 
girls,  who,  through  the  rigid  standard  and  or- 
dinary usages  of  those  institutions,  became  often 
wedded  to  them  for  life.  The  names  of  these 
four  conservatories  are,  Ospedale  della  Pieta, 
de'  Mendicanti,  degV  Incurabili,  and  Ospedaletto 
di  San  Giormi  n't  <■  Paolo.  Burney,  in  his  his- 
tory, and  Mayer,  in  his  description  of  Venice. 
relate  the  following  details  in  regard  to  these 
institutions.  Immediately  upon  being  placed 
in  them,  pupils  were  instructed  in  singing,  and 
in  playing  upon  all  kinds  of  instruments,  by 
the  best  masters.  A  chapel-master  controlled 
the  higher  conduct  of  the  institute  ;  and,  on 
each  Sunday,  was  prepared  a  public  music  offer- 
ing. These  gatherings  for  song  were  heightened 
and  enriched  by  accompaniments  upon  instru- 
ments, in  which  the  pupils  all  joined.  In  con- 
nection with  the  varied  and  beautiful  effects  thus 
produced,  many  voices,  not  decayed  and  worn 
out  but  fresh  and  pure,  were  constantly  devel- 
oped and  firmly  built  up.  The  result  was  the 
continued  binding  together  of  a  large  company  of 
brilliant  amateurs  and  connoisseurs.  All  other 
conservatories  in  Italy  are  of  a  comparatively 
recent  date.  The  most  important  among  the 
latter  is  that  of  1809,  founded  by  the  viceroy 
Eugene,  in  Milan,  of  which  the  first  director 
was  Bonifazio  Asioli ;  and  which,  in  1872,  re- 
mained under  the  guidance  of  Prof.  A.  Muzzu- 
cato.  Against  the  decay  which  lias  come  upon 
more  or  less  of  the  Italian  conservatories  of  mu- 
sic, there  has  recently  been  inaugurated  an 
effective  check.  A  commission  of  experienced 
musicians  was  recognized  by  the  minister  of 
instruction,  in  May.  L871.  This  commission  was 
organized  under  the  presidency  of  <i.  Verdi,  and 
offered  as  the  result  of  their  consultations  a  mem- 
orandum with  proposals  for  reform.  This  reform 
is  already  producing  a  practical  and  visible  effect. 
The  conservatory  of  Milan  bestowed  upon  this 
movement  toward  reform  the  character  of  an 
international  influence,  while  that  of  Naples 
supported  it  rather  as  a  strictly  national  effort. 
The  most  brilliant  and  artistic  musical  institu- 


tion, cither  of  old  or  modern  time,  is  the  Conserv- 
atory of  Paris,  which,  in  regular  order,  secured 
the  presence  of  artists  of  the  first  rank.  Tho 
want  of  a  preparatory  school  for  singers  had  been 
fell  and  indicated  by  the  Grand  Opera]  and 
through  its  elevating  influence,  a  first  institute. 

for  musical  instruction  was  started,  which,  undo 

the  particular  protection  of  the  Baron  de  Bre- 
teuil,  in  L784,  was  denominated  L'ecoleroyale  <l< 
chant  et  de  declamation.   Hut  in  successive  years, 

and  through  the  want  of  instrumental  musicians 
in  the  fourteen  French  army  corps,  a  meeting 
was  held  in  Nov..  1793,  at  which  it  was  decreed 
that  the  primary  establishment  already  alluded 
to  should  be  enlarged,  and,  by  union  with  the 
instrumentalists  in  1795,  should  be  entitled  the 
Conservatoire  de  musique.    The  yearly  expense, 
about  240,000  francs,  was  fully  pledged,  and  the 
number  of  teachers  was  fixed  at  115.     Pupils 
were  admitted  from  the  age  of  ten  to  twenty 
years,  the  number  of  whom  rose  to  600,  their 
social  condition  being  that  of  comparative  pover- 
ty.   Notwithstanding  these  certain  signs  of  prac- 
tical usefulness,  the   raising  ot  a  special  sum  of 
100,000  francs,  in  1802,  seemed  doubtful,  and  the 
number  of  teachers  and  scholars  became  limited. 
Napoleon  I.  had  already,  in  1803,  presented  the 
conservatory  with  richer  appropriations,  and  these 
he  confirmed  and  extended  on  being  raised  to  the 
imperial  power.    Following  the  new  regime,  chil- 
dren's schools  were  permitted  to  be  established, 
in  which  gratuitous  musical  instruction  was  im- 
parted.    Subsequently,  the  Bourbons  withdrew 
the  greater  part  of  their  contributions,  and  the 
fate  of  the  conservatory  was  inextricably  inter- 
woven with  all  of  the  old  dismal  forebodings  of 
those  eventful  days  ;  but  these  temporary  obstruc- 
tions could  not  impede  the  steady  advancement 
of  this  noble  school  of  music;  and  it  remains,  to 
this  day,  what  it  ever  has  been,  the  most  brill- 
iantly artistic    preparatory    musical    establish- 
ment in  the  world.  Its  first  director  was  Sarette, 
who  had  received  the  largest  reward  in  its  organ- 
ization; and  with  this  also  the  excellent  idea  of 
the  accomplishment  and  extension  of  the  prepa- 
rations toward  making  it  a  national  institution. 
With  him  were  associated,  for  the  formation  and 
execution  of  the  new  plan,  five  other  members 
of  the  administration  ;  namely,  the  secretary,  the 
chef  (hi,  materiel,  the  cashier,  the  librarian,  and 
the  board  inspector,  who  altogether  were  required 
to    be    scientific    musicians,   and   distinguished 
through  the   approbation   of  the  national  Art 
Society.     In  the  year  1  800,  these  positions  were 
Idled  by  Cherubini  (afterward  director  until  his 
death,  in  1842),  Gossec,  Mehul,  Martini,  and  Le 
Sueur.  Of  other  celebrate)  I  directors  and  instruct- 
ors, who.  in  course  of  time,  have  gone  forth  from 
it,  wire,  Gossec,  Garat,   Paer,  Baillot,  Berlioz, 
Rode,  Kreutzer,  L.  Romberg.  Tulon,   Ilabeneek, 
Catel,  Caraffa,  Halevy,  Choron,  Plantade,   1'or- 
dogni,and  others.  The  successor  of  Cherubini  was 
Auber;  and,  in  1871,  director  Ambroise  Thomas 
followed,  who,  through  a  special  leadership  in 
musical  history,  esthetics,  acoustics,  and  prepara- 
tory studies,  had  justly  acquired  merit.    Forty- 


608 


MUSIC 


four  classes  of  male  pupils  were  generally  instruct- 
ed in  every  style  of  composition,  upon  subjects 
appertaining  to  all  kinds  of  practical  music,  in 
singing,  in  playing  upon  instruments, in  declama- 
tion, the  French  language,  and  stage  manner,  or 
carriage  ;  twenty-two  classes  of  female  pupils  re- 
ceived instruction  in  enunciation,  harmony, 
piano-playing,  accompaniment,  stage  carriage. 
and  declamation.  In  preparing  for  study,  it  is 
an  indispensable  stipulation  that  pupils  begin 
at  the  beginning.  The  course  commences  on  the 
1st  or  '2d  of  October  in  each  year.  Four  grand 
yearly  examinations  are  appointed,  —in  January, 
A  pril,  duly,  and  the  middle  of  October,  at  which 
the  minister  of  instruction  and  female  artists 
are  present.  By  the  middle  of  duly,  a  concourse 
.stand  for  the  first  prize  in  composition,  the  dis- 
tribution of  tlie  prize  following  in  November, 
at  the  Opera  House.  Whoever  obtains  the  first 
prize,  next  publicly  directs  his  work  with  a  grand 
orchestra,  and  is  called  the  laurel-winner,  being 
solemnly  crowne  I.  In  almost  all  the  departments 
of  music,  this  conservatory  achieves  careful  and 
diligent  developments,  the  most  trustworthy 
text-books  at <d  appropriate  methods  being  thor- 
oughly used,  as  the  whole  continent  of  Europe 
is  made  constantly  to  contribute  to  its  success  in 
these  respects.  'The  institution  is.  at  the  same 
time,  the  chief  point  of  union  for  all  European 
lovers  of  magnificent  musical  effects;  while  the 
yearly  public  exercises  of  its  pupils,  11  and  some- 
times 20  in  number,  beginning  in  October  and 
continuing  through  the  entire  winter,  including 
the  moderate  performances  of  Sunday  evening, 
altogether  confer  upon  these  dazzling  concerts  of 
Pans  the  praise  and  the  fame  which  are  unex- 
ceptionally  conceded  to  them.  Seven  of  the  al- 
ready named  children's  schools  of  the  Parisian 
Conservatory  are  established  in  Dijon.  Lille. 
Lyons,  Marseilles,  Nantes,  Rouen,  and  Toulouse. 
Strasbourg  hail,  up  to  the  time  of  the  Franco- 
German  war,  an  independent  town-like  con- 
servatory, conducted  till  L870  by  Basselmans ; 
the  same  was,  in  L871,  resuscitated,  and  carried 
on  by  director  Franz  Stockhausen.  After  the 
example  of  the  Parisian  Conservatoire,  was  ren- 
ovated the  conservatory  in  Madrid,  in  1831; 
but  in  circumscribed  compass,  though  with  ju- 
dicious powers.  Music  and  declamation  were 
taught  under  its  first  director. an  Italian  singing- 
master  by  the  name  of  Francesco  Piermarini; 
but  the  present  director  is  Emilio  Arrieta.  This 
school  has  suffered  through  the  political  fluctu- 
ations of  late  years,  and  by  continued  disadvan- 
tageous animadversions ;  but  it  now  appears  in 
its  own  proper  strength,  having  received  the  favor 
of  the  late  king  Amadeus.  offering  an  important 

barrier  against  decline.  Likewise,  after  the  ex- 
ample of  the  French,  four  Belgian  conservatories, 
those  of  Brussels,  Liege,  Antwerp,  and  Ghent,  are 

established,  of  which  the  lirst  t  wo  are  entirely 
sustained  by  state  means  and  are  royal  institu- 
tions; the  third  subsists  by  eontribut ions  only: 
while  that  of   Oheiit    is  .-imply  a  town  institute. 

In  connection  with  the  Conservatory  of  Brussels, 

reference  should  be  made  to  the  labors  of  Director 


Fetis,  whose  earnest  and  useful  service  was 
continued  from  1838  until  his  death,  in  1871. 
The  conservatory  in  Liege,  although  limited  in 
its  materiel,  is  yet  constantly  advancing  to  a 
higher  rank  through  additional  musicians,  in- 
struments, and  musical  means,  together  with  the 
aspiring  ideals  and  activities  of  the  directors 
Daussoigne-Me'hul  and  Soubre;  and  it  rejoices  in 
having  for  its  foundation-plan  of  study  the 
works  of  the  grand  masters  in  harmony,  Bach 
and  Handel,  who  in  Brussels  are  sufficiently 
ignored:  the  instructing  power  in  Liege  also 
throws  the  Brussels  conservatory  quite  into  the 
shade.  The  attendance  of  scholars  is  fully  1000. 
A  highly  honorable  reputation,  long  known  in 
Germany,  and  worthily  appreciated  not  simply 
in  Belgium  but  throughout  the  entire  art -world, 

attaches  to  the  conservatory  of  Antwerp.  Here 
Director  Pierre  Benoit  flourished.  This  bold, 
out-Spoken  man.  alike  teacher,  composer,  and 
director,  assumed  a  position  so  impregnable  in 
right,  and  showed  a  faith  so  dauntless,  that  he 
is  entitled  to  the  sinceresl  admiration.  Said  he. 
"Music  is  thi'  most  perfect  national  speech;  in  it, 
all  civilized  races  find  their  fullest  and  most  en- 
joyable impressions;  and  a  music-school  should  be 
like  unto  a  temple  in  the  father-land".  These  prin- 
ciples have  been  realized  with  energy,  and  have 
secured,  in  the  conservatory  of  Antwerp,  a  signi- 
fication so  general  and  so  important, thai  tiny 
constitute  a  central  influence  in  the  political  and 
intellectual  regeneration  of  the  country.  The 
name  of  lunoit  has  a  familiar,  popular  ring  in 
the  ears  of  at  least  two  and  a  half  millions  of' 
Belgians,  conveying  to  his  disciples  a  certain 
lofty  inspiration,  which  is  self-supporting,  and 
by  association  is  communicated  to  the  townsand 
cities  of  the  Flemish  lands.-  The  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands  possesses  many  excellent  nmsic- 
schools  of  their  kind  :  but  the  name  of  its  con- 
servatory only  can  be  mentioned — the  institu- 
tion in  Rotterdam,  conducted  by   W.  Bargiel, 

since  1865.  There  is  also  a  conservatory  in 
Luxemburg,  founded  in   1864,  and  since  then 

directed  by  E.  Zimien.  Both  of  these  establish- 
ments have  raised  themselves  to  a  high  and  note- 
worthy position. 

The  most  celebrated  Austrian  conservatory  is 
that  in  Prague;  the  most  munificent  in  organist- 
tion.  anil  the  best  in  other  respects,  is  that  of 
Vienna.  In  the  year  L808,  it  occurred  to  some 
high-minded  patron  of  music,  formerly  flourish- 
ing in  Bohemia,  to  develop  the  depressed  art  of 
music,  and  to  supply  the  want  of  intelligent  or- 
chestral players;  the  resolution  required  that  an 
academy  should  be  founded  in  Prague,  of  which 
the  essential  features  should  be  elaborate  instru- 
mental effects,  combined  with  a  universal,  artis- 
tic, and  humanitary  knowledge.  The  Prague  con- 
servatory was  celebrated  throughout  fatrope;  the 
singing-school,  too.  in  this  institution,  both  for 
concert  and  for  opera,  begins  to  show  satisfacto- 
ry results.  In  the  year  L871,  the  school  had  137 
pupils.  I -J!)  of  whom  were  Bohemians;  of  this 
number  1  I  were  ringing  scholars,  and  123  in- 
strumentalists,   the    latter    divided    into   61,  in 


Ml'SIC 


609 


the  lower,  and  62,  in  the  upper  division.  The 
Austrian  minister  of  instruction  included  in  the 
finance  budgel  a  yearly  appropriation  of  three 
thousand  florins  for  the  conservatory  in  Vienna; 

and  this  sum  was  raised  to  ten  thousand  florins 

by  the  house  of  deputies,  and  immediately  ap- 
proved by  the  house  of  peers.  The  conservatory 
in  Vienna  is  a  creation  of  the  Society  of  Music 
Friends,  in  the  A.ustro-Hungarian  Monarchy, 
growing  oul  of  the  simple  beginnings  of  a  singing- 
school.  in  the  year  1816;  but,  since  1869,  it  lias 
developed  into  very  comprehensive  and  brilliant 
surroundings  through  the  noble  principles  upon 
which  it  was  organized.  The  artistic  director  of 
the  institution  (in  1876,  Jos.  EJellmesberger)  is 
assisted  by  35  instructors  in  the  musical  depart- 
ments, accompanying  whom  are  lecturers  upon  the 
history  of  music,  on  oral  discourse,  declamation, 
esthetics,  the  history  of  literature,  the  Italian 
language,  mimics,  and  the  dance.  The  establish- 
ment possesses  a  theater  for  drilling  purposes, 
and  was  attended,  in  the  year  1871,  by  445 
scholars,  of  whom  225  were  males,  and  220  fe- 
males.— With  a  lofty  and  stirring  splendor,  made 
familiar  and  exercised  at  a  memorial  to  the 
king  of  Bavaria,  Richard  Wagner  presented  his 
course  of  teaching,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
royal  conservatory,  in  Munich,  October,  1865, 
upon  the  ground  of  a  previous  re-organization  of 
his  own.  This  institution  is  the  only  German 
establishment  for  teaching  the  science  and  art  of 
music  not  endowed  by  state  appropriations;  but 
it  is  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  court  musical 
superintendent.  The  conservatory  in  Munich  is 
divided  into  three  chief  departments,  with  rela- 
tive individual  subdivisions,  each  having  its  own 
assigned  work.  These  chief  departments  are, 
the  siuging,  the  instrumental,  and  the  theoretic. 
At  the  head  of  the  singing-school  stands  the 
professor  of  solo-singing  ;  at  the  head  of  the  in- 
strumental school,  likewise  a  professor,  who  is 
also  the  chief  of  the  piano  or  the  violin.  The 
particular  ensemble  drilling  of  the  singers,  on 
the  one  side,  or  of  the  instrumentalists,  on  the 
other,  was  conducted  by  both  of  these  profess- 
ors ;  while  the  control  of  the  ensemble  drilling 
of  all  the  pupils  became  the  duty  of  the  chief 
director.  In  those  general  studies,  as  well  as  in  the 
previously  mentioned  particular  ensemble  studies, 
the  scholars  were  enabled,  at  the  same  time,  to 
obtain  a  methodical,  practical  guidance  to  the 
te  Unique  of  the  directors.  In  the  theoretic  de- 
partment, a  professor  of  counterpoint,  and  a 
professor  of  music-history  worked  independent- 
ly. Near  these  four  professors,  are  also  the  fol- 
lowing exponents  of  the  teaching  force  :  in  the 
singing-school,  a  teacher  of  solo-singing,  an  as- 
sistant teacher  of  chorus-singing,  and  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric  and  mimics  :  in  the  instrumental  school, 
8  teacher  and  an  assistant  teacher  for  the  four 
instruments  of  percussion,  and  a  teacher  of  organ- 
playing;  in  the  theoretic  school,  a  teacher  of  har- 
mony. So  excellent  and  complete  in  all  respects 
was  this  organization,  and  so  diii  it  continue  to  be, 
as  long  as  Hans  von  Billow,  from  lsiitl  to  1868, 
retained  the  position  of  its  guide  and  director. 
39 


After  his  departure,  the  institution  fell,  more 
and  more  behind  its  former  acknowledged  devel- 
opment,  the  attendance  having  considerably  di- 
minished.    In   Wurtzburg,  there  is  also  a  royal 
conservatory,  founded  by  Frohlich,  and  led  by 
Bratsch. — The  conservatory  at  Stuttgart  is  un- 
der the  protection  of  the  king  of   \\  iirteniberg, 
and  lias  just  claims  to  superior  merit  in  its  devo- 
tion to  classic  German  music.     Under  the  name 
of  the  Stuttgart  Music  School,  it  was  founded,  in 
the  autumn   of    1856,  l>y    Siegmund  Lebert  of 
Stuttgart,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Brachmann 
and  Ed.  Laiblin  of  Riga,  and  called  a  conserva- 
tory in  1865.  This  institution  has  two  divisions, — 
an  artists'  and  an  amateurs'  school.     The  de- 
partments of   instruction    are   confined   to  ele- 
mentary, choral,  and  solo  singing;   piano,  organ, 
violin,    and    violoncello    playing;    composition, 
esthetics,   musical   history,  and  the  Italian  lan- 
guage.     Frankfort    on   the   .Main   has  a  musk- 
school,  built  in  1860,  and  approved  by  the  state, 
at   the   head   of  which   stands  its  first  director. 
ITeinrich  Ilcnkel.      The  most  celebrated  music 
school  of  northern  Germany  is  that  in  Leipsic. 
established  upon  Easter-day,  1843,  under  the  pro- 
tection and  contributions  of  the  king  of  Saxony, 
and  under  the  co-operation  of  Felix  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy.     It  stood  at  the  summit  of  its  splen- 
dor, with   Mendelssohn,  Moscheles,  Hauptmann. 
Ricbter,  Ferd.  David,  Klengel,  Plaidy,  etc.,  as 
instructors ;  and  its  scholars  steadily  streamed 
out  upon    all    European   and  American  lands. 
The  instruction  extends  theoretically  and  practi- 
cally over  all  the  branches  of  music,  scientific  and 
artistic.    The  theoretic  instruction  embraces  har- 
mony doctrine,  forms  and  composition,  partition 
playing,  leading  or  directing,   the   Italian  lan- 
guage, and  the  history  and  esthetics  of  music, 
combined  in  one  complete  course  of  musical  theory 
and  the  art  of  composition,  which  was  finished  by 
male  scholars  in  three,  and  by  female  scholars  in 
two  years.  The  practical  instruction,  and  the  im- 
provement  in   mechanical  skill,  extended  over 
singing  and  instrumental  playing,  by  preference 
over  the  piano,  organ,  violin,  viola,  violoncello  in 
quartet,  and  solo  playing  with  accompaniment. 
In  Dresden,  stands  a  conservatory  founded  and 
directed  by  Pudor,  which,  for  nearly  twenty  years, 
has  exhibited  good  results,  and  which,  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  instruction  upon  orchestral  in- 
struments, imparted  by  the  able  members  of  the 
royal  Saxon  court  chapel,  is  even  highly  distin- 
guished.— The  Prussian  kingdom  possesses  only 
two  local  conservatories, — those  of  Cologne  and 
Berlin.  The  conservatory  in  Cologne  was  opened 
on  Easter-day,  in  1 850,  and  remains,  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  under  the  direction  of  the  city  chapel- 
master,  Dr.  Ferdinand  1  Idler.  Some  of  the  most 
prominent  among  young  German  composers,  up 
to  the  present   time,  have  gone  forth  from  the 
halls  of  this  institution.   The  instructors  formed, 
in  1869,  a  joint  musical  association,  having  for  its 
main   object   the   development   of    a   powerful 
music  life  on  the  Rhine;  and,  for  this  purpose, 
an  equal  regard  for  other  districts    than    their 
own,  inspired  them  in  the  production  of  their  sub- 


610 


MUSIC 


sequent  compositions.  In  Berlin,  exists  another 
conservatory,  founded  by  J.  Stern,  A.  I>.  Marx, 
and 'I'h.  KuJIak,  at  present  directed  by  the  first- 
named;  out  of  its  branches, was  tunnel  the  new 
academy  of  music,  of  which  'I'h.  Kullak  i.s  the 
director.  Iu  L869,  by  means  of  the  minister  of 
instruction,  and  in  close  connection  with  the 
royal  academy  of  arts,  a  royal  high  school  was 
founded,  for  exercis  i  in  the  art  of  music,  in  Ber- 
lin. Beside  the  director,  stands  the  celebrated 
violin  virtuoso,  professor  Joachim.  In  this  insti- 
tution, still  in  the  introductory  phases  of  devel- 
opment, the  violin  school  is  quoted  as  among 
the  best;  while  care  is  taken  in  all  the  other 
branches  of  high  musical  instruction,  except  per- 
haps piano  playing,  preparation  for  which  is 
quite  insufficient.  —Switzerland  possesses  high 
music  schools,  in  Berne  and  Geneva. —  England 
Ins  a  royal  institution  in  London,  formerly  di- 
rected by  Cipriani  Potter,  but  more  recently  by 
Sterndale  Bennett,  of  which  MacFarren  is  the 
most  distinguish^  1  graduate.  There  are  also 
conservatories  in  Edinburgh  and  Dublin. — 
( lop  -nil ag  n  also  has  a  conservatory  ;  and.  since 
1865.  there  is  one  even  in  <  Ihristiania,  while  the 
royal  musical  academy  in  Stockholm  is  already 
anew  development.  In  the  remaining  parts  of 
Europe  are  still  to  be  name  I  the  conservatory 
in  Warsaw,  founded,  in  L821,  by  Elssner,  and 
further  directed  by  A.  Kontski,  and  then  by 
Moniusczko  with  imperial  assistance;  and  also 
conservatories  in  Klausenburg,  Pesth,  and  Lis- 
bon.—  In  the  Russian  empire,  both  in  St.  Peters- 
burg an  I  in  Moscow,  arc  conservatories,  founde  1 
by  the  Grand-Duchess  Helen.  These  have  an 
excellent  foundation,  and  are  liberally  supported. 
The  elder,  in  St.  Petersburg,  was  successively 
directed  by  Anton  Rubinstein,  by  Zaremba,  and 
by  Assantschewsky ;  and  that  in  Moscow,  by 
Nichol  is  Rubinstein. 

In  the  United  Slates,  conservatories  are,  al- 
most without  exception,  private  speculations, 
an  I.  as  compared  with  similar  efforts  in  Europe, 
neither  in  management  nor  in  performances,  can 
venture  to  compete  with  the  elder  institutions. 
New  York  possesses  many  of  these:  also  Bal- 
timore, Boston,  Buffalo,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  St. 
Louis,  Philadelphia,  and  other  cities.  In  justice 
to  th'-e  American  efforts,  however,  it  must  be 
state  I  that,  as  government,  in  the  I  Fnited  States, 
whetli  •!■  national,  state,  or  municipal,  makes  no 

appropriation    lor  conservatories  of    music,  these 

enterprise-,  at  present,  must  necessarily  be  pri- 
vate ones;  and  the  instruction  in  music,  chiefly 

el  '  vocal,  and  elementary  piano  playing. 

Advance  |  pupils  are  occasionally  found,  who  have 
made  considerable  progress  in  both  of  these  de- 
partm  ints.  Doubtless,  a  better  day  is  dawning 
for  the  real  lovers  of  the  higher  styles  of  music, 
sine,'  a  proposition  has  been  made  to  establish  and 

munificently  endow  a  musical  college  for  young 

women  in  the  city  of  New  Fork,  which  would  he 
t'r.  mi  many  points  of  view,  a  highly  useful,  benev- 
olent .  and  art  elevating  institution.  In  succeeding 
days,  the  State  may  possibly  step  in  to  secure  a  sys- 
tematic course  of  musical  instruction  for  her  chil- 


dren, and  thus  rescue  this  noble  science  and  art 
from  many  of  the  prolific  causes  of  superficiality, 
perverted  tastes,  and  degrading  associations,  ulti- 
mately producing  a  complete  indifference  to  the 
higher  claims  of  music. 

Of  the  methods  employed  in  the  European 
music  schools,  it  can  confidently  be  said  that 
they  differ  as  much  from  eat  h  other,  in  their 
working  details,  as  the  literary,  scientific,  and 
higher  professional  and  special  institutions  do  in 
the  presentation  of  the  tmj  ortant  subjects  brought 
under  their  notice.  Differences  arising  from 
climate,  age,  precocity,  natural  aptitude,  early 
opportunities,  physical  organization,  and  associ- 
ation with  intelligent  \  ersons  of  artistic,  genial, 
and  mobile  tendeni  u  S,  display  tin  mselves  in  no 
department  of  human  labor  more  frequently,  or 
with  more  prominent  demonstrations  of  enthu- 
siasm, than  among  the  lovers  and  students  of 
music,  lint,  whatever  may  be  the  difference 
of  details  in  the  methods  employed,  or.  however 
great  may  be  the  disj  aritj  arising  from  tin1  other 
eauses  named,  these  music  schools,  without  ex- 
ception, agree  in  selecting  the  plastic  and  im- 
pressible age  of  youth,  and  often  very  early 
and  tender  youth,  as  the  heaven-ap]  oint<  d  time 
when  eye,  ear, hand,  and  voice  must  simultane- 
ously begin  their  never  ending  work  of  cultiva- 
tion. '1  he  early  lives  of  celebrated  musicians, 
the  moderate  success  of  these  inclined  to  me- 
diocrity, and  even  the  more  feeble  attempts  of 
those  who  have  learned  to  play  and  sing  but 
little,  are  a  standing  proof  that,  to  achieve  any 
audible  or  distinguishable  result  in  music,  the 
child  must  commence  at  its  mother's  knee  to 
lisp  the  melody  that  shall  perpetually  link  the 
memory  of  these  child-like'  efforts  to  the'  maturer 
accomplishments  of  a  later  season.  'I  he  ( 'hristian 
<  hurch  has  never  been  unfaithful  to  Ik  rself  or  to 
her  cause  in  this  important  matter.  As  one  of 
the  results  of  her  ministrations,  has  sprung  not 
only  the  music  especially  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  divine  worship,  but  the  \ery 
Brsl  end  highly  successful  plan  of  a  systematic 

music  scl 1  worthy  of  a  name  and   of  historical 

record.  Giovanni  di  Tappia  should  be  gratefully 
remembered  by  every  musician,  as  well  as  by 
every  one  interested  in  musical  progress,  for  it 

was    he    who    took    the   girl   with   In  r  naturally 

flexible  voice,  and  the  boy  with  his  inflexible 
voice,  and  led  them  by  degrees  to  pass  from  the 
unisonant  rendering  of  the  Gregorian  Tones  to 
part-singing  in  the'  lofty  counterpoint  of  Palea- 
trina.     Although  a   hundred  years  had  elapsed 

before  the'  lovely  and  more  emotional  Voice  of 
the  mature  woman  was  permitted  to  be  heard  in 
public,  and  in  the  services  of  the'  sanctuary:  and 
although  its  use  i.s  still  denied  by  man;  eccle- 
siastics in  the  Greek, Roman, and  Anglican  com- 
munions, yet  it  must  be  conceded  that  it  should 
be  trained,  at  first,  in  the  parish  schools  and 
Sunday-schools, which  are  the  musical  nurseries 

of  the  church,  and    from  which    pupils    pass  into 

the  choir  by  a  very  natural  and  easy  way.  No  music 

teachers  are  BO  successful  as  they  who  have'  the 
religious  sympathy  and  co-operation  of  the  pa*- 


MUSIC 


Gil 


ents;  and  no  pupils  render  more  effective  music 
than  they  who.  to  intelligent  reading  and  a 
certain  degree  of  cultivation,  unite  the  higher 
merit  of  believing  in  the  truth  of  the  words  they 
utter.  But  even  where  the  religious  idea  is  not 
so  apparent,  or  where  it  may  not  be  required 
and  Insiste  I  upon,  as  in  the  case  of  tin1  children's 
schools,  in  which  gratuitous  musical  instruction 
was  given  as  a  preparation  for  entrance  into  the 
grand  conservatory  at  Paris,  or  in  the  common 
schools  of  the  United  States,  where  music,  in 
cities  of  consi  lerable  size,  is  taught  gratuitously, 
there  exists  the  imperative  necessity  that  it  be 
commenced  in  the  primary  departments,  where 
the  faith  and  implicit  obedience  of  the  child 
make  the  study  and  practice  of  vocal  music  a 
delight  instead  of  utask.  A  litnite  I  and  stipulated 
portion  of  the  ordinary  semi-annual  term,  of 
about  rive  months,  can  be  spent  in  tri-weekly 
exercises  upon  tha  scale,  inclu  ling  melodies  of 
limite  1  compass,  which  is  simply  oral  and  imi- 
tative work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and 
scholar,  preparatory  to  the  introduction  of  the 
musical  sign  language  during  the  second  five 
months  of  the  year.  Two  grades  are  thus  created 
in  the  primary  departments, — the  oral,  which  is 
purely  imitative,  through  the  ear,  and  the  oral- 
written,  which  is  the  union  of  the  oral  with  the 
eye-knowle  Ige  of  the  musical  sign-language.  In 
vocal  compass,  these  exercises  must  be  limited, 
either  ascending  or  descending,  and  in  expression 
without  forced  or  blatant  effect,  to  modify  which 
at  bast  four  vowel  sounds,  ah,  ea,  oh,  and  oo 
may  be  use  1:  but.  in  rhythmical  variety  and  in 
change  of  key,  they  may  be  quite  extended, 
depen  ling  upon  the  knowledge,  skill,  and  tact  of 
tla'  teacher.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  young 
voice  be  not  fatigued,  and  that  boys  especially 
ba  early  taught  to  avoid  carrying  the  chest  tones 
too  high.  Three  lessons  of  half  an  hour  each 
during  the  week  are  more  effective  than  two 
lessons  of  an  hour  each,  to  pupils  under  twelve 
years  of  age;  and  five  lessons  of  twenty  minutes 
each,  during  the  week,  are  better  than  either. 
Beating  time  should  accompany  the  written 
exercises  in  the  second  term  of  the  primary  de- 
partments ;  and,  in  the  higher  departments,  the 
written  ex  sreis  s  should  be  copie  1  by  the  pupils 
for  two  years  consecutively,  with  more  extended 
practice  in  rhythm  and  melo  ly.  an  1  plain  singing 
in  two  and  three  parts.  Drilling  like  this  has 
been  practiced  in  many  of  the  schools  of  the 
United  States  during  the  past  ten  years ;  and 
th  ■  plan,  if  earnestly  encourage  I  ami  carried  out, 
will  enable  every  pupil,  of  sufficient  ear  and  age, 
to  become  a  reader  of  plain  music. — The  place  of 
music  as  a  branch  of  superior  instruction  must 
a  Is  i  be  referred  to.  The  great  universities  of 
England — Oxford  and  Cambridge,  do  not  teach 
music  systematically  ;  nor  do  they  care  where 
the  musical  student  acquires  his  information; 
but  they  always  have  superior  musicians  to  ex- 
amine the  musical  aspirant,  and  these  examina- 
tions are  thorough  and  severe.  In  the  United 
States,  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in 
this  direction.     Harvard  University  has  always 


shown  a  commendable  love  of  music  in  the 
amateur  orchestral  line,  and  in  sundry  vocal 
organizations;  but  not  until  L871—  2,  was  music 
established  as  an  elective  study  by  the  faculty. 
The  first  year  exhibited  a  class  of  '.)  students, 
who  devoted  two  lessons  a  week  to  an  elective 
course  in  harmony;  succeeding  this,  an  elective 
course  was  added  each  year,  until  L875 — 6, 
when  there  were  five  courses;  namely,  harmony, 

counterpoint,  canon  and  free  thematic  mn.de, 
fugue,  and  the  history  of  music.  The  number 
of  students  has  steadily  increased  year  by  year, 
until,  in  L875 — 6,  there  were  32.  'I  he  fact  that 
Ibis  instruction  is  purely  in  the  science  and  art 
of  musical  composition,  and  in  musical  history, 
and  that  the  students  in  niu.de  who  pursue  this 
elective  course  are  required  to  possess  consider- 
able preliminary  knowledge  and  familiarity  with 
the  piano  or  organ,  wilf  account  for  the  smalhiess 
of  the  number  of  students.  Music  is  now.  at 
Harvard,  included  among  those  studies  for 
which  honors  are  given  at  graduation.  'I  hi-  de- 
gree  of  A.  M.  and  1'h.  1).  are  also  open  to  bache- 
lors of  arts  who  pursue  the  required  course,  and 
pass  the  examination  in  music.  For  the  degree 
of  A.  M.,  one  year's  exclusive  study  is  required, 
after  graduation;  for  the  degree  of  Th.  L).,  sever- 
al years.  Thus  far,  2  graduates  have  taken  the 
degree  of  A.  M.,  in  music,  and  will  probably  ap- 
ply for  the  highest  degree,  that  of  Th.  D.  The 
instruction  in  this  department  is  given  by  J.  1\. 
Fay ne,  author  of  the  Oratorio  of  St.  Peter.  At 
Yale  College,  music  is  restricted  to  instruction 
in  singing,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  good 
vocal  music  for  morning  and  Sabbath-day  devo- 
tions. For  this  object,  Joseph Battell, in  1854,gave 
$5,000,  the  interest  of  which  was  to  be  devoted  to 
this  purpose.  A  chapel  -  master  (Prof.  0.  J. 
Stoeckel)  was  then  appointed,  and  services  for 
male  voices  were  introduced.  In  1 801,  Mrs.Wm.  A. 
famed,  a  sister  of  Mr.  Battell,  gave  the  college 
$1,000,  the  interest  of  which  was  to  be  expended 
in  the  purchase  of  musical  works.  By  this 
means,  and  by  the  donations  of  friends  of  the 
institution,  a  musical  library  has  been  formed. 
In  1862,  Mrs.  Lamed  donated  to  the  college 
$5,000  for  the  support  of  a  teacher  of  music.  In 
1874, after  the  death  of  Lowell  Mason,  his  family 
gave  the  library  of  that  well-known  composer — 
comprising  8.000  titles  —  to  the  Vale  Theological 
Seminary.  In  1876,  when  the  new  Battell 
Chapel  was  supplied,  through  the  munificence  of 
Mrs.  Lamed,  with  a  new  organ,  the  old  organ, 
after  being  repaired  and  enlarged,  was  trans- 
ferred to  Calliope  Hall,  which  has  been  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  musical  students  of  the  college 
A  musical  professorship  has  not  yet,  however, 
been  established.  —  The  College  of  Music  of  the 
lioston  University  (q.  v.),  which  was  organized 
in  1872, presents  superior  advantages  for  students 
of  music.  It  admits  only  students  having  the 
average  proficiency  of  graduates  of  American 
conservatories,  and  includes  four  regular  courses. 
Many  other  American  colleges  contain  musical 
departments  as  a  part  of  the  full  curriculum. 
—  For  authorities  on  the  history  of  music,   and 


612       NASH VILLK  UNIVERSITY 


NATIONAL   EDUCATION 


on  musical  science  and  composition,  see  Bikxf.y, 
General  History  of  Music  (1789);  Hawkins. 
A  General  History  of  the  Science  and  Practice 
of  Music  (new  eilit..  London,  1853)  :  <  !happell, 
The  History  of  Music  (London,  187-1);  George 
Hogarth,  Musical  History,  etc.  (1836) ;  H.  Men- 
del, Musikalisches  Conversations-Lexicon  (Ber- 
lin, 1871);  Callcott,  Musical  Grammar  (1805); 


Albbechtsbebgeb  and  AVeber,  Course  of  Har- 
mony, in  Southard's  Digest  (Boston,  1854);  A.B. 
Marx,  Die  Lehre  run  der  musikalischen  Compo- 
sition (Leipaic,  L834 — 4.")),  Eng.  trans,  by  Saroni 
N  .  V..  1  852);  aadAHgemt  ineMusikiehre  (1839). 
(See  also  Singing-Schools,  and  Voice  Culture.) 
MUTUAL  SYSTEM.  See  Monitorial 
System. 


NASHVILLE,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  at 
Nashville,  TeniL,  was  founded  by  the  state  of 
North  Carolina,  Dec.  29.,  178"),  as  Davidson 
A.cademy.  It  became  Cumberland  College, and 
the  University  of  Nashville, in  L826.  Ii  is  an 
eleemosynary,  self-perpetuating  corporation,  and 
is  under  the  control  of  neither  church  nor  state. 
In  L855,  Montgomery  Bell  bequeathed  to  the 
institution  a  fund  of  $20,000.  This  now  amounts 
to  nearly  $50,000;  and  endows  a  grammar  school. 
In  1850,  the  medical  college,  then  and  now  the 
only  one  in  Tennessee,  was  organized.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees  alone.  In  187").  the  col- 
legiate department  was  suspended;  and  its 
grounds,  buildings,  and  funds,  appropriated  to  a 
normal  college,  under  state  countenance,  and 
mainly  supported  by  the  Peabody  education 
fund.     Tuition    is    free    for   young    women    and 

young  men  alike.    Twenty  three  acres  and  four 

large  buildings,  all  within  the  city  Limits,  con- 
stitute the  property  of  the  university,  and  are  val- 
ue I  at  about  Sl.">o.ooo.  The  college  fund  is  within 
a  fraction  of  $50,000.  The  normal  college  closed 
its  first  session  with  51  students.  The  medical 
college  averages  from  175  to  200  students,  and 
has  nearly  2,000  alumni.  The  normal  college  is 
the  only  first -class  school  of  its  description  in  a 
region  occupying  at  Least  800,000  square  miles. 
The  heads  of  the  university  have  been  as  follows : 
James  Priestly,  Id..  !>.,  president.  L809— 15; 
and  again  1819—20;  Philip  Lindsley,  D.  D.. 
president,  1824 — 50;  John  Berrien  Lindslev, 
M.  [>.,  D.I  (..chancellor.  L855 — 70;  Gen. Edmund 
Kirby  Smith,  L870  -75;  Eben  Sperry  Steams, 
D.  I).,  appointed  in  I  875. 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION,  or  State 
Education,  a  system  of  education  or  schools, 
established  by  the  state,  for  the  benefit  either  of 

tho  whole  people,  or  of  a  particular  class.  ( 'ivil- 
ized  nations,  in  both  ancient  and  modern  times, 
have  had  systems  of  education  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  favored  few;  but  it  is  only  within 
the  last  three  centuries  that,  in  Europe  or 
America,  anything  like  a  properly  organized 
system    for   educating    the    masses    has  existed. 

(See    Education.)      Germany,  Scotland,    and 

some  of  the  states  of  the   A  merieaii   I '  nioii.  may 

claim  precedence  for  putting  into  operation  go^  - 

enniienl.il   schemes    for    general    education,  both 

elementary  and  advanced.  Many  other  nations 
followed  in  their  wake:  and. .-it  present, national 

education,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  prevails  in 

most  civilized  countries  in  the  world.  Among 
the  Asiatic  nations,  the  Chinese  ma\  claim  great 


antiquity  for  their  remarkable  system  of  national 
education  (see  China);  while  the  Japanese,  in 
quite  recent  times,  have  exhibited  a  wonderful 
intelligence  ami  energy  in  the  establishment  of 
state  schools.  (See  Japan.)  In  England,  not- 
withstanding the  age  of  her  gnat  universities 
and  public  and  endowed  schools,  there  was  no 
national  system  until  recently.  (See  England.) 
For  an  account  of  the  national  systems  in  other 
countries  and  states,  see  the  respective  titles. 

The  importance  of  a  national  system  of  edu- 
cation is  now  generally  conceded,  as  a  corollary 
to  the  demonstrated  benefit  to  a  community  of 
affording  to  each  of  its  members  at  least  an  ele- 
mentary school  education.  Herbert  Spencer, 
indeed,  has  assailed  these  first  principles,  by 
denying  the  right  of  the  state  "to  administer 
education,  inasmuch  as  the  taking  away,  by 
government,  of  more  of  a  man's  property  than 
is  needful  for  maintaining  his  rights,  is  an  in- 
fringement of  his  rights,  and.  therefore,  a  re- 
versa!  of  the  government's  function  toward  him; 
and.  inasmuch  as  the  taking  away  of  his  prop- 
city  to  educate  his  own  or  other  people's  chil- 
dren is  not  needful  for  the  maintaining  of  his 
rights,  the  taking  away  of  his  property  for  such 
a  purpose  is  wrong."  Given  the  premises  of 
this  argument,  and  the  conclusion  is  inevitable  : 
but  the  premises  are  denied.  School  education, 
widely  diffused,  is  held  to  be  not  only  a  benefit 
but  a  protection  to  the  community  :  and  just  as 
it  is  proper  for  the  state  to  enact  laws  to  pre- 
vent crimes  by  punishment,  taxing  the  citizens 
to  support  a  penal  system,  so  it  is  also  proper  to 
establish  educational  systems  the  general  tend- 
ency of  which,  by  cultivating  the  minds  and 
improving  the  morals  of  the  people,  is  to  pre- 
V(  ut  crime, and  thus  erect  a  barrier  against  law- 
less violence,  imperiling  the  welfare  of  the  citi- 

-  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  rights  as  such. 
The  principle  of  national  education  has  been 
attacked  by  asserting  that  school  education  does 
not  greatly  affect  the  character  of  those  who 
receive  it  ;  while  the  community  can  only  be 
benefited  by  improving  individual  character. 
The  extent  to  which  a  national  system  of  edu- 
cation affects  character  will,  of  course,  vary  with 
the  kind  of  education  imparted;  hut.  certainly. 

the  inefficiency  of  a  had  system    is  DO  argument 
in  favor  of   the  abolition   of   all  systems.     '-Al- 
though."says  Morley."  effective  instruction  d 
not  cover  nor  touch  the  whole  held  of  character 
and    conduct,    it    does    most    manifestly     touch 

some  portions  of  it.    It  adds,  for  instance,  to 


NATIONAL    FdH'OATICKN 


NATIONAL    LANGUAGE 


til:; 


the  consciousness  of  power  and  faculty,  and  this 
increases  the  invaluable  and  far-reaching  quality 
of  Belf-respect.  Bence,  even  if  a  great  effort  to 
provide  our  people  with  the  instruments  of 
knowledge  did  uot  reduce  the  number  of  crimi- 
nals, it  would  still  improve  the  tune  of  those 
who  are  not  criminals." — lint,  as  has  been  well 
said,  school  education,  however  excellent  and 
however  widely  diffused,  cannot  prove,  of  itself. 
a  panacea  for  all  the  ills  of  the  social  state. 
Education  is  much  more  than  learning  to  "read, 

write,  ami  cipher."  "  Whatever."  says  Mill, 
••  helps  to  shape  the  human  being — to  make  the 
individual  what  he  is,  or  hinder  him  from  being 
what  he  is  not  —  is  part  of  his  education." 
Hence,  there  is  an  education  of  the  home  and 
family,  the  street,  the  workshop,  the  church,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  school  ;  and,  it  is  contended 
by  some,  that,  as  the  influences  which  emanate 
from  these  are  more  potent  than  those  of  the 
school,  the  state  should  control  these  influences 
as  well,  or  its  system  of  education  will  be  more 
or  less  nugatory.  "Whatever."  says  EMgg,  "be 
the  merit  and  efficiency  of  the  school  teaching 
and  braining,  whatever,  also,  the  regularity  of 
attendance  (under,  let  us  suppose,  an  effective 
compulsory  law),  it  is  certain  that  adverse  home 
influences  will,  to  a  lamentable  and  most  dis- 
couraging extent,  counteract  the  good  effects  of 
school  attendance."  All  this  being  admitted, 
the  necessity  of  a  thoroughly  effective  system  of 
education  by  state  schools,  in  order  to  diminish 
as  much  as  possible  the  evil  influences  of  home, 
street,  etc..  is  still  apparent.  Giving  merely  the 
ability  to  read,  in  this  age  of  books,  is  opening 
the  portal  to  knowledge — elaborating, -refining, 
ennobling,  and  thus  to  an  enlightenment  which 
often,  if  not  always,  leads  to  moral  improvement. 
(See  Illiteracy.)  The  need  of  adapting  na- 
tional education  to  the  peculiar  condition  or  in- 
stitutions of  the  country  in  which  it  exists,  is 
very  generally  recognized.  Thus,  in  A  State- 
ment of  the  Theory  of  Education  in  the  U.  S. 
(Wash.,  1874),  it  is  said,  "  In  order  to  compen- 
sate for  lack  of  family  nurture,  the  school  is 
obliged  to  lay  more  stress  upon  discipline,  and 
to  make  far  more  prominent  the  moral  phase  of 
education.  It  is  obliged  to  train  the  pupil  into 
habits  of  self-control  in  its  various  forms,  in 
order  that  he  may  be  prepared  for  a  life  where- 
in there  is  little  police  restraint  on  the  part  of 
the  constituted  authorities.'' — Other  questions 
have  also  arisen  in  relation  to  national  educa- 
tion.or  the  education  afforded  in  national  schools, 
as  (1 )  Whether  it  should,  to  any  extent,  be  on  a 
religious  basis,  or  should  be  exclusively  secular; 
Whether  it  should  extend  to  higher  educa- 
tion, or  be  confined  to  elementary  instruction ; 
and  (3)  Whether  it  should  embrace  technical  and 
professional  instruction,  or  not.  In  regard  to 
these  points,  respectively,  see  Denominational 
Schools,  High  Schools,  and  Technical  Educa- 
tion.— See  also  Spenceb,  Social  Statics  (N.  Y., 
1866);  Rico.  X* it i mi < d Education  (London,  187.'!:) 
Morley,  Tlie  Struggle  for  National  Education 
(London,  1873). 


NATIONAL  LANGUAGE.  There  are 
but  few  among  the  civilized  countries  of  the 
world  in  which  all  the  people  speak  the  same 
language.  In  most  countries,  two  or  more  lan- 
guages predominate  in  different  districts.  Thus, 
in  Belgium,  50  per  cent  of  the  population  speak 

Flemish  ;   4'1  per  cent.  Frem  b  J   and  8  per  cent. 

Flemish,  French,  or  German.  In  Switzerland, 
69  percent  apeak  German;  24  percent,  French; 

•V  percent.  Italian;  and  \\  percent.  Itomansch. 
In   Prussia.  10  per  cent   of  t he  population  Speak 

Polish  :  in  Austria  proper,  the  German  language 
prevails  in  7  of  the  11  provinces:  the  Czechic, 
in  2  ;  the  Slovenic,  in  1;  the  Croatian  or  Ser- 
vian, in  1  ;  and.  in  ,'i  provinces,  no  language  is 
spoken  by  an   absolute  majority  of  the  people. 

I  his  mixture  of  languages  is.  in  some  instances, 
due  to  political  events  of  comparatively  recent 
date;  such  as  the  dismemberment  of  the  king- 
dom of  Poland,  which  placed  large  Polish-s^ leak- 
ing countries  under  German  ami  Russian  rule; 
but,  in  most  cases,  the  various  languages  have 
co-existed  for  centuries.  Thus,  the  Celtic  has  been 
generally  spoken  in  Wales,  down  to  the  present 
time,  although  the  country  has  been  for  six 
centuries  under  English  rule;  and.  in  the  center 
of  Germany,  a  small  Slavic  tribe,  the  Wends, 
have  for  many  centuries  preserved  their  language, 
though  they  have  all  the  time  been  politically 
united  with  ( Jermany. — As  long  as  the  education 
of  the  bulk  of  the  people  was  almost  wholly  con- 
ducted by  the  family  and  the  church,  the  bound- 
aries of  the  different  languages  of  a  country 
appear  to  have  been  remarkably  steady  ;  but, 
the  extension  of  school  education  to  all  classes 
of  the  people,  the  progress  of  compulsory  edu- 
cation, the  more  general  participation  of  the 
people  in  political  affairs,  the  introduction  of 
universal  suffrage,  and  especially  the  centraliza- 
tion of  school  legislation  and  the  progress  of  the 
state  or  public  school  system,  have  in  modern 
times  worked  a  remarkable  change.  In  selecting 
the  language  which  was  to  serve  as  the  medium 
of  instruction,  the  difference  between  cultivated 
and  uncultivated,  literary  and  non-literary,  ruling 
and  subordinate  languages,  made  itself  greatly 
felt.  When  a  language  was  spoken  in  a  small 
district  only,  and  was,  at  the  same  time,  unculti- 
vated and  without  a  literature,  it  was  natural  that 
little  or  no  attention  should  be  given  to  it  in 
the  school,  that  the  rising  generation  should  look 
upon  the  national  language  as  the  more  impor- 
tant, and,  consequently,  that  the  latter  should 
steadily  gain  ground,  and  crowd  out  the  sub- 
ordinate languages.  This  process,  during  tin 
last  hundred  years,  has  been  in  active  operation. 
Thus,  in  England,  the  Cornish,  the  Celtic  dia- 
lect of  Cornwall, has  become  extinct  within  the 
remembrance  of  men  now  living.  In  Italy,  the 
German  dialect  of  two  clusters  of  seven  and 
thirteen  communities,  which  had  maintained  it- 
self for,  at  least,  one  thousand  years,  has  at  last 
given  way  to  the  Italian.  Tn  Germany,  the 
linguistic  territory  of  the  Slavic  Wends,  wdio 
still  comprise  a  population  of  about  140,000 
persons,  has   been  largely  reduced   within  the 


614        NATIONAL  LANGUAGE 


NATURAL  SCIEXCI-; 


last  hundred  years.  The  increasing  strength,  in 
modern  times,  of  the  principle  of  nationality, 
which  has  achieved  its  greatest  triumphs  in  the 
establishment  of  a  united  Germany  and  a  united 
Italy,  has  caused  many  governments  to  look 
upon  the  universal  ascendency  of  the  national 
language,  and  the  suppression  of  all  others,  as  a 
means  of  strengthening  national  unity.  From 
this  point  of  view,  great  efforts  have  been  made 
in  many  countries,  to  force  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  language  of  the  government  upon  all  schools. 
as  the  sole  medium  of  instruction.  Where  these 
measures  were  directed  against  languages  spoken 
by  large  bodies  of  the  people,  or  even  against 
smaller  portions  of  the  population,  speaking  the 
language  of  another  large  country,  they  have  pro- 
voked resistance,  more  or  less  violent,  and  have 
in  many  instances  led  to  controversies  which  arc 
not  yet  ended.  The  principles  according  to 
which  different  governments  have  proceeded, 
are  very  different.  None  has  gone  so  far  in  the 
use  of  lore  as  Russia,  which,  in  its  attempts  to 
crush  out  the  la  iguage  of  some  eight  million 
Pole-,  has  manifested  a  disregard  of  the  first 
rights  bf  families  in  th  •  e  lucati  m  of  their  chil- 
dren, that  has  deservedly  met  with  universal 
disapproval.  No  country  of  the  world  has  I 
6 '  gr  •  1  in  its  legisl  ii ion   by  the 

co  e  a  of  a  numb  t  of  la  the 

Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy.  The  two  ruling 
lang  :  ■      'i  i  i    in     Austria     prop  r.    and 

Magyar  in  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown, 
are  both  the  langu  ig  s  of  only  a  minority  of  the 
population  in  their  several  sctions;  and  while 
the  two  governments  have  been  anxious  to  extend 
the  domain  of  the  ruling  languages,  th  i '  Izechs  in 
Bohemia  and  .Moravia,  the  Slovens  in  Styria 
and  Carniola, the  Italians  in  the  Tyrol,  the  Poles 
and  Ruthenians  in  Galicia,  Silesia,  and  the 
Bukovina,  the  Roumanians,  Croats,  and  Ger- 
mans in  Hungary,  have  insisted  that  for  the 
Schools  in  those  districts  in  which  a  majority  of 
the  people  speak  their  languag  i,  it  shall  be  male 
the  medium  of  instruction  of  all  grades.  The 
Conflict    is    at     present    Ii  Tcer    than    ever.      The 

Hungarian  g  ivernm  ml  has  thus  far  successfully 
contiuued  its  efforts  to  extend  the  ascendency 
of  the  Magyar  lan<  lage;  while  the  government 
of  An-  conceded   nearly  all   th  i 

de  ii  in  Is  of  l!i  •  Qon-<  rerman  nationalities.  The 
id  -a  of  an  imp  rial  1  inguag  ■  has,  in  An 
prop  t.  b  •  m  given  up;  an  1  what  remains  of  the 
i  I  mcy  of  th  ■  German,  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
greal  superiority  of  German  Literature  and 
scholarship.  The  Czechs,  Slovens.  Poles,  and 
other  non-German  nationalities,  have  no!  only 
secured  the  general  introduction  of  their  lan- 
guages as  mediums  of  instruction  into  all  the 
firimary  schools  of  their  districts;  but  the  same 
been  done  in  regard  t<>  the  gymnasia.    The 

two   universities  of    Lemberg  and    CracOW   have 

been    fully  surrendered  to  the   Poles;   and.  in 

Prague,  the  division  of  the  university,  the  oldest 

in  Germany,  into   two,   one   Czechic  and   one 

German,  is  under  consideration.    The  Prussian 

cm .  which  sustains  non-t  lerman  schools 


in  the  provinces  of  Brandenburg,  Silesia.  Posen, 
Prussia,  and  the  northern  part  of  Schleswig.  has 
devoted  to  the  principles  underlying  tins  question 
a  greater  attention  than  any  other  European  gov- 
ernment, and  has  evidently  endeavored  to  evolve 
principles  which  will  admit  of  application  in 
more  than  one  country,  and  which  v  ill  reconcile 
the  clashing  claims  of  the  mother-tongue  and 
the  national  language.  It  expressly  disclaims 
any  intention  to  introduce  the  study  of  German 
into  the  non-German  Bchools  tor  the  sole  purpose 
of  Germanizing  districts  speaking  a  non-German 
language;  but  it  demands,  "for  the  purpose  of 
securing  in  these  parts  and  members  of  the 
monarchy  a  lively  appreciation  of  the  progress 
of  civilization  in  the  father-land, and  a  conscious 
and  energetic  co-operation  in  this  progress,  that 
the  pupils  of  the  national  schools  lie  instructed 
in  the  German  language  as  far  as  isneceEBary 
to  facilitate  a  business  and  social  intercourse 
with  their  German-speaking  fellow-citizens."  Ac- 
cordingly, in  the  purely  Wendish,  Polish.  Lithu- 
anian, and  Masuric  schools,  the  mother-tongue 
is  used  exclusively  for  instruction  in  religion  and 
singing,  and  for  the  lower  stages  of  instruction 
in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  In  the 
higher  classes,  the  German  gradually  takes  the 
place  of  the  mother-tongue.  Even  in  the  gym- 
nasia, a  similar  regard  for  the  moth<  r-toi  gue  is 
shown:  tor.  in  all  those  gymnasia  in  which  the 
majority  of  the  pupils  is  of  the  Polish  national- 
ity, the  Polish  language  is.  at  hast  partly, 
used  as  medium  ot  instruction  in  the  lower 
classes.—  Within  the  bounds  of  the  present 
United  States,  the  Spanish,  the  French,  the 
Dutch,  the  German,  have  all,  at  onetime,  been 
the  predominant  languages  among  the  white 
settlers  in  large  tracts  of  country;  hut  all  have 
gradually  given  way  to  the  English.  A  dialect 
of    German,    commonly    called    Pennsylvania 

Dutch,  is  still  extensively  spoken  among  the 
descendants  of  the  old  German  settlers  in  Penn- 
sylvania :  ami.  in  the  new  acquisitions  of  terri- 
tory in  the  South  and  on  the  Pacific.  Spanish 
is  still  tin-  language  chiefly  spoken  in  many  sec- 
tions: lmt  the  strong  tiis  of  commercial  and 
soi  ial  interests,  and  the  educational   influence  of 

the  national   schools   rapidly  s]  reed  a  l.nowl. 

of  the   English  lane  ii  to  be  un- 

derstood  and  spoken  by  the  entire  population. 

The  desire  to  share  in   this  universal  knowledge 

ish  pervades  all  classes  of  the  American 

people,  including  the  most  recent  immigrants; 
ami  in  this  respect,  the  English  language  is  the 

national    language    of    the    United    States   to  a 

probably  wider  extent  than  the  ruling  language 
of  any  of  the  large  countries  of  Europe.    There 

is  a  very  general  wish  on  the  part  of  the  de- 
8C(  ii  lantfi  of  the  old  DOn-English  settlers  and  the 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  recent  immigrants,  to 
cultivate  by  the  side  of  the  English, a  knowledge 
of  the  language  of  the  country  from  which  they 
or  their  ancestors  emigrated.  (See  Germ  in- Amer- 
ican Sci £.  and  German  Language.) 

NATURAL  SCIENCE.     See  S<  u  mi:,  TBI 
or. 


NAUTICAL  SCHOOLS 


NAVAL   SCHOOLS 


015 


NAUTICAL  SCHOOLS,  or  Schools  of 
Navigation,  are  institutions  for  educating  and 
training  pupils  in  the   Bcience  and  practice  of 

»  navigation.  Schools  of  this  kind  have  Long  been 
in  existence  in  European  countries,  and  are 
of  various  grades.  One  of  the  chief  objects  of 
the  theoretical  instruction  given  in  them,  is  to 
teach  the  pupils  how  to  use  the  instruments  of 

>  observation,  and  how  to  apply  the  results  for  the 
purpose  of  finding,  at  any  instant,  the  exact 
position  of  a  vessel  at  sea.  The  calculations  nec- 
essary for  this  purpose  require  a  knowledge 
of  various  branches  of  mathematics,  especially 
trigonometry  :  hence,  mathematics  must  con- 
stitute the  chief  part  of  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  schools  of  navigation.  In  those  schools 
in  which  most  of  the  pupils  lack  the  amount  of 
knowledge  necessary  for  a  scientific  understand- 
ing of  these  nautical  calculations,  they  receive  a 
merely  mechanical  instruction,  which  is  found 
to  be  generally  sufficient  for  the  mercantile 
marine.  The  course  of  instruction  varies  con- 
siderably. In  Prussia,  where  prominence  is 
given  to  scientific  instruction,  it  lasts  eighteen 
months,  of  which  twelve  are  spent  in  the  mates' 
class,  and  six  in  the  navigators'  (captains')  c! 
Before  pupils  can  be  admitted  to  the  latter 
class,  they  must  have  been  for  eighteen  months 
in  active  service  as  mates.  In  other  schools, 
less  attention  is  given  to  theoretical  studies,  iv.vA 
the  course  of  instruction  lasts  only  from  four  to 
six  months.  In  1875,  the  German  Empire  had 
21  navigation  schools,  1-4  of  which  were  in 
Prussia,  4  in  the  Ilanse  towns,  2  in  Mecklen- 
burg, and  1  in  Oldenburg.  In  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Monarchy,  there  were  8  nautical 
schools,  in  France  42,  in  Italy  23,  in  Russia  4, 
in  Finland  G,  in  Sweden  9,  in  Norway  G,  in 
Denmark  1,  in  Holland  9,  in  Belgium  2,  in  Spain 
9,  in  Portugal  l,in  Greece  5.  England  also  has 
-a  large  number  of  navigation  schools  of  various 
grades.  In  some  of  the  countries  named,  these 
schools  are  called  nautical  scliools ;  in  others, 
navigation  schools;  and  France  prefers  the 
name  ki/drographical  schools.  In  the  United 
States,  the  legislature  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
in  1ST.'!,  authorized  the  establishment  of  a  nau- 
tical sch  »ol  in  the.  city  of  New  York,  to  be  under 
the  charge  of  th  ■  board  of  education  of  that  city. 
The  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  York  : 
was  authorized  to  appoint  a  committee  of  it; 
members  to  serve  as  a  council  i  >r  this  school,  and 
to  cooperate  with  the  board  of  education  in 
its  management.  (See  New  York.)  The  U.  S. 
congress,  in  an  act  approved  June  8.,  1874, 
authorize  1  the  use  of  certain  national  vessels 
for  this  purpose, as  well  as  the  detailing  of  naval 
officers  to  act  as  superintendents  and  instructors 
in  such  schools,  but  with  the  special  provision, 
'•  that  no  person  shall  be  sentenced  to,  or  re- 
ceived at,  such  schools  as  a  punishment,  or  com- 
mutation of  punishment,  for  crime''  The 
course  of  instruction  covers  a  period  of  from 
18  months  to  2  years.  The  pupils  who  complete 
it  successfully,  receive  a  certificate;  and  efforts 
axe  made  to  obtain  positions  for  them  on  board 


of  the  best  ships.  If,  alter  their  first  voyage, 
they  desire  to  qualify  themselves  tor  the  posi- 
tion of  mate  or  captain,  instruction  is  given 
them  in  practical  and  theoretical  navigation. and 
in  such  other  branches  as  are  deemed  neces- 
sary.  A  school  similar  In  that  in  New  York,  is 
conducted  in  a  government  vessel  in  the  port  of 
San  Francisco. 

NAVAL  SCHOOLS  are  schools  for  the 
training  of  midshipmen  in  all  the  theoretical  and 
practical  branches  requisite  to  tit  them  for  their 
profession.  In  the  1  nited  States,  there  is  the 
Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  Aid.,  which  was 
established,  in  L845,  by  George  Bancroft,  then 
secretary  of  the  navy.  Originally  little  more 
than  a  school  of  practice  on  board  ship,  and 
intended  to  afford  comparatively  slight  men- 
tal training,  it  was,  in  L850,  reorganized  un- 
der its  present  name.  The  course  of  study  was 
materially  enlarged,  and  the  institution  was 
placed  under  the  charge  of  the  Bureau  of  Ord- 
nance and  Hydrography.  In  1851,  a  four  years' 
course  of  instruction  was  adopted.  In  March, 
L867,  the  school  was  placed  under  the  care  of 
the  secretary  of  the  navy;  but  its  administration 
continued  to  be  mainly  conducted  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Bureau  of  Navigation,  which 
had  been  formed,  and  put  in  change  of  it,  in  July, 
1862.  Since  March,  1869,  the  supervision  of 
the  secretary  over  it  has  been  without  this  inter- 
vention.  March  .'5.,  1873,  a  law  was  passed  ex- 
tending the  course  of  study  to  six  years. — The 
course  of  instruction  comprises  a  thorough  and 
exhaustive  drill,  not  only  in  mathematics  and 
the  natural  sciences,  but  in  the  English,  French, 
and  Spanish  languages,  in  history,  international 
law,  seamanship,  ship-building,  gunnery,  steam- 
enginery,  and  drawing  (both  mechanical  and  free- 
hand), especially  in  its  applications  to  naval  con- 
struction, machinery,  and  map-making.  Three 
times  a  week,  exercises  in  practical  seamanship, 
on  board  ship  or  in  boats,  vary  the  courses  of 
the  lecture  and  recitation  room;  while,  from  the 
middle  of  June  till  the  middle  of  September,  a 
cruise  along  the  coast,  in  a  United  States  sailing- 
ship  or  steamer,  gives  opport unity  for  putting 
into  practice  all  the  nautical  knowledge  that  has 
been  acquired.  The  number  of  cadet-midship- 
men, in  1874 — 5,  was  297;  the  number  of  in- 
structors, 58. — Since  186  I.  classes  of  naval  con- 
structors, of  civil  and  steam-engineers,  called 
cadet-engineers,  have  been  permitted  to  be  edu- 
cated at  the  academy,  the  number  of  such  being 
limited  to  50.  and  the  course  for  them  being 
two  years  at  the  school,  and  two  years  on  board 
ship.  During  the  civil  war,  the  academy  was  re- 
moved to  Newport,  R.  I.;  but,  soon  after  its  close, 
was  brought  back  to  Annapolis. — In  England, 
the  Royal  Naval  College  was  erected  in  1729,  at 
Portsmouth.  There,  formerly,  youths  intended 
for  the  navy  were  instructed  in  navigation  etc.; 
but,  in  1839,  the  college  was  remodeled,  and  ap- 
propriated to  the  instruction  of  junior  naval  and 
marine  officers  in  the  higher  branches  of  science 
connected  with  their  profession,  and  especially 
in  the  principles  and  practice  of  naval  gunnery. 


616 


NEBRASKA 


In  1872,  the  college  was  transferred  to  Green- 
wich.— On  the  continent  of  Europe,  there  are 
naval  schools  at  Fiume  (Hungary),  Kiel  (Prus- 
sia), Bresl  (France),  Naples  and  Spezia  (Italy), 
St.  Petersburg  (Russia),  Stockholm  (Sweden), 
Christ iania  (Norway),  Copenhagen  (Denmark), 
Willemsoord  (Netherlands),  Ferrol  (Spain),  Lis- 
bon (Portugal),  the  Piraeus  (Greece), and  on  the 
island  of  Khalki  (Turkej7). 

NEBRASKA,  one  of  the  western  states  of 
the  American  Union,  to  which  it  was  admitted 
in  1807,  as  the  24th.  Its  are;;  is  7-"'. 995  sq.  m.: 
its  population,  in  L870,  was  129,322,  of  whom 
789  were  colored,  and  6,416  were  Indians. 

Educational  History.  While  vet  a  territory 
(1854 — 67),  Nebraska  adopted  a  liberal  school 
system  which,  as  early  as  1865,  when  the  popu- 
lation was  only  50,0IKI.  furnished  free  tuition  (> 
months  in  t he  year.  In  1869,  a  general  school 
law  was  passed,  which  has  been  modified  from 
time  to  time  to  suit  the  wants  of  the  rapidly  in- 
creasing population  of  the  state:  and  on  this 
law,  substantially,  is  based  the  present  system. 
The  intention  of  the  school  law  of  Nebraska  is 
to  afford  an  opportunity  for  a  finished  education 
to  every  child  in  the  state.  To  this  cud.  tuition 
is  free  from  the  day  of  admission  to  the  primary 
school  to  the  completion  of  the  course  in  the 
university.  The  state  superintendents  have  been 
as  follows:  S.  I).  Heals.  1869—71;  J.  M.McKen- 
zie,  1871 — 77;  and  S.  I!.  Thompson  from  1n77. 

School  System.  There  is  do  state  hoard  of 
education.  The  constitution  provides,  that  there 
shall  be  elected  by  the  people  every  two  years,  a 
state  superintendent,  whose  principal  duties  shall 
be,  to  apportion,  twice  each  year  (in  June  and 
December),  the  state  school  fund  to  theseveral 
counties,  the  basis  of  apportionment  being  the 
number  of  children  between  the  ages  of  -"'and 
21  years;  to  recommend  for  the  use  of  the  public 
schools  a  list  of  text-l>onks:  to  examine  appli- 
cants for  state  certificates;  to  hold  teachers'  insti- 
tutes ;  to  designate  the  forms  of  all  blanks  for 
the  use  of  the  schools,  and  for  the  reports  of 
school  officers;  and  to  make  a  full  annual  report 
to  the  governor,  of  the  educational  condition  of 
the  stale.  Each  county  elects  a  county  super- 
intendent biennially,  whose  duty  it  is  to  divide  the 
county  into  s chool -districts,  it'  this  has  not  al- 
ready been  .lone,  lie  has  no  power,  however, 
to  change  any  district  Line,  unless  petitioned  so 

to  do    by    one  third    of    the     legal     voters    in     the 

districts  affected  a  legal  voter  being  any  male, 
or  unmarried  female  '_'l   years  of  age,  residing 

in  the  district,  and  subject  to  pay  a  district 
school-tax.      It    is    the    county    superintendent's 

duty,  also,  to  examine  teachers,  to  visit  each 
school  in  the  county  at  least  once  each  term,  to 
hold   teachers'   institutes,   to  apportion   to  the 

eral  districts,  twice  each  year,  the  public 
school  money,  and  to  report  to  the  state  super- 
intendent annually  the  condition  of  the  school 

r  this  service,  he  receives  not  less  than  $3, 
nor  more  than  >•">.  per  day  for  every  day  actually 
employed  in  the  duties  of  his  office.  Thecountj 
superintendent  issues  three  grades  of  certificates 


to  teachers:  the  first  grade  valid  for  2  years, 
the  second,  for  one  year — both  entitling  the 
holder  to  teach  in  any  district  in  the  county; 
the  third  grade  being  valid  for  (i  months,  and 
entitling  the  holder  to  teach  only  in  a  specified 
district.  Three  third-grade  certificates,  however, 
may  be  issued  to  the  same  person.  Kaeh  school- 
district  has  three  officers. — a  (Urn-tar.  a  modera- 
tor, and  a  treasurer.  One  of  these  is  elected  each 
year  at  the  April  meeting.  These  officers  have 
full  control  of  all  school  matters  pertaining  to 
the  district,  except  the  building  of  school-houseg, 
and  the  issuing  of  school  bonds.  'I  hey  are  not 
permitted  to  pay,  out  of  the  public  funds,  any 
teacher  not  holding  a  certificate  from  the  pro]  c  r 
authority.  Relatives  of  these  officers  are  in- 
eligible as  teachers.  The  director  must,  within 
Id  days  after  the  annual  meeting,  report  to  the 
county  superintendent  the  number  of  children 
of  School  age  in  the  district,  the  appropriation 
of  the  state  fund  being  based   upon    this   return, 

and  not  payable  without  it.  The  permanent 
school  fund  consists  of  all  moneys  arising  from 
the  sale  of   the    16th  and    36th  sections   in   each 

township,  the  five  percent  granted  by  Congi 

on  the  sak'  of  public  lands  within  the  state,  and 
all  escheats,  gifts,  grants,  etc..  not  otherwise  ap- 
propriated.   This  fund  is  at  present   invested 

principally  in  state  securities.  Some  of  it.  how- 
ever, is  in  school-district    and  county  bonds,  and 

bond  and  mortgage,  but  all  draws  111  per  cent 
interest.     The  items  are  as  follows  • 

School  fund    DOW  invested $  l!'T ,937.3  I 

Unpaid  principal  of  school  lands  sold       637,887.80 

Value  of  school  lands  leased 272,169.16 

Total .$1,407,994.30 

The  constitution  provides  that  the  fund  shall  he 
invested  hereafter  only  in  United  States  and 
state  securities,  or  in  registered  county  bonds. 
The  number  of  acres  of  school  lands  amounts  to 
more  than  2.500.0(10.  none  of  which  can  be  sold 
at   less  than  87   per  acre.    The  apportionable 

school  fund  arises  from  the  10  per  cent  interest 
on  all  moneys  forming  a  part  of  the  permanent 

school  fund,  the  (I  per  cent  rents  of  school  hinds 
leased,  together  with  the  proceeds  of  the  one- 
mill  tax.     The  other  sources  of  income  for  the 

support  of  schools  are  the  moneys  arising  from 
lines,  licenses,  dog-tax,  and  the  special  district  tax. 

School  districts  arc  prohibited  from  levying  for 
school  purposes  a  greater  tax  than  '_'•">  mills  on 
i  lie  dollar  in  any  one  year.  'I  luce  months'  school 
must  be  maintained  in  each  school-district  to 
entitle  it  to  any  portion  of  the  public  fund. 

"Educational  ''<>//< lition.-  The  number  of 
Bchool-districts  in  L876,  was  2.5(17  ;  the  number 
of  school  houses  of  all  kinds.  1,980;  the  number 
of  districts  in  which  graded  schools  exist,  ■<■<■ 
The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for  1875 

ale  the  following: 

Number  of  children  of  bc! 1  age 86,1!  i 

enrolled 69,973 

"       "  teachers,  males 1 ,468 

females 1,893 

Total 3.301 

Average  monthly  salary,  males $37.71 

"  '     females $32.60 

Amount  of  apportionable  Bchool  fund. ..  .$241, 167 .C3 


NEBRASKA 


NEBRASKA   UNIVKUSITY       61 


Normal  Instruction.  The  state  normal  school 
was  opened  at  Peru,  in  L867.  It  was  originally 
organized  with  three  departments,  the  time  re 
quired  to  complete  the  course  being  L3  years.  In 
L873— 4,  this  was  modified  so  as  to  comprise 
2  departments,  the  preparatory  and  the  normal, 
5  years  being  necessary  to  complete  the  course. 
In  the  preparatory  department,  in  addition  to 
the  usual  elementary  studies  pursued  the  Inst 
year,  botany  is  taught  :  in  the  second,  zoology ; 
in  the  third,  Latin.  Algebra,  physical  geography, 
physiology,  and  the  history  of  the  United  States. 
Drawing  and  vocal  music  are  also  taught.  In 
the  normal  department,  the  branches  peculiar  to 
schools  of  this  description  are  pursued.  The 
number  of  students  in  attendance  at  the  present 
time  (1876),  is  about  190. 

Teachers'  Institutes. — These  bodies  have  been 
convened,  from  time  to  time,  at  such  places  as  the 
state  and  county  superintendents  have  deemed 
necessary.  'The  annual  attendance  of  teachers, 
since  L863,  has  been  large,  and  the  interest 
aroused  has  extended  very  generally  among  the 
people  in  the  localities  where  the  meetings  have 

been  held.   The  State  Teachers'  Association  meets 
annually  about  the  last  of  March. 

An  educational  journal.  The  Nebraska  Teacher, 
was  begun  in  L871,  and  is  now  one  of  the  agen- 
cies for  the  instruction  and  training  of  the 
teachers  of  the  state.  Its  editor  is  the  president 
of  the  State  Teachers'  Association.  A  similar 
publication  is  issued  by  the  faculty  and  students 
of  the  state  university. 

Secondary  Instruction. — There  are  several 
high  schools  in  the  state,  principally  in  the  cities 
and  large  towns,  where  the  great  interest  awak- 
ened in  the  subject  of  education  has  led,  in  some 
cases,  to  the  erection  of  costly  buildings,  the  most 
noted  of  which,  the  high  school  building  of 
Omaha  City,  with  a  seating  capacity  for  more 
than  700  pupils,  was  erected  at  an  expense  of 
more  than  $200,000.  Similar  schools,  but  not 
so  costly,  exist  in  Lincoln.  Nebraska  City,  Ash- 
land, Beatrice,  Brownville,  and  Pawnee  City. 
The  intention  of  the  school  law  was  to  connect 
the  high  schools  directly  with  the  state  univer- 
sity, according  to  the  system  established  in  the 
state  of  Michigan,  by  making  the  graduates  of  the 
former  admissible  to  the  latter  without  further 
examination.  The  want  of  uniformity  in  the 
courses  of  study  in  the  high  schools,  however, 
for  some  time  led  to  such  a  lowering  of  the 
standard  of  admission  as  seriously  to  threaten 
the  efficiency  of  the  university.  Measures  have 
already  been  taken  to  remedy  this. 

The  number  of  private  schools  in  the  state  has 
very  much  decreased  since  1870.  The  number  at 
that  time  was  70,  but  increased  confidence  in 
the  efficiency  of  the  common  schools  had  dimin- 
ished the  number,  in  1874,  to  30.  There  are  but 
few  denominational  schools  in  the  state, — 
Brownell  Hall  (Episcopalian),  a  ladies'  seminary 
at  Omaha,  a  Roman  Catholic  school  in  the  same 
place,  and  another  in  Nebraska  <"ity.  One 
business  college,  at  Omaha,  reported,  in  1874,  a 
total  of  135  pupils,  of  whom  17  were  females. 


Superior  Instruction. — The  institutions  in- 
tended to  furnish  an  advanced  education  are  as 
follows : 


NAME 

Location 

\\  I,,  n 
round- 
ed 

R  eligious 

'1'    1 1111. 1- 

tion 

Doane  College 

Nebraska  College. . . . 

t  niv.  ut   Nebraska.  .  .  . 

Crete 

Nebraska  City 
Lincoln 

187'i 
1868 
L869 

Cong. 
Pr.  Epis. 

Nell    Si  el  . 

Scientific  ami  Professional  Instruction. — The. 
Agricultural  College  is  a  department  of  the  state 
university,  and  is  governed  by  the  same  board 
of  regents.  The  landed  endowment  of  both  in- 
stitutions amounts  to  134,800  acres  of  hind, 
which  at  present  is  not  available.  The  course 
of  study  requires  3  years  for  its  completion,  the 
ordinary  provision  being  made  for  a  liberal  edu- 
cation, with  special  attention  paid  to  those 
branches  of  natural  science  necessary  to  the  busi- 
ness of  farming.  Connected  with  the  college  is 
a  farm  of  320  acres,  on  which  the  instruction 
given  in  the  college  is  put  to  practical  test.  'I  he 
number  of  students  at  present  is  12.  A  divinity 
school  exists  as  a  department  of  Nebraska  Col- 
lege, which  prescribes  a  course  of  3  years.  In  1874, 
the  number  of  its  students  was  2. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Nebraska  Institute 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  is  situated  near  Omaha. 
It  was  organized  in  1869,  for  the  free  education 
of  all  deaf  and  dumb  children  in  the  state,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  10  and  25,  of  sound  mind,  of 
good  moral  habits,  and  free  from  contagious 
disease.  The  course  of  study  comprises  8  years 
of  40  weeks  each.  The  studies  pursued  are  those 
common  to  such  institutions.  The  instruction 
in  the  first  class  is  purely  elementary ;  in  the 
second  class,  language  and  arithmetic  are  taught; 
in  the  third,  language,  arithmetic,  and  geography; 
in  the  fourth,  arithmetic,  geography,  the  science 
of  common  things,  and  the  history  of  the  United 
States.  Daily  exercises  in  written  language  con- 
stitute a  part  of  the  instruction  in  all  the  grades 
during  the  entire  course.  Special  instruction  in 
articulation  is  given  to  semi-mutes.  The  in- 
stitute has  at  present  3  instructors,  and  about 
40  pupils  in  all  the  classes.  The  Asylum  for  the 
Blind  was  opened  near  Nebraska  City,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1875.  It  has  a  fine  building  and  grounds, 
but  its  organization  is  so  recent  that  but  little  is 
generally  known  in  regard  to  it. 

NEBRASKA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  at  Lin- 
coln, Neb.,  was  chartered  in  1  XG'J,  and  opened  in 
1871.  It  was  established  upon  grants  of  land, 
amounting  to  1 34,800  acres,  made  by  Congress 
to  the  state  for  the  support  of  a  university  and 
a  college  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts. 
The  charter  provides  for  six  departments,  or 
colleges,  namely :  ( 1 )  a  college  of  ancient  and 
modern  languages,  mathematics,  and  natural 
science;  (2)  a  college  of  agriculture:  (3)  a  col- 
lege of  law;  (4)  a  college  of  medicine;  (5)  a 
college  of  practical  science,  mechanics,  and 
civil  engineering:  (G)  a  college  of  fine  arts. 
Only  the  first  two  have  yet  (187G)  been  organ- 
ized. In  the  first  there  are  four  courses  of  study 
of  four  years  each  ;  and,  in  the  second,  there  are 


618 


N E BR A  SKA  COLLEGE 


NETHERLANDS 


two  courses,  one  of  three  years,  and  a  course  of 
one  year,  in  the  College  of  Literature,  Science, 
and  Art,  the  courses  are  the  classical,  the  scien- 
tific, the  Latin  scientific,  and  the  Greek  scien- 
tific. There  is  a  Latin  or  preparatory  school 
connected  with  the  university.  It  has  a  farm 
of  320  acres,  and  extensive  chemical  and  phys- 
ical apparatus.  Tuition  is  five.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  8  instructors  and  Li*-'  students,  of 
whom  !1T  (48  collegiate  and  (I!)  preparatory) 
were  in  the  department  of  literature,  science, 
and  arts,  and  L5  in  the  department  of  agricult- 
ure. Both  sexes  are  admitted.  Allen  R.Benton, 
A.  M..  LL.  1).,  is  (1876)  the  chancellor. 

NEBRASKA'  COLLEGE,  at  Nebraska 
City,  Neb.,  under  Protestant  Episcopal  control, 
was  organized  in  L865,  and  chartered  in  1868. 
It  is  Bupporte  1  by  the  fees  of  students.  The 
institution  has  a  valuable  mineral  cabinet,  and 
libraries  containing  about  2,000  volumes.  It 
comprises  a  collegiate  course  and  a  grammar 
school,  with  a  preparatory  and  a  business  course. 
Facilities  are  afforded  for  instruction  in  theology. 
In  L875 — 6,  there  were  *  instructors  and  TO 
students  (3  collegiate,  13  preparatory,  ami  54 
business).  I".  I..  A  oodbury,  .M.A.,  is  '(1K7(>)  the 
head-master  in  charg 

NEEDLE-WORK.  See  Female  Education, 
and  [ndustri  \i.  Sohoo   i. 

NETHERLANDS,  the  name  of  a  kingdom 
in  western  Europe,  which  has  an  area  of  L2,680 

Bquare  mile--,  an  1  the  population  of  which,  in 
1874,  was  3,767,263,  exclusive  of  its  colonial 
possessions,  the  total    area  of   which    amounts  to 

more  than  660,000  sip  m.;  and  the  population, 

t..   over   24,000,000.— The    independence  of    the 

Netherlands  was  established  in  L579,  when  the 

people  revolted  against  the  rule  of  Spain,  and 
proclaimed  the  republic  of  the  United  Nether- 
lands. Napoleon,  in  1  sou,  erected  the  kingdom 
of  Holland;  but  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  in  L815, 
United  Belgium  and  Holland  under  the  title  of 
1b,'  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  In  1830,  the 
southern  provinces  seceded, and  formed  the  king- 
dom of  1!  ilgium;   and,  since  that  time,  the  name 

Netherlands  has  been  applie  1  exclusively  to  the 
kingdom    formed  of    the    northern   provinces. 

About    6]     per    cent    of    the    population  of   the 

kingdom  are  Protestants;  and  nearly  ,'!7  p  r 
ecu',  Roman  <  'atholics. 

History  of  Education. — The  earliest  school  of 
which  there  is  any  record  was  that  of  St.  Martin 
a1  Utrecht,  said  to  hive  been  founded  in  the 
time  of  Charles  Martel.  This  school  enjoyed 
great  renown,  an  I  large  numbers  of  pupils  from 
the  neighboring  countries  attended  it.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  L2th  century.  (Jtrechl  pos- 
■  \  no  less  than  live  flourishing  schools,  several 

of  which    had   each  a  rector,  in    addition   to  the 

pii  iste,  who  ha  I  the  general  control  of  them.  At 
that  time,  several  convent  schools  gained  great 

reputation,  llie  most   prominent  of  which  were  at 

ion  I    Nimeguen,  Middelburg,  and  Admoert, 

i  Groningen.    Schools  were  also  established 

his  time  by  the  more   flourishing  towns.'for 

lh     instruction  of  the  citizens.     Authority  to 


open  these  schools  was  always  derived  from  the 
courts,  and  the  supervision  and  instruction  were 
entirely  secular.  The  best-known  school  of  this 
class  was  at  Xwolle,  which,  in  the  14th  century, 
is  reported  to  have  hail  over  1,000  pupils.  In 
Holland,  as  well  as  in  Belgium,  the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life  did  much  to  promote  educa- 
tion. (See  HlEEONYMIANS.)  Luring  the  Lth 
century,  this  country  was  rich  in  eminent 
scholars,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  John 
Weasel,  Rudolf  Agricola,  Alexander  Hegius,  and 
Erasmus.  A  new  era  was  inaugurated  with  the 
opening  of  the  Leyden  University,  in  L575,  which 
awakened  a  new  zeal  for  all  departments  of 
learning.  Other  universities  were  established, 
at  Franeker  (1575),  at  Groningen  (Dil4),  at 
Utrecht  (1638),  and  at  Barderwick  (1648),  all 
of  which  greatly  added  to  the  reputation  of 
Dutch  scholarship  throughout  the  world,  and 
rendered  their  people  one  of  the  best  educated 
nations  of  the  globe.  During  the  1 8th  century, 
there  was.  however,  a  visible  decline:  and.  at  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  (1811),  Cuvier 
made  a  rather  unfavorable  report  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  universities  and  latin  schools  of  Hol- 
land. 'I  he  French  government  which  Napoleon  I. 
established  in  Holland,  introduced  some  reforms, 
w  hii  h  were  subsequently  .-am  tioiied  and  further 
developed  by  King  William  I.  Since  that  time, 
the  Netherlands  have  regained,  in  some  depart- 
ments of  superior  instruction,  especially  in  that 
of  the  ancient  languages,  their  former  reputation. 
The  Dutch  legislation  in  regard  to  primary  in- 
struction has  attracted  the  attention  of  educa- 
tional writers  and  the  governments  of  various 
countries,  chiefly  by  its  outspoken  opposition  to 
the  principle  of  denominational  schools.  The 
bads  of  the  Dutch  system  was  laid  in  the  cel- 
ebrated law  of  1806,  drawn  upbyM.  Van  der 
Ende,  who  was,  for  nearly  thirty  years  (until 
l^.'l.'i),  at  the  head  of  the  common-school  depart- 
ment of  the  Dutch  ministry.  Articles  '-''_'  and  23 
of  this  law  provide  that  pupils  shall  be  trained 
" in  the  practice  of  all  the  social  and  Christian 
virtues."  and  that  ihcy  shall  "  not  remain  with- 
out instruction  in  the  doctrines  of  that  religious 
faith  to  which  they  belong;"  but  that  the  teacher 
of  the  school  •shall  not  have  charge  of  this 
branch  of  instruction."  The  principle  of  secular 
and  mixed  schools  had.  at  first,  the  co-operation 

of  ministers  of  every  creed,  even  of  the  Roman 

( 'atholics;  but. after  1848,  sharply-defined  parties 
arose  in  mutual  opposition.  The  new  constitu- 
tion of  1848,  which  is  still  in  force  (1876), pro- 
vides that  instruction  shall  be  tree. and  under  the 
absolute  control  of  the  government.  At  this 
time,  a  party  of  orthodox    Protestants  had  been 

founded,  named  after  Groen  van   Prinsterer,  a 

prominent    professor    and    writer,   who  asserted 

that  the  Roman  Catholics,  wherever  they  had 
any  influence,  were  Btrictly  carrying  into  exe- 
cution the  laws  of  1806;  that  is.  excluding 
from  the  schools  every  thine  ,,i  a  doctrinal  char- 
acter, even  the   bible  il>elf.      As  the  best   method 

to  check  the  anticipated  advances  of  that  (  hurt  h, 
the  Groenists  attacked  the  principle  of  mixed 


NETHERLANDS 


619 


schools,  denouncing  them  as  breeding-places  of 
atheism  and  immorality,  and  demanding  in  their 
place  denominational  schools,  which  might  afford 
religious  instruction.  This  party  was  in  a  small 
minority  in  the  chambers,  in  1857,  when  the 
new  educational  law  was  framed,  which  still  re- 
mains in  operation  (1876).  The  majority  was 
composed,  in  the  first  place,  of  Catholics  who 
preferred  to  exclude  religious  instruction  entirely 
from  the  schools,  rather  than  have  it  of  a  more  or 
less  Protestant  character:  secondly,  of  the  Liber- 
als, who  were  in  favor  of  the  total  separation  of 
church  anil  state;  and,  finally,  of  Dissenters  of 
every  kind.    This  question  was  disposed  of  by 

the  law  of  1857,  which  provided  that,  while 
public  instruction  should  communicate  all  nec- 
essary  secular  knowledge,  and  develop  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  pupils,  it  should,  "at  the  same 
time,  train  them  to  the  practice  of  every  Chris- 
tian anil  social  virtue."  It  also  enjoined  upon 
the  teacher  to  refrain  "from  teaching,  doing,  or 
permitting  any  thing  derogatory  to  the  respect 
that  is  due  to  the  religious  convictions  of  the  non- 
conformists." Instruction  in  religion."  it  stated, 
'•  islefl  to  the  different  sects.  The  use  of  the  school 
buildings  may.  however,  he  granted  for  this  pur- 
p  ise,  to  accommodate  the  children  that  attend 
th  se,  at  hours  not  appropriated  to  other  classes." 

The  Catholics,  however,  left  their  liberal  allies, 
and  at  present  are  united  with  the  orthodox 
Protestants  ami  Conservatives,  in  an  attempt  to 
divi  le  the  school  fund,  a  scheme  which  is  op- 
pose I  by  the  Liberals  only.  This  question  of  de- 
nominational schools  has  since  formed  the  chief 
issue  at  the  general  election.  In  the  election  of 
18T">.  for  member's  of  the  second  chamber,  the 
Liberals  obtained  a  majority  of  two  over  the 
united  opposition. 

/  H-mary  Instruction. — Primary  instruction, 
as  stated  above,  is  regulated  by  the  law  of  1857. 
The  immediate  supervision  of  the  schools  is  in 
the  hands  of  local  school  committees.  Above 
each  committee,  there  is  a  district  school  super- 
intendent, above  him  a  provincial  inspector,  and 
finally,  as  the  highest  authority,  the  minister  of 
education.  Every  community  has  a  local  commit- 
tee ;  communities,  however,  which  have  united 
to  establish  and  sustain  a  school,  have  a  commit- 
tee in  common.  In  communities  with  less  than 
3,000  inhabitants,  the  burgomaster  and  the  coun- 
cilors perform  the  duties  of  the  committee.  In 
the  other  communities,  the  members  of  the  com- 
mittee are  appointed  by  the  common  council.  The 
district  superintendents  and  provincial  inspectors 
axe  appointed  by  the  king.  The  common  schools 
are  either  public  or  private.  Among  the  former, 
are  those  which  are  sustained  by  the  parishes, 
provinces,  or  state,  either  alone  or  conjointly; 
private  schools  may,  in  case  of  need,  be  aided  by 
the  parish,  but  must  then  be  open  to  children  of 
all  denominations.  The  parish  decides  how  many 
schools  are  necessary  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
inhabitants,  but  their  number  may  be  increased 
by  the  provincial  or  state  authorities.  Teachers 
are  of  two  classes:  assistants,  who  must  be  Is 
years  of  age,  and  principal  teachers,  who  must  be 


'J.'!  years  of  age.  If  a  teacher  has  over  70  scholars, 
he  receives  an  tt*i>irttnt,  that  is,  a  young  man 
win'  has  not  reached  the  requisite  age  to  he  all 
assistant  teacher.  When  the  number  of  scholars 
leaches  100,  he  is  entitled  to  a  regular  assistant; 

and  when  it  reaches  150,  to  an  assistant  and  an 
aspirant;  and  so  on,  receiving  for  every  ad- 
ditional 100  pupils  an  assistant,  and  for  every  50, 
an  aspirant.  Instruction  in  the  common  schools 
is  of  two  kinds, —  common  and  higher.  Com- 
nion  instruction  comprises  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  the  elements  of  geometry,  the  Dutch 
language,  geography,  history,  the  natural  sci- 
ences, and  music.  Higher  instruction  comprises 
a  course  in  the  elements  of  living  languages, 
elementary  mathematics,  the  first  elements  of 
agriculture,  gymnastics,  drawing,  and  needle- 
work. The  number  of  schools.  Dec.  31.,  1872, 
was  3,728,  of  which  2,608  were  public.  The 
public  schools  had  6,538  male  teachers,  and  -177 
female  teachers;  and  the  private  schools,  2,332 
male  teachers,  and  1 ,565  female.  '1  he  number  of 
pupils  in  both  public  and  private  schools,  was 
228,145  boys,  and  208,496  girls.  In  1873.  there 
were  3,790  primary  schools,  with  500,059  pupils. 
There  were  also  5  teachers'  seminaries,  supported 
1  >y  the  government,  besides  a  number  of  private 
and  communal  institutions.  The  amount  ex- 
pended for  primary  instruction  in  1870,  both 
by  the  state  and  the  communities;  was  4,984,533 
florins  (1  florin  =  $0,385),  or  $1,919,045. 

Secondary  instruction  is  regulated  by  the  law 
of  18(13.  The  schools  of  this  grade  are  either 
public  or  private.  The  law  includes  among  the 
secondary  schools  the  higher  burgher  schools 
(corresponding  to  the  German  real  schools),  the 
burgher  schools  for  trades-people  and  farmers, 
and  the  polytechnic  school,  at  Delft.  The  gym- 
nasia and  Latin  schools  are  classed  with  the  uni- 
versities. The  higher  burgher  schools  are  of  two 
kinds,  one  having  a  five  years'  course,  and  the 
other  a  three  years'  course.  The  average  age  of 
the  scholars  in  the  lowest  class  is  13  years.  An- 
cient languages  are  excluded  entirely ;  while 
French,  German,  and  English  are  studied  with 
considerable  thoroughness.  'I  he  course  of  study 
comprises  mathematics,  the  elements  of  mechan- 
ics, technology,  mineralogy,  botany,  zoology,  nat- 
ural philosophy,  chemistry,  cosmography,  Hutch 
constitutional  history,  political  economy,  statis- 
tics, geography,  history,  modern  languages,  book- 
kei  ping,  penmanship,  drawing,  and  gymnastics. 
The  examination  for  graduation  comprises  all 
these  subjects,  and  is  conducted  by  a  committee 
chosen  from  all  the  teachers  of  the  province.  The 
rules  of  the  royal  schools  are  determined  by  the 
royal  decrees  of  1864  and  1873.  The  teachers  of 
the  state  schools  are  appointed  by  the  king,  and 
those  of  the  communal  schools,  by  the  magis- 
trates. The  course  of  study  is  arranged  by  the 
director  and  the  teachers,  and  must  be  approved 
bythe  minister.  'I  he  yearly  tuition  fee  is, at  the 
most.  60  florins.  Burgher  schools  are  established 
chiefly  for  the  children  of  trades  people  and  farm- 
ers, am  I  consist  of  day  and  evening  schools.  Every 
community  of  more  than  10,000  inhabitants, must 


G-'O 


NETHERLANDS 


NEVADA 


have  at  least  one  burgher  school,  both  day  and 
evening.  The  course,  in  the  day  school,  com- 
prises two  years.  If  the  attendance  does  not  war- 
rant the  establishment  of  a  day  school,  a  com- 
munity may  be  excused  from  having  such  a 
school;  but,  in  such  a  case  the  evening  school 
must  comprise  a  two  years'  course.  The  teachers, 
in  these  schools,  arc  appointed  by  the  common 
councils,  and  arc  paid  by  the  communities.  They 
are  also  entitled  to  a  pension  from  the  state. 
under  the  same  conditions  as  other  officers  of 
the  government.  The  cost  of  the  burgher  schools 
is  borne  by  the  communities,  who  may  charge  a 
fee  not  to  exceed  12  florins  per  year.  In  1^71, 
the  number  of  burgher  schools  was  43,  and  of 
higher  burgher  schools  and  commercial  schools, 
47.  The  number  of  teachers  was  338,  in  the 
burgher  schools,  and  542,  in  the  higher  burgher 
schools;  of  pupils.  3,801,  in  the  burgher  schools. 
and  3,285,  in  the  higher  burgher  schools.  The 
polytechnic  school  at  Delft  is  intended  for  those 
who  wish  to  follow  the  business  of  engineering 
in  any  of  its  various  branches.  This  school. 
in  1875 — 6,  had  2(1  professors  and  2<i0 
students.  The  following  schools  are  also  classed 
among  secondary  institutions  :  1  schools  of  agri- 
culture, with  18  professors  and  "(.'{students;  9 
schools  of  navigation,  with  20  professors  and 
200  Students;  30  drawing  schools,  with  L08  pro- 
fessors   and     2.. ")<>((    students;     seven    secondary 

schools  for -ills,  with  74  teachers  and  172  stu- 
dents; and  78  secondary  schools  for  mechanics. 
The  sum  total  expended  on  secondary  instruction 
amounted  to  $557,002,  of  which  $278,192  was 
paid  by  the  state:  $4,845,  by  the  provinces; 
#1  !)<>.!)  15.  by  the  municipalities;  and  .<-.'!. o|,s  was 
derived  from  tuition  fees. 

Superior  Instruction. — According  to  the  law 

of  1S15,  the  institutions  for  superior  instruction 
are  classed  as  Latin  schools  and  gymnasia,  athe- 
oseums,  and  high  schools.  The  Latin  schools  and 
the  gymnasia  correspond  to  the  German  gymna- 
sia; and  the  alhcn;euins  and  high  Schools,  to  the 
universities,  of    which,    however,  only    the    high 

schools  axe  entitled  to  confer  academic  degrees. 
Each  Latin  school  and  gymnasium  has  a  rector  and 

eon  rector  and  one  or  more  preceptors  and  docents, 
according  to    the  means  of   the  institution.     The 

studies  comprise  Latin  and  Greek, mathematics, 

history,  and  mythology.  The  following  studies 
are  taught  in  only  a  part  of  the  schools:  the 
modern   languages,  Hebrew,  and  natural  history. 

The  gymnasia  have  pretty  much  the  same  course 
of  study  as  the  Latin  schools.  In  L873,  the  num- 
ber of  Latin  schools  and  gymnasia  was  54,  with 
227  professors  and  L,185  students.  There  are 
three  universities,— at  Leyden,  I  rtrecht.and  Gro 
ningen,  which,  in  L 871,  had  732.  488,  and  L46 
students,  respectively,  making  a  total  of  L,366 
students.  Of  these, 585  studied  law;  302,theolo- 
242,  medicine;   157,  natural  sciences ;  and 

1  1  7,  literature.     The  two   atliemeuius.  at    Devcn- 

terand  Amsterdam,  had  together  261  pupils.  In 
L876,  it  was  resolved  to  raise  the  athenaeum  of 

Amsterdam   to   a    full    university.    In    1st.") — (i, 

Leyden    had    15    professors    ami    'J  12    students: 


Utrecht,   34  professors  and  527  students ;  Gro- 
ningen,  30  professors  and  1  88  students  ;  and  the 
athenaeum  of  Amsterdam.  40  professors  and  399 
students. 
Special  Instruction.  —Besides  the  special  schools 

classed  among   the  secondarj    Bel Is,   there   are 

the  following:  Ave  Catholic  theological  semi- 
naries; an  Old  Catholic  (Jansenist)  seminary,  in 
Lmersfoort;a  Lutheran  seminary,  and  seminaries 
for  Remonstrants  and  Mennonites,  in  Amster- 
dam; a  seminary  of  Separatists,  in  kampen;  two 
.Jewish  seminaries,  in  Amsterdam:  a  school  of 
veterinary  surgery,  and  a  school  of  East  Indian 
languages,  in  Delft  :  a  school  for  army  surgeons, 
at  Utrecht;  schools  of  art.  in  Amsterdam.  l!ois- 
le -Due,  the  Bague,  Rotterdam,  and  Groningen; 
and  a  school  of  music,  at  the  Hague.  In  1874, 
there  were  three  institutions  for  deaf-mutes,  with 
39]  inmates:  three  asylums  for  the  blind  ;  and 
an  asylum  for  idiots,  having  !!•  girls  and  23  boys, 
and.  in  connection  with  it,  there  is  a  day  school 
for  idiots. 

Luxemburg. — This  country  is  governed  by  the 
king  of  Holland  as  erand-duke  of  Luxemburg. 
It  had.  in  L874,  till  primary  schools,  with  28,437 
pupils;    one   teachers'   seminary:  an  athenaeum, 

composed  of  a  gymnasium  and  a  trade  school,  of 

'classes  each:  and  2  progvmnasia.  having  to- 
gether 42  professors  and  I'll  pupils;  a  Catholic 
seminary  and  an  agricultural  school,  in  Echter- 
aach.  For  further  information  in  regard  to 
education  in  the  Netherlands,  see  Barnard,  Na- 
tional Education,  vol.  n.;  <  'orsix.  Del'instruction 
publique  en  Hbllande,  1836 — 7;  Bdddinqh, 
Geschiedenis  rim  (//iron/;,,,/  en  Onderwijs  in 
de  Nederlanden  (Hague.  1847);  Layki.kyk. 
Dibats  sur  Venseignement  dans  les  chambres 
hollandais  s,  session  of  L857  (Geneva,  1858). 

NEVADA,  one  of  the  extreme  western  states 
of  the  American  Union,  originally  a  part  of  the 

territory  of  1  tali,  from  which  it  was  set  off  as 
a  separate  territory.  March  2.,  L861,and  enlarged 

by  a  further  portion  of  Utah,  in  1862.  It  ^as 
admitted  as  a  state  in  1864.  It  was  further  en- 
larged by  added  territory  from  Utah  and  Ari- 
zona, in  L866.  in  1859, the  population  was  about 
I. Ollll;  but,  in  August.  1861 .  it  was  estimated  at 
L6.000.  In  ls7o.it  was  42,491, of  whom  38,959 
were  whites;  357.  colored  persons;  3,152,  Chi- 
nese ;  and  23,  civilized  Indians. 

Educational  History. —  Notwithstanding  the 
almost  exclusive  absorption  of  the  energies  of 
the  people  in  mining  and  kindred  operations, the 

interests  of  education  have  not  been  overlooked. 

The  tirs'  constitution  of  the  state  directed  the 
legislature  to  organize  a  public-School  system,  to 

found  a  state  university,  to  establish  graded  and 
normal  Bchools,  and  to  promote  by  all  appropri- 
ate means  the  cause  of  education.  To  this  end. 
the  state  w  as  to  he  divided  into  school-districts, 
and  Schools  were  to  lie  established   therein.     For 

the  maintenance  of  these  schools,  there  were  to 

he  set  apart  the  50.000  acres  granted  by  Con- 
gress to  all  the  new   States,  30.000  acres  for  each 

senator  and  representative,  the  Kith  and  36th 
section  in  each  township,  a  half-mil]  tax  on  all 


NEVADA 


NEWAKK 


621 


property  subject  to  taxation,  and  all  escheats,  and 
fines  forpersonal  offenses.  The  interest  of  all  the 
money  derived  From  the  above  sources  (except 
the  half-mill  tax, of  which  five  percent  is  taken]. 

together  with  two  per  cent  of  the  receipts  from 

all  toll-mads   and    bridges,    is   devoted  to   school 

purposes, at  the  present  time.  The  method  of  rate- 
bills  is,  in  some  cases,  employed.  The  permanent 
school  fund,  in  L 874,  amounted  to  $250,000. — 
The  method  of  supervision  was,  from  the  first, 
the  same  as  now  employed  ;  but  the  original  pro- 
visions of  law  in  this  regard  have  been  modified 
somewhat  by  successive  Legislatures,  notably  in 
|-~7.'i.  when  a  compulsory  education  law  was 
passed.  From  1  866  to  1874,  the  state  superintend- 
ent was  A.  \V.  Fisher,  who,  at  the  latter  date,  was 

succeeded  hy  S.   1'.    Kelly,  elected  for  four  years. 

School  System. — The  supervision  and  manage- 
ment of  the  educational  system  of  the  state  are 
confided  to  a  state  l>oanI  of  education,  consisting 

of  the  governor,  surveyor-general,  and  the  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction.  Its  duties  are  to 
organize  schools,  prescribe  a  uniform  list  of  text- 
books, and  devise  all  needful  measures  for  the  con- 
duet  aud  improvement  of  the  schools.  The  state 
superintendent  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  board. 
He  performs  all  the  duties  generally  appertain- 
ing to  the  office,  and  makes  a  biennial  report  to 
the  governor.  County  superintendents  are  elected 
throughout  the  state,  each  for  two  years.  Boards 
<>/  trustees  are  elected  in  the  several  school-dis- 
tricts, and  are  so  constituted  as  always  to  con- 
tain at  least  one  experienced  member.  Each 
board  consists  of  three  trustees  in  districts  hav- 
ing less  than  1,500  voters,  and  of  five  in  all  others. 
!n  addition  to  the  usual  duties  pertaining  to 
Euch  officers,  they  are  intrusted  with  the  power 
of  levying  taxes  in  order  to  supply  deficiencies 
in  the  school  moneys  received  from  the  state. 
They  are  required  not  only  to  keep  a  public  rec- 
ord of  their  proceedings,  but  to  publish,  in  some 
newspaper,  full  minutes  of  those  proceedings. 
The  county  superintendent  appoints  two  com- 
petent persons,  who,  with  himself,  constitute  a 
board  of  examiners  of  which  he  is  chairman.  A 
certificate,  either  from  this  county  board  or  from 
the  state  board,  is  necessary  before  a  teacher 
can  receive  any  compensation  for  services  ren- 
dered. A  life  certificate  of  any  state,  or  a  diplo- 
ma from  a  California  state  normal  school,  entitles 
the  holder  to  a  county  certificate  without  exami- 
nation, if  presented  within  five  years  from  the 
date  of  its  issuance.  The  compulsory  school  law 
requires  parents  or  guardians  to  send  all  children 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  14  years,  unless  other- 
wise educated,  to  the  common  schools  for  not  less 
than  sixteen  weeks  each  year,  eight  weeks  of 
which  must  be  consecutive.  A  penalty  of  not 
less  than  $50,  nor  more  than  3100  for  the  first 
offense,  and  of  not  less  than  8100  nor  more  than 
$200  for  each  subsequent  offense,  is  imposed  for 
a  violation  of  this  law.  The  schools  are  required 
to  be  kept  open  at  least  six  months  each  year  in 
every  school-district. 

Educational '  '<ua/i/i/,,> — The  number  of  school- 
districts,  in  1874,  was  71 ;  the  number  of  schools 


dispensing  with  rate-bills,  68 ;  the  total  number 
of  schools.  L08.  Of  these  schools,  21  are  primary; 
I.  intermediate;  1 2,  grammar  ;  2,  high  ;  and  G9, 
unclassified.  The  support  of  the  schools  was  de- 
rived from  the  following  sources: 

From  taxes $93,431.23 

"     rate-bills 317.09 

"     state  apportionments 

and  other  sources 52,432.40 


Total $146,181.32 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows: 

For  teachers'  salaries $83,548.88 

"     sites,  buildings,  etc 22,241.05 

"     other  purposes 18,511.71 

Total $124,301.64 

The  average  v  ages  nfteaehersper  month  was $100.00 
The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for  the 
year  were  the  following  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled  (6 — 18) 4,811 

Average  attendance 2,884 

Number  of  teachers,  males 35 

females 80 

Total 115 

Normal  Instruction, — Xo  schools  for  the  in- 
struction of  teachers  are  yet  reported.  The  legis- 
lature, however,  in  1875,  passed  an  act  authoriz- 
ing the  establishment  of  a  normal  school. 

Secondary  Instruction. — A  preparatory  school 
in  connection  with  the  university,  provided  for 
by  an  act  of  the  legislature,  in  1873,  has  been 
opened  at  Elko;  and  an  appropriation  of  $20,000 
was,  in  1875,  made  for  its  support.  This,  and 
two  high  schools,  are  the  only  means  for  free ' 
secondary  instruction  now  known  to  be  in 
existence  in  the  state. 

Superior  Instruction. — By  an  act  of  the  legis- 
lature, in  1873,  the  state  university  was  estab- 
lished ;  but  little  has  as  yet  been  done,  except  the 
organization  of  the  preparatory  department, 
above  referred  to. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.  —  In 
1875,  an  act  was  passed  for  the  establishment  of 
an  agricultural  college,  and  for  colleges  of  arts 
and  mines,  endowed  with  the  congressional 
land  grant  of  90,000  acres  ;  but  this  action  was 
so  recent,  that  no  report  has  been  made  of  their 
organization. 

Special  Instruction.  —  The  settlement  of  the 
state  is  so  new,  and  the  population  so  small,  that 
no  efforts  have  yet  been  made  to  establish  special 
institutions,  for  the  blind,  or  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb.  Those  afflicted  in  this  way  have  thus  far 
been  cared  for,  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  in 
institutions  provided  for  the  purpose  by  the 
neighboring  state,  ( 'alifornia.  Several  deaf-mutes 
are  under  instruction  in  the  Institution  for  the 
Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind,  near  Oakland. 

NEWARK,  the  chief  city  of  New  Jersey, 
first  settled  in  1 6(if>,  by  Puritan  families  from 
Connecticut,  who  were  joined  the  next  year  by 
other  settlers  from  the  same  colony,  led  by  their 
minister,  the  Rev.  Abraham  Pierson,who  named 
the  settlement  after  Newark,  in  England,  where 
he  had  formerly  preached.  Newark  was  incorpo- 
rated as  a  city  in  1 836.  Its  population,  in  1840, 
was  17,200; 'but,  in  1870,  it  was  105,059,   of 


622 


NEWARK 


whom  09,17")  were  natives,  and  35,884  foreigners, 
including  15,873  Germans,  the  largest  foreign 
element.  The  population,  according  to  the  state 
census  of  1875,  was  12.'!. .'510. 

Educational. History.  —In  1676, ten  years  after 
its  settlement,  the  selectmen  of  the  town  "agreed 
with  Mr.  John  Catlin  that  he  should  do  his 
faithful,  honest,  and  true  endeavor  to  teach  the 
children  of  those  a.s  have  subscribed,  the  reading 
ainl  writing  of  English,  and  also  of  arithmetic, 
if  they  desire  it.  as  much  as  they  are  capable  to 
Learn,  and  he  capable  to  teach  them."  About 
1700,  a  small  school-house  was  built  in  Market 
Street,  which,  it  is  thought,  was  the  only  school 
building  in  the  city  for  many  years.  From  1717 
to  1756,  the  College  of  New  Jersey  was  located 
in  Newark,  but,  in  the  latter  year,  was  removed 
to  Princeton,  in  1769,  it  is  recorded  that  the 
children  of  the  poor  should  be  '-constantly  sent 
to  school  at  the  expense  of  the  person  that  takes 
them,"  it  being  the  custom,  at  that  time,  to 
award  annually  the  keeping  of  the  poor,  by  pub- 
lic auction,  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder.  In 
L792,the  Newark  Academy  was  opened  in  Broad 
Street,  and  three  years  after,  was  incorporated. 
It  remained  in  its  original  location  till  1856, 
when  it  was  removed  to  the  present  site  in  High 
Street.  The  next  school-house  was  built  in  1797, 
near  the  South  Park.  This  was  followed  by 
another,  in  1804,  in  Market  Street  ;  another,  in 
1807,  in  Fair  Street  :  one  in  New  Street,  in 
180!»;  and  one  in  Orange  Street,  in  L820.  These 
were  all  built  by  private  enterprise,  and  the 
schools  held  in  them  were  consequently  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees.  In  1813,  the  sum  of  $500, 
for  the  schooling  of  the  children  of  the  poor, was 
voted  by  the  people,  the  practice  of  requiring 
the  person  who  supported  the  poor  to  provide 
for  the  schooling  of  their  children,  being  at  that 
time  discontinued,  and  never  revived.  'I  his  sum. 
or  a  larger  one,  was  voted,  for  the  same  purpose, 
annually  thereafter  till  L836,  when  Newark  was 
incorporated  as  a  city.  This  method  of  provid- 
ing for  the  education  of  a  Special  class  of  children 

proved,  to  be  the  entering  wedge  which  opened 

the  way  for  a  system  of  public  schools  free  to  all 
the  children  of  the  city.  The  first  public-school 
house  was  built  in  1  B  !•>  <>r  L844,  and  was  located 
iii  the  third  ward,  between  Ball  and  ( lourl  streets. 
It  was  a  building  of  two  Btories,  the  first  being 
occupieil  as  a  girls'  school,  the  i  icond  as  a  boys'. 
From  that  time  till  1848,  six  similar  school- 
houses  were  built.  In  L 850, the  I  gislature passed 

an  act,  to  establish  public  schools  in  the  city,  the 

population  of  which,  at  that  time,  was  38.894. 
This  was  supplemented,  in  L853,  by  an  act  in- 
corporating the  board  of  education,  with  ample 
powers  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  public  schools.  In  1855,  there  were  7  public- 
iool  houses,  and   16  public  schools,  including 

one    primary  school    for   white  children,  and  one 

be  Bame  grade  for  colored  children,  the  aver- 
age daily  alien. lance  being  2*461  pupils.  The 
public  high  school,  which  was  opened  in  1855, 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  cause  of  the  Bel Is, 

ilting  in  the  establishment  of  a  graded  system 


of  primary,  grammar,  and  high  schools.  In 
L865,  with  a  population  of  87,428,  the  city  had 
l(i  school-houses,  and  the  estimated  value  of  its 
school  property  was  $200,000.  The  first  city 
superintendent  was  Stephen  Congar,  who  held 
the  office  from  L853  till  L859.  He  was  succeeded 
in  the  latter  year  by  George  B.  Sears,  who  has 
held  the  office  without  interruption  to  the  pres- 
ent time    1 876). 

School  System. — The  general  management  of 
the  public  schools  of  the  city  is  committed  to 
a  board  of  education,  composed  of  two  commis- 
sioners from  each  ward,  who  arc  elected  by  the 
people  biennially.  They  elect  annually  a  city 
superintendent,  whose  principal  duties  are  to 
enforce  the  regulations  of  the  board,  to  visit  the 
schools,  and  to  report  to  the  board,  from  time  to 
time,  concerning  their  condition.  The  school 
money  is  derived  chiefly  from  a  special  city  tax, 
which  varies  annually  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
good  the  deficiency  of  the  state  tax.  The  course 
of  study  in  the  primary  schools  comprises  read- 
ing, sp  Iling,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography, 
drawing,  and  vocal  music.  The  additional  stud- 
ies in  the  grammar  schools  are  grammar,  histo- 
ry, composition,  and  declamation:  in  the  high 
school,  the  studies  pursued,  in  addition  to  those 
of  the  grammar  schools,  are  chemistry,  physiol- 
ogy, astronomy,  algebra,  book-keeping,  geometry, 
geology,  drawing,  gymnastics,  and  certain  other 
branches,  chiefly  languages,  which  are  prescribed 
by  the  board  of  education.  The  Bchoolage  is 
from  6  to  18  ;  the  school  year  is  10  months,  ex- 
cept in  the  evening  schools,  in  which  the  term  is 
•'!  months.  The  day  schools  are  opened,  and  the 
evening  schools  closed,  by  the  reading  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  without  comment,  and  the 
saying  of  the  Lord's  Prayer.  In  ls7.">.  the  number 
chools  was  -1  1  :  1  normal  and  1  high  school, 
12  grammar  schools, 22  primary  schools  (includ- 
ing I  colored  school),  2  industrial  schools,  and 
6  evening  schools. — The  principal  items  of  school 
statistics  for  the  year  I  875  arc  as  follows : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 35,125 

"        "         "        enrolled  in  public  schools, 

including  evening  schools 18,087 

Aver; me  anmber  of  pupils  on.  the  roll 12,589 

Average  daily  attendance 10,852 

Number  of  teachers,  males 

females ...218 

1 272 

Total  receipts 209,707.05 

"      expenditures J'l  1,700 

Total  value  of  bcI 1  propertj $900,000*00 

1  ►esidea  the  public  schools,  there  are  many  acad- 
emies, and  private -and  denominational  schools, 
the  1  Ionian  ( 'at holies  alone  having  several  of  the 

latter.     There  are,  also,  two  libraries,  that  of  the 

New  Jersey  Historical  Society,  which  contains 

6,000  volumes,  I  0,(100  pamphlets. and  some  man- 
uscripts of  great  age  and  value:  and  that  of  the 
Newark     Library     Association,    which     contains 

20,000  volumes.  Courses  of  instruction,  chiefly 
in  elementary  branches,  are,  also,  provided  at 

nearly  all  of  the  orphan  asylums,  of  which  there 

are  several. 


NEWBERRY   COLLEGE 


NEW    BRUNSWICK 


G23 


NEWBERRY  COLLEGE,  at  Walhalla, 
Oconee  Co.,  S.  C,  founded  in  L858,  is  under 
Evangelical  Lutheran  control.  It  was  removed 
from  Newberry  in  1868.  The  college  library 
oontains  aboul  f,000  volumes.  The  cost  of  tui- 
tion in  the  collegiate  department  is  $45  per  year. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  5  instructors  and  L01 
students  (35  collegiate  and  66  preparatory).  The 
Rev.  T.  Stork,  D.D.,wasthe  president  until  1861, 
when  the  Rev.  J.  P.  Smeltzer,  1>.  1).,  the  presenl 
incumbent  (1876),  was  chosen. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  a  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  having  an  area  of  27,322 
Bq.  m.,  and  a  population,  in  1870,  of  285,594. 
It  was  first  settled  by  the  French,  in  1639,  and 
continued  to  form,  with  Nova  Scotia.,  a  part  of 
Acadia,  until  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 
The  first  British  settlers  emigrated  from  Scot- 
land in  176  1;  and,  in  1784,  New  Brunswick 
was  separated  from  Nova  Scotia,  to  form  a  sepa- 
rate province.  In  1867,  it  joined  the  Dominion 
of  Canada. — The  present  school  law  (187(5)  was 
passed  in  1871,  and  amended  in  1873.  Accord- 
ing to  this  law,  the  schools  are  governed  by  a 
board  of  education,  composed  of  the  lieutenant- 
governor,  the  members  of  the  executive  council, 
the  president  of  the  university  of  New  Brunswick, 
and  the  superintendent  of  schools,  who  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  lieutenant-governor.  The  duties 
of  the  board  are,  to  establish  a  training  and  model 
school,  appoint  14  inspectors  of  schools,  divide 
the  province  into  school-districts,  and  alter  the 
districts  as  may  be  necessary,  make  regulations 
for  schools  and  the  examination  of  teachers,  and 
prescribe  textbooks  and  library  books,  and  school- 
house  plans.  The  superintendent  has  the  general 
supervision  of  the  schools,  subject  to  the  board. 
The  inspectors  visit  and  examine  the  schools, 
advise  teachers,  and  report  to  the  superintend- 
ent as  often  as  the  board  may  direct.  No  school- 
district  can  contain  less  than  50  children, unless 
the  area  be  four  miles.  There  must  be  three 
trustees  in  a  district,  elected  at  the  annual  dis- 
trict meeting,  one  each  year.  Y\  hen  a  district 
fails  to  elect,  or  a  trustee  fails  to  act, one  or  more 
trustees  may  be  appointed  by  the  inspector,  on 
the  requisition  of  seven  rate-payers.  The  trustees 
have  under  their  charge  the  local  management 
of  the  schools,  may  employ  and  suspend  teachers, 
and  must  furnish  the  clerk  of  the  peace  of  the 
county  with  a  list  of  the  persons  liable  to  be 
rated.  Male  candidates  for  the  position  of  teacher 
must  be  at  least  18,  and  females  1  (i,  years  of  age, 
and  must  have  attended  a  term  at  some  normal 
school,  or  else  be  graduates  of  some  university. 
Licenses  are  provincial,  valid  during  good  beha- 
vior, and  are  issued  by  the  board  of  education. 
Examinations  are  held  at  Fredericton,  in  March 
and  September,  and  at  St.  John  and  I  hatham, 
in  September,  on  the  third  Tuesday  of  the 
month;  and  are  presided  over  by  the  super- 
intendent or  his  deputy.  The  teacher  opens  and 
closes  the  school  daily  by  reading  from  either 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  and  by  the  saying  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer.  Any  other  prayer  permitted 
by  the  trustees  may  be  used,  but  no  pupil  can 


be  compelled  to  be  present  on  these  occasions 
against  the  written  request  of  his  parents  or  guard- 
ian. Evening  schools  may  also  be  established. 
Besides  the  district  schools,  there  is  a  grammar 
school  in  every  county.  These  schools  arc  al- 
lowed to  unite  with  the  district  schools  under 
the  joint  management  of  the  grammar  and  the 
district-school  trustees,  so  as  to  secure  a  proper 
gradation  of  schools.  A  system  of  superior  schools 
has  also  been  established,  in  which  the  course  of 
study  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  grammar 
schools.  Only  one  mm  h  school  may  be  established 
in  a  parish, and  it  must  not  be  in  the  same  dis- 
trict as  the  grammar  school.  Teachers' salaries 
are  provided  lor  from  the  provincial  treasury, 
the  county  school  fund,  and  the  district  assess- 
ment. After  1876,  the  amount  paid  to  a  teacher 
from  the  provincial  treasury,  must  be  regulated 
partly  by  the  license,  and  partly  by  the  quality 
of  instruction,  as  tested  semi-annually  by  an  in- 
spector. Thus,  males,  in  class  i„  receive  SI  10  per 
year;  in  class  n.,  $80  ;  in  class  in.,  $60  ;  females, 
in  class  i.,  70  ;  in  class  n.,  $50  ;  in  class  III., $40; 
and  for  the  quality  of  instruction,  if  ranked  I., 
at  the  rate  of  $40;  n..  $25;  m.,  $10;  assistants, 
at  one-half  of  such  rates.  Of  the  county-school 
fund  one-half  must  be  apportioned  to  the  trust- 
ees for  teachers' salaries  in  the  following  manner: 
every  qualified  teacher,  besides  assistants,  to  re- 
ceive 830  per  year,  and  the  balance  to  be  distrib- 
uted according  to  average  time  and  attendance. 
The  schools  in  the  cities  of  St.  John  and  Freder- 
icton are  under  special  city  government,  bach  of 
these  cities  forms  one  district  with  a  board  of 
seven  trustees,  which  must  be  a  corporate  body. 
Three  of  the  trustees  are  appointed  by  the  lieu- 
tenant-governor, and  four  by  the  city  council. 
All  schools  conducted  under  the  provisions  of  the 
law  of  1871  are  non-sectarian,  i  he  school  year 
is  divided  into  a  summer  and  a  winter  term  ;  the 
former,  from  Way  1.  to  Oct.  31.;  the  latter,  from 
Nov.  1.  to  April  30.  On  April  30.,  1875,  there 
were  1,053  schools  in  operation,  with  1.1 1  (J  teach- 
ers and  46,039  pupils  (25,640  boys  and  20,393 
girls).  Of  these,  271  were  under  five  years  of 
39,075,  between  five  and  fifteen;  and  6,698, 
over  fifteen  years  of  age.  During  the  year  end- 
ing April  30.,  1875,  there  were  141  districts 
with  schools  in  the  summer  term,  but  without 
schools  in  the  winter;  and  144  districts  with 
schools  in  the  winter,  and  without  schools  in  the 
summer.  ri  he  number  of  teachers empl<  »yed  dur- 
ing the  winter  term,  ending  April  30.,1875,  was 
466  males  ami  626  females,  making  a  total  of 
1,092.  In  addition,  4  male  and  20  female  assist- 
ants were  employed.  The  number  of  grammar 
schools,  in  the  school  year  ending  April  30.,  1875, 
was  11,  with  37  teachers  in  the  summer  term, 
and  39  in  the  winter  term.  rl  he  whole  number 
of  pupils  registered  in  the  summer  term  was 
1.776.  ami  2,027  in  the  winter  term.  The  num- 
ber of  pupils  on  register  was  7L6  in  the  summer 
term, and  809  in  the  winter  term;  and  the  average 
daily  attendance  was  434  in  the  summer,  and  531 
in  the  winter.  The  number  of  superior  schools, 
April  30.,  1875,  was  50,  with  3,053  pupils.   1  ho 


624 


NEW  CASTLE  COLLEGE 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


provincial  normal  school  in  Fredericton  had  4 
teachers  and  130  students  during  the  year,  of 
whom  108  received  licenses  to  teach.  Connected 
■with  the  normal  school  is  a  model  school. — The 
University  of  New  Brunswick,  at  Fredericton.  is 
composed  of  three  classes, — freshman,  junior,  and 
senior.  The  university  confers  the  degrees  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  Master  of  Arts,  Bachelor  of 
Science,  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  Bachelor  of  Com- 
mon Law,  and  Doctor  of  Common  Law.  The  de- 
gree of  Doctor  of  Laws  (  LED.)  is  strictly  honor- 
ary. The  Mount  Allison  Wesleyan  College  and 
Academies  in  Saekvillc,  belong  to  the  Methodist 

Church,  but  are  also  extensively  patronized  by 

students  from  other  denominations.  They  are 
the  result  of  the  benevolence  of  Mr.  ('has.  F. 
Allison,  and  comprise  a  male  academy,  founded 
in  1842,  a  female  academy,  founded  in  1854,  and 
the  college,  founded  in  1862.  They  are  under  a 
board  of  governors,  appointed  by  the  general 
conference  of  tlie  Methodist  Church  of  Canada. 
The  college  has, besides  its  regular  course, a  liter- 
ary or  scientific  course,  from  which  Latin  and 
Greek  are  omitted.  A  faculty  of  theology  is 
also  connected  with  the  college,  which  confers  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity.  Connected  with 
the  male  academy,  is  a  commercial  college,  which 
is  designed  to  insure  thorough  preparation  for 
college,  or  for  entrance  upon  a  course  of  special 
training  for  agricultural,  mechanical,  or  commer- 
cial pursuits,  or  of  specific  study  for  professional 
life.  In  the  female  academy,  there  are  two 
courses  of  study.  The  lirsl  is  t he  regular  course 
for  the  baccalaureate  degree,  while  the  other 
course  is  designed  for  those  who  prefer  to  sub- 
stitute for  the  classics,  the  modern  languages 
and  natural  science. —  See  Marling,  Canada 
Educational  Director/?  <ut<l  Yearbook  for  1876, 
Lovell,  Directory  of  British  North  Amrrii-n 
(1873). 

NEW  CASTLE  COLLEGE,  at  New  <  'astle. 
Pa.,  was  established  in  L872,  and  chartered  in 
1875.  It  is  non-sectarian,  and  admits  both  sexes. 
It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees.  The  college  has 
a  preparatory,  a  classical,  a  scientific,  a  com- 
mercial, a  telegraphic,  a  musical,  an  art,  and  a 
normal  department.  Inl875  6,  there  were  15  in- 
structors and  :!'_'"»  students,  of  whom  1 '21  were  in 
the  preparatory  and  collegiate  depart  incuts.  John 
R.  Steeves,  A.' I!.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

NEWFOUNDLAND,  an  island  of  North 
America,  belonging  to  Greal  Britain;  area,  40,200 
square  miles:  population,  in  L874, ]  id  ,381 .  New- 
foundland is  supposed  to  have  been  discovered 
by  the  Northmen,  about  the  year  L,000.  It  was 
rediscovered  by  the  ('abuts,  in  1  197,  and  has  re- 
mained with  the  British  crown    ever  since.      The 

tiist  governor  was  appointed  in  L728,  and  the 
first  legislative  assembly  met  in  L733.     It  is  the 

Only  pari  of  British  North  America  not  yet  in- 
corporated   in    the    Dominion   of    Canada.     The 

public-school  system  is  based  on  the  denomina- 
tional principle,  and  was  re-organized  by  the 
education  Act  of  L876.  According  to  this  law. 
each  denomination  represented  on  the  [Bland  is 

entitled  to  a  share  of  the  school  money.    In  those 


districts  in  which  a  particular  denomination 
forms  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  the  governor 
appoints  a  board  of  education  of  from  5  to  7 
members  of  that  denomination.  These  boards  may 
establish  schools  in  their  respective  districts,  make 
rules  for  their  government,  and  appropriate  all 
moneys  granted  to  such  districts.  A  proportionate 
amount  of  the  government  grant  must  be  at  the 
disposal  of  the  denomination  forming  a  minority 
in  any  district.  A  certain  fee  must  be  paid  by 
each  child  to  the  teacher.  The  governor  appoints 
three  superintendents  of  education, — one  for  the 
Church  of  England  schools,  one  for  the  Roman 
Catholic  schools,  and  one  for  the  Methodist 
schools,  who  supervise  and  inspect  the  schools  of 
their  respective  denominations.  The  Church  of 
England  and  Methodist  superintendents  also. 
every  year,  alternately,  inspect  the  other  Prot- 
estant board  schools,  belonging  to  the  Presby- 
teriansand  Congregationalists,  The  superintend- 
ents are  required  to  visit  annually,  if  possible,  all 
the  schools  and  training  institutions  of  their 
respective  denominations,  and  carefully  examine 
into  their  condition.  They  must  present  an  an- 
nual report  on  the  schools  under  their  charge, 
with  the  statistics  of  such  schools,  and  detailed 
accounts  of  income  and  expenditure.  They  are 
also  required  to  give  such  advice  as  they  may 
deem  proper  to  teachers  and  boards  of  education, 
to  do  all  in  their  power  to  carry  out  a  uniform 
system  of  education,  and,  by  public  addresses  or 
otherwise,  to  improve  the  character  and  elliciency 
of  the  public  schools,  as  well  as  to  promote  the 
establishment  of  Other  public  schools  in  destitute 
localities.  There  are  two  higher  grammar  schools, 
in  Harbor  Grace  and  Carbonear,  governed 
by  their  own  boards  of  education.  There  are  also 
tour  academies  in  St.  John's,  belonging  respect- 
ively to  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  to  the  Church 
o!  England, the  Methodists,  and  other  Protestant 
denominations.  The  governor  appoints  tor  each  of 
these  a  board  of  directors  of  Beven  or  nine  mem- 
bers. The  Roman  Catholic  and  Church  of  England 
academies  are  connected  with  collegiate  institu- 
tions belonging  to  those  denominations — the  for- 
mer, with  Bonaventure  College,  the  latter,  with 
the  Episcopal  Theological  Institute.  Pupil  teach- 
ers are  trained  in  these  academies,  who. upon  com- 
pleting their  studies,  are  bound  to  teach  a  speci- 
fied time  in  the  public  schools.  Candidates  for 
the  position  of  teacher  must  lie  at  least  L6  years 
old.  and.  must  have  either  been  pupil  teachers, 
or  must  have  been  trained  in  some  normal  or 
training  school  abroad,  or  must  have  seised  as 

teachers  for  at   least   two  years.      In  L 874,  there 

were  L57  Protestanl  schools,  with  7,805  pupils, 

and  136  Roman  Catholic  schools,  with  5,792 
pupils.  Besides  these,  there  were  7  commercial 
schools,  with  502  pupils,  and  1 .'?  convent  schools, 

with  L ,965  pupils.  The  inspectors  of  the  Church 
of  England  and  Methodist  schools,  in  their  joint  re- 
port of  Dec..  L875,  deplore  that,  "notwithstanding 
the  large  amounts  which  have  been  granted  bj 

the    legislature   for   educational    purposes,   many 

large  communities,  especially  in  Notre  Dame  Bay 
and   Trinity   Bay,  have  been    hitherto  without 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE 


625 


schools,  and  the  youth  growing  up  to  manhood 
and  womanhood,  are  unable  to  read  and  write." 
In  most  of  the  schools  which  they  visited,  "read- 
ing, writing,  and  arithmetic  have  been  the  only 
subjects  taught,  even  in  some  of  the  largest  settle- 
ments; and.  in  most  cases,  the  attainments  of  the 
a  'holars  have  not  been  very  satisfactory." — See 
The  Education  Act,  1*76;  Loveu..  Gazetteer!  of 
British  North  America  (Montreal,  1873);  and 
the  official  Reports  of  the  Inspectors  of  Schools. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  American  Union,  was  the 
third  in  the  order  of  settlement.  It  ranks  among 
the  smallest  states  in  regard  to  area,  containing 
only  9,392  sq.  m.  Its  population,  in  1870,  was 
318,800,  of  whom  580  were  colored  persons,  and 
23,  Indians. 

Educational  History.  —  It  was  the  prevailing 
custom  among  the  earliest  settlers  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, like  those  of  Massachusetts,  to  make  im- 
mediate provision  for  the  erection  of  a  meeting- 
house, and  of  a  school-house  beside  it.  "Many  of 
the  immigrants,  especially  the  Scotch-Irish  set- 
tlers of  Londonderry  and  vicinity,  had  received 
a  good  elementary  education.  Having  been  united 
with  Massachusetts,  in  1641,  it  became  subject  to 
the  law  passed  by  the  legislature  of  that  province 
iu  1642.  (See  5Iassachlsetts.)  The  first  act 
of  the  government  of  Xew  Hampshire,  in  regard 
to  schools,  after  it  became  a  separate  province, 
in  1680,  was  passed  in  1693.  This  law  required 
the  selectmen,  in  the  respective  towns,  to  raise 
money,  "  by  equal  rate  and  assessment,  upon 
the  inhabitants,"  for  the  support  of  schools.  In 
1719,  a  law  was  passed,  which  was  almost  an 
exact  copy  of  the  Massachusetts  law  of  1647, 
with  an  amendment  increasing  the  penalty  to 
£20.  The  original  constitution  of  the  state  made 
it  the  special  duty  of  "the  legislators  and  magis- 
trates to  cherish  the  interests  of  literature  and 
the  sciences,  and  all  seminaries  and  public 
schools."  An  act  of  the  state  legislature,  in 
1789,  established  the  rate  of  assessment  for 
school  purposes,  and  provided  for  the  examination 
of  teachers.  In  1805,  towns  were  authorized  to 
form  school-districts  ;  and,  three  years  later,  the 
system  of  town  superintendence  was  established 
by  law,  every  town  being  required  to  appoint  a 
superintending  school  committee,  whose  duty  was 
to  visit  and  inspect  the  public  schools.  In  1807, 
the  rate  of  school  assessment  was  increased;  and, 
in  1818,  was  fixed  at  $90;  in  1840,  it  was 
raised  to  SI 00  ;  and  by  further  change,  in  1870, 
to  $350,  for  each  dollar  of  the  apportionment  for 
state  taxes.  Provision  was  made  for  a  state  lit- 
erary fund  in  1821,  which  was  created  from  the 
income  arising  from  a  tax  of  one-half  of  one  per 
cent  upon  the  capital  of  all  banking  corporations 
in  the  state.  In  1827,  the  school  law  was  re- 
vised, and  fitted  to  the  wants  of  the  people.  It 
recognized  the  office  of  a  superintending  school 
committee  in  each  of  the  several  towns,  who 
were  required  to  examine  and  license  teachers, 
visit  and  inspect  schools,  select  school  books,  etc. 
District  or  prudential  committees  were  chosen, 
who  constituted  the  legal  agency  to  lure  teach- 
40 


ers,  and  to  have  the  care  of  the  school  property. 
In  1846,  a  law  was  passed  providing  for  the  es- 
tablishment and  support  of  teachers'  institutes 
in  each  county,   which   continued   in  force,  with 
little  interruption,  until  1874,  when  the  law  Wflf 
repealed.     A  stringent  law,  made  more  effective 
by  further  legislation,  was  enacted  in  1848,  for 
the    purpose  of   securing  public    instruction    to 
children  engaged  as  factory  operatives.    Another 
important  act  of  that  year  established  the  office 
of  state  commissioner  of  common  schools.    This 
office  was  mo<lified  four  years  later,  and  a  state 
board  of  education  was  established,  to  consist  of 
a  commissioner  of  schools  for  each  county  ;  and, 
in  1867,  a  further  change  took  place,  creating 
the  office  of  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
the  governor  and  the  council  with  the  superintend- 
ent to   constitute  the  board  of  education.     In 
1874,  the  state  board  was  abolished,  and  the  duties 
of  the  superintendent  were  somewhat  enlarged- 
In  1870,  a  law  was  enacted,  establishing  a  state 
normal  school  ;  and   another  act,   in   the  same 
year,  required  that  all  children  between  the  ages 
of  5  and  15  years,  unless  excused  by  reason  of 
ill  health,  should  attend  a  public  school  or  receive 
private  instruction,  at  least  12  weeks  annually. 
An  act  of  1872  ordained  that  "female  citizens  of 
adult  age  may  hold  the  office,  and  discharge  the 
duties,  of  prudential  committee  in  any  district,  or 
of  superintending  school  committee."  The  stale 
school  officers  have  been  as  follows:  (1)  Commis- 
sioners of common  schools, — Charles  B.  Haddock. 
D.  D.,  1846—7  ;  and  Richard  S.  Rust,  1847— 50! 
(2)  Secretaries  of  board  of  county  com  m  i  s*  it  >ners: 
the  office  of  state  commissioner  was  succeeded, 
in  1850,  by  the  board  of  county  commissioners 
of   common   schools,    who   organized   annually, 
electing  a  chairman  and  a  secretary,  of  whom  the 
latter  was  the  chief  officer  of  the  board,  and  pre- 
pared the  report  to  the  state.     The  successive 
secretaries   were,  John   S.   Woodman,    A.  M., 
1850—51 ;  Hall  Roberts,  A.M.,  1851—4;  Rev. 
King  S.  Hall,  1854 — 5  ;  Jonathan  Jenney,  A. M., 
1855—7;  James  W.  Patterson.  A.M.,  1857—61; 
William  D.  Knapp,  1861 — 2 ;    John  Wingate, 
Jr.,  A.  M.,  1862—3 ;  Rev.  Roger  M.  Sargent, 
A.M.,1863— 4;  Rev.  Charles  A.  Downs,  1864— 5; 
George  W.  Cate,  1865—6 ;  Rev.  R.  M.  Sargent 
(second  term),  1866 — 7.     During  the  first  two 
years  of  the  existence  of  this  office,  the  cause  of 
education  made  considerable  progress,  in  effecting 
which  the  teachers'  institutes,   conducted  with 
great  ability  and  efficiency,  were  an  important 
auxiliary.     The  annual  reports  of  the  first  five 
secretaries  are  especially  referred  to  as  documents 
of  permanent  value.     (3)  State  superintendents: 
in  1867.  the  office  of  commissioner  was  abolished, 
and  that  of  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction was  instituted,  which  has  been  filled  by 
the  following  persons:  Amos  Hadley.  A.M.,  1867 
-9;  Rev.  Anthony  C.  Hardy,  1869— 71;  John 
W.  Simonds,  A.  M.,  1871— 3;  Daniel  G.  Beede, 
who  held  office  for  only  six  months,  when  Mr. 
Simonds  was  re-appointed,  and  is  still  in  office 
(1876).- — The  teachers'  institutes,  suspended  for 
a  few  years,  were  revived  during  Mr.  Hadley  s 


626 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE 


term,  and  were  continued  under  Supt.  Hardy 
and  during  the  first  term  of  Supt.  Simonds  ;  but 
during  Hupt.  Beede's  term  (July,  1874)  they 
were  abolished. — Many  interesting  changes  have 
occurred  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  teachers 
employed  in  the  state.  For  the  first  century  and 
a  half,  the  teachers  were  almost  exclusively  males: 
and  the  school-masters  employed  were  well  edu- 
cated. They  were  characterized  by  inflexible 
severity  in  the  maintenance  of  discipline  ;  and 
flogging  was  a  common  practice.  The  methods 
of  instruction  employed  were  mechanical,  and 
the  textbooks  crude;  among  the  latter,  the  most 
noted  were  the  t  'olumbian  Orator,  the  American 
Preceptor,  the  English  Reader,  Dillworth's 
Speller,  and  Webster's  Spelling-Book,  with  Da- 
boll's  or  Pike's  Arithmetic.  In  1758,  the  town  of 
Newton  made  provision  for  employing  "school- 
dames'"  ;  but  the  school-mistress  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  laws  of  the  state  till  L808.  In  their 
infancy,  and  on  account  of  poverty,  many  towns 
were  compelled  to  hire  female  teachers,  but  the 
prevailing  ideas  were  against  that  practice.  The 
legal  qualification  of  the  mistress  was  limited 
by  an  act  passed  in  1808,  "to  teaching  the  various 
sounds  and  powers  of  the  letters  of  the  English 
language,  reading,  writing,  and  English  gram- 
mar." .Masters  were  further  required,  by  the  same 
law,  to  teach  "arithmetic,  geography,  and  such 
other  branches  as  maybe  necessary  to  teach  in 
an  English  school."  Alter  the  Revolution,  many 
foreign  emigrants  became  school-masters,  and  so 
continued  for  several  years,  often  performing 
excellent  service.  The  wages  of  masters,  previ- 
ous to  the  present  century,  varied  from  Sf  to $10 
per  month,  with  board,  which  was  usually  "given" 
by  the  families  who  patronized  the  school.  The 
mistress  received  from  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar 
and  a  half  per  week,  with  hoard.  For  about  two 
hundred  years,  the  division  of  towns  into  school- 
districts  was  unknown,  the  situation  of  the  school 
depending  upon  the  locution  of  the  population, 
not  upon  any  territorial  limit.  The  teacher  went 
from  one  section  of  the  town  to  another,  holding 
a  school  wherever  pupils  could  be  found;  and 
when  the  people  required  the  services  of  more 

than  one  teacher,  they  wi  re  divided  into  classes, 
or  "squadrons."  Although,  in  L805,  the  towns 
were  empowered  to  form  school-districts,  the 
work  of  subdivision  was  not  completed  until 
L843,  when  an  acl  peremptorily  ordered  it.    For 

a  time  tin' district  system  worked    well:  but,    in 

L870,  the  legislature  passed   a   permissory  act, 

authorizing   any    town    to    abolish    the    division 

into  sil [-districts,  and  to  organize  the  whole 

town  as  a  Bingle  district.  This  acl  has  been 
adopted  in  several  of  the  towns.  A  compulsory 
attendance  law,  passed  in  June,  L871,  went  into 

Operation  July  1  I.,  the  same  year. 

School  System.  The  state  superintendent  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  public-school  system, 
with  limited  powers  and  means,  he  is  expected 
to  "gnide  ami  dired  the  interests  of  popular 
education."  He  prepares  and  distributes  the 
school  registers  ana  blanks  for  statistical  reports; 

ami  is  required  to  make  a  report   to    the    general 


court,  containing  an  "abstract  of  the  returns  of 
school  committees,"  a  "detailed  report  of  his  own 
i  loings,  and  the  condition  and  progress  of  popu- 
lar education  in  the  state."  Each  town  has  a 
superintending  school  committee,  chosen  by  the 
people  -in  such  manner,  for  such  terms,  with 
such  title,  and  such  powers  relating  to  schools, 
as  they  may  think  proper."  T  hese  committees 
tire  required  to  examine  and  license  teachers, 
visit  and  inspect  schools,  select  school  books,  and 
i.  port  in  writing  upon  the  condition  of  the 
schools,  at  the  annual  town  meeting.  Ihey  may 
also,  when  necessary,  withdraw  teachers'  certifi- 
cates, and  dismiss  teachers  and  scholars.  No 
teacher  can  receive  pay  from  the  treasurer  who 
cannot  produce  a  certificate  of  license  from  the 
committee.  Teachers  of  common  schools  must 
be  examined  in  reading,  spelling,  writing.  English 
grammar,  arithmetic,  and  the  elements  of  geog- 
raphy and  history,  and  in  other  branches  usual- 
ly taught  in  these  schools.  The  school  committee 
may  prescribe  for  any  school,  when,  in  their  judg- 
ment, it  may  be  proper,  the  study  of  surveying, 
jo  .met  ry,  algebra,  book-keeping,  philosophy, 
chemistry,  natural  history,  and  physiology,  or  any 
of  them,  and  other  suitable  studies:  and  teach- 
ers, proposing  to  teach  in  such  schools,  must  be 
examined  in  those  branches.  Applicants  hold- 
ing certificates  of  graduation  from  the  state  nor- 
mal school,  may  teach  in  the  public  schools, 
without  further  examination,  in  those  branches 
which  are  covered  by  such  certificates.  The 
cities  of  Concord,  Dover,  Manchester,  Nashua, 
Keene,  and  Portsmouth  have  cadi  a  city  st/p<  >■- 
intendent  of  public  instruction.  In  each  district, 
there  is  a  prudential  committee,  chosen  at  the 
annual  meeting,  whose  duties  are  to  employ  ami 
I  ay  teachers,  and  have  i  he  care  and  safc-ket  )  ing 

of  the  school  |  roperty  of  the  district.  A  number 
of  the  members  of  both  su]  erintending  and  pru- 
dential committees  are  women.  The  selectmen 
in  each  town,  and  the  assessors  of  each  city  are 
required,  in  April  of  i  at  h  y<  ar,  to  make  an  enu- 
meration of  the  children  ol  ea<  h  sex  l  etw»  I  D  the 
ages  of  5  and  15  years,  in  their  respective  towns 

and  cities,  and  to  report  the  result  to  the  school 
commit  ice  of  the  tow  n  or  city. 

School  Revenue.— Iha  public  schools,  free  to 
till  attending  th<  m,  draw  their  support  from  time 
sources ;  namely,  taxation,  the  state  literary  fund, 

and  the  income  from  local  funds.  Towns  are  re- 
quired to  raise  by  taxation  at  least  $350  for  each 

dollar  of  the    apportionment  to  the  town  for 

the  state  tax.  Towns  and  districts  are  author- 
ized to  raise  by  vote  larger  sums  for  the  support 
of  schools:  and  towns  are  authorized  to  appro- 
priate money  from  the  tax  on  railroads.  The  un- 
expended balance  of  the  tax  upon  dogs  isdevoted 
to  the  support  of  schools,  at  the  expiration  of 
ever)  two  years.  The  state  literary  fund  is  dis- 
bursed to  the  towns  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  scholars  attending  the  schools.    The  income 

from  local  funds  arises  from  the  interest  on  the 
donations  of  individuals  to  towns  and  school- 
distriets,  the   original   gifts  of   -school   lots.  '  and 

the  contributions  of  individuals  in  order  to  pro- 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


627 


long  the  schools.  The  moneys  received  from  town 
taxes  and  the  literary  fund  are  disbursed  to  the 
several  districts  in  proportion  to  their  valuation, 
or  in  such  other  manner  as  the  town  may  deter- 
mine. The  revenue  from  the  tax  on  dogs  is  di- 
vided equally  among  the  districts.  The  various 
amounts  derived  from  local  funds  are  expended 
agreeably  to  the  conditions  of  the  gift. 

Educational  Condition. — The  whole  number 
of  organized  school-districts  in  the  state,  in  L876, 
was  2,1(12;  of  districts  formed  under  a,  special  act, 
31.  The  total  number  of  schools  was  2,498  ;  the 
number  of  graded  schools,  458,  of  which  18  were 
town  high  schools,  anil  21  district  high  schools. 
The  number  of  school-houses  was  2,223.  The 
amount  of  school  revenue  for  the  year  1875  was 
as  follows : 

Raised  by  town  tuxes $465,186 

Raised  by  district  taxes 71,600 

Literary  fund 24.(i00 

Local  funds 32,;;  to 

Railroad  tax 5,781 

Dog  tax  and  contributions 15,460 

Other  sources 37.741 

Total "  $652,714 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 

For  teachers'  salaries $450,410 

"     new  buildings 110,709 

"     permanent  repairs 31,880 

"    miscellaneous  expenses "5,017 

Total $668,046 

The   following  are   the  principal    additional 
items  of  school  statistics  for  the  year  ending 
March  14.,  1876 : 
Number  of  children  between  the  ages 

of  5  and  15  (April,  1875),  males,       37,314 

females,   34,008 

Total 71,322 

Number  enrolled  in  the  public  schools  (1876). .  .66,69  I 
"     of  those  enrolled  pursuing  higher  branches    4,982 

Average  daily  attendance 48,857 

Number  of  pupils  attending  academies  and 

select  schools 4,982 

Average  length  of  the  public-school  year.  18.75  weeks 
Number  of  teachers  employed,  males. . . .     555 

females. .  . .  3.1 07 

Total 3,662 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers,  males. . .  .$41.93 
"  "   "        "  "       females.  ...$25.72 

Normal  In  struction . — The  state  normal  school, 
established  by  a  legislative  enactment,  in  1871, 
is  located  at  Plymouth.  Two  courses  of  study 
are  provided,  extending  over  one  year  and  two 
years,  respectively.  Certificates  of  graduation 
from  these  courses  entitle  the  holders  to  teach, 
the  former  for  a  term  of  three  years,  the  latter 
for  five  years.  The  school  is  managed  by  a  board 
of  trustees,  and  taught  by  a  principal  and  4  as- 
sistants. Teachers1  institutes  were  formerly  held 
in  the  different  towns;  but,  in  1874,  they  were 
abolished  by  state  law.  Supt.  Simonds,  in  his 
annual  report  for  1875,  strongly  recommends 
the  general  court  "to  appropriate  a  sum  for  the 
proper  expenses  of  teachers'  institutes  to  be  held 
under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  at  times  and  places  approved 
by  the  governor  of  the  state." 

Secondary  Instruction. — This  grade  of  instruc- 
tion is  represented  chiefly  by  the  academies  and 


public  high  schools.  The  former  are  usually  in- 
corporated. The  necessary  buildings  ami  appur- 
tenances have  been  furnished  by  individual  liber- 
ality :  but  the  schools  are  sustained  by  the  tui- 
tion fees  receive!  1  from  students,  and  the  income 

from  endowments.  Phillips  Academy,  at  Ex- 
eter, chartered  L781,  was  the  first  established  in 
the  state;  but  academies  were  chartered  and 
opened  at  Ipswich,  Chesterfield,  Atkinson,  and 
Gilmanton  before  the  close  of  the  last  century; 
and.  in  the  early  pari  of  the  presenl  century, 
academies  were  established  in  n<  arlyall  the  larger 
towns  of  the  state.  Many  of  these  have  been 
displaced  by  the  higher  grades  of  public  schools. 
During  the  year  1.S76,  the  number  of  academies 
in  active  operation  was  47,  several  of  which  are 
permanently  endowed  with  commodious  build- 
ings, and  supplied  with  excellent  instructors  and 
all  the  necessary  appliances  for  efficient  work. 
Phillips  Academy,  at  Exeter,  and  St.  Paul's 
School,  at  Concord,  for  males  exclusively,  are 
devoted  to  the  work  of  fitting  their  students  for 
college  ;  the  other  academies  are  open  to  pupils 
of  either  sex.  and  furnish  the  means  of  a  com- 
mon, higher  English,  classical,  and  ornamental 
education.  The  Adams  Female  Academy,  at 
East  Deny,  the  first  incorporated  school  of  its 
class  in  New  England,  Tiklen  Seminary,  at 
West  Lebanon,  and  the  Eobinson  Female  Semi- 
nary, at  Exeter,  are  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
education  of  females.  The  number  of  high 
schools  proper,  maintained  at  public  expense,  is 
39,  including  19  town  high  schools,  and  20  dis- 
trict high  schools.  The  report  of  the  state  super- 
intendent for  1876  enumerated  86  high  schools, 
seminaries,  academies,  etc.,  affording  higher  in- 
struction to  5,418  pupils.  Several  of  these  insti- 
tutions are  classical  or  preparatory  schools  ;  and 
there  is  one  business  college,  at  Manchester,  hav- 
ing 286  male  students,  and  90  female  students. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — Sev- 
eral of  the  academies  are  fostered  by  distinctive 
religious  denominations,  prominent  among  which 
may  be  named,  Kimball  L"nion  Academy,  at 
Meriden,  Gilmanton  Academy,  and  Pinkerton 
Academy,  at  Deny,  which  are  under  the  control 
of  the  Congregationalists ;  the  New  Hampton 
Conference  Seminary  and  Female  College,  at  Til- 
ton,  under  the  Methodists;  the  New  Hampton 
Literary  Institution,  under  the  Freewill  Baptists; 
the  New  London  Literary  and  Scientific  Institu- 
tion, under  the  Baptists  ;  and,  St.  Paul's  School, 
at  Concord,  under  the  Episcopalians.  In  the  city 
of  Manchester,  the  Roman  Catholics  support 
parochial  schools  for  the  education  of  their  chil- 
dren. These  schools  are  graded.  Mt.  St.  Mary's 
Academy  is  designed  for  the  higher  education  of 
females. 

Superior  Instruction,  etc. — Dartmouth  ( 'ollege 
(q.  v.),  at  Hanover,  "the  pride  of  the  state,"  is 
the  sole  representative  of  this  grade  of  instruc- 
tion. In  1796,  a  medical  department  was  organ- 
ized; and,  more  recently  (1852),  scientific  schools 
(Chandler  Scientific  Department),  besides  which 
there  is  the  Thayer  School  of  Civil  Engineering, 
organized  in  1870,  and  the  New  Hampshire  Col- 


028 


NEW   JERSEY 


lege  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arte, estab- 
lished by  the  legislature,  in  L866,  on  the  basis  of 
the  congressional  land  grant,  and  as  a  depart- 
ment of  Dartmouth  College. 

The  State  Teachers'  Association,  incorporated 
in  L8S4,  was  designed  for  the  benefit  of  teachers 
and  tlic  promotion  of  the  interests  of  education. 

During  the  first  Tears  of  its  existence,  it  held 

two  meetings  annually,  in  the  spring  and  in  the 
fall,  in  different  sections  of  the  state;  but,  later, 
only  one  annual  meeting  has  been  held.  Many 
of  the  most  important  measures  connected  with 

the  progress  of  education  in  the  state  have  ema- 
nated from  its  discussions  ;  sue  has  the  creation 
of  the  office  of  state  superintendent,  the  establish- 
ment of  the  state  normal  school, etc.  For  a  few- 
years,  the  association  maintained  a  state  journal 
of  education. 

NEW  JERSEY,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  the  first  settle- 
ment in  which  by  Europeans  is  supposed  to  have 
been  made,  about  1618,  at  Bergen,  by  a  detach- 
ment of  the  Dutch  settlers  of  New  Amsterdam. 
Its  area  is  8,320  sq.  m.;  and  its  population,  in 
L870,  was  906,096,  of  whom  30,658  were  colored, 
16  Indians,  and  1  5  Chinese. 

Educational  History.  —  The  history  of  the 
school  system  in  New  .Jersey  begins  just  one 
hundred  years  prior  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. The  Presbyterians  and  Congregation- 
alists,  who  were  the  earliest  immigrants  under 
English  authority,  came  to  this  province  bring- 
ing preachers  and  school-teachers  with  them. 
By  the  side  of  the  log  church,  the  primitive 
school-house  was  erected;  and  schools,  supervised 

and  supported  l>y  the  church  authorities,  were 
established  in  the  early  settlements  of  Newark, 
Woodbridge,  Elizabeth,  Middletown,  Freehold, 
Shrewsbury,  l'iscataway,  Perth  Amboy,  and 
other  places  in  East  New  Jersey.  The  pioneers 
in  West  Xew  Jersey  were  Quakers.  To  them 
the  school-house  was  scarcely  second  in  import- 
ance to  the  church  or  meeting-house,  and  both 
were  usually  under  the  same  roof.  The  earliest 
record  of  any  action  of  a  public  nature  for  the 

establishment  of  scl Is  is  dated  November  21., 

1676,  when  the  people  of  the  town  of  Newark 
resolved  at  tow  n  meeting,  "that  the  town's  men 
have  liberty  to  see  if  they  can  find  a  competent 
number  of  scholia i-s.  and  accommodations  for  a 
Bchool-master."  "The  town's  men''  found  the 
"competent  number  of  schollars",  accordingly, 
and  made  partial  arrangements  for  the  employ- 
ment of  a  "school-master."  further  instructions 
were  given  at  the  next  town  meeting,  in  the 

form  of  the  follow  ing  resolution:  "The  town  hath 
consented  that  the  town's  men  she  add  perfect  the 

bargain   with   the  Bchool-master   for  this  year, 

upon   condition   thai  he  will  come  for   this   year. 

and  do  his  faithful,  holiest,  and  true  endeavor 

to  teach  the   children   or   servants  of    those  who 

have  subscribed,  the  reading  and  writing  of  En- 
glish, and  also  of  arithmetics:  if  they  desire  it.  as 
much  as  thej  are  capable  to  learn,  and  he  ca- 
pable to  teach  them,  within  the  compass  of  this 
year;    ELOwise  hindering  but  that    he    may    make 


what  bargain  he  please  with  those  as  have  not 
subscribed."  From  this  date,  the  people  of  the 
town  of  Newark  never  failed  to  provide  for  the 
schooling  of  their  children.  The  superior  claims 
of  the  church,  however,  were  recognised;  as  ap- 
pears from  the  following  order  given  in  town 
meeting,  September  28.,  1711:  "Ordered  by  vote 
thai  ye  old  floor  in  ye  meeting  house  should  be 
made  use  of  for  ye  making  a  Moor  in  ye  school- 
house  in  the  middle  of  ye  town."  In  March, 
1681),  the  town  people  of  Woodbridge  resolved, 
"that  James  Fuilerton  should  be  entertained  as 
school-master:''  and,  in  1694,  we  are  informed 
that  John  Brown  was  engaged  at  a  salary  of 
£24  sterling  to  keep  a  free  school  for  the  next 
year.  In  1701, the  people  of  Woodbridge  further 
resolved  that  a  piece  of  land,  "about  10  rods," 
be  allowed  for  a  school-house, "  provided  it  did 
not  prejudice  the  highway."  As  early  as  KiilT. 
George  Fox  advised  his  brethren  in  New  Jersey 
to  establish  boarding-schools,  "that  young  men 
of  genius,  in  low  circumstances,  may  be  furnished 
with  means  to  procure  requisite  education."  and 
the  ShackelweD  school  was  opened  about  this 

time,  "for  the  teaching  of  whatsoever  things 
were  civil  and  useful  in  creation."  In  1088,  an 
island  in  the  Delaware,  opposite  the  settlement 
of  Burlington  was  set  apart  for  educational  pur- 
poses, the  revenue  derived  from  the  rent  or  sale 
of  which  was  reserved  for  the  education  of 
children  in  the  adjoining  settlements.  The  in- 
come of  the  fund  thus  derived  is  still  used  to  as- 
sist the  cause  of  education  by  the  school  officers 
of  the  present  city  of  Burlington.  This  was  the 
tirst  school  fund  established  in  the  province,  and, 
il  is  believed,  in  America.  The  first  school  law 
of  the  siate  was  emu  ted  by  the  general  assembly 
of  I'.ast  New  Jersey. at  Perth  Amlioy,  on  the  12th 
of  October,  1693.  It  reads  as  follows:  "Where- 
as the  cultivating  of  learning  and  good  manners 
tends  greatly  to  the  good  and  benefit  of  man- 
kind, which  hath  hitherto  been  much  neglected 
within  this  province.  Be  it,  Ocrefore,  enacted  by 
the  governor,  council,  and  deputies  in  general 
assembly  now  met  and  assembled,  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  same,  that  the  inhabitants  of 
any   town  within  this   province  shall  and   may, 

by  warrant  from  a  justice  of  peace  of  thai  county, 
when  they  think  tit  and  convenient,  meet  to- 
gether and  make  choice  of  three  more  men  of 
said  town,  to  make  a  rate  for  thesalaiy  and  main- 
tenance of  a  school-master  within  the  said  town, 
for  so  long  time  as  they  think  tit  ;  and  the  con- 
sent and  agreemenl  of  the  major  part  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  said  town  shall  bind  and  oblige 

the  remaining  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  said 
town  to  satisfy  and  pay  their  shares  and  pro]K>r- 

tion  of  the  said  rate;  and.  in  case  of  refusal  or 
non-payment, distress  to  be  made  upon  the  goods 
and  chattels  of  such  pei-son  or  persons  so  refus- 
ing Or  nol  paying,  by  the  constable  of  the  said 
town,  by  Virtue  of  a  warrant  from  a  justice  of 
the  peace  of   that  county,  and   the   distress  so  to 

be  sold  at   public  vendue,  and  the  overplus,  if 

any  be  after  payment  of  the  said  rate  ami  char- 
ges, to  be  returned  to  the  owner."    In  1695,  this 


NEW  JERSEY 


629 


act  was  amended,  providing  that  three  men 
shook)  be  chosen  yearly  iii  each  separate  town 
to  have  "power  to  appoint  the  most  convenient 

place  or  places  where  the  school  shall  lie  kept. 
t hat  as  near  as  may  be  the  whole  inhabitants 
may  have  the  benefit  thereof."  Under  the  opera- 
tion of  this  law.  schools  were  established  in  all 
parts  of  the  province,  whenever  a  majority  of 
the  inhabitants  desired  them.  The  first  Btep  to- 
ward the  establishment  of  a  state  school  fund 
was  the  passage  of  an  act,  on  the  9th  of  February, 
1816,  which  directed  the  treasurer  to  invest  in 
the  public  6  percent  stocks  of  the  United  States 
the  sum  of  $1 5,000,  which  arose  from  the  pay- 
ment of  the  funded  debt. and  from  the  dividend; 
of  the  stocks  held  by  the  state  in  the  Trenton 
Hank.  and.  at  the  end  of  every  year  to  invest  the 
interest  on  the  capital  in  the  same  manner.  This 
sum  was  increased  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  in 
1  si  7.  In  181  8,  the  governor,  the  vice-president  of 
councils,  the  speaker  of  the  assembly,  the  attor- 
ney-general, and  the  secretary  of  the  common- 
wealth were  appointed  "trustees  for  the  control 
and  management  of  the  fund  for  the  support  of 
free  schools."  The  whole  amount  of  the  fund 
was  then  increased  to  the  sum  of  $113,238.78. 
In  1820,  a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the  inhab- 
itants of  any  township  to  raise  by  taxation 
money  for  the  education  of  paupers  and  the 
children  of  such  poor  parents  residing  in  the 
township  as  are.  in  the  judgment  of  the  township 
committee,  unable  to  pay  for  schooling  the  same. 
This  was  the  first  general  act  which  authorize  1 
the  township  to  raise  money  for  the  support  of 
schools.  The  idea  that  the  money  raise  I  under  this 
law  was  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  educating 
paupers  and  poor  children  only,  became  general 
at  this  time,  and  remained  a  feature  of  all  school 
enactments  in  the  state  till  the  year  1838.  In 
1 824,  the  legislature  provided  that  one-tenth  of 
all  the  state  taxes  should  every  year  be  added  to 
the  school  fund;  and.  four  years  later,  the  people 
were  authorized  to  raise  funds  in  town  meetings, 

• 

to  erect  or  repair  school-houses.  In  1828.  a 
'•central  committee"  on  education  was  appointed 
by  a  convention  held  at  Trenton,  to  canvass  the 
state  and  collect  statistics  from  every  county; 
and  committees  were  appointed  in  the  several 
counties,  and  in  the  majority  of  townships,  to 
aid  the  central  committee.  A  summing  up  of 
the  reports  of  these  committees  revealed  the  fact 
that  more  than  one-third  of  the  children  in  the 
state  were  without  schooling  of  any  kind.  One 
of  the  county  reports  made  at  that  time  was  re- 
markable from  the  fact  that  in  it  was  embodied 
the  idea  of  a  normal  school.  Among  other  sug- 
ions.  the  chairman  of  the  Ess  x  county  com- 
mittee said  :  "1  very  much  wish  that  some  plan 
of  improvement  may  he  attempted  to  raise  the 
tone  of  feeling  respecting  our  common  schools. 
I  have  thought  of  no  plan  better  than  to  estab- 
lish a  high  school  for  the  sole  purpose  of  educat- 
ing young  men  for  teachers."  The  result  of  the 
labors  of  this  ■•central  committee"  was  an  awak- 
ened public  interest,  which  led  to  the  passage  of 
the  school  law  of  182'J  —  the  first  comprehensive 


and  practical  school  enactment  of  the  state  1< 
lature.  This  provided  for  an  annual  appropri- 
ation of  $20,000,  to  be  apportioned  for  school 
purposes  among  the  several  counties  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  taxes  paid  by  each.  It 
also  provided  for  the  election  of  school  commit- 
tees in  each  township,  who  were  required  to  di- 
vide the  township  into  convenient  school-districts, 
to  examine  and  license  teat  hers,  to  visit  and  in- 
spect the  schools'  at  least  once  every  six  months, 
and  to  make  a  report  of  their  condition,  which 
report  was  read  at  the  annual  town  meeting, and 
was  then  sent  to  the  governor  to  be  laid  before 
the  legislature.  They  were  also  empowered  to 
call  annual  district  meetings,  at  which  three 
trustees  were  chosen,  whose  duty  it  was  to  pro- 
vide suitable  school-houses,  and  to  determine 
how  many  months  during  the  year  the  schools 
should  be  kept  open.  They  also  prepared  a  list 
of  children  in  the  district  between  the  ages  of  4 
and  16  years,  which  was  used  as  the  basis  for  the 
apportionment  of  the  public  money.  In  1831,  the 
act  of  1829  was  repealed,  and  a  new  law  enacted, 
the  most  important  features  of  which  were  that 
the  state  appropriation  should  be  applied,  to  the 
education  of  poor  children  exclusively,  and  that 
the  public  money,  which  had  before  been  paid  to 
the  trustees  of  the  school-districts,  should  now 
be  paid  to  the  several  schools  in  the  township. 
whether  they  were  public,  private,  or  parochial. 
This  latter  change  was  made  in  obedience  to  the 
demands  of  the  religious  denominations  of  the 
state,  under  whose  auspices  schools  had  been 
established  throughout  the  state.  By  this  law. 
also,  district  boundary  lines  were  abolished,  and 
teachers  were  not  required  to  be  examined.  In 
1838,  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  school  system 
was  so  general  that  a  convention  was  called  to 
re-organize  it.  This  convention  assembled  at 
Trenton,  on  the  Kith  of  January,  and  appointed 
a  committee  to  issue  an  address  to  the  people. 
The  result  of  this  spirited  action  was.  that  the 
legislature,  thoroughly  informed  of  the  temper 
of  the  people,  repealed  the  pernicious  act  of 
1831,  and  re-enacted  a  law.  which  contained,  in 
an  improved  form,  all  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  act  of  1829.  The  state  appropriation  was 
increased  to  $30,000  ;  district  boundaries  were 
restored ;  money  was  appropriated  to  districts 
for  the  benefit  of  the  public  schools  exclusively  ; 
and  townships  were  required  to  raise  by  taxation, 
for  school  purposes,  a  sum  equal  to  double  the 
amount  received  from  the  state.  The  minimum 
age  of  school  children  was  changed  from  4  years 
to  5;  and  a  board  of  examiners  for  each  county 
was  created,  with  authority  to  examine  teachers 
and  to  issue  county  certificates.  No  reference  was 
made  to  pauper  or  poor  children.  In  L845,  a 
supplementary  act  was  passed,  authorizing  the 
trust ei's  of  the  school  fund  to  appoint  a  state 
superintendent  of  public  schools  for  the  counties 
of  Kssex  and  Passaic  ;  but  other  counties  might. 
at  any  time,  come  under  the  provisions  of  the  law 
by  resolution  of  the  board  of  freeholders.  The 
jurisdiction  of  the  state  superintendent  was  not 
extended  over  the  whole  state  till  1846.    In  that 


630 


NEW   JERSEY 


year,  all  previous  school  enactments  were  re- 
pealed ;  and  a  comprehensive  law,  including  the 
most  important  features  of  the  repealed  acts, 
with  Beveral  new  provisions,  was  enacted.  This 
law  remained  in  force  till  1867.  Its  distinctive 
feature  wa.s  the  creation  of  township  superintend- 
ents, who  were  required,  in  addition  to  other 
duties,  to  visit  the  schools  once  every  quarter, 
and  to  make  a  report  of  their  condition  to  the 
state  superintendent.  In  L851,  the  annual  appro- 
priation was  increased  to  $40,000.  The  act  of  that 
year  provided,  also,  that  the  public  money -should 
be  apportioned  to  the  counties  in  the  ratio  of 
their  population, and  to  the  townships  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  children  between  the  ages 
of  5  and  18  years:  and  no  township  was  allowe  1 
to  raise  by  taxation,  for  school  purposes,  more 
than  $3  annually  for  each  child  of  school  age. 
In  1854,  teachers' institutes  were  established  by 
law,  and  Sinn  was  annually  appropriated  to  each 
institute.  The  following  year,  the  Legislature 
provided  for  the  purchase  of  a  copy  of  Webster's 
Dictionary  for  each  school  in  the  state;  an  I,  the 
next  year,  for  a  copy  of  Ldppincott's  Gazetteer. 
In  1850,  the  normal  school  was  established.  In 
1858,  th  ■  annual  appropriation  was  increased  to 
$80,000.  The  state  board  of  education  was  es- 
tablish •  1  in  L866.  It  consisted  of  the  governor, 
attorney-general,  comptroller,  secretary  of  state 
president  of  the  senate,  speaker  of  t  be  house,  and 
the  treasurer  and  trustees  of  the  normal  school. 
In  1867,  the  act  of  L846  and  its  amendments 
were  repeale  I.  and  the  law  now  in  force  was  en- 
acted. In  1871,  all  the  public  schools  of  the  state 
were  made  five ;  and,  in  1874,  a  compulsory 
school  law  was  enacted,  by  which  every  person 
having  charge  of  a  chili  I  between  the  ages  of  8  and 
13  years  is  required  to  see  that  such  child  has. 
at  least,  twelve  weeks'  schooling  in  each  year,  six 
we  (ks  of  which  must  be  consecutive.  The  Btate 
superintendents  have  been:  T.  F.  King,  1845  52; 
d.ll.  Phillips,1852  -60;  F.W.Ricord,1860  64; 
C.  M.  Harrison,  1864 — 6  ;  and  Ellis  A.  Apgar. 
from  1866  to  the  present  time  (1876). 

School  Si/st  m.— The  state  board  of  education 

is  intrusted  with  the  educational  interests  of  the 

state.    It  is  composed  of  the  governor,  secretary 

of  state,  attorn  \  o  >n  sral,  comptroller,  presi  lent 
of  the  senate,  sp  laker  of  the  assembly,  treasurer 
of  the  state  normal  school,  an  I  the  trustees  of 
the  same,  at  present  II  in  number.  This  board 
exercises  a  general  supervision  over  the  schools, 
appoints  county  superintendents, prescribes  rules 

for  holding  teachers'  institutes,  and  makes  an 
annual  report  to  the  legislature.  It  appoints, also, 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
who  is,  ex  officio,  its  secretary.  Bis  term  of  office 
i-  3  years.  Be  is  required  to  have  his  office  in 
the  state  house,  to  exercise  a  general  supervision 
over  the  schools,  and  to  make  an  annual  report 
in  the  siate  board.  County  superintendents  are 
required  to  examine  teachers  and  grant  certifi- 
cates, to  apportion  the  school  money,  and  to  per- 
form the  other  duties  usually  devolving  upon 
Buch  officers.  In  addition  to  the  certificates 
ill  i>\  county  superintendents,  a  state  board 


of  examiners,  consisting  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent and  the  principal  of  the  normal  school, 
is  authorized  to  grant  certificates  valid  in  any 
part  of  the  state.  County  boards  of  examin- 
ers, composed  of  the  county  superintendent  and 
3  associates  chosen  by  him,  and  examiners  ap- 
pointed by  the  city  boards  of  education,  also 
grant  teachers'  certificates  valid,  respectively,  in 
the  counties  and  cities  where  issued.  Township 
boards  are  composed  of  the  district  trustees  of 
each  township,  and  meet  at  Mich  times  and 
places  as  the  county  superintendents  designate, 
for  the  purpose  of  consultation  with  the  latter 
in  regard  to  the  management  of  the  .schools.  Each 
city  in  the  state  constitutes  one  school-district; 
but,  in  the  country,  a  district  usually  comprises 
only  the  territory  and  inhabitants  necessary  to 
support  one  school. — The  schools  are  supported 
mainly  by  a  direct  state  appropriation,  which 
amounts  to  about  SI  ,300,000  annually.  'I  his  sum 
is  raised  by  a  tax  of  2  mills  on  every  dollar  of 
the  property  of  the  state.  In  case  the  amount 
thus  derived  from  the  state,  however,  is  not  suf- 
ficient to  maintain  the  schools  nine  months  in 
the  year,  the  townships  are  still  authorized  to  vote 
school  money;  and  the  money  needed  for  build- 
ing and  repairing  school-houses  is  still  raised  by 
district  tax.  The  amount  of  the  permanent 
school  fund  was  hugely  increased,  in  L871,  by  a 
from  the  state  ot  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  and 

rent  of  all  riparian  lands  between  high  and  low 
water  mark  -a  sum   the   future   value  of  which 

has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  $5,1  00,000 
to  $10,1  00,000.  A  free  library  system  exists  in 
the  public  schools,  and  state  aid  is  extended  to 
such  districts  as  raise  money  for  the  purpose. 
Nearly  400  free-school  libraries  have  been  estab- 
lished in  this  way.  'I  he  Bchool  age  is  from  5  to 
18  years.  Corporal  punishment,  and  all  religious 
exercises,  except  the  reading  of  the  Bible  and  the 
saving  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  are  forbidden. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts,  in  1876,  was  1,368  :  the  number 
of  school  buildings,  1,532  ;  of  school  departments 
under  the  charge  of  one  teacher  each.  3,046. 

The  scho  >'  revi  nue  for  the  year  1876  was: 

Two  mill  tax  from  the  -:  ite  $1,225,462.19 

Additional  state  appropria- 
tion, including  income  Irom 
permanent  fund 100,000.00 

Township  school  tax 26,5  18.60 

Interest  of  surplus  revenue.        30,fi 

District  and  city  tax  for 
teachers'  salaries 324,988.34 

District  and  city  tax  for 
buildings  and  repairs.... 4Q7,T<:7.70 

Total  appropriated  for  school  purposes.. $2,115,290.37 

Tiii  it  \ alue  of  Bchool    property $6,449,616.00 

School  statistics  for  the   year  ending  Aug.  31., 

1876: 

Number  of  children  of  school  age  in  the  state  314,826 
"        "        •■        enrolled  in  public  schools  196,252 

Average  attendance  in  public  bcI Is 103,620 

Numbei  atte  iding  private  schools 41,964 

Number  of  teachers,  males 978 

"        "  females '2.::i"; 

Total 3,284 

average  monthly  salary  of  male  teachers...    $66.42 

'•  •'         '•   female  teachers.  .     $37.3'J 


NEW  JERSEY 


631 


Normal  Instruction.  —  Besides  the  state 
normal  school  at  Trenton,  normal  schools  or 
classes  have  been  established  at  Newark.  Jersey 
City,  Paterson,  and  in  some  other  cities  of  the 
b<  ue.  The  state  normal  school,  with  its  adjuncts, 
the  model  school,  and  the  Farnum  preparatory 
school,  at  Beverly,  constitutes  the  special  means 
employed  by  the  state  for  the  education  of 
teachers.  The  normal  school  is  supported  partly 
by  an  annual  appropriation  of  $20,000.  The 
course  of  instruction  occupies  3  years.  Graduates 
from  the  advanced  course  receive  state  certificates 
of  the  second  grade,  valid  for  7  years  ;  graduates 
from  the  elementary  course  receive  certificates 
of  the  third  grade,  valid  for  5  years.  These 
certificates  entitle  the  holders  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  state,  without  further  ex- 
amination. The  number  of  the  former  class,  in 
1875,  was  28  :  of  the  latter.  14.  The  Farnum 
preparatory  school  receives  aid  from  the  state. 
and  serves  as  a  stepping-stone  to  the  state 
normal  school.  The  students  from  its  normal 
d  partnient  receive  no  diplomas,  and  are  not 
authorized  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  without 
examination. 

Secondary  Instruction. — High  schools  in  con- 
nection with  the  public-school  system  have  been 
established  in  Newark,  Jersey  City,  Paterson, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Trenton.  Besides  the 
high  schools  and  academies,  secondary  instruction 
is  given  at  many  of  the  private  schools  and 
seminaries  in  the  state.  Three  business  colleges 
exist  in  the  state,  one  each  at  Trenton,  Newark, 
and  Elizabeth.  Two  of  them,  in  1874,  reported 
in  instructors  and  353  students. 

Private,  Denominational,  and  Parochial 
Sihools. — The  number  of  non-sectarian  private 
schools  is  240;  of  denominational  schools,  106. 

Superior  Inst  ruction. — The  colleges  of  the 
Btate,  exclusive  of  those  for  females,  are  the 
following: 


NAME 


Burliugton  College. . . 
College  of  New  Jersey. 

Butgers  College 

Seton  Hall  College 


Location 


Burlington 
Princeton 
N.  Brunswick 
So.  Orange 


When 
found- 
ed 

1846 
1748 

1771 

1S5G 


Denomi- 
nation 


P.  Epis. 
Presb. 
Iteforni. 
It.  C. 

There  are  five  colleges  for  the  superior  in- 
struction of  women:  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Burling- 
ton ;  Trinity  Hall,  Beverly;  Bordentown  Female 
Coll  ge  ;  Ivy  Hall.  Bridgeton  ;  and  the  Penning- 
ton Seminary  and  Female  Collegiate  Institute. 

Professior$al  and  Scientific  Instruction. — 
The  John  C.  Green  School  of  Science  is  a  depart- 
ment of  the  I  Jollege  of  New  Jersey,  at  Princeton. 
It  provides  two  courses  of  study,  and  confers 
d  grees  expressive  of  proficiency  in  each.  Nearly 
$600,000  have  been  expended  on  this  school,  its 
name  indicating  the  principal  contributor.  The 
scientific  school  of  Rutgers  College,  endowed 
principally  by  the  sale  of  agricultural  land  scrip, 
to  the  amount  of  81  L6.000,  has  been  constituted 
by  an  act  of  the  legislature  the  college  for  agri- 
culture and  the  mechanic  arts.  It  has  a  course 
Ju  chemistry  and  agriculture,  and  one  in  civil 


engineering  and  mechanics.  Connected  with  the 
former,  is  a  model  farm,  on   which   the  claims  of 

different  systems  are  put  to  a  practical  test.  State 
students,  to  the  number  of  40,  are  admitted  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  county  superintend- 
ents, and  are  instructed  free  of  charge.      The 

Stevens  Institute  of  Technology, at  llolioken,  was 
founded  by  Kdwin  A.  Stevens,  by  a  gift  of  land, 
and  $650,000  for  buildings  and  endowment.  It 
was  opened  in  L871  as  a  school  for  special  scien- 
tific training,  but  provides  instruction  in  other 
branches    as  well.    Connected   with   it    is   a  high 

school,  which  is  designed  as  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment for  the  Institute.  'I  he  latter  has  extensive 
collections,  and  a  library  of  5,000  volumes.  Its 
course  is  4  years,  on  the  completion  of  which  it 
confers  degrees.  The  theological  seminary  of  the 
Reformed  Church  is  substantially  a  department 
of  Rutgers  College,  and  is  the  principal  training 
school  in  the  United  States  for  ministers  of  that 
denomination.  In  1874 — 5,  it  reported  4  pro- 
fessors and  39  students.  The  theological  semi- 
nary of  the  Presbyterian  (  lunch  at  Princeton 
was  organized  in  1812,  and  has  a  4  years'  course 
for  graduates  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  or 
for  others  who  have  received  a  classical  educa- 
tion. In  1874,  it  had  7  instructors  and  97  students. 
The  German  rl  heological  School  at  Bloomfield 
was  founded  in  1869,  by  the  Presbyterians,  for 
the  purpose  of  providing  German-speaking  in- 
structors for  the  large  and  rapidly  increasing 
German  population  of  the  United  States.  It  has 
a  theological,  and  an  academic  department,  the 
principal  study  in  the  latter  being  the  German 
language.  In  1874 — 5,  it  had  5  instructors  and 
24  students.  The  Drew  Theological  Seminary, 
at  Madison,  was  opened  in  1867  by  a  fund  of 
$250,000,  given  by  Daniel  Drew  for  its  establish- 
ment, to  which  additions  have,  from  time  to 
time,  been  made,  making  a  total  of  nearly 
SI. 000,000.  It  is  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  bishops  of  which 
are,  ex  officio,  members  of  its  board  of  supervision. 
The  grounds  are  95  acres  in  extent.  There  are 
3  seminary  buildings,  besides  professors'  resi- 
dences, and  a  library  containing  12,000  volumes. 
The  introductory  course  is  2  years:  the  regular,  3. 
To  the  latter,  only  college  graduates  are  ad- 
mitted. In  1874 — 5,  it  reported  9  instructors, 
9  lecturers,  and  127  students. 

Special  Instruction. — No  provision  has  thus 
far  (1876)  been  made  by  the  state  for  the  in- 
struction of  deaf-mutes,  blind,  or  feeble-minded 
persons;  but  about  $40,000  is  annually  expended 
by  the  state  for  their  care  in  the  institutions  of 
other  states.  Their  number,  according  to  an  in- 
quiry instituted  by  the  legislature  in  1873,  was 
500  deaf-mutes,  600  blind,  and  more  than  1,0(J0 
feeble-minded. 

The  State  Industrial  School  for  Girls  was 
established  at  Trenton  by  an  act  of  the  legislature, 
in  1871,  "for  the  reformation  of  girl- between 
the  ages  of  7  and  16  years."  In  1S74,  there  were 
19  inmates.  The  State  Reform  School  was 
opened  at  Jamesburg,  in  1867.  The  institution 
is  rather  reformatory  than  penal,  and,  in  addi- 


C32 


NEW  .JERSEY  COLLEGE 


NEW    MEXICO 


ticra  to  moral  training,  provides  intellectual  in- 
struction in  elementary  branches.  In  1874,  the 
total  Dumber  of  its  inmates  was  298;  the  average 
attendance.  L8  I. 

NEW  JERSEY,  College  of  (popularly 
railed  Princeton  College), at  Princeton,  N.J., 
founded  under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian 
Synod  of  New  York,  which  then  included  New 
Jersey  under  its  jurisdiction,  was  opened  in  May. 
1747,  at  Elizabethtown  (now  Elizabeth]  and  the 
same  year  was  removed  to  Newark,  whence  it 
was  transferred  to  Princeton,  in  1 7  ~> 7 ,  upon  the 
completion  of  a  college  edifice,  which  at  the 
Suggestion  of  Gov.  Belcher  was  named  Nassau 
Hall,  "to  the  immortal  memory  of  the  glorious 
King  William  III.,  of  the  illustrious  house  of 
Nassau."  From  this  circumstance  the  college 
itself  is  often  called  Nassau  1 1  till .  It  obtained  a 
charter  in  L746,  and  a  more  liberal  one  in  L748. 
The  college  buildings,  including  a  library,  gym- 
nasium, observatory,  society  halls,  and  the  presi- 
dent's house,  besides  various  college  halls,  are 
mostly  of  stone,  and  occupy  a  well-shaded  cam- 
pus on  the  main  street  of  the  town.  The  con- 
tributions to  the  college  within  the  last  eighl 
years  amount  to  $1,500,000.  The  college  and 
society  libraries  contain  about  55,000  volumes. 
The  institution  comprises  an  academic  depart- 
ment and  the  John  C.  (been  School  of  Sci 
(opened  in  1*7.'$),  and  has  a  preparatory  school 
connected  with  it.  In  the  academic  depart- 
ment, all  the  studies  of  the  freshman  and  the 
sophomore  year  are  required  ;  in  the  junior  and 
Che  senior  year,  a  considerable  range  of  elective 

studies  is  provided.      The  School  of   Science  has 

fcffo  regular  courses,  one  of  two  years,  for  grad- 
uated of  colleges,  on  the  completion  of  which  the 

aftgree  of  Master  of  Science  isct  inferred,  and  the 
other  of  four  years,  for  others,  on  the  comple- 
tion of  which  the  d  igree  of  Bachelor  of  Science 
is  conferred.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  academic 
d  ■jiartinent  is  $75  per  annum  ;  in  the  School  of 
Science.    SI 'Jit.      There   are    several    prizes    and 

scholarships  obtainable  by  deserving  students. 
Six  fellowships  have  been  established,  four  of 
which  yield  $800  each,  the  other  two  yielding 
$250  each.  These  are  open  for  competition  to 
members  of  the  graduating  class  who  intend  to 
pursue  a  post-graduate  course  of  one  year.  In 
1876,  there  were  L8  professors,  6  other  instruct- 
ors, and  183  stu  lent-  |  138  in  the  academic  de- 
partment, and  C>  in  the  School  of  Science). 
The  whole  number  of  graduates  is  aboul  1,850, 
of  whom  nearly  2,750  survive.  The  presidents 
of  the  college  have  been  as  follows:  Rev.  Jon- 
athan Dickinson,  May  to  Oct..  1747  ;  Rev.  Aaron 
Burr,  1748  57;  Rev.  Jonathan  Edwards,  Jan, 
to  March,  L758;  Rev.  Samuel  Davies,1759  61; 
Rev.  Samuel  Finley,  L76]  6;  Rev.  I>r.  John 
Withersnooii.  L768  94  ;  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel S1 
ho,v  Smith,  L795  1812;  Rev.  Dr.  Ashbel 
Green,  L812  22;  Rev.  I>r.  .lames  Camaban, 
182.!  -54  ;  Rev.  Dr.  John  Maclean,  1854  6$  : 
Rev.  I>r  James  Met  'osh,  from  1868. 

NEW  JERUSALEM,    Societies  of  the, 
DlE  i i - i i ■  i  ■  a    nmed  liy  the  ecclesiastical  organiza- 


tions of  the  followers  of  SwedenboTg,  the  Swedish 
theosophist,  who  died  in  1772.  Swedenborg him- 
self did  not  make  any  provisions  for  organizing 
his  followers  into  an  independent  religious  b 
and  the  first  Society  of  the  New  Jerusalem  was 
not  formed  until  L788,  when  Robert  Bindmarsh 
and  others  established  public  worship  in  London. 
At  present,  there  is  a  general  conference  of  the 
New-  Church  in  England! with  about  4.000  mem- 
bers, and  another  in  the  United  States,  which,  in 
1  875,  had  about  5.0(10  members.  There  are,  be- 
sides, a  number  of  indepeudent  societies  in  the 
United  States  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
with  an  aggregate  of  about  1,000  members.  'I  he 
general  conference  in  the  United  States  founded, 
in  1800,  a  theological  school  at  Walt  ham,  Mas- 
sachusetts; but  no  term  was  held  in  the  year 
1*75 — 6,  as  no  students  applied  for  admission. 
A  college  under  the  control  of  the  Church  was 
chartered,  in  1850,  and  organized,  in  1851,  at 
T'rbana.  Ohio:  and.  in  1*74,  it  had  14  students. 
There  is  also  a  school  under  the  control  of  the 
general  conference  of  England.  Sunday-schools 
.ire  connected  with  nearly  all  the  societies,  both 
in  the  United  States  and  in  England. 

NEW  MEXICO,  oue  of 'the  territories  of 
the  United  States,    first   made   known    to    Euro- 

peans,  about  1 537,bythe  visit  of  a  Spanish  expedi- 
dition  underAlvar  Nunez.  It  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  in  L  848,  at  the  close  of  the  Mexican 
war.  and  was  organized  as  a  territory  in  1850. 
Its  area  is  121,201  sq.  m.;  its  population, in  1870, 
was  91,874,  of  whom  90,393  were  whites;  172 
colored  persons;  and  1,309,  non-tribal  Indians. 

Educational  History.  —  Provision  was  first 
made  for  giving  elementary  instruction  to  the 
youth  of  the  province  of  New  Mexico  in  1822. 
Owing  to  the  sparsely  settled  condition  of  the 
country,  and  to  the  fad  that  the  peons,  or  serfs, 
not  included  within  the  privileges  of  the  act, 
constituted  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants  in  the 
country  districts,  the  operation  of  the  law  was 
confined  to  the  cities  and  towns.  The  salaries 
of  the  teachers  were  small,    those   in    the    capital 

being  paid  by  appropriations  from  the  public 
treasury;  while  those  in  the  country  were  paid. 
by  the  district  officers,  from  money  taken  either 
from  the  general  treasury,  or  derived  from  local 
taxation.  I  ndcr  this  system,  no  permanent  in- 
stitution of  learning  was  founded.  In  1852,  how- 
ever, the  Academy   of  Our    Lady   of    Light    was 

established  at  Santa  Fe  by  the  Sisters  oi  Loretto; 
and,  from   an    experimental  beginning,  with  7 

hoarders  and  a  tew  other  scholars,  it  has  now 
become  firmly  established  as  a  permanent  insti- 
tution, with  an  influence  which  has  not    only  led 

to  the  establishment  of  branch  schools  under  its 

own  direction,  but  to  the  foundation  of  other 
independent  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  ter- 
ritory.     Ill    1855,  and  again    in    1861,   attempts 

were  made  by  the  legislature  to  organize  a  system 

of    public   schools   by    general    taxation:    hut  the 

public  sentiment  of  the  people  was  opposed  to 

the  measure,  and  the  laws  were  repealed.  No 
other  school  law  was  enacted  till  [871 — 2.  In 
that  year,  the  assembly  passed  an  act,  which  was 


NEW    MEXICO 


NEW    ORLEANS 


633 


ratified  liy  the  people  at  the  polls,  and,  which, 
with  slight  modifications, in  1  sT.'t — -Lis  the  pres- 
ent public  school  law  of  the  territory.  In  accord- 
ance with  recommendations  made  by  the  gov- 
ernor, in  1875,  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  coun- 
cil, proposing  a  non-sectarian  system  of  publie- 
,  school  education,  l>ut  it  was  defeated  in  the 
house  by  a  vote  of  14  to  10. 

School  System. — The  school  law  provides  that 
the  educational  interests  of  the  state  shall  be  in- 
trusted to  local  boards  of  supervisors  and  direct- 
ors of  the  public  schools,  to  be  elected  for  two 
yettrS,  in  each  county,  respectively.  These  boards 
consist  of  three  members  each,  with  the  probate 
judge  of  the  county,  who  is  president,  ex  officio. 
They  have  the  entire  control  of  the  schools  and 
of  the  school  funds,  each  member  receiving  for 
his  services  $3  a  day.  The  want  of  uniform- 
ity, thus  engendered,  in  the  administration  of 
the  schools,  has  been  a  serious  cause  of  com- 
plaint. The  area,  however,  over  which  each  board 
exercises  supervision  being  limited,  the  existence 
of  anyother  officers  is  rendered  unnecessary.  The 
territorial  superintendent,  an  officer  created  in 
L's".'? — L  receives  the  annual  reports  from  the 
local  boards,  and  transmits  them  to  the  governor. 
lie  is.  also,  territorial  librarian,  ex  officio.  The 
School  fund  consists  of  25  per  cent  of  the  tax  on 
property,  $1  poll  tax  for  every  male  citizen  above 
the  age  of  21  years,  and  any  surplus,  of  more 
than  $500,  in  the  treasury  of  any  county,  after 
paying  the  current  expenses  of  such  county. 

The  public  schools  are  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  teaching  of  elementary  branches. 
Owing  to  the  early  settlement  of  the  country  by 
the  Spaniards  and  the  Mexicans,  and  its  almost 
exclusive  possession,  till  very  recently,  by  them 
or  their  descendants,  Spanish  is  the  language 
spoken  by  the  great  majority  of  the  people.  The 
control  of  the  schools,  also,  being  entirely  local, 
that  language  has  been  introduced  into  them,  in 
some  cases  exclusively,  and  in  others  jointly  with 
the  English  language.  The  Catholic  religion, 
also,  is,  for  the  same  reason,  generally  taught  in 
them.  The  legal  school  age  is  between  7  and 
1  <s  years.  The  secretary  of  the  territory  is  the 
acting  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  W. 
O.  Ritch  has  been  the  secretary  since  187.'5. 

Educational  Condition. — The  number  of  pub- 
lic schools  in  the  territory,  reported  in  1875, 
was  138,  of  which  97  were  for  boys ;  8,  for  girls: 
and  .'5.'5,  mixed  Some,  however,  were  not  re- 
ported. English  and  Spanish  were  taught  in  38 
schools:  Spanish  alone,  in  86;  and  English  alone. 

in  7.  The  revenue  for  the  support  of  the  scl Is. 

derived  from  the  sources  above  mentioned, 
amounted,  in  1875,  to  $25,473.46.  The  principal 
items  of  school  statistics  are  the  following: 

Number  of  pupils  in  attendance 5,151 

11   teachers,  males 132 

"      "  "        females L5 

Total 147 

Average  number  of  months  schools  worn  kept.  .     G.G 
Expenditures  for  teachers'  wages. .  $15,432 
"     rent  and  books.  .       1,800 
"         "     other  purposes.  .       l,6.r>7 

Total $18,889 


Average  teachers'  wages  per  month $10.">s 

Number  of  public  schools  supported  or*t  of 
the  school  fund,  but  controlled  by  re- 
ligious societies 10 

Private  and  Parochial  Schools*-  Under  this 
head  must  be  classed  all  the  convent  and  mis- 
sion schools  and  academies,  and  many  private 
schools.  Of  these.  L2  are  Roman  Catholic,  li  for 
boys  and  6  forgirls;  8  Protestant,  for  both  sexes'; 
exclusive  of  13  non-sectarian  schools,  including 
7  Pueblo  Indian  schools,  in  which  there  were 
enrolled,  at  the  close  of  1875,  242  pupils;  and  of 
this  number.  L80  were  in  daily  attendance  during 
the  winter  months,  and  about  one  half  that  num- 
ber during  the  summer  months.  The  number  of 
scholars  able  to  read  and  write  was  47,  and  15 
could  work  in  the  first  four  rules  of  arithmetic  ; 
while  spelling,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and 
geography  were  all  successfully  taught  in  En- 
glish. But  few  of  the  children,  however,  under- 
stand English  to  any  extent.  Of  the  Protestant 
schools, 4  are  Methodist  Episcopal  M ission  schools. 
Only  3,  in  all  this  number,  teach  the  higher 
branches.  The  average  attendance  of  pupils, in  all 
these  schools,  in  1875,  was  1,259;  the  number  of 
male  teachers,  41;  female  teachers,  40.  The  average 
number  of  months  the  schools  were  kept  was  9.4. 
Many  of  these  schools  receive  a  yearly  donation 
from  the  public-school  fund. 

No  special  provision  has  been  made  for  supe- 
rior instruction.  Of  the  schools  above  referred 
to,  3  give  instruction  in  the  higher  branches,  in- 
cluding Latin.  The  want  of  a  uniform  public- 
school  system  in  the  territory  has  long  been  felt, 
and  has  been  a  subject  of  consideration  by  its 
governors  and  many  of  its  leading  men.  The 
present  school  law,  though  faulty  in  many  re- 
spects, is  regarded  as  evidence  of  a  decided  step 
in  advance  of  the  position  taken  as  late  even 
as  1861,  when  a  public-school  law  was  voted 
down  almost  unanimously.  "While  the  parochial 
schools," says  secretary  Rich,  "are.  without  doubt, 
the  best  schools  we  have  had  in  New  Mexico, 
there  is  rather  more  than  a  suspicion  that  the 
advocates  and  supporters  of  some  of  them  have 
a  special  interest  in  paralyzing  the  efficiency  of 
the  public  schools,  and  in  keeping  them  in  bad 
repute,  as  a  means  of  maintaining  their  own 
superiority";  and  again, "make  the  public-school 
system  of  New  Mexico  all  it  is  practicable  to  be 
made  at  this  time,  and  the  result  will  be  pre- 
paratory schools,  not  only  for  the  state,  but  for 
higher  education.  The  present  denominational 
Schools  would  then,  under  the  free  push  of  these 
preparatory  schools, be  forced,  like  the  sects  they 
represent,  to  stand  on  their  own  merits,  to  en- 
large and  liberalize  their  curriculum  of  study, 
and  biuish  up  their  diction  and  scholarship." 

NEW  ORLEANS,  the  capital  and  metrop- 
olis of  the  state  of  Louisiana,  nearly  co-exten- 
sive with  the  parish  of  Orleans.  It  was  first 
permanently  settled  in  IT'J.'!,  under  the  French* 
who  held  possession  of  it  till  1769,  when  it 
passed  under  Spanish  rule,  and  so  continued  till 
1801,  when  the  French  regained  possession  of  it, 
but  ceded  it,  asa  part  of  Louisiana,  to  the  United 
States,  in  1803. 


C34 


NEW  ORLEANS 


Educational  History. — -As  might  be  expected 
from  the  manner  in  which  the  city  was  founded, 
the  first  instruction  given  was  in  connection 
with  the  religious  establishments  of  the  Roman 
Catholics.  The  earliest  school  appears  to  have 
been  that  of  the  Ursuline  nuns,  whieh  was 
founded  by  the  French  government  in  1733,  and 
carried  on  in  the  same  place  till  1824,  when  it 
was  removed  to  its  present  location,  about  two 
miles  from  the  center  of  the  city.  It  was  a  semi- 
nary for  young  ladies,  and,  in  1845,  had  120 
pupils.  The  city,  during  all  the  early  years  of 
its  existence,  had  no  public-school  system,  the 
instruction  of  children  and  youth  being  given 
in  private  or  denominational  schools,  or  in  chari- 
table institutions.  Of  schools  of  the  first  class, 
many  existed,  but  no  record  of  them  remains. 
In  1830,  the  Female  Orphan  Asylum  was 
opened  with  6  children.  In  1840, more  extensive 
buildings  were  completed  for  it,  in  which  it  gave 
instruction  to  about  100  children.  Since  then, 
an  average  of  145  have  been  annually  instructed 
there,  ami,  at  a  suitable  age,  apprenticed.  In 
L845,  the  Carmelite  Convent,  which  was  oc- 
cupied by  nuns  of  that  order,  supported  two 
.schools,  one  white,  the  other  free  colored.  At 
the  same  time,  the  1'oydras  Female  Orphan 
Asylum  gave  instruction  to  120  children  an- 
nually. Other  institutions  of  the  kind,  which 
have  taken  a  greater  or  less  part  in  the  work  of 
education,  are  the  Male,  the  Catholic  Male,  and 
the  Milne  Orphan  Asylums — the  last  endowed 
by  Alexander  Milne,  in  L839.  Two  reading- 
rooms,  also,  have  been  in  existence  for  many 
years. — The  first  decided  change  in  the  common- 
school  system  was  in  1841,  the  city  being  divid- 
ed into  .'5  municipalities  and  containing,  at  that 
time,  about  103,000  inhabitants.  On  the  14th  of 
February,  1841,  the  legislature  passed  an  act 
•authorizing  each  municipality  to  establish 
schools,  each  parish  being  controlled  by  a  board 
of  5  administrators,  who  reported  annually  to 
the  secretary  of  state.  The  2d  municipality 
selected  12  citizens  as  a  board  of  directors  of 
public  education, granting  them  almost  unlimited 
powers.  They  employed  as  superintendent,  J. 
A .  Shaw,  who  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  New  England  system  of  public  schools,  ac- 
cording to  whieh  it  was  proposed  to  re  organize 
the  schools  of  New  Orleans.  Under  his  super- 
vision, the  schools  began  with  1.'!  pupils,  ami.  in 
2  years,    numbered    1,11111    in    actual   attendance, 

with  an  enrollment  of  double  thai  number.  These 
efforts  for  the  improvement  of  the  schools  en- 
countered strong  opposition,  at  first,  but  were 
attended  with  such  unqualified  success  as  ulti- 
mately to  secure  general  approbation.  Thein- 
fiuence  of  this  improvement,  also,  soon  extended 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  municipality  in  which 
the  movement  had  its  origin.  In  the  3d  munici- 
pality, the  old  method  was  pursued  for  a  long 
time,  Instruction  being  given  in  English, French, 
exl  Spanish;  but  here,  as  well  as  in  the  1st 
municipality,  the  improvement  in  school  organ- 
ization and  methods  gradually  made  progress, 
.in. I,  in  L  844,  the  system  throughout  the  city  had 


become  uniform.  By  the  state  constitution, 
then  recently  adopted,  the  establishment,  in  New- 
Orleans,  of  a  college  to  be  called  the  University 
of  Ix)uisiana  was  directed.  It  was  to  consist  of 
four  faculties;  and  one  of  them,  that  of  medicine, 
was  immediately  opened.  The  Public  School 
Lyceum  and  Society  Library  was  organized  in 
1844.  The  object  was  to  provide  a  library  for 
the  youth  of  the  2d  municipality  by  the  voluntary 
subscriptions  of  the  public  school  children  and 
Others.  The  officers  were  those  of  the  public 
schools,  with  the  addition  of  the  mayor,  recorder, 
and  aldermen  as  members,  ex  officio.  The  I 'copies 
Lyceum  and  the  Young  Mens  Literary  Associa- 
tion were  similar  institutions. 

School  System.  —  The  public  schools  of  the 
city  are  governed  by  a  board  of  school  directors 
consisting  of  twenty  members,  one  from  each 
representative  district,  one  additional  from  each 
municipal  district  ;  the  administrator  of  finance 
of  the  the  city,  ex  officio;  and  the  superintend- 
ent of  the  sixth  division,  ex  officio,  who  has  the 
right  to  speak,  but  not  to  vote,  in  the  board.  The 
district  members  are  appointed  by  the  state 
board  of  education,  each  for  a  term  of  three 
years,  one-third  of  the  number  retiring  annually. 
The  superintendent  of  the  sixth  division  is  the 
city  superintendent.  The  board  of  school  directors 

appoints  a  committee  on  teachers,  who.  with  the 

city  superintendent,  examine  applicants  for  em- 
ployment as  teachers.  Thus  the  public-school 
system  of  the  city  is  under  state  control,  though 
supported  by  a  city  tax.  The  salaries  of  teach- 
ers vary  from  $2,400  a  year  tor  the  principal 
and  $1,500  for  associate  teachers,  in  the  boys' 
high  school,  to  an  average  of  $814  for  teachers 
of  a  lower  grade. —  'the  number  of  public  schools 
is  ~(\.  including  a  central  high  school  for  boys,  2 
high  schools  for  trills,  and  73  schools  of  an  in- 
ferior  made.  The  course  of  instruction  in  the 
central  high  school  for  boys  embraces  English 
studies,  mathematics,  natural  sciences,  the  clas- 
sics, French,  and  book-keeping;  that  of  the 
girls'  high  schools  is  similar,  with  the  exception 
of  book-keeping  and  classics.  The  principal  items 

of  school  Statistics  for  L875  are  as  follows  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 70,n:>:s 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  schools 26,251 

Average  daily  attendance 18,719 

Number  of  teachers,  males :::; 

"      '•         "        females .417 

Whole  number  of  teachers I'll 

Total  receipts  for  acl I  purposes (373,847.99 

"    expenditures    "  "        $460,128.83 

Average  salary  of  teachers  per  month. . . .  $67.82 
Total  value  of  the  Bchool  property $775,000.00 

The  private  schools  exceed  in  number  the  public 

schools ;  and,  in  L875,were  attended  by  14,235 
pupils,  giving  employment  to  171  teachers. 
Mosl  of  these  school.-  are  attached  to  religious 

bodies,  and  the  great  majority  are  for  females. 
The  schools  for  colored  children,  both  public 
and  private,  are  separate  :  though  a  few  colored 
pupils    attend    the    schools    for    white    children. 

There  ia  greal  opposition  to  mixed  set Is.  (For 

an  account  of  the  higher  educational  institutions 
of  New  Orleans, see  Louisiana.) 


NEWSPAPERS 


i ;:;:, 


NEWSPAPERS.  Tin-  objection  is  fre- 
quently made  t<>  the  character  of  the  instruction 
ordinarily  imparted  at  Bchool,  that  it  has  Little 
relation  to  the  concerns  of  daily  life.  This  want 
of  relation  sprung  originally  from  the  fact  that 
tli"  literary  class,  in  earlier  times,  was  a  class 
apart,  having  only  Blight  connection  with  the 
mass  of  people  who, possessing  few  political  rights, 
were  unworthy  of  consideration.  The  instruc- 
tion given,  therefore,  was  purposely  of  a  kind  to 
emphasize  the  exclusiveness  of  the  educated  class. 
Onder  the  changed  political  conditions  of  our 
day,  however,  the  tendency  has  steadily  been  to 
equalize  the  two  classes  in  intelligence — to  lift 
u]>  the  masses  to  the  level  of  the  educated,  on  the 
one  haul.  and.  on  the  other,  to  bring  the  studies 
of  the  school  and  college  more  into  accordance 
with  the  daily  life  of  the  majority.  Traces  of 
the  original  exclusiveness  still  remain,  however) 
in  the  antiquated  and  unpractical  character  of  the 
instruction,  as  mentioned  above.  Almost  every 
youth,  on  entering  upon  the  business  of  life,  be- 
C  >  ii  is  conscious  of  this  with  chagrin.  The  arith- 
metic that  he  studied,  for  instance,  seems  to  have 
little  application  to  the  concerns  of  daily  life;  the 
book-keeping  which  he  mastered  with  so  much 
difficulty,  seems  now,  at  this  later  date,  to  have 
been  filled  with  theoretical  cases  which  have  no 
parallels  iu  actual  experience;  even  the  geog- 
raphy, in  which  he  attained  such  proficiency, 
has  little  place  in  his  daily  routine  ;  while  algebra, 
geometry,  and  many  other  studies,  have  none  at 
all.  The  result  is  a  feeling  of  inferiority  when 
he  is  brought  into  contact  with  others  of  his  age 
whose  training  has  been  entirely  that  of  practical 
life,  which  leads  him  to  suspect  that  his  time 
has  been  wasted.  Not  till  long  afterwards, 
perhaps,  does  lie  recognize  the  fact  that  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  both  theoretical  and  practical 
knowledge  are  based,  are  the  same,  and  that  the 
ability  to  apply  these  principles  was  his  chief 
want.  The  fe  'ling  of  disappointment  referred 
to  might  have  been  entirely  removed,  if,  in  his 
instruction,  the  teacher  had  kept  constantly 
in  mind,  not  the  mental  discipline  alone,  but 
the  mental  discipline  and  the  adaptability  to  the 
affairs  of  life  of  the  knowledge  used  in  acquir- 
ing that  discipline.  One  of  the  most  useful  in- 
struments for  accomplishing  this  double  purpose 
is  the  newspaper.  The  arithmetic  which  is  now 
taught  by  the  use  of  unusual  and  improbable 
examples,  could  be  made  a  living  and  interest- 
ing thing,  by  the  use  of  problems  to  be  found 
in  its  pages,  which  introduce  the  actual  prices  of 
articles  in  daily  use.  Interest,  discount,  exchange, 
the  price  of  bonds  and  stocks,  could  be  made  so 
familiar  to  the  pupil  in  this  way,  that  the  change 
from  school  to  counting-house,  which  is  now  at- 
tended with  such  a  want  of  ease  and  so  much 
disappointment,  would  seem  but  the  continua- 
tion of  study  in  another  class. —  Reading,  also,  if 
taught  from  the  newspaper,  would  familiarize 
the  pupil  with  the  terms  used  in  the  daily  con- 
versation of  professional  and  business  men:  and, 
through  the  reports  of  proceedings  in  every  field 
tf  human  activity,  fresh  interest  could  be  aroused 


in  studies  already  taken  up,  while  attention  could 
profitably  be  called  tothose  which  are  ordinarily 

pursued  in  more  advanced  courses;  and  a  partial 

preparation  for  them  could  thus  unconsciously  be 

made.  Thus  the  study  of  geography  would  receive 
increased  attention,  if  it  could  be  connected  with 

the  reports  of  the  interest  ing  events  from  all  parts 
of  the  world  which  are  daily  chronicled,  by  in- 
quiring into  the  position  on  the  map.  population, 
form  of  government,  >■{<■,  of  the  different  coun- 
tries referred  to.  By  following,  in  this  way,  the 
records  of  campaigns  and  battles,  a  knowledge 
of  the  topography  of  the  country  could  be 
obtained  almost  without  effort,  which  would  be 
easily  retained  in  the  memory  of  the  most  ap- 
athetic scholar;  while  opportunity  could,  at  the 
same  time,  betaken  for  digressions  into  its  history. 
Through  its  reports  of  strikes,  labor  troubles, 
and  co-operative  associations,  the  newspaper 
could  also  be  made  the  medium  for  inculcating, 
in  a  familiar  and  practical  way,  the  rudiments  of 
political  economy,  usually  so  dry  and  uninterest- 
ing; while  the  accounts  of  great  engineering 
feats,  astronomical  discoveries,  exploring  expedi- 
tions, and  voyages  of  discovery,  would  be  more 
eagerly  listened  to,  if  the  pupil  were  made  toun- 
<  lerstand  that  the  algel  >ra,  geometry,  or  geography 
which  he  daily  studies  has  an  intimate  and  funda- 
mental relation  to  them  all.  The  thought,  also, 
that  lie  might  one  day  take  part  in  similar  work, 
would  act  as  a  spur  to  renewed  exertion.  Any 
means  within  the  teacher's  reach  of  divesting 
the  studies  pursued  of  their  dry,  text-book  char- 
acter should  be  taken  advantage  of;  and  this  can- 
not be  done  in  any  way  so  easily  as  by  investing 
them  with  a  human  interest,  by  showing  that 
men  and  women  similar  to  those  with  whom  he 
daily  associates  are  the  actors  in  all  these  stir- 
ring events.  For  this  purpose,  hardly  any  medium 
is  superior  to  that  of  the  daily  paper.  The  ob- 
jections formerly  made  to  its  use,  that  some  of  the 
facts  were  unfit  for  youthful  minds  to  know,  and 
that  the  hasty  manner  in  which  they  were  re- 
ported rendered  their  accounts  not  only  worth- 
less as  models  but  injurious,  arc  no  longer  valid. 
To  the  first,  it  may  be  said  that  newspapers  are 
now  so  universally  read  that  pupils  can  hardly 
fail  to  set'  them  or  hear  their  contents  discussed; 
and  to  the  second,  that  active  competition  hav- 
ing brought  into  the  employ  of  the  newspaper 
so  large  a  share  of  the  best  talent,  spe<  imens  of 
composition  may  now  be  found  in  any  influen- 
tial paper,  not  only  unexceptionable  in  matter, 
but  worthy  of  imitation  for  lucid  statement  and 
grace  of  expression.  The  ability,  independence, 
and  rapidly-increasing  circulation  of  the  daily 
press  are  fast  constituting  it  a  powerful  educator; 
and,  in  countries  where  the  necessities  of  daily 
life  leave  little  time  for  that  higher  education 
which  demands  leisure  and  a  competency  for  its 
accomplishment,  a  double  purpose  would  be 
served  by  using  it  as  a  means  of  instruction,  as 
not  only  giving  to  the  minds  of  the  pupils 
practical  culture,  but  also  habituating  them  to 
the  constant  use  of  the  newspaper  as,  perhaps, 
their  chief  source  of  intelligence. 


636 


NEW  YORK 


NEW  YORK,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  having  an  area  of 
-17.000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population,  according  to  the 
census  of  1870,  of  4,330.210,  of  whom  52.U81 
were  colored  persons ;  5,144,  Indians ;  and  29, 
( 'hinese.  Of  the  total  population,  the  number, 
10  years  old  and  upward,  reported  as  unable  to 
read  was  163.501  ;  unable  to  write,  239,271.  Of 
the  latter.  168,569  were  foreign  born.  According 
to  the  state  census  of  1875,  the  population  was 
4,705,208. 

Educational  History. —  This  topic  will  be 
treated  under  the  following  heads :  (I)  The 
establishing  of  schools;  (II)  The  mode  of  main- 
taining them  :  (III)  The  mode  of  supervising 
them  ;  (IV)   Special  provisions  of  legislation. 

I.  The  I  >utch,  by  whom  the  first  settlements 
were  made  in  the  state,  brought  with  them  the 
ideas  and  institutions  of  the  father-land,  among 
which  those  of  the  church  and  the  school  were 
not  the  least  prominent.  As  early  as  1629,  the 
West  India  Company,  in  its  charter,  enacted 
that  the  patroom  and  colonists  should,  "  in  the 
speediest  manner,  endeavor  to  find  out  ways  and 
means"  whereby  they  might  supply  a  minister 
and  a  school-master.  This  is  the  first  official  act 
relating  to  public  education  in  the  state.  The 
first  regular  school-master  in  New  Amsterdam 
was  Adam  Poelantsen,  who  commenced  his 
school  in  L633,  and  continued  it  till  L639,  when 
he  was  succeeded  by  Jan  Cornelissen,  and  he  by 
William  Vcstens,  during  whose  administration 
of  this  school,  a  second  was  established,  in  1  652. 
(See  New  Fork  City.)  The  Company  and  the 
church  united  in  paying  for  the  services  of 
these  early  masters.  The  first  school  in  Brook- 
lyn was  established  in  1661.  (See  Brooklyn.) 
The  first  school  at  Platbush  was  established  in 
1659,  under  Adrian  liegeman;  and  one  was 
opened  in  Newtown,  in  L661,  under  Richard 
Wills.  The  first  school-master  in  Albany  was 
Andries  Jansz,  in  1650.  In  L659,  a  Latin  school 
was  established  in  New  Amsterdam,  and  Alex- 
ander Carolus  <  fortius  was  sent  out  by  the  ( !om- 
pany  to  serve  as  rector,  with  permission  also  to 
practice  his  profession  as  physician.  I  lis  services, 
particularly  in  regard  to  discipline,  were  qo1 
satisfactory,  and  he  was  superseded,  the  [lev. 
-Kgidius  Luyck  being  appointed  in  his  place, 
under  whom  the  school  flourished,  children  be- 
ing senl  thither  from  Virginia,  Fori  Orange,  and 
the  Delaware,  to  receive  a  classical  education. — 
I  p  to  the  time  of  the  English  occupation,  the 
fundamental  idea  was  thai  of  the  tree  school. 
The  proper  authorities  provided  a  certain  salary, 
and  i  he  jchool  master  was  bound  by  his  contract, 
to  the  limit  of  a  specified  number,  to  instruct 
his  pupils  tree  of  tuition;  and  so  faithful  and 
earnest  were  the  authorities  and  clergy,  that,  at 
the  time  of    the    final    surrender   to   the    English 

(1671),  schools  existe  1  in  almost  every  town  and 

Village    within    the    limits   of    the    colony.       The 

branches  generally  taught  were  reading,  writing. 

arithmetic,    ami    the    catechism    of    the    I  Mitch 

Church. — Private  schools  also  existed    during 

the   entire  period,  at  least  from  a  time  anterior 


to  1644  ;  but  no  one  was  allowed  to  teach  a 
school  without  permission  from  the  director-gen- 
eral and  council,  who  acted  in  conjunction  with 
the  church  authorities.  This  custom  was  after- 
ward followed  by  the  English,  wdio  substituted 
the  archbishop,  bishop,  or  ordinary,  in  place  of 
the  minister  and  consistory.  The  English,  on 
their  accession,  paid  no  great  attention  to  edu- 
cation, for  obvious  reasons.  The  settlements 
were  all  Dutch.  The  prevailing  religion  was  that 
of  the  Church  of  Holland.  After  the  surrender, 
the  Dutch  Schools  were  continued,  holding  the 
same  relation  to  the  Dutch  Church  as  previous- 
ly; for  by  the  articles  of  capitulation,  'liberty 
of  conscience  in  divine  worship  and  'church 
discipline"  was  secured  to  the  Dutch,  "with 
all  then  accustomed  jurisdiction  with  respect  to 
the  poor  and  orphans''.  The  English  knew  of  no 
public  schools  except  those  in  connection  with 
the  church.  They  did,  however,  all  that,  under 
the  circumstances,  was  practicable.  The  very  next 
year  after  Stuyvesant's  capitulation  (1665),  Gov. 
Nicolls  licensed  John  Shute  to  open  an  English 
school  in  Albany ;  and  frequent  licenses  for 
private  schools,  at  various  places,  were  granted 
by  the  succeeding  governors.  In  1687,  a  Latin 
school  was  opened  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
under  the  sanction  of  the  English  government  ; 
and,  in  1702,  an  act  was  passed  for  the  "  en- 
couragement of  a  grammar  free  school  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  and  for  the  raising  annually 
of  £50  for  its  support  for  seven  years.  This 
school  docs  not  seem  to  have  been  established 
previous  to  April,  1  704,  when  Mr.  George  Muir- 
sou  was  duly  licensed  by  Gov.  Cornbury  as  its 
master.  Cornbury  is  also  credited,  at  this  time, 
with  the  establishment  of  two  other  English 
schools  in  the  city.  Of  all  the  English  governors, 
he  was  the  most  zealous  and  aggn  ssive  in  behalf 
of  the  English  Church  and  schools.  What 
Androa  and  Fletcher  would  fain  have  accom- 
plished legally,  or  by  persuasion,  he  boldly  at- 
tempted by  an  exercise  of  authority.  He  pro- 
hibited the  ministers  of  other  denominations. 
and  school-masters,  from  officiating  without  his 
special  license.  The  Dutch  schools  on  Long 
Island,  too  weak  or  too  timid  to  contest  tl  s 
matter,  were  broken  up  by  him  :  but  the  Dutch 
church  in  New  York  stood  up  for  its  chartered 
rights,  and  called  and  settled  its  own  school- 
masters. The  act  of  1702  expired  by  its  own 
limitation  in  1709,  and  was  not  renewed:  nor 
does  it  appear  that  legal  provision  for  schools 

of  any  kind  was  made  for  several  years.  Corn- 
bury  was  gone,  and  he  transmitted  to  none  of 
his  immediate  successors  any  of  bis  misguided 
zeal.  In  1701.  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  established  a  school  at  Hye,  and 
employed  as  its  master,  Joseph  Cleator.  In  1710. 

the  society  established  Trinity  School  in  New- 
York,  and  employed   William   Huddlestone  to 

teach  it,  who  served  until  1724.  at  a  salary,  first 
1  of  £10,  and  afterwards  of  £15;  for  which  lie 
was  required  to  teach  40  pupils  free.  This  school 
still  continues,  and  had  72  l>oys  on  its  founda- 
tion in  1875.    It  appears  from  a  table  in  Pratt  s 


NEW   YORK 


63" 


A/inals  of  Public  Education  (1872),  that  at  the 
olose  of  the  colonial  period,  the  society  had  estab- 
lished, and  supported,  in  whole  or  in  part,  2L 
Schools  in  7  counties.  The  standard  studies  in 
all  these  schools  were  similar  to  those  in  the 
Uuteh  schools,  —reading,  writing,  arithmetic, and 
the  catechism  of  the  Kngliati  Church.  In  L 732, an 
act  was  passed,  "to  encourage  a  public  school  in 
the  city  of  New  York  for  teaching  Latin,  Creek, 
and  mathematics."  This  school  was  free  for  20 
pupils,  of  whom  New  York  City  and  County 
wen' entitled  to  ten,  Albany  County  to  two,  and 
the  counties  of  Dutchess,  Kings.  Orange.  Queens, 
Richmond.  Suffolk,  Ulster,  and  Westchester  each 
to  one.  The  act  expired,  by  a  provision  con- 
tained in  it,  Dec.  1.,  1737;  but  was  extended, 
by  the  assembly  and  council  of  that  year,  to 
Deo.  1..  1838.  lion.  B.  P.  Butler  of  New  York, 
in  an  address  before  the  Albany  Institute,  in  1830, 
states  that  the  act  "was  not  afterwards  renewed; 
but  the  school  was  again  continued,  and  is  said 
to  have  proved  the  germ  of  Columbia  ( 'ollege." 
This  is  very  probable,  since  the  establishment  of 
a  college  began  to  be  agitated  soon  after;  and 
an  act  was  passed,  in  1746,  for  raising  by  lottery 
£2,250  "for  the  encouragement  of  learning  and 
toward  the  founding  of  a  college."  By  similar 
-.  this  had  increased,  in  1751,  to  £3,443,  and 
trustees  were  appoiuted  to  guard  and  promote 
th  ■  interests  of  the  embryo  institution.  The  trus- 
t  •  8.  in  1753,  invited  the  Rev.  Samuel  Johnson 
to  become  the  president  of  the  proposed  college, 
at  a  salary  of  £250,  with  the  assurance  that 
Trinity  Church  would  make  a  proper  addition 
thereto.  The  royal  charter  establishing  King's 
<  'ollege,  bears  date  Oct.  31.,  1754.  Its  functions 
were  suspended  during  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence, and  its  building  was  used  for  a  hospital. 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  Gouverneur  Morris,  and 
John  Jay,  were  among  its  early  graduates  ;  and 
Alexander  Hamilton  was  one  of  its  students 
whose  studies  were  interrupted  by  the  opening 
scenes  of  the  Revolution.  From  the  founding 
of  the  college  to  the  close  of  the  colonial  period, 
little  was  done  in  behalf  of  public  education. 
Immediately  after  the  Revolution,  the  number 
of  the  governors  of  King's  College,  being  so 
lessened  by  death  and  absence  as  to  require  the 
interposition  of  the  legislature,  an  act  Avas  passed 
in  1784,  investing  a  new  corporation,  under  the 
title  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  with  all  the  rights,  fran- 
chises, privileges,  etc.,  vested  in  the  governors  of 
tli  ■  college  by  its  charter,  and  changing  its  name 
to  Columbia  College.  This  act  required  that  all 
the  estate  real  and  personal,  held  by  King's  Col- 
lege by  virtue  of  its  charter,  should  be  applied 
solely  to  the  use  of  Columbia  College,  and  em- 
powered the  regents  to  hold  additional  estate, 
for  the  use  of  said  college,  to  the  amount  of  an 
annual  income  of  £3,500  ;  and,  "  for  the  further 
promotion  of  learning."  to  hold  estates  real  and 
])ersonal  to  the  annual  amount  of  40,000  bushels 
of  wheat ;  "  to  found  schools  and  colleges  in  any 
part  of  the  state,"  which  colleges  properly 
founded  should  "  be  considered  as  composing  a 


part  of  the  said  university."  The  act  of  1784 
proving  unsatisfactory,  another  act  was  passed 
in  L 7 87, declaring  "That  an  university  be  and  is 
hereby  instituted  within  this  state,  to  be  called 
and  known  by  the  name  and  style  of  "The  Regents 

of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York." 
This  act  reduced  the  number  of  regents,  re- 
manded Columbia  college  and  all  its  estates  to  a 
board  of  trustees,  continued  the  power  to  hold 
property  to  the  amount  of  the  annual  income  of 
40,000  bushels  of  wheat,  granted  authority  to  in- 
corporate colleges,  continued  the  power  to  confer 
degrees,  repealed  the  provision  making  such  col- 
leges a  part  of  the  university,  made  provision  for 
the  incorporation  of  academies,  and  placed  both 
academies  and  colleges  under  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  regents.  In  this  year,  and  subse- 
quent to  the  passage  of  the  act,  the  first  two 
academies  were  incorporated,-  ( 'lintoii  Academy, 
at  East  Hampton,  and  Erasmus  Hall,  at  Flat- 
bush.  The  latter  is  still  in  existence. — In  1789, 
the  legislature  set  apart  certain  portions  of  the 
public  lands  for  gospel  and  school  purposes;  and, 
in  1793,  the  regents,  in  their  report,  recom- 
mended the  establishment  of  a  general  system  of 
common  schools.  In  1795,  Governor  Clinton,  in 
his  message  to  the  legislature,  urged  the  establish- 
ment of  common  schools  throughout  the  state. 
On  the  9th  of  April,  the  same  year,  a  law  was 
passed  "for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  and 
maintaining  schools  in  the  several  cities  and 
towns  in  the  state,  in  which  the  children  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  state  shall  be  instructed 
in  the  English  language,  or  be  taught 
English  grammar,  arithmetic,  mathematics,  and 
such  other  branches  of  knowledge  as  are  most 
useful  and  necessary  to  complete  a  good  English 
education;"  and  the  sum  of  $50,000  a  year,  for 
five  years,  was  appropriated  for  their  support. 
In  1798,  the  returns  showed  that  1,352  schools 
were  in  operation,  with  59,660  pupils.  In  1805, 
the  Free  School  Society,  afterwards  the  Public 
School  Society,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  was 
founded,  its  first  school  being  opened  in  1806. 
(See  New  York  City.)  The  first  act  contem- 
plating a  permanent  system  of  common  schools 
was  passed  in  1812.  The  folio  wing  table  exhibits, 
by  decades,  the  progress  made,  under  this  and 
subsequent  laws,  in  the  establishing  of  schools. 


Number  of 

No.  of  chil- 

No. of 

Year 

Population 

school- 

dren  of 

children 

districts 

school  age 

taught 

1815... 

1,035,910 

2,631 

176.449 

140,106 

1836... 

1, 614,458 

7,642 

395,586 

402,940 

1835... 

2,174,517 

10,207 

538,398 

541,401 

1845... 

2,604.4:i;, 

11,018 

703,399 

742,433 

1S55... 

3,466,212 

11,798 

1,214,113 

945,087 

isc,:,. .. 

3,831,777 

11,780 

1,398,757 

916,617 

1875... 

4,705,208 

11,291 

1,583,064 

1,059,238 

It  will  be  observed  that,  for  several  years,  more 
children  were  reported  in  school  than  were 
enumerated.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  until 
1 851,  the  legal  school  age  was  between  4  and  16 
years,  after  which  it  was  from  4  to  21  until 
1864,  when  it  was  declared  to  be  from   5  to  21. 

II.  The  acts  of  1789  and  1795,  as  before 
stated,  made  provision  for  the  support  of  schools. 


638 


NEW   YORK 


The  former  set  apart  two  lots  in  each  township 
of  the  public  land  thereafter  to  be  surveyed,  for 
gospel  and  school  purposes.  According  to  the 
comptroller's  report,  it  appears  that,  in  pursuance 
of  the'  law,  $100,000  was  appropriated  in  179!) 
and  L800;  but  this  was  never  distributed.  The 
act  expired  in  lKOO,  and  an  attempt  to  revive  it 
failed.  But  though  these  appropriations  were 
not  paid,  some  effort  was  made  to  provide  means 
for  the  support  of  the  schools.  Lotteries  were 
authorized,  in  IT'.W  and  L801,  to  raise  money 
'■for  the  joint  benefit  of  academies  and  common 
schools,  but  chiefly  the  latter".  An  act,  passed 
April  8.,  1801,  "to  direct  certain  moneys  to  be 
applied  to  the  use  of  free  schools  in  the  city  of 
New  York",  directs  the  school  moneys  appor- 
tioned to  New  York,  to  be  paid  to  the  trustees  of 
the  several  churches  in  that  city,  eleven  being 
enumerated,  and  each  receiving  one-eleventh  pari , 
The  law  of  1812  appropriated  $50,000  annually, 
to  be  distributed  among  the  counties  of  the  state; 
and  authorized  the  towns  to  raise  by  tax  a 
sum  equal  to  their  distributive  share.  The 
law  passed  in  1814  made  it  the  duty  of  the 
boards  of  supervisors  to  levy  on  each  town  a 
sum  equal  to  its  distributive  share  of  the  money 
from  the  state,  and  made  the  forfeiture  of  the 
school  money  for  the  county,  the  penalty  for 
a  neglect  or  refusal  to  make  such  levy.  No 
provision  was  ma  Le  by  the  original  act  of  1812, 
for  raising  any  money  by  district  taxation,  or  by 
rate-bill  to  supply  deficiencies,  because  it  was 
believed  that  the  income  of  the  school  fund  and 
the  tax  for  the  same  amount  would  maintain  a 
school  in  each  district  for  three  months  in  the 
year.  But  the  amended  act  of  L814  required 
the  trustees  to  cause  a  school  to  be  kept  three 
months  each  year,  to  apply  the  school  moneys 
to  the  payment  of  teachers'  wages,  and,  if  there 
should  be  a  deficiency,  to  collect  it  from  the 
patrons  of  the  schools  in  proportion  to  the  at- 
tendance of  their  children.  As  the  general  school 
law  of  L812  did  not  apply  to  New  fork  City,  a 
supplementary  act  was  passed  March  12.,  1813, 
permitting  the  city  to  share  in  the  revenue  of 
the  school  fund.  The  city  was  required  to  raise 
a  sum  equal  to  its  share  of  such  school  money, 
which  was  "to  be  apportioned  and  paid  to  the 
trustees  of  the  Free  School  Society  of  New  York, 
the  trustees  or  treasurer  of  the  Orphan  Asylum 

Society,    the    Society    of    the   Kcouoinical  School, 

the  African  free  School,  and  of  such  incorpo- 
rated religious  societies  in  said  city  as  now  sup- 
port, or  shall  hereafter  establish,  charity  schools 
within  t  In  said  city."  The  distribution  was  to  be 

in  proportion  to  the  average  Dumber  of  children 

taught,  between  the  ages  of  land  15  years.  Nine 
moil i  hs'  schooling  during  the  previous  year  was 
required;  and  the  children  were  to  be  taught 
free  of  expense.  In  L805,  the  common-school 
fund  was  established  by  an  ad  providing  that 
the  net  proceeds  of  500,000  acres  of  the  vacant 
and  unappropriated  lands  of  the  Btate  which 
should  be  first  thereafter  sold  by  the  Burveyor- 
general  should  be  appropriated  as  a  permanent 
Fund  for  the  support  of  common  schools.    This 


amounted,  at  the  end  of  that  year,  to  826,774. 
The  law  provided  that  none  of  the  income  should 
be  distributed  until  it  should  amount  to  830,000 
annually  :  and,  accordingly,  no  distribution  was 
made  until  1815.  In  L849,  the  legislature  passed 
an  act  establishing  free  schools.  The  main  feature 
of  the  act  was  the  abolition  of  the  rate-bill,  and 
the  substitution  therefor  of  district  taxation.  On 
a  submission  of  this  act  to  popular  vote,  it  was 
approved  by  a  large  majority.  The  next  year, 
however,  it  was  repealed,  but  the  repeal  was  not 
sustained  by  the  vote  of  the  people.  The  contro- 
versy was  temporarily  settled  in  1851,  by  an  act 
repealing  the  law,  and  levying  a  Btate  tax  of 
$800,000,  to  be  distributed  in  lieu  of  the  county 
tax  required  by  the  law  of  1814:  it  also  restored 
the  rate-bill  and  extended  the  school  year  to  six 
months.  In  1856,  a  tax  of  three-fourths  of  a 
mill  on  each  dollar  of  the  valuation  of  property 
in  the  state  was  substituted  for  the  $800,000 
state  tax.  In  1867,  the  rate-bill  was  finally 
abolished,  and  the  state  tax  for  the  support  of 
common  schools  was  fixed  at  one  and  one-quarter 
mill  on  each  dollar  of  the  assessed  valuation  of 
property  in  the  state.  The  act  authorizing  the 
formation  of  union  free-school  districts  was 
passed  in  1853.  In  1864,  the  school  year  was  ex- 
tended so  as  to  include  2s  weeks,  as  at  present. 
In  1838,  the  income  of  the  U.  S.  deposit  fund 
was  by  law  appropriated  as  follows:  $110,000, 
for  the  payment  of  teachers'  salaries:  $55,000, 
for  the  support  of  district  libraries;  $28,000, 
to  the  literature  fund,  to  be  expended  for  the  edu- 
cation of  common-schoolteachers;  and  $15,000, 
to  colleges.  The  balance,  which  it  was  estimated 
would  annually  amount  to  about  850,000,  was 
to  be  applied  to  the  increase  of  the  common- 
school  fund.  The  constitutional  convention  of 
L846  ordained  that  $25,000  should  annually  be 
set  apart  from  the  revenues  of  the  1".  S.  deposit 
fund,  and  become  a  part  of  the  capital  of  the 
school  fund.  From  1S10  to  1846,  the  amount  of 
the  fund  derived  from  this  source  had  increased 
from  $1,932*422  to  $2,090,632;  but,  from  1846 
tol866,it  increased  to  $2,799,630.  In  L834,the 
regents  of  the  university  were  required  by  law 
to  apply  the  surplus  income  of  the  literature 
fund,  beyond  the  sum  of  $12,000, to  the  education 
of  common-school  teachers,  by  the  distribution 
of  it  to  such  academies  as  should  undertake  their 
instruction.  In  1866, a  law  was  passed  author- 
izing the  taking  of  land  for  school-house  sites  by 
right  of  eminent  domain.  The  following  table 
exhibits  by  decades  the  financial  progress  of  the 
common-school  system. 


year 

Valuation  of 

real  and 

personal 

estate 

Capital  of 

common- 
school  fund 

School- 
fund  in- 
come dis- 
tributed 

Money 
raised  by 
state  and 

county 
taxation 

180S 

126,774 
934,016 
1,319,886 
1,876,192 
2,090,632 
2,467,621 
2,766,761 
:i,oao,108 



L816 

lvj:. 299,197,721 

1-:;;, 627,631,634 

1846 606,646,096 

1866 1,402,{ 

.  .   1,660,879,686 
...  2,867,780,102 

(60,000 

80,000 
100,000 

110.000 
166,000 

155,000 

170,(100 

(80,000 
100,1  00 

800,000 
1,148,422 

2,884.  ■     1 

NEW  YORK 


639 


III.  According  to  the  law  of  170;"),  each  town 
was  to  elect  three  or  more  commissioners  to  have 
zeneral  charge  of  the  schools,  to  license  teachers, 
and  to  apportion  the  public  moneys  to  the 
districts,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  days  of 
instruction  given  in  each.  The  people  in  each 
district  were  to  .  led  trustees, to  employ  teachers, 

and  to  provide  for  the  schools.     The  act  of  L812 

also  required  each  town  to  elect  three  commis- 
sioners of  common  Schools,  whose  first  duty  was 
to  form  the  town  into  school-districts.  They  re- 
ceived, and  distributed  to  the  districts, the  public 
moneys ;  and  the  trustees  were  required  to  re- 
port to  them.  Each  town  was  also  required  to 
elect  from  one  to  six  inspectors,  who.  with  the 
commissioners, had  the  supervision  of  the  schools. 
and  the  examination  of  teachers.  This  law  also 
created  the  otiiee  of  state  superintendent  of  com- 
mon schools ;  and  the  first  annual  report  was 
made  in  I  Si,'!.  In  1821 ,  the  legislature  abolished 
the  office,  and  made  the  secretary  of  state,  e.v 
officio,  superintendent  of  common  schools.  In 
1822,  an  important  amendment  to  the  school 
law  gave  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  superintend- 
ent on  all  questions  arising  under  any  of  its 
provisions.  In  1841,  an  act  was  passed  creating 
the  office  of  deputy  superintendent,  and  also 
that  of  county  superintendent,  to  whom  all  ap- 
peals were  first  to  be  made,  his  decisions  being 
subject  to  review  by  the  state  superintendent. 
In  1843,  the  offices  of  town  commissioner  of 
schools  and  inspector  of  schools  were  abolished, 
and  that  of  town  superintendent  created  in  their 
stead.  The  office  of  county  superintendent  was 
abolished  in  1847.  and  appeals  were  required  to 
be  brought  directly  to  the  state  superintendent; 
and  the  returns  of  the  town  superintendents  were 
to  be  made  to  the  county  clerks.  In  1854,  the 
legislature  created  a  department  of  public  in- 
struction, and  placed  at  its  head  a  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  to  be  elected  by  joint 
ballot  of  the  senate  and  assembly.  In  1856,  the 
office  of  school  commissioner  was  created,  that 
of  town  superintendent  being  abolished  ;  and  the 
supervisors  of  the  towns  were  made  the  financial 
agents,  to  hold  and  pay  out  the  moneys  appor- 
tioned by  the  school  commission  ts  to  the  towns 
and  districts.  The  school-commissioner  districts 
wen;  originally,  and  are  now  nearly,  the  same 
as  the  assembly  districts  ;  but  they  are  not,  like 
the  latter,  required  to  be  reconstructed  after 
each  census. 

Slate  Superintendents. — The  following  is  a  list 
of  those  who  have  served  as  superintendents  of 
common  schools  :  Gideon  Haw  ley,  from  dan.  14., 
1813  until  Feb.  22..  1821  :  William  Esleeck, 
until  April  3.,  1821,  when  the  office  was  abol- 
ished, its  duties  being  performed  by  the  follow- 
ing persons,  holding  the  office  of  secretary  of 
state:  John  Van  Ness  Yates,  from  April.  L821 
until  Feb.,  182(5;  Azariah  < '.  Flagg,  until  Feb., 
L833;  John  A.  Dix,  until  Feb..  1839;  John  C 
Spencer,  until  Oct.,  1841;  when  Mr.  Spencer 
being  called  to  take  a  place  in  the  cabinet  at 
Washington,  the  position  of  superintendent  was 
filled  by  the  deputy,  Samuel   S.  Randall,  until 


Feb.,  1842;  Samuel  Young,  until  Feb.,  1845; 
Nathaniel  S.  Benton,  until  I  >ec.  31 ..  1  s  17;  (  hris- 
topher  .Morgan,  until  Dec.  31.,  L851;  Henry  S. 
Randall,  until  Dec.  31.,  ls."»i>:  and  Flias  \V.  Leav- 
enworth, until  April  8.,  L85  1.  when,  tl ffice  of 

superintendent  of  public  instruction  being  cre- 
ated, Victor  M.  Rice  was  elected,  and  served 
until  April,  1857,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  fol- 
lowing persons:  Henry  11.  Van  Dyck,  until  April 
19..  L861 ;  Emerson  \\ .  Keyes  (acting),  until  Feb. 
l.,1862;  Victor  M.  Rice  (again), until  April.  L868; 
Abram  B.  Weaver,  until  April.  L874  ;  and  Neil 
Gilmour,  the  present  incumbenl  (1876). 

IV.  In  L830,  A.  ( '.  Flagg,  in  his  report,  sug- 
gested the  establishment  oi  district  libraries} 
and.  in  1838.  a  law  was  passed,  providing  for 
this,  and  authorizing  each  district  to  raise  by  tax 
$20  for  the  first  year,  and  $10  for  each  succeed- 
ing year,  for  the  purchase  of  books.  This  was 
increased,  in  1875,  to  $50  a  year.  The  act  of 
1838.  appropriating  the  income  of  the  U.  S. 
deposit  fund,  set  apart  $55,000  ayear  fordistrict 
libraries,  and  required  each  county  to  raise  for 
the  same  purpose  a  sum  equal  to  its  distributive 
share  thereof.  By  an  amendment  passed  in  1875, 
this  is  reduced  to  $50,000.  The  total  number 
of  volumes  in  these  libraries  was  reported  in 
1845  as  1.203,139;  in  1855,  as  1,418,100;  in 
L865,as  1,181,811 ;  and  in  1875,  as  809,141.— 
Ample  means  have  been  provided  for  the  edu- 
cation of  teachers.  Classes  for  the  instruction 
of  common-school  teachers  were  established  by 
the  regents  in  certain  academies,  in  1834.  in 
pursuance  of  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  that 
year  already  referred  to.  The  sum  now  annually 
appropriated  by  the  regents  for  these  classes  is 
$ 1 8,000.  In  1 844,  the  first  state  normal  school 
was  established,  at  Albany,  and  opened  on  the 
Isthof  December,  in  that  year.  In  18(13,  the 
( Iswego  Training  School  was  taken  under  the 
patronage  of  the  state,  and,  by  the  acts  of  1806 
and  1867.  was  constituted  a  state  normal  school. 
By  Chap.  466  of  the  laws  of  1866,  normal  schools 
were  established,  respectively,  at  Brockport, 
Cortland,  Fredonia,  and  Potsdam;  and,  by 
special  acts,  in  1867,  a  normal  school  was 
established  at  Buffalo,  and  another  at  Geneseo, 
the  latter  under  the  title  of  the  Wadsworth 
Normal  and  Training  School. —  Teachers'  in- 
stitutes have  been  an  important  agency  for  the 
improvement  of  common-school  teachers.  The 
first  teachers  institute  in  the  state  was  held  at 
Ithaca,  Tompkins  Co..  April  4.,  1843;  other 
counties  soon  followed,  and.  in  1847.  teachers' 
institutes  were  recognized  by  the  legislature,  an 
appropriation  of  $60  to  each  county  being  made 
for  their  encouragement. — A  compulsory  edu- 
cation laic  was  passed  May  11..  1874,  entitled 
"an  act  to  secure  to  children  the  benefits  of  ele- 
mentary education."  This  law  requires  that  every 
child  between  8  and  14  years  of  age  shall  be  in- 
structed in  spelling,  reading,  writing.  English 
grammar,  and  arithmetic,  at  least  14  weeks  each 
year,  at  a  day  school,  or  at  home,  or  28  weeks  in 
an  evening  school.  All  persons  are  prohibited, 
under  a  penalty   of  $50   fine,   from   employing 


640 


NEW  YORK 


children  of  the  age  mentioned  unless  it  is 
certified  that  such  instruction  "was  driven  the 
previous  year.  This  law  was  amended  in  some 
respects  in  J87G  ;  but  it  is  to  a  great  extent  in- 
operative.— In  I87.r>,  a  law  was  passed  providing 
that  "industrial  or  free-  I'uxl  drawing  shall 
he  included  in  the  course  of  study  in  each  of  the 
normal  schools;  shall  be  taught  in.  at  least,  one 
department  of  the  schools  under  the  charge  of 
the  board  of  education  in  each  city,  in  each  union 
free  school,  and  in  each  free-school  district  in- 
corporated by  special  act  of  the  legislature." — 
The  general  school  law  was  also  amended  so  that 
state  certificates  should  be  granted  by  the  super- 
intendent only  on  examination,  either  by  him- 
self or  by  proper  persons  appointed  by  him.  The 
first  examination  under  this  law  was  held  at 
Albany,  Dec.  16.,  L875;  nine  candidates  were  ex- 
amined, and  four  certificates  awarded. 

Educational  System. — The  officers  having 
charge  of  the  common  schools  are  the  super- 
intendent of  pultlir  instruction,,  the  school  com- 
missioners, and  tin-  i/is/riff  trustees.  The  super- 
intendent is  elected  for  three  years  on  joint  bal- 
lot of  both  blanches  of  the  legislature.  lie  has 
the  general  supervision  of  all  the  schools  in  the 
state;  apportions  the  school  money,  superintends 
the  apportionment  by  the  commissioners,  and 
sees  that  it  is  paid  by  the  supervisors  and  ex- 
pended by  the  trustees  according  to  law.  He 
hears  and  decides  all  appeals  regarding  school 
matters,  and  his  decision  is  final,  lie  is  charged 
with  the  control  and  management  of  teachers' 
institutes,  and  makes  rules  concerning  district 
libraries.  lb:  makes  appointment  of  state  pupils 
tn  the  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the 
blind,  and  has  the  supervision  of  those  institu- 
tions. He  has  the  charge  of  all  the  Indian 
schools  in  the  state,  and  employs  agents  to  super- 
intend them.  He  is,  ex  officio,  a  regent  of  the 
university,  a  trustee  of  the  asylum  tor  idiots,  and 
of  the  Cornell  University.  He  receives  and 
compiles  reports  from  all  the  school-districts, 
and  makes  an  annual  report  to  the  legislature. 
The  school  commissioners  are  elected  for  the 
term  of  three  years  by  the  people  of  their  several 
districts.  It  is  their  duty  to  see  that  the  bound- 
aries of  districts  are  correctly  described  ;  to  visit 
and  examine  the  schools;  to  advise  with  ami 
counsel  the  trustees  ;  to  look  after  the  condition 
of  the  school-houses,  and  condemn  .such  as  are 
unfit  for  use  ;  to  recommend  studies  and  text- 
books; to  examine  and  license  teachers;  to 
examine  charges  against  teaehers.  and.  on  suffi- 
cient proof,  to  annul  their  certificates;  and,  when 
required  by  the  superintendent,  to  take  and  re- 
port testimony  in  eases  of  appeal. 

District  trustees,  one  or  three  in  each  district. 
are  elected  by  the  inhabitants.  The  term  of 
Office  of  a  sole  trustee  is  one  year;  of   each   of  a 

board  of  three  trustees,  three  years,  one  being 
elected  annually.  The  powers  and  duties  of 
these  officers  .ire,  to  make  out  tax  lists  and  war- 
rants; to  purchase  or  lease  sites,  to  build  or 
hire   school  houses,   and    to    insure  and    have  the 

custody  of  all  dist liet  property;  to  employ  and 


pay  teachers;  and  to  report  annually  to  the  school 
commissioner  school  statistics  and  such  other  in- 
formation as  may  be  required. — The  school  dis- 
trict is  the  smallest  territorial  subdivision  of  the 
state.      It  is  formed  by  the  school  commissioner, 
who  makes  an  order  defining  its  boundaries,  and 
files  it  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  town  in 
which  the  district  is  situated.     He  may  change 
the   limits   of  districts   by   a  similar  order.  A 
joint  district  is  one  that  lies  partly  in  two  or 
more  counties.     Union  free-school  districts  are 
formed  under  the  law  of   1853,  authorizing  the 
inhabitants   to   organize   a  school  in  a  district 
comprising  more  territory  and  population,  and 
possessing  greater  powers,  than  an  ordinary  dis- 
trict.    About  100  districts  have  been  formed  by 
acts  of  the  legislature  granting  special  powers 
and  privileges.     The  inhabitants,  at  the  annual 
district   meeting,  have  power  to  elect  a  chair- 
man,  one   or  three  trustees,  a  district  clerk,  a 
collector,  and  a  librarian;  to  designate  a  site 
for  a  school-house,  to  vote  taxes  to  pay  for  a 
site,  to  build  and  repair  school-houses,  and  to 
furnish  them  with  fuel  and   appendages,  also  to 
make  up  deficiencies  for  teachers'  wages.    They 
may  also  vote  taxes,  not  exceeding  $25,  for  ap- 
paratus and  text-books, £50  fora  library,  S2;~>  for 
contingent  expenses,  and  any  sum  necessary  to 
insure  the  district  property,  and  to  pay  the  costs 
and  reasonable  expenses  of  suits  at  law  in  which 
the  district  may    he    interested.     The  librarian 
serves  one   year,  and   has  charge  of  the  district 
library.     The  collector  serves  for  a  year,  giving 
a  bond  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duty  in 
collecting  the  moneys  due  on  tax  lists,  and  hold- 
ing  them    subject   to   the  order  of  the  trustees. 
The  clerk  holds  office  for  one  year.  It  is  his  duty 
tokeepa  record  of  the  district  meetings,  to  attend 
meetings  of  trustees,  and  keep  a  record  of  pro* 
(•ceilings;  to   notify    persons  elected  as   district 
officers:  to  report  to   the   town  clerk  the  names 
and    post-office   address   of   district  officers;  to 
give  trustees  notice  of  every  resignation  accepted 
by  the  supervisor  ;  and  to  keep  and  preserve  all 
records,    books,   and   papers   belonging   to   the 
office. — The  town  clerk  is  required  to  keep  in 
his  office  all  books,  maps,  papers, and  records  re- 
lating to   the  schools;  to  record  the  certificate 
of  apportionment  of  school  moneys,  and  to  notify 
trustees   of  such    certificate;    to   obtain    from 
trustees   their    annual    report;    to    furnish   the 
Commissioner  with  the  names  and  post-office  ad- 
dress of  all  district  officers;   to  distribute  books 
and  blanks   to  the   trustees;  to  file  and  record 
the  final  accounts   of  supervisors  :   to  preserve 
the  supervisor's  bond  ;  to  file  and  keep  the  de- 
scription  of    district    boundaries;   and.    when 
called    upon,    to    take   pari    in    the    formation 
or  alteration    of    a   school  district.     The  school 
moneys  apportioned    to   the  several    towns   are 
paid  by  the  county  treasurer  to  the  supervisor, 
who  gives  a  bond,  with  two  sureties,   for  double 

the  amount  of  ney  set  apart  to  the    town,  for 

the  safe-keeping,  disbursement,  and  accounting 
for.  of  SUCh  moneys,  and  all  ot  her  school  inoiic\- 
that  may  come  into  his  hands.    The  school  nion- 


NEW  FORE 


<;n 


apportioned  to  a  county,  or  to  a  city,  are  paid 
by  the  state  treasurer  on  the  warrant  of  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction;  and  the 
treasurer's  check  in  payment  must  be  counter- 
signed by  the  superintendent.  All  children  in 
the  district  between  the  ages  of  5  and  2L  years, 
may  attend  school ;  and  non-residents  may  also 
attend  it  on  such  terms  as  the  trustees  may  pre- 
scribe. None  but  a  qualified  teacher  can  receive 
public  money,  or  money  raised  by  tax,  in  pay- 
ment of  his  wages.  A  qualified  teacher  is  one 
who  holds  a  state  normal  school  diploma,  a  cer- 
tiorate from  the  superintendent,  from  a  school 
commissioner,  or  from  a  city  or  village  officer 
empowered  to  grant  licenses. — The  great  major- 
ity of  the  schools  in  the  rural  districts  employ 
but  a  single  teacher,  and  are  not  graded  ;  but 
the  pupils  are  generally  so  arranged  in  classes  as 
in  part  to  compensate  for  this.  In  the  larger 
villages,  where  most  of  the  "union  free  schools," 
and  the  -free  schools"  by  special  acts,  are  found, 
the  schools  are  more  or  less  accurately  graded, 
and  the  system  culminates  in  academical  or 
high-school  departments.  In  the  cities,  each  of 
which,  though  under  the  general  law,  has  special 
provisions  of  law  applicable  to  its  own  schools, 
the  schools  are  well  graded,  and  generally,  with 
the  exception  of  Brooklyn  and  New  York,  have 
at  their  head  a  high  school.  The  system  in 
Brooklyn,  rinds  its  culmination  in  the  academ- 
ical grades  of  its  grammar  schools;  and,  in  New 
York,  in  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
connected  with  which  there  is  an  introductory 
department,  which  performs  the  office  of  a  high 
school,  a  business  or  commercial  school,  and  a 
preparatory  school.  This  department  is  under 
the  supervision  and  management  of  a  special 
principal. 

Secondary  and  superior  instruction  is  under 
the  control  and  supervision  of  the  regents,  of  the 
university  who  were  originally  incorporated 
May  1.,  1784;  and  were  re-organized  and  re- 
incorporated by  the  act  of  April  13.,  1787  ;  with 
power  to  incorporate  colleges  and  academies ;  to 
appoint  a  president  for  any  college,  or  a  prin- 
cipal for  any  academy,  in  case  the  trustees 
should  leave  the  office  vacant  for  a  year  ;  to 
hold  property  to  the  amount  of  the  annual  in- 
come of  40,001)  bushels  of  wheat ;  and  to  confer 
such  degrees,  above  that  of  Master  of  Arts,  as 
are  granted  by  any  college  or  university  in  Eu- 
rope. They  were  also  authorized  and  required 
to  visit  and  inspect  all  academies  and  colleges 
established  or  to  be  established  ;  to  inquire  into 
the  system  of  education  and  discipline  therein, 
and  make  an  annual  report  thereof  to  the  legis- 
lature: all  of  which  powers  and  duties  still  re- 
main. The  board  as  re-organized,  consisted  of 
the  governor  and  lieutenant-governor,  ex  officio, 
and  19  other  persons  named  in  the  act.  In 
1842,  the  secretary  of  state,  and  in  11S54,  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  were  made 
regents,  ex  officio,  making  the  number  of  the 
board,  as  at  present  constituted,  2.'5.  Vacancies, 
except  in  case  of  ex  officio  members,  are  filled 
by  the  legislature;  and  the  term  of  office,  unless 
41 


forfeited,  is  for  life.    The  officers  of  the  board 

arc.  a  chancellor,  a  vice-chancellor,  a  secretary, 
and  an  assistant  secretary.  The  annual  meeting 
is  fixed  by  statute,  and  is  held  in  the  senate 
chamlier  at  Albany,  on  the  evening  of  the  second 
Thursday  of  January  of  each  year.  Other  meet- 
ings arc  held  at  such  time  and  place  as  the 
chancellor  may  appoint.  Six  members  consti- 
tute a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business. 
They  serve  without  salary.  Other  duties  have, 
from  time  to  time,  been  imposed  upon  them  by 
law.  Tn  1844,  they  were  made  trustees  of  the 
state  library:  and,  in  the  same  year,  in  con- 
junction with  the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, were  placed  in  charge  of  the  .State 
Normal  School  at  Albany.  In  1 845,  they  were 
made  trustees  of  the  state  cabinet,  and,  in  1856, 
were  charged  with  what  remained  of  the  publi- 
cation of  the  colonial  history  of  the  state.  In 
1855,  they  were  authorized  to  prescribe  a  course 
of  study  for  teachers'  classes  in  academies ;  and 
have  prescribed  the  following :  reading  and 
orthography  ;  writing  ;  arithmetic,  intellectual 
and  written ;  English  grammar;  and  geography. 
The  theory  and  practice  of  teaching  must  be 
combined  with  these  studies.  When  any  of  the 
above  subjects  have  been  thoroughly  mastered 
one  or  more  of  the  following  may  be  pursue.:: 
algebra,  geography,  natural  histc  •  iturai  phi 
losophy,  history  of  the  United  States,  scier  e 
of  government,  and  physiology.  In  1853,  the 
regents  were  required  to  establish  general  ml  - 
for  the  incorporation  of  academies,  colleges,  and 
universities,  in  conformity  with  existing  laws. 
Academies,  colleges,  and  universities  are  corpo- 
rations, under  the  management  of  trustees,  who 
usually  fill  all  vacancies  occurring  in  their  num- 
ber. They  hold  the  property,  appoint  the  pro- 
fessors and  instructors,  and,  in  the  absence  of 
special  agreement,  dismiss  them  at  pleasure. 

A\'liile  its  general  excellence  is  admitted,  much 
dissatisfaction  has  been  expressed  with  the  double 
feature  of  this  educational  system,  as  shown  in 
the  existence  of  the  office  of  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  and  of  the  board  of  regents  ; 
and  efforts  have  been  made  to  give  to  it  a  unitary 
character  ;  but  thus  far  without  success.  A  bill 
making  the  regents  subordinate  to  the  superin- 
tendent and  requiring  them  to  report  to  him, 
passed  both  houses  of  the  legislature  in  1870, 
but  was  vetoed  by  the  governor.  Since  then, 
each  of  the  parties  in  interest  has  tried,  through 
the  aid  of  the  law-making  power,  to  secure  for 
itself  the  sole  supervision  of  education ;  and 
each  has  expressed,  by  these  acts,  the  conviction 
that  the  welfare  of  the  schools  demands  a  uui- 
tary  system. 

Financial. — The  schools  derive  their  support 
from  the  following  sources:  (1)  The  income  of  the 
common-school  fund,  which,  in  1875,  amounted 
to  about  S 1  S0.O00.  (2)  The  amount  the  legislature 
may  annually  set  apart  from  the  income  of  the 
United  States  deposit  fund.  This  has  been  for 
many  years  $165,000.  (3)  The  state  tax  of  one 
and  one-fourth  of  a  mill  on  the  dollar.  (4)  District, 
village,  and  city  taxation.    (5)  The  income  from 


042 


NEW   YORK 


local  funds,  mainly  gospel  and  school  lands. — 
The  mode  of  distribution  is  as  follows:  The 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  after  ascer- 
taining the  amount  to  be  apportioned,  sets  apart, 
from  the  income  of  the  I  nited  States  deposit 
fund,  (1)  The  amount  necessary  to  pay  the 
salaries  of  the  school  commissioners;  (2)  to  each 
city  having  a  superintendent  of  common  schools, 
<>r  a  clerk  of  the  board  of  education  performing 
the  duty  of  superintendent,  the  .sum  of  eight 
hundred  dollars,  and  in  case  any  city  is  entitled 
to  more  than  one  member  of  assembly,  live  hun- 
dred dollars  for  each  additional  member,  for  the 
support  of  the  common  schools  of  the  city; 
(3)  for  library  moneys,  such  sums  as  the  legis- 
lature shall  appropriate.  (4)  He  then  sets  apart 
from  the  free-school  fund,  four  thousand  dollars 
for  a  contingent  fund.  (5)  lie  then  sets  apart 
for  the  support  of  Indian  schools  an  equitable 
sum,  the  same,  in  proportion  to  their  numbers, 
as  is  apportioned  to  schools  for  white  children. 
(6)  He  ascertains  the  total  so  apportioned,  and 
deducts  it  from  the  total  school  moneys  ap- 
propriated, and  divides  the  remainder  into  two 
parts,  one  equal  to  one-third  thereof,  and  the 
other  to  two-thirds.  (7)  The  one-third  of  the 
money  is  divided  by  the  whole  number  of  quali- 
fied teachers  in  the  state,  employed  for  twenty- 
eight  weeks  or  more  during  the  school  year,  to 
ascertain  the  ••district  quota:"  and  is  distributed 
to  the  districts,  one  quota  for  each  qualified 
her  en i ployed  for  the  required  time.  (8)  Be 
apportions  the  remaining  two-thirds,  and  also 
the  library  money,  among  the  counties  according 
to  their  population,  as  shown  by  the  last  state 
or  United  States  census,  excluding  Indians.  In 
counties  where  there  are  cities,  separate  appor- 
tionments are  made,  one  to  the  city,  and  one  to 
the  rest  of  the  county.  (9)  He  apportions  an 
equitable  sum  for  three  separate  neighborhoods 
from  the  contingent  fund.  He  certifies  to  the 
enmity  clerk,  county  treasurer,  and  school  com- 
missioners, and  to  city  chamberlains  or  t  reasurors 
the  amount  apportioned  to  each  county  and  city. 
The  apportionment  is  payable  on  the  first  day 
of  April  next  after  it  is  made. — The  school 
commissioners  having  received  such  certificate, 
meet  at  the  court-house  in  their  respective  conn- 
on  the  third  Tuesday  in  March,  and.  ap- 
portion   the    money   to   the  districts.      (l|    They 

apart  to  each  district  the  "district  quotas 
allowed  by  the  state  superintendent.  (2)  They 
set  apart  any  money  assigned  to  districts  as 
equitable  allowances.  (3)  They  divide  the  re- 
mainder into  two  equal  parts;  one  of  which 
they  apportion  to  the   districts    in  proportion  to 

the  children  of  school  age  residing  in  each  ;  and 
the  other, to  the  districts  according  to  the  average 
daily  attendance  of  residenl  pupils.  (4)  They 
apportion  the  library  money  according  to  the 

number  of  residenl  children  of  school  age.  They 
Bign  their  apportionment  in  duplicate,  send  one 

•\  to  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 

and  deliver  the  other  to  the  county  treasurer. 
They  also  certify  to  each  supervisor  the  amount 
apportioned   to  each  district   in  his  town,  desig- 


nating the  library  money,  and  that  for  teachers* 
wages. 

The  capital  of  the  common-school  fund  Sept. 
30.,  1875  amounted  to  S3,080,107.68,  consisting 
of  the  following  items  : 

Bonds  for  lands $237.4^>7 

Bonds  fur  loans 150,128.61 

Loan  ol   lMo 49,326.00 

Bank  stocks 50,000.00 

Comptroller's  bonds 36,000.00 

State  stock 1,165,067.24 

Oswego  city  bonds ln.1110,00 

Money  in  the  treasury 1,381,706.96 

The  income  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30.,  1875 
was  $179,303.66.  The  free-school  fund,  or 
income  derived  from  l\  mill  school  tax  on 
SL\. '567,780,102 — equalized  valuation  of  the  real 
and  personal  property  in  the  state,  amounted  to 
S'J.'.i.m. TIT,. 1  3.  The  capital  of  the  U.  S.  deposit 
fund  amounted  to  $4,014,520.71,  consisting  of 
the  following : 

Mortgages  for   loans,    and    invested    in 

county   bonds $3,430,407.  !»3 

State   stocks 315,239.44 

I'.  s.  :,  per  cent  stocks,  lssl 50,000.00 

Money  in  the  treasury 12,873.34 

The  revenue  from  which,  in  1875,  was  §236.000, 
as  follows  : 

Sel  apart  by  statute  for  common  schools. ..  .$105,000 

For  dividends  to  academies '2s, nun 

for  addition  to  capital  of  common-school  fund     25,000 
For  teachers'  classes  m  academies 18,000 

The  state  has  provided  no  funds  for  the  sup- 
port of  colleges.  For  aid  to  academies,  a  fund 
known  as  the  literature  fund,  was  derived  from 
the  sale  of  certain  tracts  of  land  reserved  for 
literature,  and  was  largely  increased  by  four 
lotteries,  authorized  in  1801,  to  raise  $100,000 
for  the  joint  benefit  of  the  academies  and  com- 
mon schools. 

The  capital  of  this  fund  consists  of 

1.     State  stocks  : — 7  pei-  cent    $57,000.00 

"        "  6  per  cent 165,1 .00 

"        "  6  per  cent 20,347.00 

■_'.    Comptroller's  bond  payable  on  demand    25,330.94 
3.    One  hundred  shares  in  the  Albany  In- 
surance Company 4.000.0O 

$271,677.94 
The  income  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30.,  1875. 
was  $17,979,49. 

School  Statistics. — The  following  are  the  chief 
items  of  statistics  of  the  common  schools  for  the 
year  ending  Sept.  30.,  L875  : 

Number  of  <li<trii'ts 11,291 

Number  of  children  of  school  age,  (5—21  ), 

cities,   728,948 
tow  08,  854.116 

Total 1,683,064 

Xumlier  of  children  enrolled  in  the 
common  schools,  cities,    445,652 

t.nvns  613,686 

Tnt.,1 1,059,238 

Average  daily  attendance,      cities,  226,980 

towns,  304.K55 

Total 631,836 

Number  of  male  teachers,      cities,  612 

towns.      6,816 

Total 7,4M 

Number  of  female  teachers,  cities.       6,724 

towns,    16.861 
Total - 


NEW    YORK 


Mil 


Total  number  of  teachers  in  the  state 30,013 

Number  of  teachers  employed  at  the  same 

time  for  28  weeks  or  more 19, 073 

Number  of  \  olumes  in  districl  libraries 809,141 

Whole  Dumber  of  school-houses 11 ,7  s-. 

Whole  number  ol  pupils  taught,  in 

Common  schools 1,059,238 

Normal  schools 6,348 

Academies 29, hm: 

Colleges 2,921 

Private  schools 134,644 

Law  schools 663 

Medical  schools 1,472 

Total 1.235,269 

The  following  statistics  of  Indian  schools  were 
reported  in  1875  : 

Number  of  school-distriots 2i> 

Number  of  teachers,  whites T.\ 

"      "         "  Indians 32 

Total 55 

Number  of  children  of  school  age Ij663 

Nomber  taught  during  some  part  of  the  year        1,114 

Average  daily  attendance 559 

Expenditures  for  Indian  schools $9,945.86 

The  school  moneys  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
Sept.  30.,  18TG,  were  from  the  following  sources: 

Common-school  fund $170,000 

U.  8.  deposit  fund 165,000 

State  school  tax 2,712,000 


Total $3,047,000 

The  apportionment  for  1876  was  as  follows  : 

For  salaries  of  school  coimnis-  .... 

sioners $89,000.00 

For  supervision  in  cities 30,200:00 

For  libraries 50,000.00 

For  contingent  fund,  including 
>s:i.nl  tor  separate  neighbor- 
hoods       2,583.13 

For  Indian  schools 3,370.99 

For  district   quotas 957,081.96 

For  pupil  and  average  attend- 
ance quotas. 1,914,163.92 


Total $3,047,000.00 

Aggregate  expenditures  for  school  purposes, 

cities $6,292,737.30 

towns .5, 166,616.13 


Total $11,459,353.43 

Normal  Instruction. — The  state  normal  school 
at  Albany  is  under  the  joint  supervision  and 
management  of  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  and  the  regents  of  the  university, 
who  arrange  the  studies,  fix  the  number  and 
compensation  of  teachers,  prescribe  the  condi- 
tions on  which  pupils  shall  be  received  from 
each  county,  giving  to-each  its  proportion  accord- 
ing to  population.  They  appoint  an  executive 
committee  of  five  persons,  one  of  whom  is  the 
.superintendent,  who  is  also  the  chairman  for  the 
management  of  the  school  under  the  prescribed 
regulations.  The  supervision  anil  control  of  the 
other  normal  schools  are  exercised  by  the  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  who  appoints 
local  boards  for  their  management.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  statement  of  the  general  statistics  of  the 
normal  schools  for  1875  : 

Number  of  normal  schools,  state 8 

"      "  "  "        citv(\-.Y.  Normal 

College) ■  1 

Total 9 


Number  of  teachersin  state  normal  schools 112 

No,  of  pupils,  including  those  in  training  depts. <  6,348 
No.  of  students,  in  normal  departments. .  .2,965 
in  N.Y.  Normal  College.  .1,310 

Total 4,265 

No.  of  graduates,  state  normal  schools 256 

N.  Y.  .Normal  College 168 

Total 424 

Cost  of  state  normal  schools $163,892.03 

N.  Y.  Normal  College 88,873.23 

The  state  normal  school  at  Albany,   in  1^75, 
bad  an  attendance  of    1 .'!.'!  students,  representing 

tiftv  counties  of  the  state;  the  Dumber  of  grad- 
uates was,  the  liist  term,  27;  the  second  term,  46; 
total,  73,  of  whom  '2.'!  were  males,  and  50  females. 
A  school  of  about  LOO  pupils,  principally  from 
the  city  of  Albany,  furnishes  a  means  of  practice 
in  teaching  to  the  students  of  the  normal  school. 
The  number  of  instructors  in  the  normal  school 
was  14. — The  normal  school  at  Broekport  had 
an  enrollment  of  886  :  normal  department,  325; 
academic  department,  221  ;  intermediate  and 
primary  departments,  340.  The  average  attend- 
ance was  469,  of  whom  170  belonged  to  the 
normal  department.  The  number  of  graduates 
was  14. — In  the  normal  school  at  Buffalo,  the 
average  attendance  was  180,  out  of  an  en- 
rollment of  314;  academic  students,  l(i.  The 
number  of  graduates  was  75. — In  the  normal 
school  at  Cortland,  the  enrollment  was  807, — 
in  the  normal  department,  370  ;  training  school, 
437.  The  average  attendance  was.  respectively, 
175!  and  328. — In  the  normal  school  at  Fredonia, 
the  enrollment  was  805, — in  the  normal  depart- 
ment, 230  ;  academic,  185;  senior,  116;  junior 
and  primary,  274  ;  the  average  attendance  was, 
respectively,  147,189,  103,  and  188  ;  total,  627.— 
In  the  normal  school  at  Geneseo,  the  enrollment 
was  902, — in  the  normal  department,  34  7; 
academic,  intermediate,  and  primary,  555.  The 
number  of  graduates  was  24.  The  normal  and 
training  school  at  Oswego  had  13  instructors; 
an  enrollment  of  460  pupils,  and  59  graduates, — ■ 
II  males  and  53  females. — In  the  normal  school 
at  Potsdam,  the  enrollment  was  776,— normal 
department.  362;  academic,  163;  primary  and 
intermediate,  251.  The  average  attendance  was, 
respectively,  L83,  38,  and  149.  The  number  of 
instructors  was  15.  In  the  Normal  College  of 
the  city  of  New  York,  the  number  of  students 
mi  register  was  1,310,  exclusive  of  the  training 
school;  and  the  average  attendance  was  1,071. 
The  Dumber  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  training 
department  was  803;  average  attendance,  761. 
The  Dumber  Of  instructors  in  the  normal  college 
was.'!  I:  iii  the  training  school,  18.—  Teachers' 
institutes  are  held  for  one  or  two  weeks  (in  the 
majority  of  the  counties,  for  two  weeks),  under 
the  instruction  of  persons  employed  by  the  state- 
superintendent.  The  following  statistics  of  in- 
stitutes are  reported  for  1875  : — 
Number  ol  counties  in  which  institutes  were  held.  .58 

Number  id'  institutes 58: 

No.  of  teachers  in  attendance,  males       ::.<;:;s 

females,  7.295 

Total 10,933: 

Average  number  from  each  county .  _,Jss 

Average  expense  per  cuuuty $279.41 


<;n 


NEW    YORK 


In  1875, the  number  of  academics  which  main- 
tained teachers'  classes  was  95,  at  which  the  at- 
tendance  was  (ill)  males  and  1,275  females. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — 
The  convention  journals  of  the  various  dioceses 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  for  L875, 
excepting  the  dioceses  of  New  York  and  Central 
New  Fork,  state  the  numherof  schools,  church 
and  parochial,  as  16,  with  804  pupils;  Sadlier's 
Catholic  Directory  for  187b\  gives  duln  from 
which  arc  derived  the  following  :  the  number  of 
schools,  select  and  parochial,  was  2'J'2  ;  the  num- 
ber of  pupils,  9  L,4o0. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  whole  number 
of  academies  in  the  state  reporting  to  regents  is 
'1'i'l,  of  which  more  than  one-half  are  connected 
with,  and  form  a  part  of,  the  free-School  systems 
of  their  respective  localities.  This  number  in- 
creases annually,  under  a  law  of  1864,  which 
authorizes  the  trustees  of  any  academy,  by  a 
majority  vote,  to  surrender  their  property  to 
the  board  of  education  of  any  union  free-school 
district  in  the  same  place,  and  thus  pass  out  of 
existence  as  a  corporation.  The  academies  still 
exercising  their  corporate  rights  depend  mainly 
upon  tuition  tees  for  their  support.  In  1870, 
examinations  were  instituted  by  the  regents  to 
test  the  attainments  and  determine  the  classifi- 
cation of  academic  pupils.  Printed  lists  of 
questions  are  furnished  on  English  grammar, 
geography,  and  arithmetic,  and  a  list  of  loo 
words  to  be  spelled.  Certificates  are  issued  to 
those  who  pass  ther examination  successfully. 

The  following  items  of  statistics  are  for  the 
year  L875  : 

.Number  of  academies  and  schools  reporting. .         '2T> 

\ umber  of  teachers  employed 1,151 

Whole  number  of  scholars 31,463 

Average  attendance  by  terms '2o,7  L2 

Number  of  academic  scholars 8,012 

A  venire  aire  of  scholars 17.3  yrs. 

Receipts,  from  tuition $431,660 

other  sources 754,925 

Total $1,180  ,;W. 

Expenditures,  for  salaries $788,2 

other  purposes. .  .     372,599 

Total $1,160,844 

Value  of  academic  property $6*492,050 

At  the  regents' examination   in  L873 — 4,  the 

number  of  candidates  examined  was  as  follows  : 

In  aritlim.  tic,  1.8,856  ;  passed,  3,947 

eography,  L7.376;           "  8,649 

"  grammar,  17,330;           "  7,300 

"  spelling,  17,182;           "  8,830 

Of  private  institutions  for  secondary  instruc- 
tion, .'to  for  boys.  17  tor  girls,  and  121  for  both, 
reported  to  the  0".  S.  Bureau  of  Kdueation,  in 
L874,  a  total  <.f  1,100  teachers,  with  25,620  pu- 
pils; of  whom  1.4,72]  were  represented  as  pur- 
suing English  studio.  3,131,  classical  studies. 
and  3,791,  scientific  studies.  There  are  also 
many  preparatory  schools,  included  in  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  introductory  department 
of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  Fork,  These 
chools  contain,  in  the  aggregate,  upward  of 
6,000  pupils.  Business  colleges  are  also  numer- 
ous, Lo  making  return,  in  L875,  to  the  U.  S. 
Bureau,  of  72  teachers  and  2,919  pupils.  Besides 


these  institutions,  several  of  the  cities — Albany. 
Buffalo,  Oswego,  Rochester,  Syracuse,  Troy.Utica. 
etc, — support  free  academies  or  high  schools. 

Superior  Instruction.— The  following  is  a  list 
of  the  principal  colleges  and  universities. 

[Tho.~e  exclusively  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  are  printed  hi  italics;  those  in  small  caps 
admit  both  Bexes.] 


NAME 

Location 

Date 
of 

Denom- 

Charter 

ination 

Aliukd  T'niykusitt 

Alfred  Centre. . 

1857 

S.  D.  B. 

Brooklyn  C<  llegiate 
and  Polvt.  Inst.. . 

Brooklyn 

1854 

Non-sect. 

Buffalo 

1870 
1866 

R.  C. 

1  oU.of  Cityof  N.  V. 

Non-sect. 

Coll  of  St.lr.Xavier. 

New  York 

1861 

R.  C. 

Columbia  College.. . 

IT.".* 

Non-sect. 

COBKELL  l'M\  HMiv 

1865 

Non-sect. 

Elmira  /•'•  mni,  College 
Hamilton  College.. . 

Elmira 

1866 

1812 

Presb. 

Clinton 

1'ivsb. 

Hobart  College 

1834 

P.  Epis. 

Ingham   iiiii-  rsity  . . 
Madison  University. 

1 .1-  Roy 

1857 

Presb. 

1846 

Bap. 

Manhattan  College.. 

1868 

R.  C. 

St.Bonaventun  Coll, 

1ST.". 

R.  C. 

st .  Ji  ibn's  College . . 

1846 

R.  C. 

St .  Joseph's  Coll. . . 

Buffalo 

1861 

R.  C. 

St  LiAwukv  i    l 

i  lauton 

1856 
I860 

Univ. 

si .  Stephen's  Coll. 

Anaudale 

P.  Epis. 

Syracuse  I'mv 

Syracuse ; 

1870 

M.  Epis. 

i    University  I 
Union  College     \ 

Albany  and      ) 
Schenectady    J 

1795 

Non-sect. 

Univ.  of  N.Y.  City 

1831 

Non-sect. 

Univ.  of  Rochester. 

1846 

Bap. 

1861 

Non-sect. 

Wells  College 

1870 

N'on  sect. 

For  further  information  in  regard  to  these  in- 
stitutions, see  their  respective  titles. 

Scientific  and  Professional  Instruction. — 
I  'ndcr  this  head,  arc  included  Tschoolsof  science. 
having,  in  the  aggregate,  84  instructors  and  2,3]  1 
students;  11  medical  Bchools, with  l!)(J  instruct" 
ors,  and  2,206  Btudents;  4  schools  of  law.  with 
L 5  instructors  and  f)89  students;  and  12  theo- 
logical schools,  with  68  intructors  and  652 
students.  The  following  tables  contain  lists  of 
i hese  several  institutions: 

Medical  Schools. 


NAME 


\\i-„|N'.'-of  No.  of 

Location      found-1  ,  in\       stu- 

,    ed    fm,ct-|  dents 
ors 


in  i   1'liys.  h  Surf,'. 

of  City  of  New  fork..  Now  York 
College  of  Pharmacy  ol 

City  of  New  York New  York 

Medical  Depl  ol  I  niver- 

sity  of  City  of  N.Y...  New  Y'ork 
Albany  '!  College 

of  Union  l  Diversity..  Albany 
.Mean.,]  Dept.ol  theUni- 

\,  i>it\  oi  Buffalo —  Buffalo 
Long  [eland Coll iHoe 

pital Brooklyn 

Homoeopathic  Med.  Coll, 

of  the  state  of  N.  Y...  New  York 
Belle vin    Hospital  Aba 

iea!  College New  Y'ork 

NewYork  Med.  Coll.  and 

Hospital  lor  Women.  .  New  York 
New   York    College   ol 

Dentistry New  York 

Eclectic  Medical  College  New  York 
New    York     Vroe     Med. 

I.  tor  Women New  York 

New    York      College      of 

taSBthesia New  Y'ork 

College  of  Physicians  \ 

Surg.,  Syracuse  Univ.  Syracuse 


1807 

1831 

1837 

1839 

1846 

1858 

1860 

1861 

1863 

18G5 
1865 

1871 

1873 

1870 


24 

5 

21 

19 

9 

22 

19 

19 

15 

8 
10 

13 


387 

200 

396 

123 

103 

117 

107 

606 

22 

62 
80 

47 


15 


66 


NEW    rOEK 


645 


S(  iiools  of  Science. 


NAME 


Colli  rricultnre 

3iul  Mechanic  Arts. 
rnell  Qniversil 

Dept.  of  Science,  Univ. 
o£  City  of  New  York. 

Engineering  School,  Un- 
ion College 

Rensselaer  Polytechnic 

Institute 

oolol  Mines,  Colum- 
bia College 

Us   of  Science  and 

Art.  Cooper  Institute 

U.  S.  Military  Academy. 


Location 

When 
found- 
ed 

No.  of 

in- 
struct- 
ors 

Ithaca 

1S65 

18 

New  York 

1831 

2 

Schenectady 

1795 

2 

Troy   . 

1826 

12 

New  York 

1864 

16 

New  York 
West  Point 

1859 
1802 

25 
9 

stu- 
dents 


206 

15 

33 

181 

162 

1,436 
278 


Law  Schools. 


NAME 

Location 

When 
found- 
ed 

No.  of 

in- 
struct- 
ors 

No.  of 
stu- 
dents 

Albany  Law  School,  Un- 
ion University 

Columbia  College,   Law 
School 

Albany 
New  York 
New  York 
Clinton 

1851 
1858 
1831 

5 
4 

5 

1 

109 
438 

Department  of  Law, Uni- 
versity, City  of  N.  Y. 
Law  School  of  Hamilton 

32 
10 

Theological  Schools. 


When 

Religious 

NAME 

Location 

found- 

denomina- 

ed 

tion 

Delancev  Divinity  School 

Geneva 

P.  Epis. 

General  Theol,    Bern,  of 

Prot.  Episcopal  Church 

New  York 

1817 

P.  Epis. 

Hamilton    Theol.    Sem., 

Madison  University. . . 

Hamilton 

1820 

Bap. 

Hartwiik 

1816 

Luth. 

Theological  Dept.,   Mar- 

tin Luther  College. . . . 

Buffalo 

1853 

Ger.Luth. 

Newburgh      Theological 

Newburgh 

1836 

Ass.R.  Pr. 

Rochester      Theological 

Semiuarv 

Rochester 

1850 

Bap. 

St.    Joseph's    Provincial 

Troy 

1864 

R.  C. 

Seminary  of  our  Lady  of 

Susp.  Bridge 

1863 

R.  C. 

Auburn  Theological  Sem- 

Auburn 

1820 

Presb. 

Theological      Dept..    St. 

Lawrence  University. . 

Canton 

1858 

Univ. 

Union  Theological  Sem- 

inary  

New  York 

1836 

Presb. 

The  New  York  Nautical  School,  under  the 
managment  of  the  board  of  education  of  the 
city  of  Xew  York,  was  established  for  the  pur- 
pose of  educating  seamen  for  the  mercantile 
marine,  and  occupies,  in  conformity  with  an  act 
of  Congress,  passed  June  2.,  1874,  the  U.  S. 
ship  St.  Mary's  in  X.  Y.  harbor.  In  1875,  the 
whole  number  taughl  was  18.") ;  the  average  at- 
lance,  97.  This  institution  is  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  The  first  class,  consisting  of  60  pu- 
pils, graduated  in  November,  L876. 

Special  Instruction. — There  arc  4  institutions 
for  the  education  of  deaf-mutes  :  (1)  The  X.  V. 
Institution  for  the  Instruction  of  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  incorporated  in  L817, 
and  opened  in  1818  ;  (2)  The  N.  V.  Institution 
for  the  Improved  Instruction  of  I  leaf- Mutes,  in 
Xew  York,   established  in   1870;   (3)   the   Cou- 


teulx  St.  Mary's  Institution  for  the  improved 
instruction  of  Deaf-Mutes,  in  Buffalo, recognized 
by  the  state  in  L872;  and  it)  the  Central  New 
YTork  Institution  for  Deaf-Mutes,  in  Home,  in- 
corporated and  organized  in  L875. 

Any  jiatent  having  a  deaf  and  dumb  child 
above  the  age  of  twelve  years,  though  able  to  sup- 
port him. -it  home,  being  without  sufficient  means 
to  pay  for  his  support  at  a  proper  institution 
where  he  may  be  instructed,  may  present  to  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  a  certificate 
from  the  superintendent  of  the  poof,  stating  his 
inability  to  pay,  and  thereupon  it  becomes  the 
duty  of  the  superintendent  to  give  to  said  child 
an  appointment,  for  five  years,  to  one  of  the 
above  named  institutions.  The  overseer  of  the 
poor  of  the  town,  if  any  deaf-mute  child,  over 
six  and  under  twelve  years  of  age.  is  liable  to  be- 
come a  county  charge,  or  becomes  such,  may  send 
such  deaf-mute  child  to  "any  institution  in  this 
state  for  the  education  of  deaf-mutes '.  [Laws 
of  1875.)  A  boarding-school  for  female  deaf- 
mutes  is  connected  with  St.  Joseph's  Academy, 
located  at  Fordham,  and  under  the  control  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  following  statis- 
tics in  relation  to  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes 
are  reported  for  1875: 

No.  of  pupils  supported   by  the  state 356 

"  "  "  by  counties  in  the  state  162 

"  "  "  by  Xew  Jersey 47 

"           "            "          byparents  or  guardians    1<> 
"  "  "  by  the  Frizze]  fund L 

■\Yhole  number  of  pupils,  'males 337 

females  ....     '247 

Total.. .7"  684 

The  institutions  for  the  education  of  the  blind 
are  the  following:  (1)  The  New  York  Institution, 
in  the  city  of  Xew  York,  incorporated  in  1831, 
which,  in  1875,  had  8  instructors,  and  173  pupils; 
(2)  The  New  York  State  institution,  located  at 
Batavia,  incorporated  in  1867,  and  receiving  its 
support  from  legislative  appropriations.  In 
1875,  the  number  of  instructors  was  10  ;  of  pu- 
pils, 160. — The  Xew  York  Asylum  for  Idiots 
was  first  established  at  Albany  in  1848.  by  II. 
B.Wilbur  asa  private  institution.  It  was  adopted 
by  the  state,  and  continued  at  Albany,  for  a  few 
years,  and  removed  to  Syracuse,  in  1854.  The 
building  was  erected  by  the  state,  in  1853 — 4,  at 
a  cost  of  $70,000,  on  a  site  donated  by  residents 
of  Syracuse.  This  institution  has  deservedly  at- 
tained an  excellent  reputation,  as  among  the  best 
of  its  kind. — The  number  of  pupils,  in  1  875,  was 
207  :  average  attendance  for  the  year,  183. 

Educational  Associations. — The  first  teacher-' 
association  in  the  state,  as  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained,was  The  Teachers'  Association  for  Mutual 
Improvement,  of  the  town  of  Charlton.  Its  first 
meeting  was  held  Jan.  5.,  L836;  and  it  continued 
until  1839.  In  July,  1836,  J.  Orville  Taylor 
issued  a  calkin  the  Common  School  Assistant,' 
for  a  convention  of  the  "common-school  teachers 
of  the  state"  to  be  held  at  Albany;  and  the  meet- 
ing. Sept.  20.,  1836,  resulted  in  the  formation  of 
the   State   Teachers'   Society.       This    association 

held  a  meeting  Feb.  18.,  L837,  and  a  convention 
at  Utica  on  the  11th  of  .May  following;  but,  for 


(346 


NEW    YORK 


NEW  YORK  (Cm) 


some  unexplained  reason,  no  subsequent  meeting 
was  held.  The  next  movement  to  form  an  associa- 
tion of  the  teaeliers.  of  the  state  was  made  in 
March.  L 845,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Albany  County 
Teachers' Association.  A  can  for  a  convention 
was  issued;  and  a  meeting,  July  .*5I).  and  3] .,  1 845, 
at  Syracuse,  resulted,  attended  by  more  than  150 
teachers.  This  association  has  held  an  annual 
convention  each  year  since  that  time,  except  in 
L849.  The  addresses,  reports,  resolutions,  and 
discussions  have  taken  a  wide  range,  covering 
the  entire  field  of  public  education,  and  have  ex- 
erted a  powerful  influence  both  in  the  school 
room  and  in  legislative  halls.  Other  associations 
have  sprung  up  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  The 
principals  of  the  normal  schools  have  an  associa- 
tion which  holds  an  annual  meeting.  The  State 
Association  of  School  Commissioners  and  City 
Superintendents,  organized  in  L856,  also  holds  an 
annual  meeting.  The  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is,  ex  officio,  its  president.  The  Uni- 
versity  Convocation, organized  in  I  si;,'!,  is  an  asso- 
ciation composed  of  the  members  of  the  board  of 
regents,  of  all  teachers  in  colleges,  normal  schools, 
and  academies  that  are  subject  to  the  visitation 

of  the  regents,  of  the  trustees  of  such  institu- 
tions, and  of  the  president  and  other  officers  of 
the  State  Teachers'  Association.  The  chancellor 
IS  the  permanent  president,  and  the  .secretary  of 
the  board  of  regents  is  the  permanent  secretary. 
The  convocation  meets  annually  at  Albany. 

School  Journals. — The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal school  journals  which  have  been  published 
in  the  state:  The  Common  School  Assistant 
(monthly),  published  at  Albany,  in  L836,byJ. 
Ornlie  Taylor,  discontinued  in  1839  ;  The  Dis- 
triot  School  Journal  (monthly),  commenced  at 
Geneva,  in  L840,  by  Francis  Dwight,  removed,  in 
1841,  to  Albany,  discontinued  in  1852;  The 
Teachers' Advocate  (weekly),  first  published  at 
Syracuse,  in  1845,  by  L.  W.  Hall,  in  L847, 
united  with  the  American  Journal  of  Education 
(monthly),  commenced,  in  Is  HI.  in  New  York, 
edited   by  Joseph  McKeen,  afterwards  county 

superintendent  of   schools,  and    (1854      I!)  assist- 
ant city  superintendent  in  New  York;  this  jour- 
nal  was  merged  in    The    Teachers'   Advocate, 
united  with  which  was.  subsequently,  The  Dis- 
trict School  Journal,  and  published  in  New  York 
till  L851  :   The  Monthly  Educator,  published  at 
Rochester,  L847     B;    The  Free  School  Clarion 
(monthly), published  at  Syracuse,  L849     50;  The 
New  Fork    Teacher   (monthly)   commenced  in 
Albany,  in  L852,  under  the  auspices  of  the  New 

York  State    Teachers'    Association,  assumed,    in 

1856,  by  .lames  Cruikshank;  united,  in  lsiiT, 
with  The  American  Educational  Monthly,  which 
was  established,  in  1864,  in  New  York,  by  J.  W. 
Schermerhorn  ;  The  American  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation and  College  Review  (monthly),  edited  by 
Absalom  Peters',  D.  I).,  and  S.  8.  Randall,  pub- 
lished in  New  York,  L855  7;  The  New  Fork 
School  Journal  (semi-monthly),  established  in 
New  Yoik.  1869;  The  Journal  of  Education, 
first  published  in  Brooklyn,  in  1875,  afterwards 
in  New  York,  until  1876;   The  New  Fork  State 


Educational  Journal  (monthly),  commenced  at 
Fredonia,  in  1872,  united,  in  L875,  with  TJie 
School  Bulletin,  established  in  L 874, at  Syracuse: 
and  The  National  Teachers'  Monthly,  commenced 

at  New  York,  in  L875. 

For  further  information  in  regard  to  the 
history  of  education  in  this  state, see  A.Russell, 
An  Account  of  New  York  Schools  (1847)  :  S.  S. 
Randall,  History  qfffie  Common-School  System 
of  the  Shite  of  New  York  (1871);  Report  on 
Education  in  the  City  of  New  Fork,  issued  by 
order  of  the  Board  of  Education  |  L869);  Boubne, 
History  of  the  Public  School  Society  (1870); 
Dcnshee,  History  of  the  School  of  the  Reformed 
Prot.  Dutch  Church  (1853);1>.J".Pkatt,  J/<W< 
of  Public  Education  in  the  State  of  N.Y.,  from 
1626  to  1746  (1872);  Y.  M.  Rkk,  Special  Re- 
jiort  on  the  Present  State  of  Education  in  the 
United  States  and  other  countries  (1S67). 

NEW  YORK  (City),  the  metropolis  of  the 
slate  of  New  York,  the  chief  emporium  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  most  populous  city  of  the 
western  continent.  Its  population,  according  to 
the  state  census  of  L875,  was  L , 046,037.— :xhe 
history  of  education  in  this  city  commences 
almost  with  its  first  settlement  by  the  Dutch, 
who.  in  their  own  country,  had  already  realized 
the  important  e  of  popular  education.  "  Neither 
the  perils  of  war,"  says  Brodhead,  "nor  the 
busy  pursuit  of  gain,  nor  the  excitement  oi 
political  strife,  ever  caused  them  to  neglect  the 
duty  of  educating  their  offspring.  Schools  were 
every-where  provided,  at  the  public  expense, 
with  good  school-masters  to  instruct  the  chil- 
dren of  all  classes  in  the  usual  blanches  of  edu- 
cation :  and  the  consistories  of  the  churches 
took  zealous  care  to  have  their  youth  thorough- 
ly taught  the  catechism  and  the  articles  of 
religion."  '1  he  otlices  of  minister  and  school- 
master were  at  first  united,  and  the  school  was 
tmder  the  control  of  the  established  church.  In 
L633,   these   otlices   -were  separated:    but    it  was 

several  years  before  a  school  house  was  built.  At 
the  end  of  Stuvvesant  s  administration,  there 
were,  in  New  Amsterdam,  .'!  public  schools,  a 
dozen  or  more  private  schools,  and  a  latin  school 

of  great  repute.  The  first  public  school  estab- 
lished in   New    Amsterdam   bj   the  Dutch  has 

continued  to  the  present   time,  under  the  title  of 

the  School  of  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch 
Church.  After  the  conquest  of  New  Nether- 
lands by  the  English,  in  L 664,  the  schools  of  New 

Amsterdam,  or  New  York,  were  still  continued. 

though  without  governmental  aid.  In  1702,  an 
act  was  passed  by  the  colonial  legislature  for  the 
"encouragement  of  a  Grammar  Free  School  in 

the  City  of  New  fork  :"  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  I  he  school  was  immediately  established. 
This  act  expired  bv  limitation  in  1  769  ;  and.  for 
a  period  of  twenty  years  thereafter,  no  effort 
seems    to   have   been    made  to  revive  it.  nor  any 

measures  taken  in  behalf  of  primary  education 
during  the  subsequent  history  of  the  colony. 
King's  (nov  Columbia)  College  was  established 
in  1 7."' I.  During  the  Revolutionary  war.  the 
schools  of  the  citg  were  dosed:  and,  for  several 


NKW   YORK  (Cm) 


647 


years  after  the  termination  of  the  war  and  the 
establishment  of  the  federal  government,  no 
measures  were  taken  to  provide  schools  for  the 
people,  except  by  benevolent  societies.  The 
.Manumission  Society  opened  a  school  in  177*. 
for  the  instruction  of  colored  children.  Other 
schools  were  afterward  established  by  tius  soci- 
ety, which  continued  to  exist  till  1834,  when  its 
schools  were  transferred  to  the  Public  School 
Society,  which  had,  at  that  time,  the  entire  con- 
trol of  the  common  schools  of  the  city.  This 
society  was  founded  in  1805,  under  the  title  of 
"  The  Society  for  Establishing  Free  Schools  in 
the  City  of  New  York,  for  the  Education  of 
such  poor  Children  as  do  not  belong  to,  or  are 
not  provided  tor,  by  any  Religious  Society."  De 
Witt  Clinton  was  elected  the  first  president  of 
the  society.  The  first  school  was  opened  by 
the  society  May  17.,  1806.  In  1  SOS,  the  name 
of  the  society  was  changed  to  the  Free-School 
Society  of  New  York.  In  lslf>,  it  received 
$3,708.14  from  the  school  fund,  the  quota  of 
the  city  under  the  first  apportionment  of  the 
fund.  Then  the  whole  number  of  pupils,  un- 
der its  care  was  933,  taught  in  3  schools. 
These  schools  were  organized  under  the  Lan- 
casterian  or  monitorial  system,  and  so  con- 
tinued to  a  considerable  extent  up  to  the  time 
of  the  dissolution  of  the  society.  In  1826,  the 
society  received  a  new  charter,  under  which  its 
name  was  changed  to  The  Public  School  Society. 
Any  citizen  could  become  a  member  of  this 
society  by  the  payment  of  SKI ;  and  the  trustees 
were  annually  elected  by  the  members.  The 
members  of  the  city  corporation  were  members, 
ex  officio,  of  the  society  ;  and  the  mayor  and  re- 
corder, of  the  board  of  trustees.  In  1831,  the 
legislature  authorized,  for  the  support  of  the 
schools,  the  levying  of  a  tax  of  one-twentieth 
of  one  per  cent  of  the  assessed  valuation  of  the 
city  property.  The  commissioners  of  the  com- 
mon-school fund,  consisting  of  one  person  from 
■each  ward  of  the  city,  appointed  by  the  common 
council,  received  and  distributed  the  school 
moneys  of  the  city  and  the  state ;  and  it  was 
their  duty  to  visit  every  school  twice  in  each 
year.  In  addition  to  these  means  of  support, 
considerable  donations  of  money  and  land  had 
been  made  to  the  society  from  the  commence- 
ment of  its  beneficent  career.  In  1840,  the 
trustees  of  the  Catholic  Free  Schools  applied  to 
the  common  council  to  be  permitted  to  partic- 
ipate in  the  school  moneys,  and,  in  that  appli- 
cation, took  occasion  to  find  considerable  fault 
witli  the  internal  management  of  the  schools, 
and  the  text-books  used,  which  they  denounced 
as  practically  sectarian,  and  referred  to  the 
Society  as  a  "gigantic  and  growing  monopoly"', 
to  which  it  was  unwise  to  intrust,  to  so  large  an 
extent,  the  interests  of  public  instruction.  An 
exciting  discussion  ensued,  first,  in  the  common 
council,  afterwards,  in  the  legislature;  and,  in 
L842,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  governor, 
William  II.  Seward,  an  act  was  passed  author- 
izing the  election  of  school  commissioners  who 
were  to  constitute  a  board  of  education  for  the 


city,  and  local  school  inspectors  ami  trustees  in 
each  ward;  bu1  still  allowing  the  Public  School 
Society  and  other  corporations  to  continue  their 

schools,   and   participate    in    the   school    m rj    , 

prohibiting. however. such  participation  in  the 
of  every  school  in  which  ••any  religious  sectarian 
doctrine  or  tenet  should  be  taught,  inculcated,  or 
practiced."  Important  amendments  were  made 
to  this  law  in  1844,  and  again  in  1851,  at  which 
latter  date,  the  system  was  more  fully  organized: 
and  the  board  of  education  was  empowered  to 
appoint  a  city  superintendent  of  schools,  and  as- 
sistant superintendents,  in  place  of  the  rounty 
superintendent  appointed  by  the  board  of  super- 
visors in  pursuance  of  the  state  law  passed  in 
Is  II.  Under  this  new  and  popular  system, 
additional  schools  were  rapidly  established,  and 
upon  a  more  liberal  basis,  the  old  monitorial 
system  being  either  greatly  restricted  or  aban- 
doned entirely,  the  buildings  being  constructed 
with  a  greater  number  of  class  rooms,  and  a  much 
larger  number  of  teachers  being  employed.  The 
two  systems  continued  to  exist  side  by  side; 
but  there  was  very  great  rivalry,  and  the  popular 
and  liberal  features  of  the  ward  schools,  as  they 
were  called,  gave  them  a  great  advantage  over 
those  of  the  Public  School  Society.  The  latter 
suffered  from  financial  embarrassment,  its  an- 
nual deficiencies  becoming  larger  every  year,  and 
new  legal  difficulties  being  constantly  developed 
in  its  obtaining  monetary  relief.  Its  character 
as  a  private  corporation  was  necessarily  a  con- 
stant obstacle  to  this.  The  only  remedy  was 
to  merge  the  systems,  and  transfer  the  property 
of  the  society  to  the  city.  With  singular  mag- 
nanimity, the  society  agreed  to  do  this  ;  and,  in 
1853,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  legislature  con- 
summating the  union.  No  body  of  men,  in  the 
annals  of  mankind,  can  justly  claim  greater  credit 
for  sincere  philanthropy  and  noble  public  spirit, 
than  the  Public  School  Society.  They  had  ad- 
ministered the  school  affairs  of  the  city  with  the 
utmost  integrity  and  fidelity;  and,  at  the  close, 
they  voluntarily  surrendered  to  the  municipality, 
as  their  contribution  to  the  cause  of  common- 
school  education,  property  amounting  to  no  less 
than  !?(;()(».( »()().— Previous  to  this  event,  in  1S47. 
an  act  had  been  passed  authorizing  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Free  Academy,  for  boys,  in  case  the 
act  should  be  approved  by  a  majority  of  the 
legal  voters  of  the  city.  Such  approval  having 
been  given,  by  a  very  large  majority  (19.4(H) 
against  3.400),  the  institution  was  organized  in 
L8  IS,  under  Horace  Webster,  as  the  first  presi- 
dent. In  1868,  this  institution,  by  a  special  act 
of  the  legislature,  became  the  ( 'ollege  of  the  City 
of  New  York. — In  1870.  the  Female  Normal 
College  was  organized  ;  previous  to  which  time, 
there  was  no  normal  school  in  the  city  except  a 
Saturday  school  for  teachers.  There  is.  at  present, 
no  provision  for  the  instruction  of  male  teachers, 
except  through  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York.— Many  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  system  in  New  York  since  1853. 
Then  the  board  of  education  consisted  of  two 
school  commissioners  from  each  ward,  one-half 


(J  18 


NEW   YORK    (City) 


elected  annually:  and  there  were  also  elected  in 
each  ward  eight  trustees,  and  two  school  inspect- 
ors; the  twelve  including  commissioners,  trustees, 
and  inspectors,  constituting  a  ward  board  of 
school  officers.  This  continued  until  1864,  when  an 
act  was  passed  dividing  the  city  into  seven  school- 
districts,  for  each  of  which  three  commissioners 
of  schools  were  elected  for  a  term  of  office  of 
three  years,  one-third  retiring  each  year.  Five 
trustees  were  eleeied  in  each  ward:  and  three 
inspectors  were. on  the  nomination  of  the  mayor, 
appointed    by  the    board    of    education    for  each 

district.    In  L869,  the  system  was  again  changed, 

the  board  of  education  being  composed  of  twelve 
commissioners  appointed  from  the  city  at  large 
by  the  mayor.  In  LB71,  the  educational  system 
was  made  a  department  of  the  city  government, 
all  the  officers — commissioners,  inspectors,  and 
trustees  being  appointed  by  the  mayor.  In  1873, 
the  law  was  passed  under  which  the  schools  are 
now  (1876)   conducted. 

Couuiii  and  City  Superintendents.  —  The  first 
superintendent  of  schools  in  the  city  of  New 
York  was  William  E.  Stone,  appointed  in 
pursuance  of    the  state   law  passed   .May  26., 

1841,  creating  the  office  of  county  superin- 
tendent to  be  appointed  by  the  board  of  super- 
visors in  each  county.     Col.  Stone  served  until 

his   death,  in    1844,  when    he   was  sue:- led    by 

David  \\.  bee...  till  L847;  William  A.  Walker, 
till  1848;  Joseph  McKeen,  till  L853,  as  countj 
and  city  superintendent,  the  latter  from  185]  : 
S.S.  Randall,  till  1870;  Henry  Kiddle,  from 
1870  until  the  present  time,-  elected  for  the 
fourth  time  in  1876.  Mr.  Kiddle  had  previously 
served    as    first    assistant   superintendent    from 

56  to  1870. 

Sckool  System. — The  board  of  education  con- 
sists of  twenty-one  members  appointed  from  the 
city  at  large  by  the  mayor:  each  ward  board 
consists  of  live  trustees  appointed  by  the  hoard 
of  education;  and  three  inspectors  are  appointed 
by  the  mayor  for  each  of  the  eight  school-districts 

into  which  the  city  is  divided,  one   consisting   of 

the  district  annexed  to  thecity  in  1874.  The 
board  of  education  has  the  general  control  of  the 
system,  making  all  rules  and  regulations  for  the 

schools,  and  for  the  trustees,  whose  duty    it    is  to 

have  the  care  and  safe-keeping  of  the  school 
property,  to  manage  the  schools,  and  appoint  I  lie 
teachers,  except  principals  and  vice-principals, 
w  ho  are  appointed  by  the  board  of  educal  ion  on 
the  nomination  of  the  trustees,  or,  after  such 
nomination  is  made,  in  disregard  of  it.  if  they  so 
please.  The  inspectors  supervise  the  schools, 
audit  bills  incurred  by  the  local  officers,  and 
have  concurrent  authority  with  the  city  super- 

intendent     in    granting    teachers'    licenses.      The 

city  superintendent  is  elected  by  the  board  of 
education  for  a  term  of  office  of  two  years;  and 

it  is  his  duty,  under  such  rules  as  the  hoard  may 

establish,  to  visil  and  examine  schools. and  report 
the  result  to  the  board  with  such  recommenda- 
tions as  he  may  deem  proper;  with  the  concur- 
rence of  two  inspectors  to  grant  licenses  to  per- 

proposed  as  teacher.-*;  and  to  report  annually, 


oroftener  if  required,  to  the  state  superintendent. 
I  le  may  also  revoke  licenses,  with  the  concurrence 
of  two  of  the  inspectors  of  the  district  in  which 
the  teacher  is  employed ;  but  the  teacher  has  a 
right  of  appeal  to  the  state  superintendent.  Tin  re 
are  also  seven  assistant  superintendents,  elected 
in  the  same  manner  and  for  the  same  term  as 
the  city  superintendent,  whose  duties  are  to  ex- 
amine schools  and  assist  in  the  examination  of 
teachers,  under  the  direction  of  the  city  super- 
intendent.—The  schools  are  supported  from  the 
general  tax  levied  on  the  real  and  personal  prop- 
erty of  the  city  for  the  support  of  the  city 
government,  etc.  The  city.it  is  true,  receives 
from  the  state  its  distributive  portion  of  the 
state  school  moneys  (see  New  X OBK) ;  but  its 
contribution  to  the  state  for  school  purposes  is 
greatly  in  excess  of  all  that  it  receives  in  return, 
the  difference, in  1875, amounting  to $827,253.87. 
— Teachers'  certificates  are  conferred,  after  ex- 
amination, by  the  city  superintendent,  but  must 
also  be  signed  by  at  least  two  school  inspector-. 
certifying  that  they  were  present  at  the  exami- 
nation and  that  tiny  concur  in  granting  the 
saint'.  These  certificates  are,  at  first,  provision- 
al, and  attest  only  the  scholarship  and  mural 
character  of  the  holders;  and  no  permanent 
certificate,  attesting  the  ability  to  teach,  can 
he  conferred  until  at  least  six  months'  experi- 
ence has  been  had  in  the  public  schools  of 
the  city.  No  person  is  permitted  to  perform 
service  in  any  position  as  a  teacher  until  duly 
licensed,  and  no  certificate  is  valid  after  a  dis- 
continuance of  service  of  two  years.  ( 'andidates 
for  provisional  licenses,  or  certificates,  must  be 
examined  in  reading,  spelling,  English  grammar, 
history  of  the  I  nited  States.  English  literature, 
arithmetic,  algebra  (through  quadratics),  plane 
geometry,  descriptive  astronomy,  physics,  zoology 

or  physiology;  and  the  principles  and  methods 
of  teaching.  In  order  to  obtain  a  permanent 
certificate  for  anj  position  or  grade,  the  candi- 
date's practical  efficiency  must  be  attested,  and  lie 

must  lie  able  to  pa>s  an  examination  in  the  par- 
ticular subjects  required  to  be  taught  in  the 
grade,  as  well  as  in  the  methods  of  teaching  the 

same.     The   schools    are   divided    into   grammar 

and  primary  schools.  Some  of  the  school  build- 
ings contain  three  schools —  a  male  grammar 
school,  a  female  grammar  school, and  a  primary 
school  or  department  (mixed);  others  contain  two 
schools    a  grammar  school,  male  or  female,  and 

a  primary  school,  male,  female,  or  mixed:  others 
contain    only    one    school,    which    is    a   primary 

school  (mixed).  Each  school,  or  department,  is 
under  a  separate  principal,  the  other  grades  of 

teachers   being    vice-principals  and    assistants. 

There  are  also  evening  schools,  including  an 
evening  high  school,  and  corporate  schools,  the 
latter  heing  under  the  charge  of  their  own 
trustees, although  participating  in  the  apportion 

incut     of    the    state    school    fund.      'I  hese   scb 
include  those   of    the   orphan   asylums,  t  lie  .  I  u\ . 

nile  Asvhun  and  House  of  Refuge  |  reformatories), 
the  schools  of  the  Ohildrens'  Aid  Society,  the 
Female  Guardian   Society,  etc.     The  salaries 


NEW  YORK  (City) 


NEW  rORK  CITY  COLLEGE      649 


paid  to  teachers  are  aa  follows:   to  principals 
.,   male  grammar  schools     maximum,  $3,000; 
minimum,  $2,250  ;  of  female  grammar  schools — 
max.,  $2,006;  min.,  $1,200;  of  primary  schools 
max.,  $1,800;  min.,  $1,000;  to  vice-piHncipah 
of  male  grammar  schools    -max.,  $2,500;  min., 
$2,000 ;  of  female  grammar  schools— maa;.,$]  ,298; 
win.,  $1,200;  of  primary  schools    max.,  $1,200; 
n min.,  $900;  to  male  assistants,  an  average  aol 
i  weeding  $1,652;  to  female  assistants  in  male 
grammar  schools,  an  average  of  $850,  in  female 
grammar  schools,  an  average  of  $767;  in  primary 
schools,  an  average  of  $600.     The  minimum  of 
salary   payable  to  any   teacher  is   $500. — The 
school  age  is  from  4   to  21   years;    and  "par- 
tuts,  guardians,  or  other  persons   having  the 
care  or  custody  of  children,"  residing   in    the 
city,  are  entitled  to  send  such  children  to  any 
of   the    public   schools. —  The    course  of   study 
of  the  grammar  and  primary  schools  embraces 
reading,  spelling,  English  grammar,  geography. 
arithmetic,    the    history  of   the    United   States. 
astronomy,  algebra,  book-keeping,  penmanship, 
drawing,  and  vocal  music.     German  or  French 
may  be  taught  in  the  three  higher  grades  of  the 
grammar-school  course,  whenever  the  parents  or 
guardians  of  at  least  thirty  pupils  desire  it.   Pu- 
pils to  be  promoted  to  the  grammar  schools,  must 
be  able  to  read  in  a  Third  Header,  to  cipher  as  far 
as  long  division  (with  divisors  not  exceeding  25), 
have   learned    the   elements   of  geography,  and 
have   made  some   progress   in  penmanship   and 
drawing.    Sewing  may  be  taught  in  the  grammar 
Bchools  for  girls.  The  amount  of  time  t<>  !«■  given 
to  each  study  is  carefully  fixed  by  the  rules  of 
the  board  of  education. 

The  whole  number  of  schools  under  the  care  of 
the  board  of  education  is  308,  as  follows:  46 
grammar  schools  for  males;  46,  for  females;  13,  for 
both  sexes  (mixed  schools)  ;  GO  primary  depart- 
ments (in  the  same  buildings  with  grammar 
schools)  ;  45  separate  primary  schools  ;  T  colored 
schools:  40  corporate  schools;  35  evening  schools: 
besides  the  Xormal  College,  the  Saturday  Nor- 
mal School,  for  teachers,  the  Training  School, 
and  the  X.  Y.  Nautical  School.  The  following 
table  presents  the  school  statistics  for  1875  : 


Receipts  (lor  L875  -6): 
Apportioned  t"  the  city  by 

tic  Btate  superintendent  J  584, 
Raised  l»y  local  tax 2,964,486.98 


Grade  of  schools. 

1  No.  of 
Ischools 

No.  of 
teach- 
ers 

No.  ot 
pupils  en- 
rolled 

Average 
attend- 
ance 

Xormal  College 

Training  School 

Saturday  Normal 
School 

1 
1 

1 

L05 

11! 

7 
1 

34 

18 

9 
1,112 

1,388 

3 

2,031 
803 

560 
46,813 

109,003 

1.1-2 
1  35 

1,071 
517 

393 

Grammar  Schools. . . . 
Primary  Departments 

i  lolored  Schools 

Nautical  Srhool 

3G.572 

02,-1  Is 

872 

97 

Total  in  day  schools. . 

227 

2,601 

160. 

101,940 

Evening  Schools 

35 

408 

24,149 

10,343 

Total  in  public  schools 

262 

3,009 

185,026 

112,2 

Corporate  Schools. . . . 

46 

195 

22,M2 

9,092 

Grand  total 

308 

3,204 

207,838 

121.375 

Total $3,649,141.56 

Payments : 

For  teachers'  salaries ^2,  i'(9,G9G.36 

'•    buildings,  sites,  re- 
pairs, etc 390,296.22 

"    school  apparatus, 

books,  etc 144,273.29 

Colored  schools 39,503.82 

Corporate    "       103,126.05 

Other  expenses 432,2  15.82 

Total 77~  ~$3,54&141.56 

Prim/,'.  Parochial,  and  Denominational 
Schools. — Xo  complete  and  reliable  statistics  in 
relation  to  private  schools  in  the  city  have  been 
collected  since  L867,  in  which  year  there  were 
•J.'S  Roman  Catholic  free  schools,  having  16,342 
pupils  ;  24  IJ.  ('.  pay  schools,  with  6,070  pupils  ; 
"24  schools  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  <  hurch. 
with  2,367  pupils;  22  schools  connected  with 
other  Protestant  denominations,  with  5,713  pu- 
pils ;  12  Hebrew  schools,  with  998  pupils  ;  25 
German  schools,  free  and  private,  with  3,641 
pupils;  and  Kis  other  private  schools,  with  11,875 
pupils;  making,  in  all.  298  schools,  with  47,006 
pupils.  This  class  of  schools  has  considerably 
increased  in  number  and  attendance  since  that- 
time.  At  the  close  of  1875,  the  Catholic  paro- 
chial schools  numbered  57, with  an  enrollment  of 
30,732  pupils,— 13,062  boys  and  17,670  girls, 
taught  by  about  380  religious  and  lay  teachers. 
Besides  these,  there  were  L8  select  schools  belong- 
ing to  tins  denomination,  which  gave  instruction 
to  about  1,500  pupils.  For  information  in  re- 
gard to  the  educational  institutions  of  a  higher 
grade,  see  New  York  (State). 

NEW  YORK,    College  of  the  City  of, 

is  the  only  free  college  as   yet  established   by 
any  city  of  the  United  States  which  is  supported 
wholly  by  annual  taxation.    It  was   originally 
organized  as  the   New   York  Free  Academy,  in 
the  year  1848,  the  subject  having  been  first  sub- 
mitted to  a  vote  of  the  citizens,  who  approved  it 
by  an  overwhelming  majority.  In  the  year  1866, 
by  act  of  the  legislature,  it  was  "erected  into  the 
College  of  the  <  'ity  i  >f  New  York,"  but  the  course 
of  study  remained    unchanged.     It  is  a  part  of 
the  common-school  system  of    the  city,  and  is 
governed  by  a  board  of  trustees,  composed  of  the 
members  of  the  board  of  education  and  the  pit  s- 
ident  of  the  college.     The  law  also  establishes  an 
executive  committee  of  nine  trustees,  including 
the  president,  for  the  ''care,  management,  ami 
government   of   the   college."     An   annual   ap- 
propriation of  8150,000  is  made  for  its  support. 
Every  thing  is  free, — tuition,  books,  and  station- 
ery.   The  expenses  for  commencement  exercises 
and  junior    class    exhibitions    arc    paid    by  the 
board,  and  an  annual  appropriation  of  $200  is 
made  to  each  of  the  two  literary  societies  of  the 
college.     Its  students  are  drawn  from  the  com- 
mon schools.  The  candidates  for  admission  must 
have  attended  one  year  at  a  common  school  in 
the  city,  and  must  lie  14  years  of  age.    The  Bub 


050       NEW  YORK   UNIVERSITY 


NORMAL  SCHOOL 


jects  in  which  they  are  examined  in  June  of 
each  year  are  those  taught  in  the  grammar 
schools.  The  college  curriculum  extends  through 
5  years,  and  comprises  two  full  courses  of  study, 

—the  ancient,  and  the  scientific.  The  former  has 
for  its  main  feature  the  study  of  Latin  and 
Greek;  the  latter,  that  of  French  and  German. 
The  calculus  and  mixed  mathematics  are  taught 
only  in  the  scientific  course.  There  is  a  partial 
course  for  introductory  or  first-year  students. 
finished  in  one  year,  and  known  as  the  com- 
mercial course.  The  students  are  arranged  in 
five  classes,  introductory,  freshman,  sophomore, 
junior,  and  senior.  In  the  collegiate  year.  1876 
— 7,  there  were  in  the  introductory  class,  512; 
freshman,  L63;  sophomore,  80;  junior,  57;  senior, 
50;  total,  862.  Of  these,  there  were  in  the  an- 
cient course  348  ;  in  the  scientific  course,  276  ; 
in  the  commercial  course,  238.  As  there  is  no 
requiremenl  in  ancient  or  modern  lane-liases  for 
admission,  these  are  begun  in  the  college.  There 
are  14  professors,  who  with  the  president  form 
the  faculty.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are  18 
tutors;  total  number  of  instructors,  .'52.  The 
subjects  taught  are  Latin,  Greek,  French,  Ger- 
man, Spanish,  English,  history,  mathematics, 
mechanics,  chemistry,  natural  history,  philosophy, 
political  economy,  and  drawing;  and.  in  the  com- 
mercial course,  phonography,  book-keeping,  and 
penmanship.  Two  degrees  arc  conferred,  Bach- 
elor of  Arts,  and  Bachelor  of  Sciences.  There 
is  also  a  post-graduate  course  in  engineering.   In 

L875 — (i,  this  had  no  students;  in  the  presenl 
year.  L876  -7.  there  are  .'!.  The  library  con- 
tains L 8,000  volumes,  and  its  support  is  de- 
rived from  the  interest  on  two  bequests,— -the 
Grosvenor  fund  of  $30,000,  and  the  Hblbrook 
fund  of  $5,000.  The  apparatus  of  all  kinds, 
illustrating  the  principles  of  chemical,  physical, 
and  mechanical  science,  is  valued  at  $20,000. 
The  cabinet  of  natural  history  18  estimated  to  be 
worth  $3,000,  One  of  the  best  collections,  in 
the  United  States,  of  easts  from  the  Elgin  mar- 
bles, is  in  the  department  of  drawing;  and,  to- 
gether with  other  easts  from  the  antique,  is  val- 
ued at  $3,000.  The  fund  for  annual  medals 
donated  by  citizens  is  $5,250.  The  college 
buildings  together  with  the  site  are  valued  at 
$190,000,  and  belong  to  the  city.  There  have 
been  hut  two  presidents  since  the  organization 
of  the  institution:  Horace  Webster,  LL.  D.,  ap- 
pointed in  L848;  Alexander  S.  Webb,  LL.  I  >.. 
the  presenl  incumbent,  appointed  in  L869. 

NEW  YORK,  University  of  the  City  of, 
was  founded  in  1830.     it  is  not  denominational, 

nor,  as  its  name  might  imply,  a  city  institution. 
It  comprises  the  Following  departments:  arts, 
science,  medicine,  and  law.  Tuition  in  the  de- 
partments of  arts  and  science  is  tree.  The  in- 
stitution is  supported  by  the  rents  of  the  uni- 
versity building  and  the  income  of  an  endowment 
1200,000,  with  tuition  feesin  the  departments 

oi  law  and  medicine.  The  course  in  the  depart- 
ment of  arts  is  similar  to  the  ordinary  college 
course  in  the  older  colleges.     A   school  of  civil 


with  the  scientific  department.  In  1874 — 5,  the 
number  of  instructors  and  students  was  as  foL 
lows:  arts  and  science.  14  instructors  and  140 
students:  tine  arts,  1  instructor  and  13  students: 
medicine,  34  instructors  and  385  students;  law. 
•">  instructors  and  55  students:  total,  54  instructors 
and  593  students.  The  chancellors  of  the  uni- 
versity have  been  as  follows  :  the  Rev.  James  M. 
Mathews,  D.  D.,  1830— 38  ;  the  Hon.  Theodore 
Frelinghuysen,  LL.  D.,  1838 — 49;  the  Rev.  Isaac 
Ferris,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  1852—70;  and  the  Rev. 
Howard  Crosby.  1).  D.,  LL.  D.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent, appointed  in  1870. 

NEW  ZEALAND.      See  Aistralia. 

NIEMEYER,  August  Hermann,  a  Ger- 
man educator  and  author,  born  Sept.  1.,  1754  ; 
died  July  7.,  1828.  In  L779,'he  was  appointed 
extraordinary,  and.  in  1784,  ordinary  professor 
of  theology  in  the  university  of  Halle,  holding 
at  the  same  time  the  position  of  inspector  of  the 
theological  seminary.  He  was  a  great-grandson 
of  A.  II.  Francke  (q.v.),and  gained  great  celeb- 
rity as  one  of  the  directors  of  the  institution 
of  Francke,  to  which  position  he  was  appointed 
in  L785;  and  when,  in  L787,  a  teachers'  semi- 
nary was  added  to  these  institutions.  Niemeyer 

Was  placed  ;it  the  head  of  it.  In  1807,  Owing  to 
his  exertions,  the  university  which  had  been 
closed  by  Napoleon,  was  re-opened  by  King 
Jerome;  and  Niemeyer  was  appointed  chancellor 

and  rector  /"•/•/"■/mis.  Jn  this  office,  he  was  con- 
firmed by  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  held  il  with 
greal  success  for  nine  years.  Niemeyer  is  the 
author  of  an  important  work  on  the  principles 
of  education  and  instruction  [Qrunasdtze  <l<  r 
Wrziehung  unddes  Unterrichts,  1799). in  which. 
for  the  first  time,  German  pedagogy  was  brought 

into  a  system,  and  which  contained  one  of  the 
earliest  attempts  at  a  history  of  education.  As 
the  first  principle  of  education,  Niemeyer  re- 
gards the  harmonious  development  of  the  facul- 
ties with  which  we  are  endowed.  His  Grvrid- 
stiize  der  Erziehung  etc  gradually  grew  from 

one  to  three  volumes,  and  he  himself  edited 
eight  editions  of  the  work. 

NORMAL  COLLEGE.  See  New  Yobk 
I  (  V/y). 

NORMAL  SCHOOL,  the  name  given,  in 
the  i  oited  States  and  some  other  countries,  to 
a  school  for  the  instruction  and  training  of  teach- 
ers, being  a  translation  of  the  French  term  ecole 
normals  (from  the  Latin  norma,  a  rule  or  model). 
applied  t<>  such  schools  on  their  establishment  in 
France.  "The  term  normal  school,"  says  Hart 
[In  the  School-Room,  Phil.,  I868)"is  an  unfort- 
unate misnomer, and  its  general  adoption  has  led 

to  much  Confusion  Of  ideas."  In  England,  these 
institutions  are  styled  training  colleges,  and  in 
Germany  seminaries.      Connected   with   these 

schools  there  are  usually ///<"A7 schools,  or  schools 
of  practice,  in  which  the  theoretical  principles 
ana  methods  taught  are  applied  to  the  actual 
work  of  instruction  and  discipline.  For  full  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  history,  and  the  prin- 
ciples and  plan  of  organization, of  normal  schools. 


rineering  and  a  school  of  art  are  connected  I  see  Teachers'  Seminaries. 


NORTH    CAROLINA 


651 


NORTH  CAROLINA,  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  American  Union,  having 
an  area  of  50><04bq.  m.,  and  a  population,  in 

I  ^7<*.  of  I  ."71  ,361 .  of  whom  678,  L7U  were  whites, 
391,650  colored  persons,  and  1.241   Indians. 
Educational   History. — The    constitution  of 

177<>  provided  that  "a  school  or  schools   shall    be 

established  by  the  legislature  for  the  convenient 

instruction  of  youth,  with  such  salaries  to  the 
masters,  paid  by  the  public,  a*  may  enable  them 
to  instruct  at  low  prices;  and  that  all  useful 
learning  shall  be  encouraged  in  one  or  more 
universities."  This  is  believed  to  be  the  first 
declaration  made  by  the  authorities  of  the  state 
in  the  interest  of  education.  Nineteen  years  after, 

the  state  university  was  organized;  but  no  action 
was  taken  tor  the  establishment  of  public  schools 
till  1 S 1 G ,  when  the  general  assembly,  at  the  in- 
Btance  of  the  governor,  took  measures  to  pro- 
vide a  general  system  of  public  instruction.  For 
this  purpose,  a  committee  of  three  was  charged 
with  the  duty  of  devising  such  a  system,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  recommendations  of  the  gov- 
ernor and  the  assembly,  previously  made.  The 
result  of  their  action  is  best  discussed  under  the 
three  following  heads:  (I)  The  establishing  of 
schools;  (II)  The  mode  of  maintaining  them; 
(II 1 1  The  mode  of  supervising  them. 

I.  The  plan  proposed  by  the  committee  was 
thorough,  beginning  with  the  establishment  of 
primary  schools,  to  be  followed  by  academies 
which  should  prepare  the  way  for  admission  into 
the  university  already  established,  in  their  de- 
bit 'rations,  they  considered  the  organization  of 
the  schools,  their  discipline  and  government,  the 
course  of  studies  to  be  pursued,  the  mode  of  in- 
struction, the  creation  of  a  permanent  school 
fund,  and  the  constitution  of  a  board  for  its 
management.  Their  report  was  favorably  con- 
sidered by  the  assembly,  and  passed  to  its  first 
rea  ling,  but,  unfortunately,  went  no  further, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  raising  the  money 
needed  to  make  the  proposed  system  effective. 
Nothing  further  was  done  till  1825,  when  a  fund 
was  created  for  the  establishment  and  support  of 
'•common  and  convenient  schools  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  youth  in  the  several  counties  of  the  state." 
For  this  purpose,  the  second  section  of  the  act  of 
that  year  constitutes  the  governor,  the  chief 
justice  of  the  supreme  court,  the  speakers  of  the 
senate  and  house  of  commons,  and  the  treasurer 
of  the  state,  a  board,  "for  the  promotion  of  learn- 
ing, and  the  instruction  of  youth".  Under  the 
name  of  The  President  and  Directors  of  the 
Literary  Fund,  they  were  empowered  to  hold 
real  and  personal  property,  and  to  sell,  dispose  of, 
and  improve  the  same.  In  1832.  Joseph  Cald- 
well, the  president  of  the  university,  aroused  the 
attention  of  the  state  to  the  need  of  public 
schools,  by  the  publication  of  a  pamphlet  con- 
sisting of  eleven  letters  which  had  been  furnished 
by  him  to  a  local  paper.  In  these  letters,  he 
called  attention  to  the  progress  made  by  the  com- 
mon schools  of  other  states  and  count ries.  enumer- 
ated the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  such  progress 


mounting  them.  In  1836, the  board  was  changed 

so  as  to  consist  of  the  governor  and    three    other 

members  appointed  by  him  biennially.    In  ls:;7. 

the  legislature  made  it  their  duty  to  prepare  a 
plan  for  common  schools,  suited  to  the  resources 
and  condition  of  the  state.  In  obedience  to  this 
act.  the  board,  in   L838,  submitted  an  exhaustive 

report,  in  which,  after  comparing  the  educational 
condition  of   the  state    with  that   of  others,  and 

of  the  countries  in  Europe  most  advanced  in 
this  respect,  they  proposed  to  divide  the  static 
into  L,250  school-districts,  and  to  erect  in  each  a 
School-house  of  the  best  materials,  and  according 
to  the  most  approved  method  in  regard  to  size, 
plan,  and  location.  According  to  the  condition 
of  the  school  fund  at  that  time,  it  was  estimated 
that  each  of  these  schools  would  receive  about 
$240  annually.  With  the  SCantj  means  at  the 
disposal  of  the  people,  they  could  hope  only  to 
lay  the  foundation  of  a  system,  trusting  to  after 
years  to  establish  also  schools  anil  colleges  for 
more  advanced  instruction.  In  January,  1839, 
the  legislature  took  positive  action  upon  the  re- 
port, directing  that  counties  should  be  divided 
into  school-districts  six  miles  square,  and  that  an 
election  should  he  held  in  each  county  to  ascertain 
the  wishes  of  the  people  in  regard  to  the  schools. 
Nearly  every  county  voted  in  favor  of  their 
establishment.  In  all  such  counties,  the  county 
court  was  directed  to  levy  a  tax  for  the  building 
of  a  school-house  in  each  district,  large  enough 
to  accommodate  at  least  fifty  pupils.  It  was 
also  made  the  duty  of  the  court  to  choose  not 
less  than  five  superintendents  for  the  county, 
whose  duty  it  should  be  to  make  the  division  into 
school-districts  according  to  the  plan  already 
mentioned,  and  to  appoint  not  less  than  three 
school-committee  men  in  each,  "to  assist  the 
superintendents  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
establishment  of  schools  in  their  respective 
districts." — In  1840,  a  school  law  was  passed 
which  substantially  continued  in  force  till  1865. 
By  an  act  passed  in  1844,  county  superintend- 
ents were  permitted  to  lay  out  school-districts  of 
such  form  and  size,  for  one  school  each,  as  they 
might  deem  most  convenient  for  the  inhabitants 
of  the  county.  As  the  money  appropriated  by  the 
state  was  to  be  divided  equally  among  the  dis- 
tricts, the  effect  was  to  increase  greatly  their 
number.  The  result  was,  that  about  $250,000 
was  annually  divided  among  the  districts,  the 
number  of  which  had  increased  to  3,000,  but 
without  accomplishing  the  best  results. 

II.  There  have  been  two  principal  sources  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  schools:  (1)  the  income 
of  permanent  funds;  and  (2)  taxes. 

(1)  The  Income  of  Permanent  Fundi. — In 
1825,  the  legislature  created  a  fund  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools,  to  consist  of  the  dividends  re- 
ceived from  stock,  then  held  or  afterwards  ac- 
quired by  the  state,  in  banks  and  worksof  inter- 
nal Improvement;  the  liquor  tax;  the  unexpended 
balance  of  the  agricultural  fund:  money  paid  to 
the  state  for  entries  of  vacant  lands;  money  de- 
rived from   the  sale  of  swam])  lands;  and  such 


in  North  <  larolina,  and  suggested  means  for  sur-    sums  as  the  legislature  might,  from  time  to  time, 


G52 


NORTH   CAROLINA 


appropriate.  In  1837,  the  state  received,  by  the 
removal  of  its  deposits  from  the  United  States 
treasury,  the  .sum  of  $1,433,757.39.  This,  with 
the  exception  of  $300,000,  was  transferred  to  the 
literary  board,  to  be  set  apart  as  a  permanent 
fund  for  the  maintenance  of  the  schools,  the  in- 
come thence  derived,  with  the  amounts  received 
from  sources  above  specified,  constituting  the  an- 
nual school  fund  <it'  the  state.  The  revenue  from 
this  source,  in  1838,  amounted  to  8100,000.  In 
1840,  the  permanent  fund  was  $2,000,000,  yield- 
ing an  annual  income  of  $120,000.  The  present 
permanent  fund  amounts  to  $2,190,564.65. 

(2)  Taoees.—Ia  the  report  made  to  the  legis- 
lature in  L838,  by  the  literary  board,  the  insuf- 
ficiency  of  the  income  of  the  permanent  fund 
for  school  purposes  was  plainly  pointed  out.  In 
L840,  a  tax  was  levied  in  each  district  sufficient 
to  build  a  school-house;  and,  in  L 844,  each  county 
was  required  to  levy  a  tax  equal  to  one  half  of  the 
amount  annually  received  from  the  literary  fund. 
In  1868,  the  constitution  of  the  state  directed  that 
"the  general  assembly,  at  its  first  session  under 
this  constitution,  shall  provide,  by  taxation  and 
otherwise,  for  a  general  and  uniform  system  of 
public  schools."  The  following  year,  the  school 
law  provided  that,  in  ease  any  township  should 
fail,  at  the  annual  meeting,  to  provide  for  schools 
to  be  taught  four  months  in  the  year,  the  school 
committee  should  immediately  forward  to  the 
county  commissioners  an  estimate  of  the  neces- 
sary expenses;  and  a  tax  equal  to  the  amount  of 

such  estimate  should  be  levied  on  the  township  by 
the  county  commissioners  at  the  same  time  that 
the  COUnty  (axes  were  levied.  The  act  of  L871 — 2 
required  that  a  tax  of  li  ;  cents  on  the  8100.  and 
I'll  cents  special  tax.  should  lie  levied:  and  this, 
with  7")  per  cent  of  the  slate  ami  county  poll  tax. 
and  all  other  public  school  funds,  should  he  paid 
at  the  rate  of  50  cents  per  month,  for  each 
pupil  attending  the  public  schools.    The  present 

law,  enacted  in  L872  -3,  levies  an  annual  tax  of 
•ents  on  the  -SI  00,  and  a  special  poll-tax  of 
25  cents;  and  this,  with  7">  per  cent  of  the  state 
and  COUnly  poll-tax  and  all  other  school  money. 
is  distributed  among  the  school-districts  according 
to  the  number  of  children  of  school  age  in  each. 

111.  The  report  of  the  president  and  directors 
of  the  literary  fund  to  the  legislature,  in  L838, 

called  at  ten!  ion  to  the  fact  that  no  supervision  of 
the  schools  was  maintained  by  the  intelligent  por- 
tion of  the  community,  on  account  of  their  want 

of  pecuniary  responsibility,  ami  suggested  that 
the  portion  of  th  ■  literary  fund  due  each  county 
should  not  he  distributed  till  the  county  court 
nil  have  levied  and  collected  twice  the  amount 
due  from  the  fund  to  i he  county.  They  recom- 
mended a  thorough  organization  ami  supervision 
of  the  schools.  In  1852,  Rev.  Calvin  II.  Wiley 
was  appointed  superintendent  of  schools,  and  re- 
tained the  position  till  1865.  At  that  time  the 
public  school,  were  closed  tor  want  of  funds,  ami 

remained  so  till  1870.     His  successors  have  Keen 

8.  S.   Adiley.    till    L872;  Alexander    Mclvcr.    till 

1 875;  and  Stephen  D.  Tool,  the  present  incum- 
bent i  L876). 


School  Si/stem. — The  general  supervision  of 
the  schools  of  the  state  is  vested  in  a  state  board 
of  education,  which  consists  of  the  governor,  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the  secre- 
tary of  state,  the  treasurer,  the  auditor,  and  the 
attorney-general.  Of  this  board,  the  governor  is 
the  president,  ami  the  state  superintendent,  the 
secretary.  The  immediate  control  of  the  schools 
is  committed  to  the  state  superintendent,  who  is1 
elected  by  the  people  for  four  years.  County 
commissioners  are  also  chosen,  who  are  charged 
with  "a  general  supervision  and  control  of  the 
schools  in  their  respective  counties".  Their  duties 
relate  chiefly  to  the  financial  management  of  the 
schools;  though,  in  other  respects,  they  have 
considerable  discretionary  power.  Their  erhciem  y. 
however,  is  impaired  by  the  fact  that  theirduties 
are  confined  entirely  to  office  business,  there 
being  no  visiting  of  the  schools  on  their  part,  as 
in  other  states.  In  each  township,  a  school  com- 
mittee  of  three  is  elected  biennially.  This  com- 
mittee is  empowered  to  purchase  and  hold  real 
estate  and  personal  property,  to  receive  any  gift, 
grant,  or  donation  made  for  the  use  of  any  school 
within  its  jurisdiction,  and  to  sell  or  transfer  the 
same  for  school  purposes.  It  is  required  to  make. 
for  the  use  of  the  county  board,  an  annual  census 
of  all  children  of  school  age.  designating  race  and 
Bex,  of  all  public  schools,  and  the  number  of 
children  who  do  not  attend  school.  It  is  also  re- 
quired to  divide  the  township  into  suitable  dis- 
tricts, and  to  establish  separate  schools  for  white  , 
and  colored  children.  Tins  committee,  also,  has 
the  power  io  employ  and  to  dismi.-s  teachers,  and 
lo  regulate  their  salaries,  subject  to  certain  re- 
strictions as  to  grade.  Public  schools  must  he 
maintained  not  less  than  four  months  each  year. 
The  si  boo!  age  is  from  (i  to  21  years.  The  choice 
of  text  books  rests  partly  with  the  teachers  and 
partly  with  the  state  hoard:  but  no  sectarian  or 
political  text-books  are  permitted. 

Educational  Condition. —  The  nundter  of 
schools  in  the  state,  as  reported  in  1874,  was 
4,020,  of  which  2. Mil)  were  for  white,  and  1,200 
for  colored  children.  The  support  of  the  schools 
was  derived  from  the  following  source-  : 

Prom  the  Btate  treasury $  36,230.67 

Prom  poll-tax 143,609.92 

From  property-tax 10  »,434.94 

Balance  from  previous  rear.. .   202,129.70 

Total $496,405.23 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows: 

For  salaries    of   teachers  el' 
white  schools (182,646.53 

For  Balarjes  ol  teachers  of  col- 
ored schools 77,61* 

For  county  examiners 2,854.56 

For  school-houses 22,676.46 

For  county  treasurers'  com- 
missions.      11,802.06 

Total  •7..V.M.--. 

In  addition  to  this  amount.  $12,450  was  dis- 
tributed  among   30    public   schools    from    the 

Peabody  educational  fund. 
The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  were 

t  he  following : 

No.  of  children  ol  school  age,  white,      242,768 

colored,  127,192 
Total  369,900 


NORTH    CAROLINA 


NolM'IIKRN    ILLINOIS    COLLEGE      653 


\  i.  of  children  attending  school,  white,  119,083 

colored,    56, 

Total 175,0s:; 

No.  of  teachers  employed,  white  male,      1,496 

white  female,      613 

Total  white 2,108 

Colored   male.  615 

colored  female,       252 

Total  colored 767 

Whole  number  of  teachers  employed 2,875 

Xormul  Instruction. — In  the  pamphlet  pub- 
lished by  the  president  of  the  state  university, 
referred  to  above,  special  attention  was  called  to 
the  need  of  qualified  teachers,  and  a  plan  was 
proposed  for  supplying  this  deficiency.  Xo  im- 
mediate action,  however,  was  taken.  The  report 
of  the  president  and  directors  of  the  literary 
fund,  in  1838,  also  called  attention  to  the  subject . 
and  urgently  recommended  the  establishment  of 
normal  schools  for  the  education  of  teachers,  and 
a  Ivised,  also,  the  establishment  of  a  normal  de- 
partment in  the  state  university.  The  Ashboro' 
Normal  School  was  organized,  in  1873,  by  the 
Randolph  County  Educational  Association,  and 
was  conducted  by  the  superintendent  of  the  as- 
sociation, one  month  in  L873,  and  one  in  1874. 
In  the  former  year,  100  teachers  received  in- 
struction; in  the  latter,  75.  The  Lexington 
Normal  School  was  organized  by  the  Davidson 
County  board  of  education,  under  aspecial  act  of 
the  legislature,  in  August,  1874,  and  continued 
in  session  25  days,  under  the  direction  of  the 
chairman  of  the  county  board  of  examiners.  In 
this  scho  )1.  separate  instruction  was  given  to  36 
white  teachers,  and  35  colored  teachers.  The 
normal  department  of  Shaw  University,  at  Ra- 
leigh, in  1874,  had  3  resident  instructors 
and  60  pupils,  of  whom  40  were  males,  and 
20  females.  Besides  these,  teachers'  institutes  are 
held  in  various  parts  of  the  state.  The  Williston 
Academy  and  Normal  School,  at  Raleigh,  also 
affords  special  instruction  to  teachers.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  the  American  Missionary  Association. 
■ — The  State  Educational  Association  was  estab- 
lished July  11.,  1873. 

Secondary  Instruct  inn.  —  Of  institutions  of 
this  grade,  there  were  reported,  in  1875,  to  the 
I'.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  27,  with  84  teachers 
and  I. fills  pupils,  of  whom  478  were  in  classical 
studies,  201  in  modern  languages,  217  preparing 
for  a  classical  course  in  college,  and  53  for  a 
scientific  course.  There  are  also  preparatory  de- 
partments in  several  of  the  colleges,  which,  in 
1875,  reported  426  students. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  institutions  which 
furnish  instruction  of  this  grade  are  included  in 
the  following  table. 


When 

Religious 

NAME 

Location 

found- 

denomina- 

ed 

tion 

Dav.  Coll. 

1837 

Presb. 

North  Carolina  Coll.. 

Bit.  Pleasant 

IS.")!) 

Luth. 

Rutherford  College.. 

Excelsior 

1870 

Non-sect. 

Triuitv  College 

Trinity 

1853 

M.  Epis. 

Univ.  of  N.  Carolina. . 

Chapel  Hill 

1795 

Non-sect. 

Wake  Forest  CoUege. 

Wake  Forest 

1884 

Bap. 

Wilson  College 

Wilson 

1872 

Non-sect. 

Besides  these, there  are  several  institutions  for 
the  higher  education  of  women.  Of  these,  6  re- 
ported, in  L874,  to  the  L.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. 70  instructors  and  580  students. 

Scientific  and  Professional  Instruction. — Con- 
nected with  the  state  university,  there  are  schools 

of  natural  science,  including  chemistry,   physics, 

and  engineering,  and  a  school  of  agriculture,  en- 
dowed with  the  congressional  land  grant.  Shaw 
University  has  a  theological  department;  Trinity 
College,  a  theological  and  a  law  department;  and 

Rutherford  College,  a  law  school. 

Special  Instruction. — The  institution  for  the 
instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb, and  blind,  was 
founded  at  Raleigh  in  1847.  It  had,  in  L875,  a 
corps  of  12  instructors,  and  208  pupils,  of  whom 
L32  were  deaf-mutes,  and  76  were  blind.  Special 
attenl  i<  n  is  given  to  music,  and  there  is  a  mechan- 
ical department,  in  which  practical  instruction 
is  given  in  several  industrial  branches.  The  edu- 
cation of  colored  children  of  this  class  was  first 
undertaken  in  this  institution.  The  Oxford  Or- 
phans' Home,  at  Oxford,  under  the  care  of  the 
.Marion  Fraternity,  affords  an  asylum  for  115 
orphans.  It  is  sustained  by  voluntary  contribu- 
tions.   There  is  a  branch  asylum  at  Mars  Hill. 

NORTH  CAROLINA,  University  of,  at 
Chapel  Hill,  N.  ('..was  chartered  in  1787,  and 
organized  in  17!).">.  Exercises  were  resumed, 
after  a  period  of  suspension,  in  Sept..  L875.  It 
comprises  six  colleges  ;  namely,  of  mathematics, 
of  literature  (including  the  schools  of  Creek, 
Latin,  and  modern  languages),  of  philosophy 
(schools  of  metaphysics,  and  of  history  and 
political  science),  of  natural  science  (schools  of 
chemistry,  applied  chemistry,  and  physics),  of 
engineering,  and  of  agriculture  (endowed  with 
the  congressional  land  grant,  and  including 
schools  of  natural  history,  chemistry,  and  mili- 
tary tactics).  Three  regular  courses  have  been 
established :  the  classical  (4  years),  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts;  the  scientific 
(3  years),  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Science;  and  the  course  in  agriculture  (3  years), 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Agriculture. 
The  university  has  an  extensive  collection  of 
geological  and  mineralogical  specimens,  and  a 
library  of  about  5,000  volumes  and  2,000  pam- 
phlets; the  libraries  of  the  two  literary  societies 
contain  about  7,000  volumes  each.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  $60  a  year.  In  1876 — 7,  there  were 
!)  instructors  and  100  students  (45  classical,  31 
scientific,  7  agricultural,  and  17  optional).  Kemp 
P.  Battle  is  (1876)  the  president. 

NORTHERN  ILLINOIS  COLLEGE,  at 
Fulton,  111.,  was  first  opened,  in  1861,  as  the  Wes- 
tern Union  College  and  Military  Institute.  In 
1866,  it  was  chartered  and  opened  as  the  Illinois 
Soldiers'  College  for  the  education  of  disabled 
soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  state.  The  name  was 
chanced  in  1873,  when  the  college  was  thrown 
open  to  both  sexes.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  and  the  income  of  an  endowment  of  about 
820,000.  The  college  building  originally  cost 
§1 00,000.  The  library  consists  of  over  1 000  vol- 
umes ;  the  cabinet  is  well  furnished  with  spec- 


654     N.W.CHRISTIAN   UNIVERSITY 


NOR  W I ( 'H   UNIVERSITY 


imens  in  geology,  mineralogy,  and  palaeontology; 
and  the  laboratory  has  a  valuable  set  of  philo- 
sophical and  chemical  apparatus.  The  regular 
tuition  fees  vary  from  $27  to  $32  j  per  year.  The 
college  lias  a  preparatory  collegiate  course,  an 
academic  course  (designed  especially  for  those 
preparing  themselves  for  teaching  or  business), 
and  a  regular  graduating  course  of  four  years, 
which  seems  to  be  similar  to  the  courses  of  the 

higher  female  seminaries.      Female  students  who 

complete  the  full  course,  or  its  equivalent,  receive 
the  degree  of  Mistress  of  Liberal  Arts  (M.L.A.); 
those  completing  the  English  studies  of  the 
course,  that  of  .Mistress  of  English  Literature 
(M.E.L.);  and  male  students  completing  the 
course,  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  (1!.  S.). 
In  1ST")  -6,  there  were  10  instructors  and  111 
Students  (66  males  and  If)  females).  The  pres- 
idents have  been,  Leander  II.  Potter,  A.  M.,  1866 
— 73:  William  D.  F.  Luinmis.  A. M.,  1873 — ">; 
and  the  Itev.  Joseph  W.  Hubbard,  A.M.,  the 
present  incumbent,  appointed  in  L875. 

NORTH  WESTERN  CHRISTIAN  UNI- 
VERSITY, at  frvington,  End.,  founded  in  L853, 
is  under  the  control  of  the  Christian  denomina- 
tion. It  was  remove;  I  from  Indianapolis  to  its 
present  site,  about  four  miles  east  of  that  city, 
in  is;.").  It  has  a  fine  new  building  and  a  cam- 
pus of  2")  acres,  situated  in  a  natural  grove  of 
forest  trees.  It  is  supported  by  the  interest  on 
an  endowment  of  $300,000,  the  tuition  fees  be- 
ing merely  nominal.  The  endowment  property 
of  the  institution  amounts  to  nearly  $]  ,000,000. 
The  university  is  open  to  all  without  distinction 
of  sex,  race,  or  color.  It  comprises  a  college  of 
literature  (classical),  a  college  of  sciences,  a  col- 
lege of  the  Bible  (theological),  and  a  college  of 
business,  with  classes  preparatory  to  the  classical 
and  scientific  departments.  In  1  s 7  "> — 6,  the  stu- 
dents were  as  follows:  college  of  literature.  -•"> ; 
college  of  science,  12;  preparatory,  48 ;  college 
of  the  Bible,  23;  college  of  business,  44;  total, 
deducting  repetitions,  I '-'•'.  There  were  11  in- 
structors. The  presidents  of  the  university  have 
been  as  follows:  John  Young,  LL.  I>..  L855 — 7; 
S.  K.  Iloshour.  I).  I)..  1 858  -61;  A.  15.  Benton, 
LL.  I»..  1861—8;  Otis  A.  Burgess,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
L868  70:  W.  V.  Black,  A.M..  L870 — 73;  and 
Otis  A.  Burgess  again  since.  L873. 

NORTHWESTERN  COLLEGE,  at  Na 
perville,  111.,  organized  in  L861,  and  chartered  in 
1865,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Evangelical  As- 
sociation. It  admits  both  sexes.  The  productive 
funds  amount  to  $85,000;  the  value  of  its  grounds, 
buildings,  and  apparatus  is  $50,000*  The  in- 
stitution has  a  German  course,  an  English-Ger- 
man course,  ,-i  commercial  department,  and  an 
art  department,  in  addition  to  the  usual  classical 
and  scientific  courses.  In  ls~;!  '.  there  were 
II  instructors  and  405  students,  including  12  of 
collegiate  grade.     The  Rev.  A.  A.  Smith.  A.  M., 

I  876)  the  president 
NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,  at 
Evanston,   111.,  under  Methodisl    Episcopal  con- 
trol, was  chartered  in    L851,  organized  in  ls">.'{, 
and  opened  in  1855.    It  consists  of  the  following 


'  departments,  or    colleges :     (1 )    literature   and 
I  science  ;    (2)  technology  ;    (3)  literature  and  art 

Woman's  College)  ;  (4)  conservatory  of  music  ; 
(5)  college  of  theology  (Garret  Biblical  Insti- 
tute);  ((>)  law  (Union  College  of  Law  of  the 
University  of  Chicago  and  the  Northwestern 
University):  (7)  medicine  (Chicago  Medical  Col- 
lege); (8)  preparatory  school.  Departments  (6)  and 
(7)  are  located  m  Chicago.  The  university  has 
a  library  of  about  25,000  volumes,  including 
pamphlets,  and  valuable  apparatus  and  cabinets. 
The  value  of  its  buildings,  library,  and  apparatus 
is  $400,000;  of  other  unproductive  property, 
$500,000;  productive  property.  $440,000.  In 
the  theological  department,  tuition  is  free:  in 
the  first  three  departments  enumerated  above, 
the  cost  is  $45  per  annum.  There  are  six  paral- 
lel courses  of  four  years  each,  three  in  the  col- 
lege of  literature  and  science  (classical.  Latin, 
and  scientific,  and  a  course  in  modern  lan- 
guages), and  three  in  the  college  of  technology 
(a  course  in  chemistry,  a  course  in  engineering, 
and  a  course  in  natural  history).  The  courses 
in  the  W oman's  College  are  the  same  as  those  iu 
the  colleges  of  literature  and  science,  and  of  tech- 
nology. In  l.s7.'5 — 4.  the  number  of  instructors, 
in  all  the  departments,  was  62  ;  and  of  students, 
866.  The  presidents  of  the  university  have  been 
as  follows  :  the  Rev.  Dr.  Clark  T.  Ilinman. 
L853— 6;  the  Rev.  Dr.  R.  S.  Foster,  1856—60  : 
I'rof.  Henry  S.  Noyes  (vice-president),  1860 — 67; 
the  Rev.  Dr.  E.  0.  Haven,  1869—72;  and  the 
Rev.  Dr.  <  harles  II.  Fowler,  since  1872. 

NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,  at 
Watertown,  AVis.,  chartered  in  L864,  is  under 
the  control  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod 
of  Wisconsin.  It  comprises  a  collegiate,  a  pre- 
paratory, and  an  academic  department.  The 
library  contains  about  2.000  volumes.  The  cost 
of  tuition  is  $30  per  annum.  In  L874 — 5,  there 
were  6  instructors  and  ISO  students:  collegiate, 
22  :  preparatory,  61 ;  academic.  97.  The  Rev. 
A.  F.  Ernst,  A.  M.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

NORWAY.      See   SWEDEH. 

NORWEGIAN  LUTHER  COLLEGE, 
at  Decorah.  Iowa,  founded  in  1861,  is  under 
Lutheran  control.  It  is  supported  by  collections 
in  the  congregations  of  the  Norwegian  Lutheran 
Synod  of  America.  It  contains  7  classes  or 
grades,  of  one  year  each.  Instruction  is  free, 
pi    in    the    two    lower    classes,    where,   since 

Sept.  I..  L876,  $30  a  year  is  paid  for  tuition. 
'The  value  of  buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is 
$120,000  :  the  libraries  contain  about  4,000  vol- 
umes. In  L875  6,  there  were  <s  instructors 
and  200  students,  the  greater  pari  in  the  pre- 
paratory department.  The  Rev.  I-aur  l^irsen 
has  been  the  president  from  the  organization  of 
the  college* 

NORWICH  UNIVERSITY,  a  military 
college  ;ii  Northlicld.  Vt..  founded  in  1834,  IS 
under  Protestant  Episcopal  control.  It  has  a 
preparatory,  a  business,  and  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, with  a  classical  ami  a  scientific  course,  of 
four  yean  each,  and  a  philosophical  course  of 
three"  years,  leading,  respectively,  to   the  degn 


NOTRE  DAME  DU  LAO 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


655 


of  B.  A.,  U.S..  ami  B.  PL  Drawing  and  military 
science  are  pursued  throughout  the  three  courses. 
The  charge  for  tuition,  hoard,  etc.,  is  $300  per 
year.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  s  instructors  and 
49 students.  The  Rev.  Josiah  Swett,  1>.  !>..  is 
(I  B76)  the  president. 

NOTRE  DAME  DU  LAC,  University 
of,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution  at  Notre  Dame, 
lnd..  was  founded  by  the  Congregation  of  the 
Holy  Cross  in  1842,  and  chartered  in  1844.  It 
has  commodious  buildings  finely  situated.  The 
libraries  contain  nearly  30,000  volumes.  The  reg- 
ular charge  for  board,  tuition,  etc..  is  $300  per  year. 
The  university  has  a  classical,  a  scientific,  a  civil 
engineering,  a  law,  and  a  commercial  department, 
with  preparatory  and  post-graduate  courses,  in 
187o — 6,  there  were  38  instructors  and  324  stu- 
dents. The  Very  Rev.  Edward  F.  Sorin,  the 
founder  of  the  institution,  was  its  president  for 
twenty-two  years.  The  Rev.  Patrick  .J.  Colovin, 
0.  S.  C,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

NOTT,  Eliphalet,  an  American  educator, 
born  at  Ashford,  Ct.,  June  25.,  LTTi! :  died  at 
Schenectady,  N.  Y..  Jan.  29.,  1866.  He  studied 
theology,  and  was  sent,  as  teacher  and  missionary, 
to  central  New  York,  locating  himself  at  Cher- 
ry  Valley.  He  was  soon  after  called  to  the 
pastorate  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Albany, 
where  his  sermon  on  the  death  of  Hamilton 
made  him  celebrated.  In  1804,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  Union  College,  at  Schenectady, 
which  position  he  held  till  his  death.  During 
this  long  period,  nearly  4,000  students  were 
graduated.  Dr.  Notts  principal  works  are  Coun- 
$els  to  Young  Men  (1810),  often  republished, 
and  Lectures  on  Temperance  (1847),  besides 
many  addresses,  discourses,  and  sermons.  Physical 
science,  also,  received  a  large  share  of  liis  atten- 
tion, about  30  patents  for  inventions  having  been 
obtained  by  him. 

NOVA *  SCOTIA,  a  British  province  of 
North  America,  forming  a  part  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada.  It  has  an  area  of  21,731  sq.  m.;and 
its  population,  in  1871,  was  387,800.  It  was 
first  settled,  in  1605,  by  the  French  under  De 
Monte,  at  Port  Royal  (now  Annapolis)  ;  but, 
in  1621,  the  country  being  claimed  as  a  part 
of  Virginia,  James  I.  granted  it  to  Sir  William 
Alexander,  under  the  title  of  Nova  Scotia.  It, 
however,  continued  in  the  possession  of  France 
until  171.'!.  when  it  was  formally  ceiled  to  the 
English  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  The  island 
of  Cape  Breton  was  annexed  to  it  in  1763,  and 
the  province  of  New  Brunswick  separated  from 
it  in  L784.  In  1 867,  it  became  a  member  of  the 
Dominion  of  ( 'anaila. 

Educational  History. — The  highest  school 
'authority  iu  t lie  province,  is  the  council  of  public 
instruction,  composed  of  the  members  of  the 
executive  council.  The  superintendent,  who  is 
also  a  member,  and  the  secretary  of  the  council 
are  appointed  by  the  lieutenant-governor.  The 
council  appoints  an  inspector  for  each  county, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  superintendent, 
and  with  his  concurrence  prescribes  text-books, 
library  books,  and  school-house  plans.  The  coun- 


cil also  makes  regulations  for  the  expenditure  of 
the  school  grants,  for  the  location,  construction, 
and  control  of  county  academies,  and  the  classi- 
fication of  teachers:  appoints  four  provincial 
examiners  for  teachers'  licenses \  determines  ap- 
peals from  trustees,  and  may  take  such  action 
as  any  special  exigencies  require.  The  super- 
intendent has.  subject  to  the  council,  the  super- 
vision of  the  inspectors,  the  normal  and  the 
common  schools,  and  the  county  academies,  also 
the  enforcement  of  the  law.     He  inspects  the 

academies,  and.  if  directed,  other  schools  ;  holds 
meetings  and  teachers'  institutes:  reports  on 
school  management  and  teachers'  qualifications; 
l'urni>hes  printed  regulations  and  instructions  to 
school  officers,  and  makes  an  annual  report  with 
suggestions.    The  lieutenant-governor  appoints 

for  the  several  districts,  corresponding  to  the  civil 
counties,  a  board  of  seven  commissioners.  The 
commissioners  are  required  to  name  a  day  when 
all  semi-annual  school  returns  will  be  received  at 
the  inspector's  office,  and  to  endorse  on  each  of 
such  returns  their  approval  or  disapproval,  and 
they  may  authorize,  on  the  inspector's  recom- 
mendation, the  payment  of  a  grant  to  a  licensed 
teacher  of  a  poor  section.  The  commissioners 
may  settle  disputes  in  regard  to  teachers'  .sala- 
ries, and  may  appoint  trustees  in  certain  cases. 
They  may.  upon  the  inspector's  report,  declare 
school  premises  to  be  unfit  for  use  :  and  in  such 
a  case,  the  provincial  aid  to  the  section  is  with- 
held unless  the  necessary  improvement  is  pro- 
vided. They  may  cancel  or  suspend  the  license 
of  a  teacher  for  sufficient  cause  ;  but  in  the  case 
of  incapacity  or  negligence,  they  must  notify  the 
trustees  and  the  superintendent.  The  inspector 
is  required  to  inspect  semi-annually  each  school 
and  academy  in  his  district,  and  report  thereon 
to  the  superintendent.  He  must  also  give  such 
information  to  trustees  and  teachers  as  may  be 
required,  and  assist  in  improving  the  methods 
i >f  school  management.  lie  must  make  an  annual 
report  to  the  superintendent  on  the  1st  of  De- 
cember, specifying  the  work  performed  and  its 
results.  Every  section  lias  a  board  of  three  trust- 
ees, one  elected  each  year,  from  among  the  qual- 
ified voters  at  the  annual  meeting.  If  a  section 
fails  to  elect  a  trustee,  ora  trustee  refuses  or  fails 
to  serve  for  twenty  days,  the  commissioners  are 
required  to  fill  such  vacancy.  If  a  person  elected 
a  trustee,  refuses  or  fails  to  serve,  he  is  liable  to 
a  line  of  $20,  which  is  applied  to  aid  the  erec- 
tion of  school-houses.  The  school  year  consists 
of  two  terms  :  the  winter  term,  from  Nov.  1.  to 
April  30.,  and  the  summer  term,  from  May  1.  to 
Oct.  31.  The  school  time,  holidays,  and  vaca- 
1  tions  are  regulated  by  the  council.  Trustees  must 
employ  a  licensed  teacher,  and.  if  necessary,  an 
assistant,  for  not  less  than  five  months,  or  in  a 
poor  section,  three  months  in  a  year.  No  teacher 
can  establish  a  school  without  an  agreement  with 
the  section  trustees.  The  annual  grant  from  the 
provincial  treasury  for  the  public  schools  is 
$117,000,  of  which  the  city  of  Halifax  receives 
$7,500.  This  grant  is  divided  according  to  the 
total  days'  attendance  of  registered  pupils  at  the 


656 


NOVA   SCOTIA 


NUMBER 


common  schools,  the  distrihution  for  each  term 
being  made  for  the  corresponding  term  of  the 
preceding  year.     Halifax  constitutes  one  school 
section,  with  a  board  of  thirteen  commissioners, 
wlio  form  a  corporation,  and  of  whom  seven  are 
appointed  by  tin-  government,  and  six  by  the  city 
council.     The  governor  may  appoint  principals 
of  the  normal  and  model  schools,   who   with  the 
approval  of  the  council,  may  appoint  their  assist- 
ants.    The  general  control  of  the  normal  school 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  superintendent.     An  an- 
nual grant  of  8<i<>(>  is  made   to  each  county  acad- 
emy.    The   normal   school    has    but  one    term, 
commencing  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  Novem- 
ber, and  closing  on  the  Friday  preceding  the 
annual  provincial  examinations,  in  July.    Before 
entering,  every  student  must  declare  his  or  her 
intention  to  teach  three  years  in   the  schools  of 
the  province;  otherwise,  a  fee  of  $20  is  charged. 
The  chief  town  of  each  county  is  entitled  to  a 
grant  for  an  academy,  on  complying  with  certain 
conditions.    The  first  or  highest  department  is 
open,  free  of  charge,  to  all  children  of  the  county 
who  are  able  to  pass  the  required  examination. 
Whenever   the    chief  town    fails  to  obtain  the 
grant,  or  to  maintain  an   efficient   academy,  the 
council  reserves  the  right  to  treat  with  any  other 
section  in  the  county  for  the  establishment    and 
proper  maintenance  of  such  academy.— The  an- 
nual examination  of  teachers  takes  place  on  the 
first  Tuesday  after  duly  1">.      All   licenses 'are 
valid  in  any  part  of  the  province  until  revoked 
for  cause  ;  but  nobody  under  I  5  years  of  age  is 
allowed  to  teach  unless  with  the  express  approval 
of  the  inspector.     A  system  of  evening  schools 
is  authorized  for  persons  over  13  years  of  age. 
The  number  of  teachers,  in  L874,  was  686.    The 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  during  the  year  was 
93,512;  and  the  number  present,  of  each  loo 
registered, was, in  the  winter,  52.9;  and  in  the 
summer,  57.1.     The  normal  school  had  118  pu- 
pils under  instruction  and  training,  of  whom  so 
received  licenses  to  teach.    The  total  number  of 
teachers  examined  was  L,198,  of  whom  594  were 
licensed.   The  expenditure  for  the  public  schools 
was $552,221,  of  which  the  government  grant 
was  $lf>7,-181;  and  for  the  normal  and  model 
schools,  $4,733,  all  of  which  expense  was  borne 
by  the  government.     In   1875,    there    were    10 
county  academies,  with  43  teachers  and  2,614 
pupils.   There  are  also  a  number  of  special  acad- 
emies,  of  which   the  llorton  Collegiate   School, 
with  I  \'i  pupils,  and   the  I'ictou  Academy,  with 

L20  pupils,  in  L875,  are  the  largest.    The  latter 

institution  was  founded,  in  1816,  on  the  plan  of 
a  Scotch  college,  hut  without  the  power  of  con- 
ferring degrees.  In  addition  to  these  academies, 
there  is  a  aiffh  school   at  NewGlaSffOW,    founded 

in  I860.  The  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 

teal at  entirely  free :  in  L875,it  had  .">  teachers 

and  42  students.    The  University  of  Dalhousie 

now  virtually  fills  the  place  for    many   Veal's  OC- 

cupied  by  the  academy ;  ami  the  latter  is  now 
organized  as  the  highest  or  academic  grade  of  the 
schools  of  the  town.  There  were,  in  L875,five 
colleges:  Dalhousie  College  and  University,  Hali- 


fax; St.  Mary's  College  (Roman  Catholic),  Hali- 
fax ;  Acadia  college  (Baptist).  W  olfville  ;  St. 
Francis  College  (Roman  Catholic),  Antigonish; 
and  King's  College  and  University  (Church  of 
England),  Windsor.  Of  these,  King's  College  and 
Dalhousie  < 'ollege  are  the  largest.  The  former 
originated  in  a  recommendation  made  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Assembly,  in  1  <87.  It 
was  founded  by  an  act  of  parliament,  in  1788, 
and  received  a  royal  charter  from  George  ill., 
in  1802.  I  'onnected  with  it.  is  a  school  of  civil 
engineering,  a  library  of  6,000  volumes,  and  a 
museum  containing  tine  collections  in  the  various 
departments  of  natural  history.  A  collegiate 
school,  which  is  also  connected  with  it,  prepares 
boys  for  the  college.  It  had,  in  1 875,  •">  professors 
and  an  endowment  fund  of  $106,891.  I'alhousie 
( 'ollege  had.  in  1  B75,  <i  professors  and  an  endow- 
ment fund  of  $99,233.  There  is  a  medical  facul- 
ty in  connection  with  the  college,  in  which,  in 
]s7"),  there  were  11  professors. — See  Mabling, 
Canada  Educational  Yearbook  for  187t'» ; 
Lovell's  Gazetteer  of  British  North  America. 

NOVELS.     See  Fiction. 

NUMBER  is  here  considered  as  a  branch  of 
elementary  or  object  instruction.  Great  impor- 
tance should  he  placed  on  the  means  by  which 
children  acquire  their  first  ideas  of  number. 
ie  a  child's  knowledge  of  this  .subject  begins 
with  counting,  the  first  exercises  for  teaching  it 
should  be  the  counting  of  objects.  The  child 
may  first  be  taught  to  count  as  tar  as  /  n  by  us- 
ing tin;  numeral  frame  dp  v.),  or  buttons,  pencils. 
the  fingers, sticks,  marks,  or  other  objects.  Next 
he  should  he  taught  to  count  groups  of  balls, 
buttons,  sticks,  or  other  objects,  used  to  repre- 
sent the  several  numbers,  vn<\  two,  three,  four \ 
five,  etc.  By  using  the  groups  of  objects  thus 
counted  as  illustrations  of  the  several  numbers. 
figures  may  readily  be  taught.  Let  the  pupil 
ei unit  one  hall  on  the  numeral  frame,  one  pencil, 
one  finger,  <>>n>  mark,  and  then  show  him  the 
figure  1  to  represent  the  number  of  each  object. 
Next  let  him  count,  in  groups,  /»'"  balls  on 
the  numeral  frame,  two  pencils,  tiro  fingers, 
two  marks,  etc.;  then  show  the  figure  2  as  a 
symbol  of  the  number  of  objects  in  each  group. 
Afterward,  require  the  pupil  tocount  balls,  pen- 
cils, and  other  objects  in  groups  of  three,  and 
then  show  the  figure  '. 3  as  the  representative  of 
the  number  counted  in  each  group.  In  a  similar 
manner,  the  several  figures  from  2  to  9  may  be 
associated,  and  their  value  learned  by  means  of 
counting.      In  order   to  teach  children  the  value 

of  the  several  figures  by  personal  experience,  let 

them  count  in  groups  two  balls,  or  bullous,  etc.. 
and  ob&  ne  that  each  group  contains  two  ones, 
—  that  two  iB  equal  to  one  and  one  more,  or  two 
ones.  After  the  pupils  have  counted  several 
kinds  of  objects  in  groups  of  three,  lead  them  to 
notice  that  one  and  one  and  one,  or  three  ones, 
make  three,  also  that  too  and  one  make  thnr. 

Proceeding  in  the  same  manner  to  count  in  groups 

•  objects, let  the  pupilsobserve  that  four  ones, 
or  two  and  one  and  one,  or  three  and  one, or  two 
and  two,  or  two  times  two,  make /our.  By  means 


NUMERAL  FRAME 


657 


similar  exercises,  the  value  of  each  Dumber 
from  two  to  nine  may  be  thoroughly  learned  by 
children.  As  additional  exercises,  or  a  review 
of  previous  Lessons,  lei  the  pupils  count  as  many 
balls  on  the  numeral  frame,  or  hold  up  as  many 
fingers,  as  the  given  figure  represents.  By  this 
means, all  the  figures  from  1  to  9  may  he  learned 
as  symbols  of  numbers.  In  subsequent  lessons, 
for  teaching  figures  as  representatives  of  num- 
bers greater  than  nine,  let  the  figures  be  arranged 
in  groups  as  follows : 

First  group,     0,   1,   2,    3,    4,   5,   6,    7,    8,    9 

ondgroup,  10,  1  1.12.  L3,  L4, 15,16,17,  L8,  19 

rd  group,  20,21,22,23,  24,25,26,27,28,29 

and  so  on  to  99.  Requiring  the  pupils  to  count 
as  many  balls,  or  other  objects,  to  represent  in 
order  the  numbers  symbolized  by  each  of  these 
groups,  will  lead  them  to  understand  the  value 
of  the  numbers  that  are  expressed  with  two 
figures.  This  part  of  the  instruction  may  be 
greatly  facilitated  by  giving  the  pupil  several 
small  sticks,  like  matches,  and  requiring  him  to 
count  and  tie  in  bundles  as  many  sticks  as  each 
of  the  figures  from  1  to  9  represents.  Then  to 
furnish  the  pupil  with  favorable  opportunities 
of  learning,  by  personal  observation  and  experi- 
ence, that  each  number  represented  by  two  fig- 
ures in  the  second  group  is  composed  of  one 
buudle  of  ten  ones,  and  one  or  more  single  ones 
aided,  let  him  count  and  tie  in  a  bundle  ten 
sticks  to  represent  the  number  10  ;  and  then  tie 
ten  sticks  in  a  bundle  and  add  to  it  one  single 
si  lck  to  represent  the  number  11,  and  so  on  to  19. 
Two  bundles  of  ten  sticks  each  may  be  made  for 
the  number  20.  and  two  similar  bundles  and  a 
single  stick  for  21;  and  so  on  to  29.  In  this 
manner,  children  may  be  taught  to  comprehend 
the  value  of  all  the  simple  numbers  to  100.  The 
knowledge  obtained  by  means  of  the  exercises 
described  above  will  prepare  the  pupils  to  learn 
readily  and  intelligently  both  the  value  and  the 
form  of  writing  numbers  through  hundreds,  and 
thereby  to  understand  the  principles  of  numera- 
tion and  nutation.  See  Currie,  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Early  and  Infant  School  Education. 
(Edin.  andLond.);  X.  A.  Calkins,  New  Primary 
Object  Lessons  (  New  York,  1  ^71). 

NUMERAL  FRAME.  This  simple  appa- 
ratus has  been  in  use  for  many  centuries.  In 
some  form  or  other,  it  is  now  used  for  teaching 
number,  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  sonic- 
times  employed  to  represent  units,  tens,  hun- 
dreds, thousands,  etc.,  in  numeration.  This  use  of 
the  numeral  frame  renders  it  necessary  to  give  ar- 
tificial values  to  the  balls  on  different  wires;  ami 
notwitlistanding  that  this  is  analogous,  in  order, 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  numerical  system  of 
figures,  there  is  danger  that  young  children,  by 
the  use  of  it  for  this  purpose,  may  become  con- 
fused between  the  actual  numerical  value  of  a 
ball  and  its  several  artificial  values.  Inasmuch 
as  numeration  can  be  illustrated  much  more  in- 
telligently by  the  method  described  under  Num- 
ber (q.  v.),  if  aided  by  the  use  of  the  black- 
bjard,  it  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  an  explana- 
42 


tion  of  it  by  the  numeral  frame;  not,  at  least, 
until  the  pupils  have  acquired  a  definite  under- 
standing  01    the    relation    between    the    value  of 

single  figures,  ami  their  values  as  dependent  upon 
their  relative  positions  in  regard  toother  figures. 
The  most  important  uses  of  the  numeral  frame 

are.  to  teach  a  class   of  pupils  to  count,  and  to 
illustrate  the  value  of  numbers  and  figures;  also 
to  teach  the  first  steps  in  adding,  subtracting, 
multiplying,  and  dividing.     For  the  first  steps  in 
adding,  let  the  pupils  add  balls  on    the    numeral 
frame,  by  o//<>s  as  far  as  ten.      When  they  can  do 
this  readily,  let    them   add   on    the   blackboard  a 
column  composed  of  Is;  then  let  them  add  alike 
column  of  figures  on  their  slates.    Subsequently, 
teach  them  to  add  balls  on  the  numeral  frame  bj 
twos  ;   then  to  add  a  column  of  figure  2s  on  the 
blackboard;  and  then  on  their  slates.    When  the 
adding  of  Is  and  2s  has  thus  been  learned,  pro- 
ceed in  the  same  manner  with  threes,  fours,  etc. 
After  the  pupils  have  learned  to  add   threes  as 
above,  they  may  be  taught  by  these  three  steps 
to  add  Is  and  2s  in  the  same  column ;  then  to 
add  Is,  2s,  and  3s  in  the  same  column.     In  this 
manner  the  pupils  may  be  taught  to  add  readily 
and  rapidly  single  columns  composed   of   such 
figures  as  6,  7,  8,  9.     To  give  children  an  idea  of 
subtraction,  teach  them  to  count  backward  on 
the  numeral  frame  from  ten ;  thus,  10,  9,  8,  7,  6, 
5,  4,  3,  2,  1,  0.     Subsequently,  call  on  a  pupil  to 
hold  the  numeral  frame,  to  take  one  ball  from 
two  balls,  and  tell  how  many  remain;   then  one 
ball  from  three  balls,  etc.     Proceed  in  a  similar 
manner  with  other  numbers,  taking  care  to  ar- 
range the  exercises  so  as  to  give  the  pupils  as 
much  actual  practice  as  possible  in  taking  balls 
or  other  objects  from  a  larger  number  of  ob- 
jects.   To  illustrate  the  first  ideas  of  multiplica- 
tion to  a  class  of  young  pupils,  arrange  the  balls 
on  the  numeral  frame  in  groups  of  twos,  threes, 
etc.    Place  on  one  wire  two  groups  of  two  each, 
and  lead  the  pupils  to  perceive  that  they  may 
say  that,  "two  and   two  make  four;"  or  that 
''two  twos  make  four*' ;   also   that   "two   times 
two    make    four. "       Place    on    another    wire 
three  groups  of  two  each,  and  let   the  pupils 
observe    that    "two    and    two  and   two   make 
six  ;"  or  that  "  three  twos  make  six,"  also  that 
"three  times  two  are  six."     Proceed  in  a  similar 
manner  with  numbers,  and  so  arrange  the  exer- 
cises as  to  furnish  the  pupils  as  much  individual 
]  iractice  as  possibli  •.  A  ft  <  r  each  step  has  been  illus- 
trated by  the  numeral  frame,  place  figures  on 
the  blackboard  to  represent  what  has  been  thus 
taught.    To  illustrate  the  first  ideas  of  division, 
arrange  balls  in  groups  of  four,  six,  eight,  ten,  etc.. 
on  the  different  wires.  Lead  the  pupils  to  see  that 
each  of  these  groups  can  be  divided  into  groups 
of  twos.  Then  require  them  to  divide  the  groups 
thus  and  tell  how   many  groups  of  twos  can  be 
made,  from  four  balls,  six  balls,  eight  balls,  etc. 
I^'t  the  pupils  also  find  how  many  threes  there 
arc  in  six,  nine,  twelve  ;  and  how  many  fours  in 
eight,  twelve,  etc.    That  which  is  learned  in  eai  h 
step  may  be  represented  by  figures  on  the  black- 
board.— (See  Xumber.) 


658 


OBERLIN 


OBJECT  TEACHING 


OBERLIN,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  noted 
philanthropist,  and  the  originator  of  infant 
schools,  was  born  in  Strasbourg,  Aug.  31.,  1740; 
died  at  Waldbach,  in  Alsace,  June  1.,  1826.  He 
was  educated  in  his  native  city,  was  occupied  as 
private  tutor  for  several  years,  and,  in  1706,  be- 
came Protestant  pastor  of  a  district  in  Waldbach. 
w  Inch  had  been  reduced  to  a  condition  of  poverty 
by  the  devastations  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
1  lis  office  as  pastor  of  "Waldbach,  in  the  Han  de 
la  Roche,  in  which  district  the  people  had  been 
brought  to  a  condition  of  helplessness  by  igno- 
rance and  want,  enabled  him  to  exercise  the  power 
almost  of  a  dictator ;  but  this  power  he  used 
solely  for  their  good.  His  first  measures  were 
purely  philanthropic.  He  introduced  better 
methods  of  cultivating  the  soil,  caused  good 
roads,  bridges,  and  dwellings  to  be  constructed, 
and  established  schools,  hospitals,  and  various 
new  branches  of  manufacture.  With  the  in- 
crease of  material  prosperity, the  moral  condition 
of  the  people  was  steadily  advanced,  till,  at  the 
close  of  his  sixty  years'  labors,  the  population, 
originally  f>(l(l,  had  increased  to  more  than  5,l>uii; 
and  the  success  which  attended  his  efforts,  led, 
in  after  years,  to  an  unquestioned  recognition  of 
his  claim  to  a  place  among  the  world's  benefact- 
llis  distinctive  educational  work  was  tin: 
establishment  of  schools,  since  known  as  infant 
s  ihools,  but  then  termed  asylums,  resembling  the 
crSche  (([.  v.).  In  these,  he  gathered  together  the 
children  of  his  parishioners  for  amusement  and 
instruction,  while  their  parents  were  at  work. 
The  idea  of  instruction  seems  originally  to  have 
been  secondary  in  Oberlin's  mind,  his  first 
thought  being  to  occupy  the  children  so  as  to 
1  ■  ive  tlnir  parents  free  to  carry  out  his  plans  for 
the  amelioration  of  their  condition.  The  idea  of 
instructing  them,  however,  must  have  presented 
itself  almosl  immediately;  and  his  method,  by 
combining  these  two  ideas,  was  productive  of  the 
happiesl  results.  In  all  his  efforts,  he  was  affec- 
tionately seconded  by  his  housekeeper.  Louisa, 
■pier.  Memoirs  of  the  life  of  Oberliu  have 
b  ien  published  as  follows:  T.  Sims,  Brief  Memo- 
rials of  Oberlin  (London,  1830);  Memoirs  of 
Oberlin,  with  a  snort  notice  of  Louisa  Schepl  r 
Lou  Ion,  L838  and  L852) ;  and  a  biography  by 
II.  Wabb,  Jb.  (Boston,  L845). 

OBERLIN  COLLEGE,  at  Oberlin,  Ohio, 
was  opened  in  L833  as  the  Oberlin  Collegiate  In- 
stitute, and  received  its  present  title  in  L850.  It 
is  miller  ( !ongregational  control.  Both  sexes  have 
been  a  Imitted  from  the  first;  and.  in  L835,  it  was 
resolved  to  admit  colored  students.  It  has  valu- 
able apparatus  and  cabinets,  and  libraries  con- 
taining about    L 4,000  Volumes.      The  value  of   its 

buildings, grounds,  and  apparatus  is  8170,000; 

the  amount  of  its  produd  IV6  funds.  Si  I  5,000.  The 
tuition  fees  are  small.    The  College  I'm  braces  four 

departments:  (1)  theology;  (2)  philosophy  and  the 
arts,  w  ith  a  classical  and  scientific  course,  a  literary 


course,  and  select  courses;  (3)  preparatory  instruc- 
tion, including  a  classical  and  an  English  school ; 
and  (4)  a  conservatory  of  music,  in  1875 — 6, 
there  were  33  instructors.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents was  as  follows:  theological.  51;  classical  and 
scientific,  147  ;  literary,  14.~>  :  select.  66  :  classical 
schools,  250  ;  English  school.  37'J  :  conservatory 
of  music,  288  ;  total,  deducting  repetitions,  1,216 
(648  male  and  568  female).  The  following  are 
the  names  of  the  presidents  :  the  Rev.  Asa  Ma- 
ban,  1835 — 50 ;  the  Rev.  Charles  G.  Finney, 
1851 — 66;  and  the  Rev.  James  H.  Fairchild, 
the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in  1866. 

OBJECT  TEACHING,  a  method  of  instruc- 
tion in  which  objects  are  employed  by  means  of 
which  to  call  into  systematic  exercise  the  observ- 
ing faculties  of  young  pupils,  with  the  threefold 
object,  (1)  to  cultivate  the  senses,  (2)  to  train  the 
perceptive  faculty,  so  that  the  mind  may  be 
stored  with  clear  and  vivid  ideas,  and  (3),  simul- 
taneously with  these,  to  cultivate  the  power  of 
expression  by  associating  with  the  ideas  thus 
formed  appropriate  language.  The  merit  of 
introducing  object  teaching  as  a  special  method 
of  elementary  instruction,  is  usually  attributed 
to  Pestalozzi;  but  Comenius.  Locke.  Rousseau, 
Basedow,  Bochow,  and  others  based  their  systems 
of  education,  more  or  less,  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple; that  is.  they  recognized  the  necessity  of 
communicating  ideas,  or  of  affording  to  the  mind 
the  means  to  grasp  ideas  from  objects,  by  actual 
perception,  before  attempting  to  teach  the  verbal 

expression  of  those  ideas,  and  that,  without  BU<  h 
ideas,  mere  ••book-learning"  is  useless.  Pestalozzi 
appears,  however,  to  have  had  only  a  slight  knowl- 
edge of  the  works  of  those  educationists.  In- 
spired by  the  reading  of  Rousseau's  Emile  to 
study  the  phases  of  mental  growth,  he  arrived 
at  the  conclusion  that  the  teaching  of  his  day 
was  fundamentally  wrong,  from  its  violation  of, 
or  inattention  to.  the  laws  of  mental  develop- 
ment.     These   laws   he    believed   to   be,   (1)  that 

the  knowledge  of  things  should  precede  thai  of 
words;  (2)  that,  for  the  acquisition  of  this  knowl- 
edge,  the  only  effective  agents,  in  the  first  stages 

of  mental  growth,  are  the  senses,  chief  of  which 
is  the  eye  ;    (3)  that  the  first  objects  to  be  studied 

by  the  child  are  those  immediately  Burroundinc 

it.  and  these,  only  in  their  simplest  forms  and 
relations;  and  (4)  that  from  these  objects  as  a 
center,  the  sphere  of  knowledge  should  be  wid- 
ened by  a  gradual  extension  of  tin.'  powers  of  ob- 
servation to  more  distant  objects.  The  lirst  in- 
struction, therefore, according  to  this  plan,  should 

consist  in  concentrating  the  attention  upon  con- 
crete things,  in  such  a  way  as  to  result  in  a 
thorough  training  of  the  observing  faculties,  so 

that  the  conceptions  with  which  the  mind  is 
stored  may  N'  as  well  defined,  and  as  true  to 
nature,  as  possible.  Bo  impressed  was  I  Ystalo/./.i 
with  the  correctness,  and  the  supreme  importance, 
of  this  method,  that  he  declares  in,  Wit-  Qertrud 


OBJECT   TEACHING 


659 


' 


Hire  Kinder  h-lirt  (1800),  that  the  sum  of  his 
achievements  in  education  is  the  establishment 
of  the  truth  that  "the  culture  of  the  outer  and 
inner  senses  is  the  absolute  foundation  of  all 
knowledge — the  hrst  and  highest  principle  of 
instruction."  The  failure  of  the  first  attempts  of 
Pestalozzi  and  his  followers,  however,  in  the 
practical  application  of  his  theories,  was  dis- 
couraging; and  the  faith  of  the  progressive  edu- 
cators who  had  accepted  them  as  a  new  gospel, 
was  seriously  shaken.  The  reason  of  then?  fail- 
ure, however,  was  that  their  practice  was  in  con- 
flict with  the  very  principles  which  Pestalozzi 
had  enunciated  as  fundamental.  The  human 
body,  with  which  they  began  their  instructions, 
is  not  only  highly  composite  in  its  structure,  and 
difficult  of  description  in  the  language  of  the 
child,  but,  by  its  very  nearness,  is  rendered  unfit 
for  an  object  of  study  by  children,  their  senses 
being  most  powerfully,  and,  indeed,  almost  ex- 
clusively, turned  to  the  observation  of  objects 
external  to  themselves.  By  attempting,  there- 
fore, to  name  in  detail  and  to  describe  the  limbs, 
their  form,  color,  size,  actions,  and  uses,  the 
new  theory  was  exposed  to  the  ridicule  of  its 
enemies,  and  placed  in  serious  peril.  In  all  the 
Protestant  countries  of  Europe,  however,  and 
especially  in  Germany,  the  leaven  of  truth  con- 
tained in  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  wrought  a 
gradual  but  sure  reform  in  the  old  method  of 
instruction.  Attention  having  been  turned  to  a 
serious  consideration  of  the  new  system,  a  num- 
ber of  pedagogical  writers  contributed,  by  their 
discussion  of  its  principles,  to  give  definite  form  to 
the  truth  of  the  theory,  and  gradually  to  improve 
its  practice.  Among  these  writers,  the  names  of 
Harnisch,  Denzel,  Dinter,Diesterweg,  Grassmann, 
Graser,  Wurst,  Curtmann.Volter,  and  Dittes,  de- 
serve mention,  though  scarcely  any  two  of  them 
agree  as  to  the  order  in  which  the  objects  should 
be  introduced,  the  relative  importance  of  the 
purposes  for  which  they  are  used,  or  the  extent 
to  which  the  exercises  should  be  carried.  Object 
teaching  became  universal  in  the  primary  schools; 
and  the  dignity  and  usefulness  of  the  teacher 
were  increased  by  the  very  impossibility  of  pre- 
scribing any  one  method  in  which  the  principles 
should  be  applied,  thus  giving  special  prominence 
to  the  fact  that  the  determining  cause  in  favor 
of  one  method  over  another  was  the  individual 
ability  of  the  teacher.  Instead  of  one  invariable 
method,  which  might  be  unintelligently  acquired 
and  mechanically  applied,  a  variety  of  methods 
now  presented  themselves,  each  dependent  for  its 
success  upon  circumstances.  The  individuality  of 
the  pupil  suddenly  acquired  a  new  importance; 
and  the  teacher's  individuality,  also,  became, 
more  than  ever  before,  an  essential  factor  in  the 
successful  conduct  of  the  school.  For  the  diffi- 
cult work  thus  foreshadowed,  a  long  and  care- 
ful preparation  was  necessary  on  the  part  of  the 
student.  The  first  step  in  this  preparation  was 
the  observation  of  the  educational  work  of  some 
good  teacher;  then,  a  thorough  study,  in  the  nor- 
mal school,  of  the  subjects  of  pedagogy,  psychol- 
ogy,   the     history    of    education,    the    natural 


sciences,  universal  history,  mathematics,  and  arts; 
and,  filially,  a  course  of  practical  teaching  in  trial 
lessons,  under  the  supervision  of  model  teachers 
and  the  student's  own  associates.  Among  the 
writers  above  mentioned,  one  of  the  principal 
points  of  controversy  was  in  regard  to  the  neces- 
sity of  educating  the  senses.  Many  denied  alto- 
gether this  necessity,  and  insisted  that  object 
teaching  should  lie  reserved  exclusively  for  exer- 
cises in  using  and  understanding  language.  The 
senses,  so  they  argued,  take  care  of  themselves, 
whenever  an  interest  in  surrounding  objects  is 
awakened  by  the  necessities  of  daily  life;  and  the 
common  school,  they  said,  can  present  but  few  ob- 
jects of  interest  on  which  the  senses  can  be  prof- 
itably exercised.  If,  for  instance,  pictures  of  ob- 
jects are  presented — as  is  most  freq  uently  the  case, 
and  if  these  pictures  are  large  and  faithful  copies 
of  the  originals — which  is  rarely  the  case — the 
exercise  is  still  confined  to  only  one  sense;  and 
experience  proves  that  this  is  insufficient  to 
awaken  a  lively  interest.  The  impression  made 
on  the  sight,  therefore,  is  short-lived  and  feeble. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  objects  themselves  are 
produced,  as  these  are  generally  house  utensils, 
or  articles  of  school  furniture,  only  a  languid 
interest  is  aroused  in  the  pupils'  minds,  because 
there  is  rarely  any  new  feature  to  be  observed 
in  objects  so  familiar.  The  incentive  to  any  ob- 
servation or  comparison  of  qualities,  therefore,  is 
utterly  wanting;  and  any  sharpening  of  the  senses 
is  improbable.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  exercises 
upon  objects  be  carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
riching the  child's  vocabulary,  and  of  storing  his 
mind  with  just  and  accurate  conceptions,  by 
causing  him  to  connect  with  every  word  its  proper 
idea,  all  will  have  been  done  to  benefit  the  pupil 
that  can  reasonably  be  expected.  The  opponents 
of  this  view,  however,  insisted  that  the  use  of  ob- 
ject teaching  for  the  exclusive  purpose  of  the  ac- 
quisition of  language,  would  overthrow-  that 
fundamental  principle  of  the  system  which  dis- 
countenances mere  word  learning.  The  correct 
understanding  and  use  of  language,  also,  they 
thought,  could  be  learned  as  well  from  books  and 
conversation;  while,  if  the  child  is  made  to  under- 
stand, that  to  talk  fluently  and  correctly  of  ob- 
jects is  all  that  is  required,  and  that  a  real  knowl- 
edge of  those  objects  is  of  no  consequence,  clever 
talk  will  always  be  more  highly  valued  by  him 
than  exact  knowledge.  According  to  their  view, 
the  pupil  brings  with  him  to  the  primary  school 
only  the  raw  material  out  of  which  objective 
knowledge  and  the  proper  use  of  the  senses  may 
be  developed:  his  mental  pictures  are  wanting 
in  definiteness  and  in  order.  These  must  be 
taken  to  pieces,  i.  e.,  analyzed,  and  recomposed,. 
i.  e.,  synthetized,  at  the  sight,  hearing,  or  touch,, 
of  real  objects.  If  the  interest  of  the  children  in 
the  exercise  of  the  senses  is  lacking,  it  is  the 
teacher's  duty  to  excite  it;  and  this  should  be 
easy  with  young  children,  if  the  teacher's  inter- 
est in  the  subject  is  lively  enough  to  communicate 
itself  to  them. — While  the  rapid  progress  of 
science  and  art  in  our  day  infinitely  augments 
the  mass  of  knowledge  which  it  is  desirable  and 


660 


OBJECT   TEACHING 


important  for  every  body  to  learn,  the  increasing 
artificiality  of  our  daily  life  tends  to  alienate  us 
from  a  spontaneous  exercise  of  our  senses:  and 
this  deficiency  must  be  supplied  by  education,  to 
enable  us  to  compass  the  amount  of  knowledge 
which  it  is  desirable  to  acquire.  The  exercise  of 
the  senses  is  not  only  practically  useful,  but  it  is. 
in  most  cases,  full  of  interest.  To  illustrate  this, 
let  pupils  be  asked  to  estimate  by  sight  the  length 
of  a  pen-holder,  the  dimensionsof  a  window  pane, 
distances  on  the  floor  or  on  the  ground,  the 
weight  of  objects  that  can  be  held  in  the  hand: 
or  to  distinguish  shades  of  color,  and  the  differ- 
ences in  pitch  or  quality  of  musical  sounds.  Such 
exercises  are  not  only  amusing,  but  useful ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  abundant  evidence 
that  the  circumstances  of  daily  life  do  not,  of 
themselves,  educate  the  senses.  Thus,  let  a 
dozen  countrymen  be  asked  the  length  of  a  cer- 
tain way  over  which  they  often  travel,  and 
the  probability  is  that  a  dozen  different  answers 
will  be  given,  many  of  them  wide  of  the  mark. 
Instance's   might    be    multiplied    indefinitely    to 

show  thai  the  senses  are  not  self-educative.  Some 
educators,  while  not  objecting  to  any  of  the  five 
purposes  to  which  object  Lessons  may  l>e  applied; 
namely.  (1)  the  preparation  of  the  pupil  for 
serious  learning;  (2)  the  sharpening  of  the  senses, 
and  the  exercise  of  all  the  mental  functions: 
(3)  exercise  in  language;  (4)  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge;  and  (5)  moral  training;  still  have  in- 
sisted that  a  distinction  should  be  made  between 
object  teaching  and  objective  teaching;  the  former 
comprising  exercises  in  which  the  objects 
taught  for  themselves.  /.  e.,  for  instruction  in  all 
the  properties  which  are  peculiar  to  them ;  the 
latter,  for  the  acquisition  of  thai  generalized  or 
fundamental   knowledge   which    is  common  to 

many  widely  dilferent  objects.  The  former,  they 
contended,  should  occupy  only  a  part  of  the 
time  during  the  first  year  or  two,  after  which 
it  should  cease;  but  every  branch  of  learning 
should,  in  turn,  be  treated  objectively.  The 
method  of  procedure  should  be,  first,  the  presen- 
tation of  the  object.  This  should  be  analyzed  by 
the  pupils,  and  immediately  reconstructed,  the 
teacher  supplying  nothing  but  technical  terms 
which  are  supposed  to  be  unknown  to  the  pupils, 
but  guiding  them  by  conversation  to  observe,  com- 
pare, and  reason  correctly  and  in  proper  language, 
to  rise  from  the  single  features  of  the  object  to 
its  entirety,  from  similar  features  to  generali- 
zations, from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  from 
facts  to  laws.  The  opponents  of  this  view  said 
thai  the  principle  was  good,  bu(  did  nol  go  far 
enough.  In  the  firsl  place,  there  is  a  vasl  bodj 
of  knowledge  thai  cannol  be  treated  objectively. 
All  facts,  for  instance,  in  regard  to  the  days  of 

the  week,  and  the  i it  lis.  their  names,  number, 

etc.;  many  tacts  iu    regard    to    time,  such   as  the 

Dumber  of  seconds  in  a  minute,  the  Dumber  of 

minutes    in    an    hour,    etc.,    the    names    of    the 

oiis,     the     method     of     telling    time    by     the 
clock,        these   and    many   other   necessary    . 

cannot  be  objectively  presented,  but  must  lie 
learned  arbitrarily ;   while,  at  a  later  period   iu 


education,  there  appear  astronomical,  geograph- 
ical, and  historical  facts,  which  must  simply  be 
taken  on  trust,  and  committed  to  memory.  In 
view  of  these  things,  text-books  are  indispen- 
sable: and  all  attempts  to  teach  without  them  are 
useless,  and  result  in  a  waste  of  precious  time. 
AVhile  recognizing,  therefore,  the  value  of  object 
teaching  in  many  branches,  and  its  pre-eminent 
value  iii  a  few.  they  assert  that  it  has  its  natural 
limitations  beyond  which  memorizing  and  an 
adherence  to  the  text-book  are  the  only  proper 
means  to  he  relied  upon  by  the  teacher.  At  the 
presentthne,  this  latter  view — that  a  combination 
of  the  two  methods  should  be  employed,  is  in  the 
ascendant.  In  Europe,  especially  in  Germany,  this 
reactionary  movement  is  thought  to  be  fostered 
from  political  and  religious  motives.  In  the  United 
States,  the  demand  for  teachers  has  so  far  ex- 
ceeded the  supply  from  the  normal  schools,  with- 
out a  corresponding  rise  in  salaries,  that  the 
standard  of  qualifications  for  teachers  has  not 
been  maintained  at  the  height  which  many  edu- 
cational reformers  had  hoped  it  would  be.  In  short. 
the  principles  and  system  of  Pestalozzi  cannot  be 
said,  at  the  present  time,  to  be  fully  carried  out. 
Object  teaching  should  be  begun  as  early  as  pos- 
sible, and  in  the  manner  of  the  kindergarten, 
and  should  be  followed  by  objective  and  con- 
ccptive  teaching,  which  should  be  carried  through 
every  branch  of  learning.  The  mental  growth  of 
pupils,  however,  should  not  be  retarded  by  a 
superfluous  use  of  this  method.  A  safe  criterion, 
by  which  the  teacher  may  know,  at  any  moment, 
whether  he  has  made  a  proper  use  of  the  object 
method,  may  be  found  in  the  self-activity  of 
his  pupils,  their  ability  to  grasp. in  their  answers 
to  his  questions,  the  general  fact,  proposition,  or 
law.  The  new  method  is  justly  called  the  cL 
oping  method   (q.  v.),  the  pupils'  minds  being 

made    to   develop   themselves,   the    teacher   only 

suggesting  what  they  are  to  discover.  Every 
pupil  is.  as  it  were,  to  rcdiscovi  r  every  science  in 
the  genetic  method  (q.v.),a  difficult  task  for  the 
teacher,  and  apparently  a  circuitous  way  for  the 
pupil.  But  because  of  its  thoroughness,  it  is  the 
most  rapid  way  of  learning;  and  its  results  are 

indelibly  fixed  in  the  mind.  This  method,  also, 
if  early  begun,  and  consistently  carried  out.  is 
successful  with  every  child,  and  saves  precious 
time,  which,  kit  ei'  in  life,  may  be  devoted  to  tlio>e 
higher  branches  that  lie  beyond  the  common- 
school  course,  but  which  are  every  year  becom- 
ing, in  many  cases,  highly  desirable,  and,  in  some, 
indispensable.     The  literature  of  object  teaching 

is  much  too  extensive  to  permit  the  enumeration 

here  of  more  than  a  few  of  the  principal  works. 
Pestalozzi'ti    complete    works     are     now     (1876) 

undergoing,  in  Germany,  a  second  revision.  Die- 
sterwegs  monthly,  Rheinische  Bldtter,  contains,  in 

its  Ion-  scries. and  in  its  continuation  by  \\  ichard 
I.ange,  more  information  on  this  subject  than 
any  other  work.  The  latest  German  work  of 
a  progressive  nature  is  Fr.  Dittes's  Die  Methodik 
der  VoUcsschvle  auf  geschichtlicher  Grundlagt 
(Leipsic,  1  sT  1 1.  In  English  literature,  compare  the 
works  enumerated    under  Kindergarten. 


OBSERVING    FACULTIES 


OHIO 


66] 


also.  Kiusi's    Biography   of   Pesialozzi    (Tin., 
L875) ;    Haii.mw.  History  of  Pedagogy  i  <  'in.. 

IST-l) :  ami.  (>>///n/r.<  if  Object  Teaching  (N.  V., 
1867)  :  V  A.  Calkins,  Primary  Object  Lessons 
(X.  Y..  1873);  Cubbie,  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Early  School  -  Education  (Edin.,  L857) ; 
Babnabd,  Object  Teaching  (N.  V.,  L860).  (£ 
also  Color,  Form,  Number,  and  Pesialozzi.) 

OBSERVING  FACULTIES.  See  Ivn:i.- 
lectual  Education,  and  Object  Teaching. 

OHIO,  one  of  the  central  states  of  the  Amer- 
ican Union,  at  first  a  part  of  the  North-west 
Territory,  was  admitted  into  the  I'nion  as  a 
state  in  L802,  but  not  organized  as  such  till 
March,  L803.  Its  area  is  3(.I.%-1  sq.  m.;  and  its 
population,  in  1870,  was  2,665,260,  of  whom 
(13.21.3  were  colored  persons. 

Eihio d'u mid  History.  —  The  germ  of  public 
education  in  Ohio  is  to  be  found  in  the  ordinance 
of  July  13..  1 7 s T ,  enacted  to  provide  a  terri- 
torialgovernment  for  the  region  north-west  of  the 
( >hio  river.  At  that  time,  an  association  of  people 
of  New  England — chiefly  soldiers  of  the  Revolu- 
tion- organized  as  the  Ohio  Company  of  Asso- 
ciates, was  negotiating  with  Congress  tor  a  large 
tract  of  land  in  the  west.  Gen.  Rufus  Putnam  was 
the  acknowledged  leader  of  the  movement,  and 
the  Rev.  Manasseh  Cutler.  LL.  I'.,  of  Massachu- 
setts, was  the  agent  to  purchase  the  land.  The  lat- 
ter was  a  man  of  broad  and  liberal  culture;  and, 
at  the  time  the  ordinance  was  framed,  was  con- 
sulted as  to  its  provisions.  It  is  believed  that  to 
1   him  more  than  to  any  other  person  are  to  be 


i 


attributed  those  clauses  which  have  made  the  or- 
dinance so  famous  and  useful:  the  prohibition  of 
slavery,  and  the  declaration  that  "religion,  moral- 
ity, and  knowledge  being  necessary  to  good  gov- 
ernment and  to  the  happiness  of  mankind, 
schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  be  for- 
ever encouraged."  By  the  contract  afterward 
signed  by  Dr.  Cutler  and  Winthrop  Sargent,  on 
the  part  of  the  Ohio  Company,  and  by  the 
Board  of  Treasury,  Oct..  1787,  it  was  stipulated 
that  lot  or  section  number  sixteen  in  each  town- 
ship should  be  set  apart  for  the  maintenance  of 
schools,  and  also,  that  two  complete  townships 
should  be  given  perpetually  for  the  purposes  of 
a  university.  Under  this  contract,  a  sett  lenient 
was  made  at  Marietta.  April  7.,  1  788.  This  was 
the  first  organized  white  settlement  within  the 
present  limits  of  Ohio.  Stimulated  by  the 
example  of  the  Ohio  Company,  John  Oleves 
Symmes,  of  New  Jersey,  negotiated,  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  year  17*7.  for  a  tract  of  land 
lying  between  the  two  Miami  rivers  — the  region 
which  now  includes  Cincinnati,  [n  connection 
with  this  purchase,  Congress  gave  another  town- 
ship of  land  for  a  university.  Congress  after- 
ward gave  the  sixteenth  section  in  each  township 
of  the  state,  or  an  area  equal  to  this,  for  the  sup- 
port of  common  schools.  Thus  one  thirty-sixth 
part  of  all  the  land  of  the  state  WRS  devoted  to 
common  schools,  besides  the  three  townships  for 
universities.  The  early  schools  in  the  state  were 
private  schools.  They  were  more  numerous  in 
the  settlements  formed  by  immigrants  from  the 


more  enlightened  portion  of  the  older  states. 
Often  graduates  of  Yale  or  Harvard  were  teach- 
ers ;  hut.  as  a  rule,  the  teachers  had  little  edu- 
cation, and  the  range  of  instruction  was  very 
limited.  In  the  course  of  time,  school-districts 
were  formed,  and  the  small  revenues  from  leases 
of  school  lands  were  applied  to  the  payment 
of  teachers.  Thus  the  schools  gradually  were 
changed  from  private   schools   to    public  scl Is 

under  legal  control.    The   first   general   school 

law  was  enacted  in  L821.  This  authorized  the 
division  of  townships  into  school-districts,  upon 
a.  majority  vote  of  the  resident  householders,  the 
appointment  of  these  householders  as  school- 
committee  men.  the  erection  of  school  buildings. 

the  employment  of  teachers,  and  the  levying  of 

taxes  upon  all  the  parents  and  guardians  of  chil- 
dren attending  the  schools,  who  were  able  to  pay. 
Cnderthis  law,  however,  action  on  the  part  of 
the  people  was  not  obligatory  ;  and  the  attitude 
of  charity  assumed  by  its  provisions  toward  the 
poor  man  caused  it  to  become  unpopular.  In 
1825,  another  general  school  law  was  passed  by 
which,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the 
state,  a  countytax  for  the  support  of  the  schools 
was  directed  to  be  levied.  This  law  provided 
for  the  '■  instruction  of  youth  in  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  and  other  necessary  blanches  of  a 
common  education."  It  authorized  the  appoint- 
ment, by  the  court  of  common  pleas,  of  exam- 
iners of  schools,  whose  duty  it  was  to  grant 
teachers'  certificates  to  such  applicants  only  as 
should  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  spelling, 
reading,  writing,  and  elementary  arithmetic.  In 
1829,  it  was  found  necessary  to  supplement  the 
county  tax  by  an  assessment  of  rate  bills  on  all 
school  patrons,  in  order  to  keep  the  schools  open 
for  a  reasonable  period.  The  organization  at 
Cincinnati.-  in  1831,  of  a  college  of  teachers, 
composed  of  the  most  prominent  educators  of 
Ohio  and  the  neighboring  states,  led  to  a  gen- 
eral awakening  on  the  subject  of  education,  and 
to  the  need  of  a  superintendent  of  common 
schools.  In  1837.  accordingly,  the  office  of 
state  superintendent  was  created  ;  and  statistical 
information  in  regard  to  the  schools  was  first 
collected  by  the  state  school  department  created 
partly  for  that  purpose.  The  first  annual  re- 
port of  the  state  superintendent  \\  as  largely  in- 
strumental in  bringing  about  the  enactment  of 
the  school  law  of  1838,  by  which  a  state  school 
fund  of  $200,000  was  created,  a  county  tax  of 
2  mills,  and  local  taxes  for  the  building  of  school- 
houses  were  imposed,  and  reports  from  teachers 
were  required,  from  1840  to  L853,  the  secre- 
tary of  State  was,  ex  officio,  state  superintendent. 
In  the  latter  year,  a  law  was  passed  making  each 
township  a  school-district,  and  creatine-  a  town- 
ship board  of  education,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
make  an  estimate,  annually,  of  the  money  re- 
quired for  the  schools,  except  fur  the  payment 
of  teachers;  to  establish  high  schools  in  each 
district,  if  deemed  necessary  by  a.  majority  of 
voters  the  latter  to  decide  the  amount  of  tax 
to  be  levied  for  the  purpose;  and  to  levy  a  tax 
of  not   more  than  2  mills  on  the  dollar,  for  the 


C62 


OHIO 


payment  of  teachers  in  such  schools,  or  for  the 
purposeof  extending  the  terms  of  the  sub-district 

schools  beyond  the  time  provided  for  by  the 
state  funds.  Every  city  or  village  of  .'500  in- 
habitants, also,  was  constitute  1  a  separate  school- 
district.  Various  changes  have  been  made  in 
the  law  from  that  time  to  1873,  relating  prin- 
cipally to  the  amount  of  the  school  tax,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  should  be  levied.  In  that 
year,  all  previous  school  laws  were  codified  :  and 
a  general  law  was  enacted,  by  which  the  various 
systems  of  local  organization  were  made  uniform. 
Slight  amendments  were  made  to  this  law  during 
that  and  the  following  year. 

Stale  Superintendents. — The  first  state  super- 
intendent of  common  schools  was  Samuel 
Lewis,  chosen  by  the  general  assembly,  .March 
31.,  1837.  lie  held  the  office  until  his  resigna- 
tion, in  1840;  when  it  was  abolished,  its  duties 
being  assigned  to  the  secretary  of  state.  Mr. 
Lewis  was  a  man  of  great  earnestness  and  vigor. 
eloquent  in  his  addresses,  and  of  rare  good  sense. 
He  did  a  no!  ile  work  for  the  cause  of  popular 
education.  The  secretaries  of  state  had  little 
time  to  devote  to  the  cause  of  education,  and 
generally  did  little  more  than  refer  to  the  sub- 
ject in  their  annual  reports.  Samuel  Galloway, 
who  was  elected  secretary  in  1844,  gave  the  sub- 
ject much  attention:  and.  by  his  stirring  ad- 
dresses and  reports,  exerted  a  wide  influence. 
ile  held  the  olliee  for  six  years.  In  L853,  the 
office  of  state  superintendent  was  again  made  a 
distinct  one,  under  the  title  of  State  School 
Commissioner,  such  commissioner  to  lie  elected 
by  the  people,  and  to  hold  olliee  for  three  years. 

II.  II.  Barney  was  elected  in  the  fall  of  L853. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Anson  Smith,  who  held 
the  olliee  for  two  terms,      from  1856  until  L862. 

C.  W.  II.  Cathcart  succeeded  him,  but  resigned 
after  holding  the  office  nine  months;  and  E.  B. 
White  was  appointed  by  the  governor  to  com- 
plete the  term,  which  expired  in  1 865.  I  [is succes- 
sor was  John  A.  Norris,  who  was  re-elected  for 
a  second  term,  but  resigned  in  L869  ;  and  W.  I  >. 
Ilenkle  was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacancy.  He 
was  succeeded  1  >y  T.  W.  Ilarvev.  who  continued 
in  olliee  one  term.  The  present  commissioner, 
C.  S.  Smart,  entered  upon  his  duty  in  L875. 

School  System.  -The  principal  educational 
officer  of  tlie  state  is  the  state  commissioner  of 
common  schools,  who  is  elected  for  three  years. 
His  duties  are  the  following:  to  prepare  annually 
a    statistical    report,    showing    the    condition    of 

the  common  schools ;  to  make  such  suggestions 
or  recommendations  to  the  legislature  concern- 
bag  the  schools  of  the  state  as  he  may  deem 
proper;  to  visit  annually  each  of  the  nine 
judicial    districts  of   the   state,   ••superintending 

and  encouraging  teachers'  institutes,  conferring 
with  boards  of  education,  and  other  Bchool  offi- 
consulting  teachers,  visiting  school-,  and 
lelivering  Lectures  on   topics  calculated  to  sub- 
re  the  interests  of  popular  education.  "District 
irds  of  education  are  elected  by  the  people. 
They  maj  authorize,  for  school  purposes,  a  tax 
not  exceeding  seven  mills  on  the  dollar,  may  di 


rect  any  language  to  be  taught  in  the  schools, 
and  are  required  to  provide  instruction  in  (ier- 
man  when  it  is  demanded  by  7")  freeholders,  on 
behalf  of  not  less  than  40  pupils  who  intend  to 
study  both  German  and  English.  They  may 
also  establish  evening  schools  for  whites,  and 
separate  schools  for  colored  children,  when  these 
are  more  than  '2(1  in  number.  In  most  of  the 
cities  and  towns,  the  boards  of  education  ap- 
point superintendents,  as  officers  of  the  local 
school  systems.  These  superintendents  have  a 
general  oversight  of  the  public  schools,  but  are 
themselves  .subject  to  the  control  of  the  boards 
of  education.  They  visit  the  schools,  give  advice 
to  the  teachers,  and  look  after  many  matters 
which  would  otherwise  require  the  personal  at- 
tention of  die  board.  If  they  are  persons  of 
thorough  culture,  they  elevate  the  literary  char- 
acter of  the  teachers  and  schools,  and  often  exert 
a  very  wide  influence.  In  some  cases,  the  super- 
intendent dots  a  limited  work  of  personal  in- 
struction in  the  schools.  A  state  board  of  exam- 
iners, three   in  number,  is   appointed  for  two 

years  by   the   state   commissi r.  to  issue  life 

certificates  to  teachers  after  strict  examination. 
County  boands  of  examiners  are  also  appointed. 

The  COmmon-SChooJ  fund  of  the  state  consists  of 
the  amount  derived  from  a  one-mill  tax  on  tax- 
able property,  and  from  the  proceeds  of  the  sales 
(if  public  lands.  rJ  he  lands  set  apart  for  common 
schools    were    for  a   time   leased,    bul    have  now 

nearly  all  been  sold.  The  proceeds  of  the  sales 
oi  these  school  lands  constitute  "an  irreducible 
fund    for    the  support  of  the  common  schools 

of  the  township  or  other  district  having  credit 
for  the  same. "  Tins  fund  yields  an  interest  of 
six  per  cent.  To  this  should  be  added  rents  etc. 
on  unsold  land,  and  the  revenue  from  certain 
lines  and  licenses.  The  chief  support  of  the 
schools,  however,  comes  from  direct  taxes,  state 
and  district.  At  present,  each  civil  township  is 
a  school-district,  managed  by  a  township  board 
of  education  ;  and  this  district  is  divided  into 
sub-districts  for  the  convenience  of  the  inhab- 
itants. The  title  to  grounds,  school  buildings, 
and  all  other  property,  is  rested  in  the  township 

board.  The  local  directors  of  the  several  sub- 
districts  employ  the  teachers,  purchase  or  lease 

BCl 1  house   sites,   rent    school   rooms,  buy  fuel. 

and   make   all    other  provision  necessary  for  the 

schools.    There  are,  besides  these,  city  districts 

of  the  first  class,  being  cities  with  a  population 
of  over  L 0,000,  city  districts  of  the  second 
■  hiss,  containing  a  less  population,  and  village 
districts.  In  these  districts,  the  hoards  of  cdu- 
'ii  have  somewhat  enlarged  powers.  The 
legal  school  year  is  24  weeks;  the  school  age  is 
from  6  to  21  years. 

Educational  Condition.—  The  whole  number 
of  township  districts  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was 
1,337;  of  sub-districts  in  townships.  10,433;  of 
city,  village,  and  special  districts.  605;  and  of 
(list lit-t  di\isions  included  in  city,  village,  and 
special  districts.  701.  The  whole  number  of 
school  rooms  was  I  1,868,  of  which  150  were 
clas  el  a-    hi'_li  school    moms.      The  whole  nuin- 


OHIO 


603 


ber  of  school-houses  was  10,695,  the  total  value 
of  which,  including  grounds,  was  estimated  at 

Ss.o.'iT.I  Hi.     The   whole  amount  of  school  rev- 
enue was  as  follows  : 

From    interest   ou  irreducible 

funds 1215,718.86 

Prom  rents  of  school  lands. ..     22,283.19 

From  Btate  school  tax 1,560,397.93 

From   local    taxes 6,153,442.63 

Prom  Bale  of  bonds 489,408.32 

From  tines,  licenses,  etc 270,160.94 

Total $8,711,411.86 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows : 

For  teachers'   salaries $4.7*7. !"i'.3.7ti 

For  superintendents'  salaries      158,773.64 

For  sites  ami  buildings 1,313,514.86 

For  fuel  and  contingent  ex- 
penses   1,391,704.42 

Total $7,651,956.68 

The  other  important  items  of  school  statistics 
are  the  following : 

No.  ot  children  of  school  age,  males,    522,418 

females,495,308 


Total 1,017,726 

Total  enrollment:    males, 37.3,436 

females, 336,693 


Total 712,129 

Average   daily  attendance:  males      225,531 

females  209,918 


Total 435,449 


No.    of   teachers    common    schools: 

males, 


No.    of    teachers    in    high 


9  759 
females,  12^092 
schools: 

males,  427 

females,        214 


Total 22,492 

Average  monthly  salary,  common  schools,  males,    847 
"  '«  "'  "  "        feiiiales.Slil 

"  "  "  high         "        males,    $72 

"  "  "  ••  "       females,$57 

Normal  Instruction. — There  are,  in  Ohio,  no 
normal  schools  under  state  control.  Such  schools 
have  been  officially  recommended  by  governors, 
school  commissioners,  etc.,  but  the  state  has 
never  established  them.  To  meet  this  want, 
some  of  the  cities  have  normal  and  training 
schools  as  a  part  of  their  school  systems;  and 
there  are  several  private1  independent  normal 
schools.  The  cities  in  which  there  are  depart- 
ments for  training  teachers  connected  with  the 
public  schools,  are  Cincinnati.  Cleveland.  Day- 
ton, and  Sandusky.  The  primary  design  of 
these  schools  is  to  prepare  teachers  for  their  own 
schools.  Such  teachers  are  generally  graduates 
of  the  city  high  schools,  or  of  schools  of  a  similar 
grade.  The  students  are  not  only  instructed  in 
the  general  principles  and  methods  of  teaching, 
but  in  the  special  methods  in  vogue  in  the 
schools  of  their  respective  cities.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  graduates  of  these  normal  departments 
are  given  a  preference,  by  the  boards  of  educa- 
tion, in  tin'  appointment  of  teachers  for  the  city 
schools.  They  also  receive  a  larger  compensation 
than  teachers  not  so  trained.  The  private  nor- 
mal schools  are  the  following:   The   McNealy 


Normal  School,  at  Hbpedale,  Harrison  Co.:  the 
National  Normal  School,  at  Lebanon,  Warren 
Co.;  the  Western  Reserve  Normal  School,  at 
Milan,  Erie  Co.:  the  Orwell   Normal   School,  at 

Orwell,  Ashtabula  Co.;  the  Northwestern  Ohio 
Normal  School,  at  Ada.  Hardin  Co.;  the  Ohio 
Central  Normal  School,  at  Worthington,  Frank- 
lin Co.;  and  the  Southern  Ohio  Normal  School, 
at  Pleasantville,  Fairfield  Go. 

71  ackers'  Institutes. — The  law  authorizes  the 
teachers  in  each  of  the  several  counties  to  form 
an  association  and  to  hold  annually  an  institute 
for  the  purpose  of  mutual  benefit  and  instruc- 
tion; and  they  are  permitted  to  devote  a  week 
to  attendance  at  the  institute  without  any  de- 
duction from  their  salary  as  teachers.  The  surplus 
money  derived  from  the  examination  fees  paid 
by  all  teachers  when  examined  by  the  board  of 
county  examiners,  after  the  expenses  of  the 
latter  have  been  deducted,  constitutes  an  insti- 
tute fund.  The  county  commissioners  may  add 
to  this  fund,  when  necessary,  a  limited  sum  by 
direct  appropriation.  The  meetings  of  these 
institutes  are  well  attended,  and  are  generally 
conducted  with  spirit.  Methods  of  teaching  the 
several  branches  of  study,  and  of  school  man- 
agement, are  considered  ami  discussed.  In  1875, 
there  were  92  institutes  held,  with  an  aggregate 
attendance  of  10,125  teachers,  at  a  total  expense 
of  $18,988. — Besides  these  county  institutes,  it 
has  been  customary,  in  several  of  the  cities,  to 
hold,  each  year,  a  local  institute  for  the  special 
benefit  of  the  teachers  of  the  city  schools,  the 
first  week  of  the  school  year  being  devoted  to 
this  purpose. 

Secondary  Instruction. —  The  first  graded 
course  of  instruction  was  adopted  in  Cincinnati 
soon  after  the  year  1840.  Since  then,  high 
schools  have  gradually  been  introduced  into  the 
cities  and  towns.  The  Cincinnati  Central  High 
School,  with  a  graded  course,  was  established  in 
1847,  and  classes  wrere  admitted  from  the  lower 
schools  once  each  year.  The  schools  of  Cleve- 
land, Columbus,  Dayton,  and  Portsmouth  adopt- 
ed, in  the  order  named,  the  graded  system;  and 
afterward  the  system  met  with  general  favor 
in  the  larger  places.  These  follow  a  graded 
system  of  instruction  and  generally  require  four 
years  for  the  completion  of  the  full  course. 
Pupils  pass,  by  examination,  to  the  high  schools 
from  the  grammar  schools.  In  this  way,  there 
is  a  perfect  gradation,  and  the  pupils  are  taken 
through  the  progressive  stages  until  they  emerge 
from  the  high  school  with  an  excellent  education. 
Eight  years  are  spent  in  the  common  grades  and 
four  in  the  high  school — in  all  twelve  years. 
The  high  schools  have  largely  displaced  the  old- 
fashioned  academies  upon  private  foundations  ; 
and  it  the  high  schools  were  good  preparatory 
schools  for  the  colleges,  there  would  be  no  further 
need  of  academies  in  the  state.  Few  of  the  high 
schools  have  a  sufficiently  thorough  course  of 
classical  study  to  fit  boys  for  the  best  colleges. 
Greek  is  often  omitted  altogether.  Further- 
more, in  order  to  obtain  the  classical  training 
furnished  by  the  high  school,  it  is  generally  neces- 


itil 


OHIO 


sary  to  take  all  the  other  studies  of  the  full  four 
years'  course,  sum.' (if  which  are  included  in  tin- 
usual  college  course.  Hence,  the  high  schools 
do  not,  as  a  rule  serve  as  preparatory  schools  for 
the  better  class  of  colleges,  such  colleges  in  ( >hio 
being  obliged  to  organize  preparatory  depart- 
ments of  their  own. 

Superior  Instruction.— Thre&sba,te  institutions 
for  higher  education  have  been  established  the 
Ohio  University,  Miami  University,  and  the 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  <  'ollege.  The  state 
has  never  directly  aided  any  of  them,  their  en- 
dowments having  been  derived  from  lands 
granted  by  the  general  government. 

The  state,  under  the  first  constitution,  granted 
college  charters  quite  freely:  and.  under  the  pres- 
ent constitution,  adopted  in  L851,  colleges  may 
be  incorporated  under  a  general  law  without  a 
special  charter.  Some  of  the  colleges  are  close 
corporations,  and  are  independent  of  state  or  ec- 
clesiastical control.  Western  Reserve,  .Marietta, 
and  Oberlin,  are  of  this  class.    The  trustees  of  the 

University  of  Cincinnati  are  appointed  by  the 

city  council.  The  larger  part  of  the  colleges  are 
under  ecclesiastical  supervision.  Some  of  tin- 
Ohio  colleges  are  modeled  after  the  best  institu- 
tions of  the  Eastern  states,  and  are  characterized 
by  thorough  and  exact  scholarship. 

The  following  table  contains  an  enumeration 
of  all  the  important  institutions  of  this  grade  in 
the  state. 

[The  names  of  those  for  females  exclusively  are  pri 
in  Italia;  those  for  both  sexes,  in  small  caps.] 


NAME 


Location 


Antioch  C i    ...  rellow Springs 

Baldwin  I'mvkksity.  Berea 

Buchtkl  College.  . . .  V&ron 

Capital  University.,  .  Columbus 

('in.  Wetleyan  t'olli'i/f.  Cincinnati 

Denison  University..  Granville 

Farmers' College College  Hill 

Franklin  College New  Athens 

"Milium  Wallace  Cull.  Berea 

Heidelberg  College...  Tiffin 

Hitltboro  I'im.  College.  Billsboro 

Hiram   College Hiram 

Kenyou  College Gambier 

BSoCorkle   College....  Bloomneld 

Marietta  College marietta 

Bit.  St.  Marys    of  the 

West Cincinnati 

Mr.  Onion  Colli  si      mi    Union 
\[  i  SKINOI  \i  Col  i.i -'■! ..   New  ( -uncord 

i  HM  1.1  i  -.  i  ollege i  tberlin 

Ohio  Cents  ll  i  !oll.  . .  iberia 

I  Hllu   I    M\  I  RS]  IV Minns 

Ohio  Wetleyan   Univ...  Delaware 

<  me  Stud;  Universit)  8  sio 

i  ii  n.Ki'.i  is  i  m\ w eaten  LUe 

Richmond  College. . . .  Richmond 

Bl    Savier  i  'ollege. . . .  Cincinnati 

I  niv.  of  i  incii.ii.il  i ...  i  -incinnati 

t ' ii i \ .  oi  w  loster Woostei 

i  rbana  University  . . .  Qrbana 

i  I  i;n  i;i  -i  i.\  l 

Ooi  Hudson 


1826    Non  sect. 

>i  i  pis 
u  llmlngti m  Isto    Friends 

Wlllonghby  1868    Moth. 

a.  Id  i       i. nth. 

\.  nia  L850     M.  i 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.     The 

Ohio  Agricultural    and    Mechanical    (ollege  was 

opened,  in   LS73,  near  Columbus,  the  county  of 


\\  ii. in  in  i  mi  i    Univ.. 
Wiin:  ollege. 

WiUoughby < '   : 
Wittenberg  i  lollege. 
\i  m  \  Colli  qi 


When 
ized 


Reli  . 
d<  n 
nation 


L853 
L856 
L872 
1850 
1842 
1831 
1S47 
L825 
1864 
I860 
1839 
1867 
1825 
L873 
Is;;;, 

ls:,l 
1 B58 
i  61 
1833 

is.,  | 

is  n 

lsll 

1847 

Is;;;, 
|s;;| 
1873 
1870 

is.,  I 


I  niiarian 
M .  I  pis. 
Univ. 

K\  .   I.Uth. 
M.   1  pis. 

Bap. 

Nun-sect. 
I  n.  1'resb. 
M.  l'.pis. 
Reformed 

M.   I. pis. 

I  lisciples 

I'r.  Kpis. 
\ss.  I  r,  -I,. 
Non-sect. 

K    C. 
M.  Epis. 
Non-sec! 
Cong. 
i  .  Presb. 
set. 

\1.   I  pis. 
\\.  I  pis. 

i  ,Br.  inC. 

Nun    ■ 
K.  C. 
Non-sect. 
Presb. 
New  Ch'ch 


Franklin  having  offered  §300.000  to  secure  it. 
The  proceeds  of  the  land  grant  of  1862,  which 
constitute  its  endowment,  have  already  reached 
the  Sum  of  $500,000.  In  addition  to  the  neces- 
sary buildings  and  apparatus,  it  has  a  farm  of 
320  acres.  Its  object  is  to  supply  a  general  and 
scientific  education  rather  than  a  professional 
one;  and  to  this  end  its  provisions  are  ample, 
consisting  of  well  -  equipped  departments  in  all 
the  branches  of  natural  science  ordinarily  taught. 
supplemented  by  instruments,  cabinets,  and 
laboratories.  In  the  course  of  study,  a  union  of 
the  obligatory  and  elective  systems  is  followed. 
A  fixed  preparatory  course  of  2  years  is  pursued, 
at  the  end  of  which  the  student  is  permitted  to 
enter  whatever  department  he  may  choose.  The 
number  of  instructors,  in  1875,  was  '.);  the  num- 
ber of  students.  65.  The  Toledo  University  of 
Arts  and  Trades  has  been  recently  organized  for 
the  purpose  of  affording  instruction  to  young 
men  and  women  in  the  branches  indicated  by  its 
name.  In  1*7-4,  one  professor  gave  instruction 
to  89  students.  The  institution  still  lacks  many 
requisites  for  thorough  efficiency,  owing  to  its 
very  recent  establishment.  The  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  at  Cincinnati,  was  founded  in  1829  by 
the  Presbyterians.  It  provides  a  •!  years' course 
of  study.  In  1874,  it  had  5  resident  professors 
and  49  students.  Instruction  in  theology  is  also 
given  at  the  St.  Mary's  Theological  Seminary 
I.'.  0.),  at  Cleveland;  the  Theological  Seminary 
ft  St.  Charles  Borromeo  (R.  C),  at  Carthagena; 
the  I  leidelberg Theological  Seminary  (  Reformed  I, 
at  Tiffin;  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Joinl  Synod  of  Ohio  (Evang.  Lutheran), 
at  Columbus;  the  Union  Biblical  Seminary  (Un. 
Brethren),  at  Dayton:  and  the  United  Presby- 
terian Theological  Seminary,  at  Xenia.  Several  of 
the  secular  colleges  and  universities  of   the  state 

also  bave  separate  departments  for  instruction  in 
theology.  The  Ohio  State  and  Union  Law  Col- 
lege was  founded  at  Cleveland,  in  1856.  Its  aim 
is  to  give  each  student  a  thorough  theoretical  and 
practical  knowledge  of  law,  and  to  accomplish 

him  as  an  extemporaneous  speaker.  For  the  latter 

purpose,  weekly  debates  are  held,  and  law  cases 
arc  provided  in  which  the  actual  practice  of  the 
court  room  is  illustrated.  In  L874,  the  number  of 
professors  of  all  kinds  was  8.  There  is  also  a  law 

school    c iceted    with    \V ilberforce    I ' niversity, 

besides  the  ('incinnati  Law  School,  formerly  a  de- 
partment of  Cincinnati  <  ollege.  closed  since  L8 15. 
Several  institutions  exist  for  t  he  study  of  l  nedicinc, 
i  lie  principal  of  w  Inch  are  the  ( 'ollege  of  Medicine 

and  Surgery,  the   Medical   College  of  Ohio,  the 

Miami  Medical  College,  the  Kclcctic  Medical  In- 
stitute, the  Ohio  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  and 
the  College  of  Pharmacy,  all  at  Cincinnati:  the 

Medical  College  and  the  Homoeopathic  Hospital 
College,  at  Cleveland;  and  the  Starling  Medical 
I  'olleue  and  I  lospital.ai  I  'olumbus.  There  are  de- 
partments, also,  for  the  study  of  medicine  in  some 

of  I  he  colleges  and  universit  ies.      Schoolsof  draw  - 

ing  and  design  exist  in  connection  with  the  I  Di- 
versity of  I  'incinnati  and  the  Mechanics'  Institute. 
The  Dumber  of  pupils  in  each  is  from  300  to  400 


OHIO 


OHIO  CENTRAL  COLLEGE      665 


Special  Instruction. — The  institutions  for  tin- 
blind,  and  tor  the  deaf  and  dumb,  Located  at 
Columbus,  arc  strictly  speaking,  schools.  In 
them  are  taught,  in  addition  to  the  elementary 
branches,  all  the  studies  of  high  schools,  includ- 
ing Latin.  The  instruction  is  thorough  and 
complete,  and  these  institutions  arc  an  honor  to 
the  state.  There  is  also,  at  <  lolumbus,  an  asj  lum 
for  idiotic  and  imbecile  youth,  which  in  its  very 
*  nature  is  a  school.  Of  the  whole  number  un- 
der instruction  in  1875,  '_''>•'>  had  been  taught 
to  read  and  write.  It  has  been  ascertained  that 
one-third  of  the  inmates  can  be  so  trained  as  to 
be  able  to  support  themselves. 

The  Reform  Farm  for  Boys,  located  near 
Lancaster,  Fairfield  Co.,  is  also  a  school.  This 
was  the  first  reformatory  in  the  United  States 
to  adopt  the  "family  plait"  and  has  proved  a 
remarkable  success.  No  walls,  or  cells,  or  iron 
bars  restrain  the  boys.  They  are  grouped  into 
families  under  the  care  of  "elder  brothers",  all 
under  the general  supervision  of  the  commissioner 
in  charge.  Kindness,  and  appeals  to  the  higher 
and  better  nature,  and  to  Christian  principles,  are 
the  guiding  and  controlling  forces,  the  object 
being  nurture  rather  than  discipline  or  punish- 
ment. Of  704 boys,  in  ls7.~>.  only  30  attempted  to 
ipe.  Many  fugitives  return  voluntarily.  Half  of 
each  day  is  spent  in  school,  and  the  other  half  in 
work  upon  the  farm  and  in  shops,  where  the  hoys 
learn  useful  trades.  Most  of  those  who  have  been 
•  discharged  have  become  useful  members  of  so- 
ciety. There  is  a  similar  reform  school  for  girls, 
rat  White  Sulphur  Springs.  Delaware  Co.,  called 
the  Girls'  Industrial  Home.  The  girls  are  grouped 
into  families  and  are  well  taught  in  the  ordinary 
branches  of  education. — The  Soldiers"  and  Sail- 
ors' Orphans'  Home,  located  near  Xenia,  Greene 
( 'o..  is  a  school  as  well  as  a  home.  The  graded 
system  is  adopted,  crowned  with  a  high  school. 
Besides  the  above  institutions  supported  by  the 
state,  there  are  many  of  local  character  in  which 
instruction  is  given  to  the  young. — The  Cincin- 
nati I  louse  of  Refuge  is  a  reform  school,  in  which 
study  and  work  are  combined.  The  Cleveland 
House  of  Refuge  is  similar.  The  Industrial 
School  of  Cleveland  is  a  private  enterprise,  where 

I  instruction  in  letters,  as  well  as  in  sound  moral- 
ity, is  given.  There  are  in  the  state  many  homes 
for  poor  children,  supported,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
by  towns  or  counties,  hi  all  these,  the  elementary 
branches  are  taught. 

Educational  Literature. — Many  different  edu- 
cational journals  have  been  published  in  Ohio,  but 
most  were  short-lived.  The  Ohio  School  Journal 
was  established  by  Dr.  A.  D.  Lord  in  L846,  and 
published  at  Columbus.  In  the  same  year,  the 
School  Friend  was  issued  by  W.  15.  Smith  and  <  !o., 
-  of  Cincinnati.  These  two  journals  were  united,  in 
1850,  under  the  joint  names.  The  last  issue  was 
in  September.  L861.  The  Ohio  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation was  issued  in  .January,  L852,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association,  with 
Dr.  Lord  as  chief  editor,  assisted  by  several  of 
the  leading  educational  men  in  the  state.  It  has 
had  a  Ion-  succession  of  editors  and  several  dif- 


ferent publishers.  In  L 860,  its  name  was  changed 
to  The  Ohio  Educational  Montldy;  and,  in  L861, 
it  passed  under  the  coi  it  ml  of  1''..  K.  White  and  Co.. 
Anson  Smyth  being  the  partner.  Mr.  Smyth 
retired  after  two  sears,  and  Mr.  White  continued 
to  edit  and  publish  it  until  L875,  when  it  was 
transferred  to  its  present  proprietor.  W.  D. 
Henkle.  In  L870,  Mr.  White  issued  an  edition 
of  the  Monthly  for  circulation  within  the  state. 
which  A\as  called  the  National  Teach r.  This 
journal  has  been  the  leading  educational  publica- 
tion in  the  state  since  the  day  of  its  establish- 
ment. In  1875,  W.  D.  Henkle  commenced  the 
publication  of  the  Educational  Notes  and  Que- 
ries, which  supplies  a  want,  and  has  already  at- 
j  tained  a  wide  circulation. 

Teachers'  Associations.  —  In  1829,  "somo 
twenty"  teachers  in  Cincinnati  organized  an  as- 
sociation for  mutual  benefit,  called  the  Western 
Literary  Institute  and  Board  of  Education. 
They  held  monthly  meetings  and  an  anniversary 
meeting.  In  1831,  this  institute  was  merged  in  a 
new  association,  entitled  the  College  of  Teachers, 
having  in  view  the  elevation  of  the  profession  of 
teaching.  Annual  meetings  were  held,  in  which 
valuable  and  elaborate  addresses  and  reports 
were  made  by  the  more  prominent  teachers  and 
friends  of  education  of  Cincinnati  and  of  tin; 
Ohio  valley.  In  the  fourteen  years  of  its  exist- 
ence, more  than  three  hundred  such  addresses 
and  reports  were  given.  The  first  state  conven- 
tion for  the  promotion  of  public  education  was 
held  in  Columbus.  January  13.,  1836.  Similar 
conventions  Mere  held  in  L837  and  in  1838.  The 
Oli  io  State  Teachers' Association  was  formed  at 
Akron,  Dec.  30.,  1847.  This  association  has  been 
continued  to  the  present  time,  and  has  proved  a 
most  efficient  aid  in  promoting  the  progress  of 
popular  education  in  the  state.  It  meets  annually, 
and  is  conducted  with  intelligence  and  spirit. 
A  somewhat  similar  association  for  mutual  con- 
sultation was  formed,  in  lSGT.by  representatives 
of  many  of  the  colleges,  which  is  called  the 
Association  of  Ohio  Colleges.  Annual  meetings 
are  held, and  the  association  is  doing  much  good. 
In  addition  to  these  state  associations,  there  are 
several  more  local  in  character,  such  as  the 
North-Eastern  Ohio  Teachers'  Association,  and 
the  Central  Ohio  Teachers'  Association.  There 
are  also  many  county  teachers'  associations.  A 
History  of  Education  in  Ohio  was  published  in 

1876,  as  "a  centennial  volume",  by  order  of  the 
general  assembly  of  the  state.  It  was  accom- 
panied by  a  volume  of  Historical  Sketches  of 
the    Public    Schools,  ami   another    of    Historical. 

Sketches  of  the  Higher  Educational  Institutions. 
OHIO  CENTRAL  COLLEGE,  at  Iberia, 
founded  in  1854,  is  anon-sectarian  institution. 
I  It  comprises  an  English  department,  especially 
designed  for  those  preparing  to  be  teachers  in 
the  common  schools:  a  preparatory  department; 
and  a  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  and 
a  scientific  course.  Both  sexes  are  admitted. 
The  cost  of  tuition  ranges  from  Sis  to  $2  I  per 
year.  The  Rev.  Win.  Maclaren,  D.D.,  is  (187(i) 
the  president. 


G66 


OHIO   UNIVERSITY 


ONE  STUDY  UNIVERSITY 


OHIO  UNIVERSITY,  at  Athens.  Ohio, 
was  founded  upon  a  grant  of  two  townships  of 
land  by  the  general  government  for  the  endow- 
ment of  a  state  university.  This  was  the  first 
educational  endowment  by  the  general  govern- 
ment, being  made  in  1787.  The  lands  to  be  de- 
voted to  the  support  of  the  university  were 
located  in  1795  :  and.  in  ISO'J,  an  act  was  passed 
by  the  territorial  legislature,  establishing  the 
institution  under  the  name  of  the  American 
Western  University.  Nothing  was  done  under 
this  act ;  and.  in  L804,  the  institution  was  char- 
tered  as  the  Ohio  University.  Instruction  com- 
menced in  1809;  but  a  full  faculty  was  not 
organized  till  1822.  The  institution  is  supported 
by  the  rents  from  its  endowment  and"  by  tuition 
fees.  It  has  a  cabinet,  apparatus,  and  libraries 
containing  8,000  volumes.  The  university  com- 
prisLS  a  preparatory  department  and  a  collegiate 
department,  with  a  classical  course  of  four  years, 
and  a  scientific  course  of  three  years.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  Sis 
a  year  in  the  preparatory,  and  $30  in  the  col- 
legiate, department.  One  student  from  each 
county  of  the  state  is  admitted  free  of  tuition. 
In  1ST.") — (1,  there  were  (5  instructors  and  LOO 
students  (46  collegiate  and  54  preparatory).  The 
presidents  have  been  as  follows  :  the  Rev.  .lames 
Irvine,  A.  M.,  1822— 4;  the  Rev.  Robert  <  i.  Wil- 
son, D.D.,  L824— 39;  the  Rev.  William  H. 
McGuffey,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  1839— 43 ;  the  Rev. 
Alfred  Ryors,  l>.  D.,  L848  -52;  the  Rev.  Solo- 
mon Howard,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  L852— 72;  and  the 
Rev.  William  If.  Scott.  A.  M.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent, appointed  in  L873. 

OHIO  WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY,  at 
Delaware,  Ohio,  founded  in  L842,  is  under  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  control.  The  grounds  consist 
of  30  acres,  and  contain  four  college  buildings. 
There  are  cabinets  of  archaeology,  geology,  min- 
eralogy, and  natural  history,  and  libraries  con- 
taining 13,000  volumes.  The  university  has  an 
endowment  of  $300,000;  and  the  value  of  its 
buildings,  grounds,  etc.,  is  $200,000.  Scholar- 
ships, admitting  the  student  to  all  the  studies 
required  for  graduation,  can  be  purchased  at  the 
university  at  prices  as  follows:  perpetual  scholar- 
ships, $500;  for  twenty  years,  $100;  ten  years, 
$50;  six  years,  $30  ;  four  years,  $20  ;  two  years. 
SI  5.  There  is  a  collegiate  and  a  preparatory  depart 

incut    (with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course), 

and  a  teachers' course.  In  L875 — 6  there  were 
lo  Instructors,  335  students  il  11  collegiate), and 
about  Too  tiiiinuil.  The  presidents  of  the  univer- 
sity have  been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Edward  Thom- 
son, I).  I)..  LI,  !>..  is 1 1  -60;  the  Rev.  Frederick 
Merrick,  M.  A..  L860  -73;  the  Rev.  Lorenzo  D. 
McCabe,  l>.  I>..  LL.  I),  (acting,  is::;  <; :  and 
the  Lev.  Charles  II.  Payne,  l>.l».,  LL. D., elected 
in  1876. 

OLIVET  COLLEGE,  at  Olivet,  Mich.,  was 
founded  in  L844.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  U'r<- 
if  from  $15  tu  $21    a    year,  and  the  income  of 

.-in  endowment  i>\'  $]  ll).(MH).  The  library  contains 

ibouf  6,000  volumes.    The  institution  comprises 
:i  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical,  a  scien- 


tific, and  a  ladies'  course :  and  a  preparatory 
department,  with  a  classical,  an  English,  and  a 
ladies'  course.  Facilities  are  afforded  for  instruc- 
tion in  art,  music,  and  normal  school  branches. 
In  1875 — -6,  there  were  14  instructors  and  317 

J  students  (124  collegiate  and  193  preparatory),  of 
whom  151  were  males  and  166  females.  The 
presidents  of  the  college  have  been  as  follows  : 
the  Rev.  M.  W.  Fairfield,  2  years;  the  Rev.  N. 

|  J.  Morrison.  8  years ;  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Hewitt 
(pro  tern.),  2  years ;  the  Rev.  Oramel  Hosford 
(pro  tern  A  1  year  ;  and  the  Rev.  II.  Q.  Butter- 
field,  D.  I).,  the  present  incumbent  (1876). 

OLMSTED,  Denison,  a  natural  philosopher 
and  educator,  born  in  East  Hartford,  Ot.,  June 
18.,  1791  ;  died  in  New  Haven.  May  13.,  IS.")'./. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  shortly  after 
became  a  tutor  there.  In  1 81  7,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of 
North  Carolina:  and,  while  in  that  position,  he 
proposed  and  completed  the  first  state  geological 
survey  ever  made  in  the  United  States.  In  1825, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy  in  Yale  College,  with  which 
institution  he  remained  connected  till  his  death. 
In  ls.'SO,  he  published  a  theory  of  hail-storms, 
which,  after  much  discussion,  was  accepted  as 
a  valuable  contribution  to  scientific  knowledge. 
Three  years  later,  he  began  an  investigation  into 
the  cause  of  the  shower  of  shooting-stars  which 
occurred  in  1833,  and  made  such  suggestions  in 
regard  to  them  as,  followed  up  by  astronomers 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe. have  led  toa  great 
addition  to  our  knowledge  of  these  singular 
bodies.  Professor  Olmsted,  besides  being  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  scientific  periodicals,  has 
been  the  author  of  many  text-books  on  natural 
science,  the  principal  of  which  are  :  Introduction 
to  Natural  Philosophy  (1831);  Compendium  of 
Natural  Philosophy  (1832);  Introduction  to 
Astro/ami)/  (1839);  Compendium  of  Astronomy 
(1841);  Letter*  on  Astronomy  (1841) ;  and  Ru- 
(liments  af  Natural  Philosophy  and  Astronomy 
(1844). 

ONE  STUDY  UNIVERSITY,  at  Scio. 
Harrison  Co..  Ohio,  under  Methodist  Episcopal 
control,  was  opened  in  the  fall  of  1859,  at  Har- 
lem Springs,  Ohio,  and  was  known  as  the  Rural 
Seminary,  which  name  it  retained,  until  1867, 
when  it  was  removed  to  New  Market  Station, 

and  the  name  changed  to  New  Market  College. 
In  L874,  the  legislature  chanced  the  name  of 
the  village  from  New  Market  to  Scio:  and 
the  name  of  the  college  was  then  changed  to 
One  Study  University.  The  institution  was  char- 
tered in  1866;  and  since  then,  11  1  students  have 
graduated.  The  distinctive  feature  of  this  in- 
stitution is  the  plan  if  study.  Bach  student 
passes  through  t!ie  course  by  taking  up  and 
thoroughly  completing  one  study  at  a  time.  It  is 
Claimed  that  "a  practical  test  of   six    years  shows 

a  great  gain  in  scholarship,  and  a  saving  of  about 

one  third  of  the  usual  time."  Loth  >e\es  are 
admitted.  There  is  a  collegiate  (classical  and 
Scientific),  a    preparatory,   and  a  normal  course. 

Facilities  are  afforded  for  musical  instruction. 


ONTARIO 


GOT 


The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  classical  and  the 
scientific  course  is  812  per  quarter,  of  twelve 
weeks.  In  L874— 5, there  were  1  instructors  and 
11!)  students  (82  collegiate,  *  preparatory,  ami 
29  in, music).  Alfred  I*.  Lee,  A.  M..  has  been 
the  president  from  the  opening  of  the  university. 
ONTARIO,  the  most  populous  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  having  an  area  of  107,780 
sq.  in.,  and  a  population,  according  to  the  census 
of  L871,  of  L ,620,851,  of  whom  466,786  are 
Methodists;  356,442  Presbyterians;  330,995  Epis- 
copalians; and  274,162  Roman  Catholics.  Origi- 
nally a  part  of  the  old  province  of  Quebec,it  was, 
in  1791.  organized  as  an  independent  province. 
under  the  name  of  Upper  Canada.  In  1841,  it 
was  reunited  with  Quebec ;  and.  in  1867,  it  be- 
came a  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  under 
its  present  name. — The  first  settlers  in  Ontario 
Mere  chiefly  from  England  ami  Scotland;  and.  as 
most  of  them  had  received  a  good  education  at 
home,  they  were  anxious  to  provide  good  schools 
for  their  children.  As  early  as  1807,  each  of  the 
eight  districts  into  which  the  province  was  at 
that  time  divided,  had  its  grammar  school.  In 
1816, the  legislative  assembly  passed  the  first  law 
for  the  organization  of  primary  instruction,  and 
appropriated  &6,000  for  carrying  it  out.  In  1  823, 
Sir  Peregrine  Maitlandobtaine  I  permission  from 
the  imperial  government  to  establish  a  board  of 
education  for  the  province,  with  power  to  super- 
intend the  schools,  and  manage  the  university 
and  school  lands.  In  1S44,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ryer- 
&  'ii  was  appointed  superintendent  of  schools;  and. 
before  entering  upon  his  office,  he  visited  Europe 
and  the  United  States,  and  presented  a  report, 
in  which  he  suggested  the  principles  upon  which 
the  school  system  of  the  province  was  afterwards 
constructed.  Dr.  Ryerson  has  ever  since  remained 
at  the  head  of  the  school  system,  the  develop- 
ment of  which  is  chiefly  his  work.  In  1<S50,  the 
comprehensive  school  bill,  which  was  prepared  by 
him,  became  a  law  ;  and,  in  1853,  an  amendment 
act  was  passed  making  several  improvements  in 
the  system.  Separate  Protestant  and  colored 
schools  were  now  permitted,  as  well  as  Roman 
Catholic  schools.  A  most  important  measure, 
making  all  the  public  schools  free,  and  introducing 
compulsory  education,  was  passed  in  1871.  and 
somewhat  modified  in  1874.  The  council  of  public 
instruction  consists  of  the  chief  superintendent,  or 
in  his  absence,  of  the  deputy,  eight  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown, one  member  by  each  of  the 
colleges  having  university  powers,  one  by  masters 
and  teachers  of  high  schools,  one  by  the  public- 
school  inspectors,  and  one  by  the  public  and  sepa- 
rate school-teachers.  Bach  member  holds  office 
for  two  years,  and  is  eligible  to  re-appointment. 
The  council  prescribes  textd>ooks  for  the  normal, 
high,  and  public  schools,  and  makes  rules  and  reg- 
ulations for  their  government.  It  has  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  high-school  inspectors,  the  cen- 
tral committee  of  examiners,  and  the  teachers  of 
the  normal  and  model  schools.  It  prescribes  the 
qualification  of,  and  grants  certificates  to,  inspect- 
ors, examiners,  ami  teachers,  prescribes  library 
and  school  books,  and  makes  regulations  for  the 


superannuation  of  teachers,  to  whom  pensions 
are  granted.  The  chief  superintendent  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  lieutenant-governor.  It  is  his 
duty  to  see  that  all  moneys  drawn  from  the  pro- 
vincial treasury  are  duly  applied,  and  to  have  the 
general  supervision  of  the  schools.  The  county 
councils  levy  for  teachers' salaries  an  amount  equal 

to  the  chief  superintendent's  apportionment;  and 
designate  and  pay  the   county's  proportion  of 

the  salary  of  legally  qualified  inspectors,  each  of 
whom  must  have  not  more  than  120  nor  less 
than  50  schools.  WhereFrench  or  German  is  the 
language  spoken,  the  inspector  may  have  not  less 
than  40  schools  ;  if  there  are  more  than  .">0  schools, 
the  county  must  have  two  or  more  inspectors. 
The  council  is  empowered  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the 
office  of  inspector,  and  to  appoint  not  more  than 
four  pei-sons.  who,  with  the  inspector,  form  a 
board  for  the  examination  of  teachers.  Township 
councils  form  school  sections  with  not  less  than 
50  children.  The  township  councils  are  also  em- 
powered to  establish  township  school  boards,  if 
t  \\  i  (-thirds  of  the  sections  desire  it,  each  board  to 
consist  of  five  trustees;  to  levy  sums  requiredfor 
purchasing  a  township  library,  and  for  the  support 
of  a  township  model  school,  of  which  the  coun- 
cilors are  the  trustees.  City,  town,  and  village 
councils  have  the  same  powers  and  duties  as 
county  and  township  councils.  For  every  school 
section,  a  board  of  three  trustees  is  elected  by  the 
people.  Inspectors  are  appointed  by  county  coun- 
cils, or  by  city  or  town  school  boards,  and  may 
be  dismissed  for  misconduct  by  the  lieutenant- 
governor,  or  by  the  county  or  town  councils.  All 
the  public  schools  are  free;  the  rural  trustees  and 
the  municipal  councils  being  required  to  levy  the 
tax  upon  the  taxable  property,  in  order  to  defray 
the  school  expenses  according  as  the  trustees 
determine.  Ts'o  pupil  can  be  compelled  to  join 
in  any  exercise  of  devotion  or  religious  study 
objected  to  by  the  parents  ;  but  pupils  may  re- 
ceive such  religious  instruction  as  their  parents 
desire,  subject  to  general  regulations.  The  union 
of  the  high  and  public  school  boards  of  a  city 
is  called  the  Board  of  Education  of  that  city, 
and  this  board  possesses  the  same  powers  as 
the  high  and  public  school  trustees.  Parents 
neglecting  to  have  their  children  between  the 
ages  of  7  and  12  years  instructed  for  four  months 
in  the  year,  are  liable  to  a  penalty  ;  but  no  Ro- 
man Catholic  can  be  required  to  attend  a  public 
school,  nor  a  Protestant,  a  I  Ionian  <  'atholic  school. 
The  clergy  of  any  persuasion,  or  their  represent- 
atives, may  use  the  school-house  to  give  religious 
instruction  to  the  pupils  of  their  own  church, 
at  least  once  a  week,  after  1  o'clock.  The  daily 
exercises  must  be  opened  by  reading  a  portion 
of  the  Scripture,  and  by  prayer;  and  the  Ten 
( lommandments  must  be  taught  to  all  the  pupils, 
and  lie  repeated  at  least  once  a  week;  but  no 
pupil  need  he  present  at  these  exercises  against 
the  written  request  of  his  parents.  The  master 
of  the  school  may  suspend,  or,  with  the  consent  of 
the  trustees,  may  expel  a  pupil.  All  teachers  are 
required  to  attend  regularly  the  teachers'  meet- 
ings ;    and    any    teacher    may    be    absent   two 


068 


ONTARIO 


ORAL   INSTRUCTION 


days  every  half  year  for  the  purpose  of  visiting 
other  schools,  and  observing  the  methods  prac- 
ticed therein.  The  laws  governing  I  toman  Catho- 
lic separate  schools  arc  nearly  the  same  as  those 
of  t lie  public  schools.  A  separate  school  may 
share  in  the  provincial  or  municipal  grants,  but 
not  in  municipal  assessments.  The  public  or  sep- 
arate school    hoard   of  any  city  may  establish  an 

industrial  school  for  destitute,  vagrant,  and  de- 
praved children.  The  number  of  children  between 
the  ages  of  •"•  and  L6  years,  in  L874,  was  51 1 ,603; 
the  number  of  schools.  4,758  ;  the  number  of  j>u- 
pils, 464,047 ;  and  the  number  of  teachers,  5,736. 
The  amount  expended  from  grants  was$267,782; 
and  the  amount  raised  and  expended  from  local 
sources,  $2,597,550.  The  Roman  Catholic  sepa- 
rate schools,  which  are  included  in  the  above, 
were  1  <i<">  in  number,  with  22,786  pupils.— By  the 
law  of  1  871 .  the  former  grammar  schools  were 
changed  into  high  schools.  The  course  of  study 
in  these  schools  comprises  the  English  language, 
arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  natural  philos- 
ophy, French.  German,  Latin,  Greek,  chemistry, 
botany,  physiology,  history,  geography,  book- 
keeping, writing,  drawing,  and  penmanship.  The 
governor  may  confer  on  any  high  school,  the 
name  of  collegiate  institute,  if  four  masters  are 
fully  employed,  and  an  average  of  60  male  pupils  in 
the  classics  is  maintained;  and  such  institute  may 
receive  an  additional  $750  per  annum,  while  that 
standard  is  maintained.  The  Dumber  of  high 
schools,   in    L874,    was  10,'!.   with   240   teachers,  a 

total  enrollment  of  7,871  pupils,  and  an  average 
attendance  of  4,621.  The  expenditure,  including 
a  grant  of  $78,494,  was  $286,593.     Besides  the 

public  schools,  there  were,  in  L874,  280  colle- 
giate and  private  schools,  organized  independently 
of  the  school  laws,  with  aboul  8,500  pupils  and 

540  teachers.      The    University    of   Toronto    was 

established,  in  L827,  as  King's  College.  The  in- 
stitution was  inaugurated,  and  the  first  students 
were  admitted,  in    L843.     The  university    confers 

the  degrees  of  Master  of  Arts,  and   [Bachelor  of 

Arts.  Connected  with  the  university  there  is  a 
faculty  of  medicine  ami  of  law,  a  school  of  civil 
engineering,    and    a    department    of    agriculture. 

each  department   < ferring  the   usual  degrees. 

The  University  College  of  Toronto  was  original- 
ly a  part  of  the  university  :  but  was  separated 
from  it  in  L853.  By  this  act.  the  university  be- 
came the  examining  body,  also  conferring  de- 
grees in  arts,  law,  and  medicine  ;  and  the  college 

was   constituted  a    teaching    institution    for    the 

faculty  of  arts.  The  course  of  instruction  pre- 
scribed by  the  university  has  been  adopted  by 
the  college,  ami  its  lectures  are  given  on  the  sub- 
jects appointed  for  candidates  for  the  degree  nl 
I!.  A.,  in-  lor  the  diplomas  in  civil  engineering 
ami  agriculture.  The  University  of  Victoria  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodisl 
Church.  It  was  opened  as  an  academy  for  both 
sexes,  in  L836,  ami  received  the  usual  university 

powers,  in  L841,  and  its  present  name.      It  has  a 

faculty  of  arts,  a  scientific  department,  a  faculty 

medicine,   a    faculty    of   law.  and  a  faculty  of 

theology.     It  confers  the  usual  degrees  in  each 


faculty.  ^  The  Cobourg  Collegiate  School  serves 
as  a  preparatory  department  for  the  university. 
Queen's  University  and  College,  in  Kingston, 
was  established  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  of 
Upper  Canada,  in  1840,  as  the  University  of 
Kingston.  This  act  was  disallowed:  and.  in 
1841,  the  queen  issued  her  letters  patent,  incor- 
porating the  institution.  The  first  session  was 
opened  in  L842,  with  11  students.  A  faculty  of 
medicine  was  organized  in  1854,  but  became  a 
separate  school  in  1  H(>6,  under  the  name  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons.  It 
has  its  seat  in  Kingston,  and  is  connected  with 
the  university.  The  faculty  of  law  which  was 
opened  in  L861,was  discontinued  in  1863.  Since 
the  opening  of  the  college.  871  students  have 
been  enrolled,  and  ">'_'fi  degrees  have  been  con- 
ferred. The  university  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church.  Trinity  College  was 
established  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  in  1851, 
and  was  opened  the  same  year.  The  Cniversity 
of  Trinity  College  was  established  by  a  royal 
charter  in  L852,  and  was  empowered  to  confer 
degrees  in  divinity,  arts,  law.  and  medicine.  <  »t- 
tawa  College,  in  Ottawa,  was  incorporated,  and 
empowered  to  grant  university  degrees,  in  1866* 

It  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Oblate  Fathers 
of  Mary  Immaculate.  Albert  Cniversity.  in 
Belleville,  was  incorporated  in  ls.">7.as  Belleville 
Seminary,  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
It  received  limited  university  powers  in  1866, 
and  full  powers,  in  1871.  It  has  faculties  of  arts, 
law.  music,  theology,  and  engineering,  and  a  de- 
partment of  agriculture.  There  are,  also  in  the 
provinces  large  number  of  professional  and  scien- 
tific schools.  Institutions  for  the  special  instruc- 
tion of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  blind,  for 
orphans,  and  for  vagrants  and  young  criminals 
are  also  provided.  The  number  of  Sunday-schools, 
in  1874,  was  about  3,500,  with  197,000  scholars 
and  22,700  teachers.  —  See  Mauling,  Canada 
Educational  Yearbook  and  Director)/  for  1  - 
I,o\  ki.i.'s  Gazetteer  if  British   North  America^ 

I  873)  :  I  'u  u  \  i:  w  (formerly  minister  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  pro\  inee  of  Quebec),  in  Si  hmid's  l-'.n- 
cy clopddie,  art.  Canada  (2d  edit.,  L876). 

'  ORAL  INSTRUCTION  is  a  technical  term 
in   use    in   the    common  schools  of   the  United 

States  to  denote  instruction,  without  text-books. 

in  the  nature  and  uses  of  common  objects,  and 

also  in  the  elements  of  natural  science.  In  a 
certain  sense. till  instruction  given  by  the  teacher 

in  the  .lass  room,  either  to  supplement  the  text- 
book, or  by  way  of  general  explanation,  may  be 
said  to  be  oral  :  and.  considered  in  this  sense,  it 
belongs  to  every  subject  taught.  Cut  oral  instruc- 
tion, as  it  appears  in  courses  of  study,  is  limited 
to  a  distinct  channel  of  teaching,  and,  therefi 
is  nut  to  he  confounded  with  general  class  in- 
struction in  the  entire  range  of  subjects.  Il  is 
distinct  from  object  teaching,  because  it  is  i  •  t 
Confined  to  teaching  through  sensible  objects.    It 

deals  also  with  more  advanced  pupils     those. for 

example,  who  have  passed  through  the  lowest.  0T 
primary   grade.;,  and    who    may    be  supposed  to 

have  benefited  by  what  is  known  as  object  teach- 


ORAL    INSTlirCTION 


660 


lug.     It  has  to  do,  moreover,  with  elementary 
knowledge,  and  has  been  gradually  narrowed  to 
instruction  in  natural  science.  A3  might  be  gath- 
ered from  the  word  oral,  its  leading  or  cardinal 
idea  is  instruction  without   a  fcext-book.    The 
teacher  is  in  the  place  of  the  book.  The  informa- 
tion given  flows  entirely  from  him  ;  and  the  skill 
with  which  he  imparts  this,  is  the  measure  of  his 
Buccess.   Closelyallied  in  importance  to  die  fore- 
going, is  the  principle  that  the  instruction  shall 
be  familiar.     In  its  methods,  it  must  approach 
closely  those  that  arc  adopted  in  an  intelligent 
family  circle;  it  must   emulate    the  kindliness, 
patience,  and  watchfulness  of  a  parent,  or  of 
a  deeply  interested  friend.     With  a  clear  i  lea  as 
to  the  kind  and  amount   of   instruction   to   be 
given  at  each  lesson,  it  must  avoid  mere  amuse- 
ment and  puerilities,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
danger  of  a  mechanical  and  hard  method,  on  the 
other.     The  test  of  such  familiar  instruction  is 
the  interest  which  the  teacher  creates  and  main- 
tains; the  want  of  life  and  animation  on  the  part 
of  the   pupils  is  an  unfailing   measure   of   the 
teacher's  short-coming.     But    instruction    to    lie 
familiar  must  be  fertile  in  illustration.     In  no 
part  of  the  teacher's  work  is  there  greater  need 
of  versatility.  It  is  in  this  that  the  vast  advan- 
tage of  oral  teaching  over  that  which  depends  on 
the  text-book  is  apparent.  Pliancy,  variety,  suit- 
ableness to  the  particular  wants  of  certain  pupils, 
or  of  the  class  as  a  whole,  simple  familiar  allu- 
sions and  illustrations,  all  come  iuto  play.  If  ex- 
periments are  necessary,  they  should  be  always  of 
the  simplest  kind,  and  with  the  commonest  mate- 
rials, such  as  nearly  every  child  can  obtain,  if  he 
can  be  induced  to  imitate  the  experiments.  So  far 
as  objects  are  needed,  those  that  are  easily  obtain- 
able are  to  be  preferred.     The  approach   to  the 
pupil's  mind  through  his  senses  is  carefully  to  be 
kept  open;  most  constantly  of  all,  the  avenue  of 
sight,  although,  of  course,   the  other  senses  are 
not  to  be  neglected.     As  a  natural  result  of  this 
familiar  instruction,   the  interest  of  the  pupils 
will  manifest  itself  in  inquiries,  and  especially  in 
a  desire  to  communicate  the  glimmerings  of  their 
own  knowledge.  This  will  render  the  exercise  still 
more  familiar,  break  down  the  barrier  of  reserve 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  stimulate  observation 
and  thought  throughout  the  class,  and  react  on 
the  mind  of  the  teacher,  com] idling  perhaps  new 
illustrations,  a  more  carefully  considered  state- 
ment, or  fresh  investigation  outside  of  school. 
From  wdiat  has  been  stated,  it  will  be  seen  that 
oral  instruction  is  widely  separated  from  lectur- 
ing.   The  children  are  brought  immediately  in 
contact  with  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  by  means 
of  skillful  questioning  on  his  part,  by  requiring 
from  them  connectedstat  tments,  and  by  stimulat- 
ing them  with  his  approval  when  a  happy  answer 
or  statement  has  been  made.  This  method  never 
loses  sightof  class  instruction,  and, therefore,  can- 
not be  carried  on  without  the  assistance  of  the 
class.  Nor  is  it  a  recitation  in  the  generally  recei  vo  1 
acceptation  of  the  word.     There  is  no  lesson  to 
be  learned  in  the  sense  implied  by  a  recitation, 
nor  any  to  be  recited.    The  memory  is  of  course 


taxed,  but  it  is  not  taxed  by  any  lesson  to  be 
committed  as  a  task.  The  measure  of  the  pupil's 

interest  is  the  measure  of  his  acquisition.  What- 
ever he  learns  is  in  no  sense  compulsory.  Skillful 
reviewing  is.  indeed,  used  to  test  the  hold  that  the 
oral  instruction  has   kept    on    the    pupil,    and   to 

supplement  what  has  been  imparted,  by  new  or 
more   lively   illustration.     But  repetition,  in  a 

mechanical  or  rote  sense,  as  understood  to  he  ;m 
underlying  principle  in  text-book  instruction,  is 
not  used  in  oral  instruction.  The  subjects  to  which 
oral  instruction,  as  a  special  method,  is  usually 
confined,  are  embraced,  under  the  head  of  natural 
science.  While  it  does  not  aim  to  make  the 
instruction  in  these  subjects  scientific,  it  doe- 
aim  to  impart  such  instruction  in  a  methodical 
way.  and  with  the  most  careful  accuracy.  Wher- 
ever classification  is  necessary,  such  classifica- 
tion, naturally,  beconfes  more  or  less  scientific. 
Whenever  definitions  are  necessary,  they  must 
approach  scientific  accuracy.  But  the  scientific 
nomenclature,  except  in  those  cases  in  which  it 
has  passed  into  common  use.  is  carefully  avoided. 
Latin  or  Greek  terms,  therefore,  being  burden- 
some to  the  young,  however  instructive  to  the 
adult,  arc  generally  to  be  discarded. and  familiaror 
common  names  to  be  used.  As  a  thorough 
scientific  classification  is  not  the  object  of  oral 
instruction,  neither  does  it  endeavor  to  make  the 
treatment  of  the  various  subjects  exhaustive.  It 
has  done  much  of  its  true  work  when  it  has 
awakened  attention,  strengthened  observation, 
led  the  pupils  to  collect  illustrative  objects,  taught 
them  to  group  and  arrange  what  they  have  ob- 
served,  and  implanted  in  them  a  tolerably  clear 
idea  of  the  simpler  elements  of  the  science,  to 
which  the  instruction  has  been  confined.  It  has 
done  its  full  work  when,  in  addition  to  this,  it  has 
accustomed  the  pupil  to  express,  in  his  own 
language,  what  he  has  learned  and  retained, 
without  the  painful  halting  and  poverty  of 
language  so  often  manifest  in  the  class  room. 
With  some  approach  to  scientific  accuracy,  oral 
instruction  may  be  defined  as  the  union  of  con- 
ceptive  and  objective  training.  It  does  not  dis- 
card objective  illustration,  nor  does  it  depend 
entirely  on  the  development  of  perception  to 
furnish  new  ideas.  It  proceeds  on  the  principle, 
that,  in  the  mind  of  every  healthy  child  of  eight 
years  of  age,  there  is  a  vast  number  of  tolerably 
distiuct  conceptions,  obtained  through  the 
senses,  as  well  as  from  conversation,  from  read- 
ing, from  home  instruction,  and  from  play;  that 
these  conceptions  are  particularly  abundant  in 
relation  to  natural  objects;  and  that  it  is  the  of- 
fice of  the  oral  instructor  to  recognize  their  exist- 
ence  by  using  them  to  form  more  complex  ideas, 
or  as  the  nucleuses  around  which  to  arrange  the 
new  ideas  imparted  during  instruction.  As  to 
tin'  age  when  this  instruction  should  be  given,  as 
well  as  its  importance,  the  following  words  of 
President  Porter,  in  flu1  Human  lnti'!i,-<i,  may 
be  cited.  "The  studies  which  should  be  tint 
pursued  are  those  which  require  and  discipline 
the  powers  of  observation  and  acquisition, 
and  which  involve  imagination  and  memory,  in 


670 


ORDER 


OREGON 


contrast  with  those  which  demand  severe  efforts 
and  trained  habits  of  thought.  Inasmuch  also  as 
material  objects  are  apprehended  and  mastered 
in  early  life  with  far  greater  ease  and  success 
than  the  acts  and  states  of  the  spirit,  objective 
and  material  studies  should  have  almost  the  ex- 
clusive precedence.  The  capacity  of  exact  and 
discriminating  perception,  and  of  clear  and  re- 
tentive memory,  should  be  developed  as  largely 
as  possible.  The  imagination  in  all  its  forms 
should  be  directed  and  elevated— we  do  not  say 
stimulated,  because  in  the  case  of  most  children, 
its  activity  is  never-tiring,  whether  they  be  at 
study,  work,  or  play.  We  do  not  say,  cultivate 
perception,  memory  and  fancy,  to  the  exclusion 
or  repression  of  thought,  for  this  is  impossible. 
These  powers,  if  exercised  by  human  beings,  must 
be  interpenetrated  by  thought.  If  wisely  culti- 
vated by  studies  j  »•<  iperly  arranged,  they  will  neces- 
sarily involve  discrimination,  comparison,  and 
explanation.  To  teach  pure  observation,  or  the 
mastery  of  objects  or  words,  without  classifica- 
tion and  interpretation,  is  to  be  ignorant  even 
to  simple  stupidity."  Further  on,  the  same  author, 
in  speaking  of  the  various  studies  to  be  prose- 
cuted in  childhood  says,  "Natural  history  in  all  its 
branches,  as  contrasted  with  the  sciences  of 
nature,  or  scientific  physics,  should  be  mastered 
with  the  objects  before  the  eye  -flowers,  miner- 
als, shells,  birds,  and  beasts.  These  studies  should 
all  be  mastered  in  the  spring-time  of  life,  when 
the  tastes  are  simple,  the  heart  is  fresh,  and  the 
eye  is  sharp  and  clear.  I  Jut  science  of  every  kind. 
whether  of  language,  of  nature,  of  the  soul,  or  of 
God,  as  science  should  not  be  prematurely 
taught."— See  How  to  Teach  (X.  V..  L874); 
Baenard,  Oral  Training  Lessons  in  Natural 
Science  (N.  Y.,  1871);  Youmans,  The  Culture 
Demanded  by  Modern  Life  (X.  V.,  1867); 
Burton,  The  Culture  of  the  Observing  Faculties 
(X.  Y..  1865). 

ORDER,  in  school  management,  implies 
(1)  the  existence  of  a  judicious  system  of  regu- 
lations, and  (2)  a  uniform  and  habitual  observ- 
ance of  them  by  the  pupils.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  important  elements  of  a  good  school,  since 
it  enables  the  teacher  to  concentrate  all  its  edu- 
cative agencies  without  embarrassment  OT  inter- 
ruption. The  characteristics  of  good  order  are 
1 1  j  attention  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  to  the 
Legitimate  work  of  the  school.  (2)  obedience  and 
n  sped  to  teachers.  (.'{)  decorous  deportment — ■ 
the  absence  Of  tumult,  rudeness,  frivolity,  and 
frolicsome  actions,  calculated  to  disturb  the 
school,  and  (4)  propriety  and  exactness  in  the 
Bchool  evolutions  and  drill.     Order  is  the  result 

of  skill  and  tact  on  the  part    of  the   teacher:  but 

it  cannol  be  fully  maintained  unless  he  is  vested 

with  suitable  authority,  so  as  to  be  able  to  cor- 
rect disorder,  as  soon  as  it  manifests  itself.  Gen- 
eral disorder  in  a  school  can  result  only  from 
bad  management,  indicating   incompetency   on 

the  part  01  the  teacher.  "If  a  school  be  well  or- 
ganized", says  Wickersham,  "its  classes  well  ar- 
ranged, its  work  well  systematized;  if  pupils  be 
properly  employed  in  study,  in  recitation,  in  ex- 


ercise: if  school-government  l>e  well  understood 
and  wisely  administered,  a  large  proportion  of 
the  offenses  which  now  occur  in  school  will  dis- 
appear. ' —  (See  Discipline,  and  Government.) 

ORDER  OF  STUDIES.  See  Course  of 
Instruction. 

OREGON,  one  of  the  Pacific  states  of  the 
American  Union,  originally  a  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Oregon,  which  was  organized  in  1848, 
and  comprised  all  the  U.  8.  territory  west  of  the 
Rocky  mountains  and  north  of  the  parallel  of 
42°.  From  this,  the  territory  of  Washington 
was  formed,  in  L853;  and,  in  1 851).  Oregon  was 
admitted  into  the  Union,  as  a  state,  with  its 
present  limits.  Its  area  is  95.274  sq.  in.;  and  its 
population,  in  1870,  was  90,923,  of  whom  340 
were  colored  persons,  3,330  Chinese. 

Educational  Histori/. — As  early  as  1850,  while 
( Iregon  was  yet  a  territory,  its  laws  provided  for 
the  establishment  of  public  schools:  but  the  want 
of  teachers,  and  the  unsettled  character  of  the 
population,  made  it  difficult  to  organize  any  ef- 
fective system.  According  to  the  census  of  1850, 
there  were  in  the  territory  '-V1  academies;  a  flour- 
ishing institute  belonging  to  the  Methodists,  near 
Salem:  and  two  female  seminaries  at  Oregon 
City.  A  general  recommendation  in  behalf  of 
education  was  made  by  the  first  constitution  of 
the  state,  adopted  in  L859;  and  certain  specified 
sources  of  revenue  were  assigned  for  the  produc- 
tion of  a  permanent  school  fund.  No  state  super- 
intendent or  board  of  education  was.  however, 
created,  the  governor  being  required  to  include 
the  care  of  the  schools  with  his  other  duties;  but 
one  of  tin-  sections  provided  that .  after  five  y>  ars. 

it  should  be  competent  for  the  legislature  to  pro- 
vide for  the  election  of  a  superintendent,  in  1872, 

a  general  school   law  was    passed,  which  created 

the  office  of  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, and  provided  for  the  election  of  county 
superintendents  and  district  directors.  This  law 
is  Still  in  force.  The  first  superintendent  was 
Sylvester  ( '.  Simpson,  appointed,  ad  inU  rim,  by 
the  governor,  in  1873  ;  and.  in  1874,  L.  L.  Kow- 
land  was  elected  to  succeed  him. 
School  System. — By  the  law  of  1872,  which 

went  into  effect  in  L873,  the  state  board  of 
education,  consisting  of  the  governor,  secretary 
of   State,   and    state   superintendent,   is  charged 

with  the  care  of  the  public  schools.  It  holds  semi- 
annual meetings,  at  which  it  examines  teachers, 
prescribes  a  course  of  study  for  the  public  schools. 

designates  the   text-books    to    be    used,   and    lays 

down  general  rules  for  the  management  of  the 

schools.     The  diplomas  issued  by  the   board   are 

of  two  kinds,  life  and  state  the  latter  valid  for 
6  years  throughout  the  state.    It  also  issues  first 

and  second  giadc  certificates,  valid    for   2   years, 

and  6  months,  respectively.  The  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  is  elected  by  the 
people  for  I  years,  and  is.  ex  officio,  secretary  of 

the  board  of  education,  lie  exercises  a  general 
supervision  over  the  public  Bchools  and  over 
subordinate  officers;  holds  annually,  at  the  cap- 
ital, a  state  teachers'  institute,  and  local  insti- 
tutes in  the  judicial  districts;  and  makes  a  report 


OREGON 


671 


to  the  legislature  once  in  2  years.  Com////  super- 
intendents aw  elected  biennially.  Their  duties 
are  to  divide  their  counties  into  school-districts; 
to  establish  new  districts  when  directed  by  a 
majority  of  the  legal  voters;  to  apportion  the 
school  fund  ;  to  take  charge  of  the  school  lands, 
selecting  in  each  township  the  Kith  and  36th 
sections;  and  to  examine  teachers,  granting  cer- 
tificates graduated  according  to  qualifications. 
They  are.  also,  required  to  visit  the  schools  under 
their  jurisdiction,  and  to  make  annual  reports  to 
the  state  superintendent.  Three  district  directors 
are  elected,  whose  terms  of  office  are  3  years,  one 
director  being  chosen  annually  in  each  district. 
A  district  clerk,  also,  is  annually  elected,  who 
acts  as  the  executive  officer  of  the  board  of 
directors.  The  permanent  school  fund  consists 
of  the  proceeds  of  all  lands  granted  to  the  state 
for  educational  purposes,  except  university  lands; 
all  money  accruing  to  the  state  by  escheat  and 
forfeiture;  all  money  for  exemption  from  military 
services;  all  gifts,  devises,  and  bequests  made  by 
any  person  to  the  state  for  common-school  pur- 
poses; all  the  proceeds  of  the  lands  granted  to 
the  state  by  Congress,  in  1841;  and  5  per  cent 
of  the  proceeds  of  the  land  to  which  the  state 
was  entitled  on  her  admission  into  the  Union. 
In  1875.  this  fund,  derived  mainly  from  the  sale 
or  rent  of  the  500,000  acres  of  lands  given  by  the 
general  government,  amounted  to  8564,000,  be- 
sides about  8*750,000  not  then  available.  The  in- 
come from  this  was,  at  that  time,  $56,400.  The 
university  land  grant  of  66,080  acres  has,  thus 
far,  yielded  about  §100,000.  The  school  revenue 
is  further  increased  annually  by  a  state  3  mill 
tax.  by  county  and  district  taxes,  by  rate-bills, 
and  by  voluntary  contributions.  The  legal  school 
age  is  from  4  to  20  years ;  the  school  year,  60 
days ;  the  school  week,  5  days.  The  course  of 
study  comprises  orthography,  reading,  writing, 
mental  and  practical  arithmetic,  English  gram- 
mar, geography,  and  modern  history,  in  addition 
to  these  branches,  which  are  obligatory,  others 
may  be  taught,  up  to,  but  not  including,  training 
for  college.  In  one  of  the  schools,  in  every  dis- 
trict of  not  less  than  10,000  inhabitants,  instruc- 
tion is  directed  to  be  given  in  the  German  lan- 
guage, if  applied  for  by  100  voters. 

Educational  Condition. — The  whole  number 
of  schools  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was  594,  of 
which  4  were  high  schools,  31  were  graded 
schools,  and  559,  ungraded.  The  income  was  as 
follows:  from  state  tax,  830,273  ;  from  interest 
on  the  permanent  fund,  $56,400;  total,  886,673 
Other  items  of  school  statistics  are  the  following: 

Xuniber  of  children  of  school  age: 

males 23,265 

females 21,396 

Total ~~  ~~44,6G1 

Number  of  teachers  in  public  schools: 

males 40(5 

females. .  4") 7 

Total .  053 

Average  duration  of  school,  in  days 105| 

Average  monthly  salary  of  male  teachers $.".  1 .45 

"  "  "       "  female      "       $45.50 

Estimated  value  of  school  property $350, QUO 


Normal  Instruction. — Provision  is  made  for 
the    professional    education   of    teachers    by    the 

Pacific  University,  Willamette   University,  and 

Me.Minnville  College.     In  the   first,  a  COUTSe  of  2 

years  is  provided,  admission  to  which  is  granted 
alter  a  satisfactory  examination  is  passed  in 
arithmetic,  penmanship,  reading,  spelling,  En- 
glish grammar,  geography,  the  history  of  the 
United  States,  and  elementary  algebra.  A 
limited  number  of  teachers'  institutes  have  been 
held  since  the  organization  of  the  public-school 
system.  The  State  Teachers'  Institute  held  a 
meeting  at  Salem,  in  L875. 

Secondary  Instruction. — Of  the  4  high  schools 
existing  in  1874,  the  mosl  important  is  that  at 
Portland.  Besides  giving  instruction  in  all  the 
higher  English  branches,  it  affords  opportunities 
for  the  study  of  Latin,  Greek,  French,  and 
German.  Its  course  of  study  extends  over  3 
years.  Five  private  schools  and  academies  exist 
in  the  state,  and  there  are  preparatory  classes 
connected  with  nearly  all  of  the  colleges.  The 
commercial  department  of  Willamette  I  University 
furnishes  instruction  to  between  60  and  70  stu- 
dents in  a  single  year's  course,  in  this  respect 
taking  the  place  of  the  ordinary  business  college. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. —  A 
few  institutions  of  this  class  exist,  the  prin- 
cipal being  the  Portland  Academy  and  Female 
Seminary  (Methodist  Episcopal).  St.  Mary's 
Academy  for  Young  Ladies  (Roman  Catholic), 
and  the  Bishop  Scott  Grammar  and  Divinity 
School  (Episcopal).  In  all  these,  the  grade  of 
instruction  is  secondary,  or  above;  in  one,  the 
course  extending  as  far  as  the  third  year  of  the 
college  curriculum.  The  Chinese  Mission  School 
of  Portland  was  established  by  the  Baptists,  in 
1874.  While  imparting  religious  instruction,  it 
also  supports  an  evening  school,  in  which  music 
and  the  ordinary  branches  of  an  English  edu- 
cation are  taught. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  colleges  and  uni- 
versities are  as  follows: 


NAME 


Christian  College 

Corvallis  College 

McMinnville    College 

( tn  >g(  >n  State  University . . 
Pacific  Univ.  and  Tualatin 

Academy 

Philomath  College 

Willamette  University. ... 


Location 


Monmouth 

Corvallis 

McMiimviUe 

Eugene  City 
Forest  Grove 

Philomath 
Salem 


When 
found 

ed 


1865 
1868 
1858 
1872 

Is.M 

1865 

1853 


Denomi- 
nation 


'  'hristian 
M.  Ep.  s. 
Baptist 
Non-sect 
Evang. 

0.  Breth. 
M.  Epii 


Of  the  above,  the  Oregon  State  University, 
though  founded  in  1872,  had  not,  up  to  1875, 
been  opened;  $25,000  yet  remaining  to  be  raised 
by  the  county,  in  order  to  entitle  the  regents  to 
the  use  of  the  8(50,000  already  raised.  In  all 
the  other  institutions  enumerated  in  the  table, 
both  sexes  are  admitted.  St.  Helen's  Hall,  Port- 
land, is  the  only  institution  in  the  state  for  the 
higher  education  of  women  exclusively.  The 
regular  course  of  study  occupies  5  years,  but 
academic  degrees  are  not  conferred. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — ■ 
Corvallis   State    Agricultural    College    (q.  v.), 


GT2 


ORPHAN    ASYLUMS 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


+hough  founded  by  the  Methodists,  has  received 
the  congressional  grant  of  !M),IMIO  acres,  and  is 
the  only  institution  in  the  state  in  which  in- 
struction in  agriculture  is  given.  Though  still 
iimler  sectarian  control,  it  receives  annually  from 
1  he  state  an  appropriation  of  95,000.  There  is, 
also,  a  scientific  department  and  a  medical  de- 
partment in  Willamette  Iniversity. 

Special  LislriirHnii. — The  Institution  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  at  Salem,  was  founded  in  1*70, 
by  an  annual  appropriation  of  $2,000  for '_'  years. 
In  L873,  a  further  appropriation  of  $4,500  was 
made,  which  was  increased,  in  L874,  to  $5,000. 
It  had,  in  187">,  3  instructors,  and  an  average  of 


pupil 


Tlic  Oregon  School  for  the  Education 


22 

of  the  Blind  was  founded  at  Salem,  in  1872,  by 
an  appropriation  of  $4,000.  It  was  opened  in 
L873  with  one  instructor  and  7  pupils.  The  fol- 
lowing year,  the  legislature  authorized  an  an- 
nual appropriation  of  $2,000  for  its  support. 
In  addition  to  instruction  in  the  elementary 
branches  which  are  usually  taught  in  common 
schools,  special  instruction  is  given  in  pin-type 
printing,  music  (vocal  and  instrumental',  plain 
sewing,  and  fancy  work. 

ORPHAN  ASYLUMS,  or  Orphan  Houses, 
are  institutions  in  which  orphans  arc  received 
and  educated.  Although  some  arrangements  for 
the  support  of  orphans  arc  met  with  in  the 
history  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  and,  to  a 
much  greater  extent  among  the  Hebrews,  the 
establishment  of  special  institutions  for  their 
care  ami  education  is  due  to  the  influence  of 
Christianity.  The  first  orphan  houses  [orphano- 
trophic?)  appear  to  have  been  founded  in  the  time 
of  Constantine  L;  and  the  church  law  expressly 
placed  them  under  the  control  of  the  clergy.  In  the 
1  1  tli  century.  France  had  a  confraternity  whose 
chief  object  was  the  support  of  orphans.  The 
number  of  special  orphan  institutions  remained, 
however, comparatively  small,  until  A.I  I.  Francke 
(q.  v.)  excited  a  mure  general  interest  in  their 
behalf,  and  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  their  more 
rapid  progress.  Among  the  rulers  of  Europe, 
none  gained  so  great  a  distinction  for  a  kindlj 
ami  active  promotion  of  orphan  education  as  the 
empress  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  The  num- 
ber of  orphan  asylums  in  the  United  States  is 
very  large,  nearly  every  state  being  represented 
in  the  list.  Girard  College,  in  Philadelphia,  is, 
in  every  respect,  one  of  the  foremost  orphan 
houses  of  the  world.  Its  founder.  Stephen  Gi- 
rard (born  in  Bordeaux,  France,  in  1750;  died 
in  L831,  in  Philadelphia),  left  by  his  last  will 
$2,000,000  for  the  erection  of  an  institution  in 

which  should  l>e  maintained  and  educat  sd  asmany 

white  male  orphans  as  might  be  in  need  of  such 
support.    It  was  opened  in  L848,  with  a  class  of 

11)0  orphans,  and,  in  L875,  contained    .">:">();  but, 

in  thai  year,  the  erection  of  additional  buildings 
had  been  resolved  upon.  The  permanent  income 
From  the  estate  will  support  about  L,050orphans. 
The  large  majority  of  orphan  houses, both  in  the 

United  States  and  in  Europe,  arc  charitable  in- 
stitutions, supported  by  endowments  and  volun- 
tary contributions.    Quite  a  number  are  main- 


tained and  controlled  by  each  particular  religious 
denomination,  a  noble  rivalry  existing  among 
the  churches  of  the  civilized  world,  to  provide  in 
an  efficient  manner  for  their  own  orphans.  Only 
quite  recently  have  state  and  municipal  govern- 
ments begun  to  recognize  the  care  of  orphans 
as  a  duty,  and  to  make  appropriations  for  their 
education.  Thus,  there  were,  in  1874,  in  the 
United  States.  "_'l  soldiers'  and  Bailors'  orphans' 
homes,  chiefly   maintained    by   state   appropria- 

j  tions. —  It  is  natural  to  expect  that,  in  a  great 
many  orphan  houses,  the  instruction  imparted 
would  lie   inferior  to  that  which  children  under 

\  the  care  of  their  parents  usually  receive  at  school 

and  at   home.     In  ] rly  endowed  schools,  the 

number  of  inmates  is  too  large  in  proportion  to 
that  of  the  instructors  and  other  employes  ;  and. 
consequently,  sufficient  attention  cannot  be  be- 
stowed upon  individual  wants.  It  has  been  espe- 
cially noticed  that  the  too  strict  uniformity  to 
which  orphan  children  are  usually  subjected  in 
their  daily  occupations,  produces  a  lack  of  versa- 
tility and  sprightiiness,  which,  when  they  are  dis- 
missed from  the  asylums,  prejudices  employers 
against  them.  The  hygienic  condition  of  these  in- 
stitutions has  also  been  found,  in  many  instances. 
to  be  very  unsatisfactory.    As  many  Orphans  are 

the  offspring  of  depraved  parents,  there  is  great 

danger  from  the  admission  of  children  of  \  icious 
habits.  It  has.  therefore,  been  proposed  to  bring 
I  together  only  a  small  number  of  orphans  (from 
lo  to  20)  into  a  kind  of  family,  and  thus  to  fur- 
nish the  best  attainable  substitute  for  a  good 
home  education,  others  have  recommended  that 
orphans  should  be  committed,  for  their  educa- 
tion, to  private  families  rather  than  to  institu- 
tions. Experience,  however,  has  shown  that  even 
these  methods  of  providing  for  orphans  are  by 
no  means  devoid  of  danger.  A  full  and  inter- 
esting account  of  the  orphan  asylums  in  the 
United  States  is  given  in  No.  6  of  the  Circulars 
of  Information  of  tli<>  V.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, containing  Statements  relating  to  Reform- 
atory, Gliaritable,  <ni<l  Industrial  Schools  for  tin' 
Young  (Washington,  1875).  The  early  history 
of  orphan  houses  is  fully  treated  of  by  De  Ge- 
rando,  in  his  work  De  la  Bienfaisance  Pub- 
lique.  (Sec  also  Foindi.ini;  Asylums,  Industrial 
Schools,  and  Reform  Schools.) 

ORTHOGRAPHY,  as  a  science,  treats  of 
the  representation  of  spoken  language  by  visible 
signs;    it  includes   a   systematic   history  of  such 

signs,  and  a  discussion  of  the  principles  accord- 
ing   to    which   they   should   be  made    and    used. 

■ 

Picture  writing  is  first  used;  pictures  of  objects 

are  used  as  signs  of  the  names  of  the  objects, 
then  of  initial  syllables  in  such  names,  and  final- 

l\  of  elementary  sounds.  The  pictures,  meantime, 
are  abbreviated  and  modified  to  what  we  call 
letters.  The  essential  principle  of  alphabetic 
writing  is  that  a  perfect  alphabet  must  have  one 
character  for  eacti  elementary  sound  in  the  lan- 
guage, and  only  one.  Subordinate  rules  arc.  that 
the  characters  should  be  easy  to  write  and  to 

distinguish, and  shapely  :  like  sounds  should  have 
like  signs,  and   similar  series  of  sounds   should 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


673 


have  analogous  sots  of  signs;  each   character 
should  In'  so  shaped  as  to  suggest,  to  some  extent, 
the  position  of  the  organs  of  speech  in  form- 
ing the  sound ;   derived  alphabets  are  esteemed 
the  better  for  embodying  important  history  ;  all 
cations  should  use  the  same  signs  with  similar 
values.     No  nation  has  ever   made  any  near  ap- 
proach to  a  perfect  alphabet.    The  growth  from 
picture  writing  goes  on  without  much  guidance 
from  ideas  ;  and  all  the  qualities  which  are  mere- 
ly matters  of  history  and  symmetry,  are  of  little 
consequence  in  comparison  with  the  essential 
principle  of  phonetic  convenience.    A  good  his- 
torical sketch  of  writing  is  to  be  found  in  Whit- 
ney's  Language  and  the   Study  of  language 
iNew  York,  L867);  see  also  Steinthal's  The  Ent- 
wickelung  der  Schrift  (Berlin,  1  ^~>'l  i.   The  Anglo- 
Saxon  language  was  reduced  to  writing  in   Ro- 
man letters  by  the  missionaries,  who  converted  the 
people  to  '  'hristianity.and  gave  them  a  pretty  good 
alphabet.    The  letters  were  used  in  their  Roman 
values,    or   nearly  so.  and   new  characters  were 
added  for  the  sounds  of  a  infat,th  in  their,  (dh) 
ill  in  thine, and  w.    After  the  Norman  conquest, 
chaos  came  again  with   Anglo-Saxon ,  or  rather 
English,  spelling.    A  large  part  of  the  words  of 
each  rare  of  the  new  people  were  difficult  for 
the  other  to  pronounce.     The  scholars  inclined 
to  spell  in  the  old  hook  fashion:  but  the  Normans 
dropped  the  special  Anglo-Saxon  discriminations, 
and  left  many  of  their  own  letters  standing  which 
were  not  pronounced  by  the  people;   and  many 
letters  were  inserted  to  no  purpose  in  ill-directed 
attempts  to  represent  the  strange  combinations. 
Then  followed  a  change  in  the  whole  gamut,  so 
to  speak,  of  the  vowel  sounds.    The  close  vowels 
changed    under   the   accent  into  diphthongs  by 
taking  an  a  sound  before  them.     The  old  i  as  in 
machine  has  thus  changed  to  ai,  as  in  mine;  u 
as  in  rule  has  given  rise  to  au,  as  in  house.    The 
open  and  mixed  vowels  have  become  closer:  a,  as 
in  far,  changing  to  a  (i.  e..  e)  in  fate  or  wall,  or  to 
o  in  home  ( A-S.  ham) ;  e  as  in  they,  changing  toe 
( i.  e.,  i)  in  me;  o  as  in.  foe,  changing  to  oo  (i.  e.,  u)  as 
in  moon  (A-S.  mona).  Single  characters  have  thus 
come  to  stand  for  diphthongs,  and  the  long  and 
short  sounds,  which  go  in  pairs  in  other  languages, 
are  denoted  in  ours  by  different  characters,  and 
come  from  different  sources.  Intermediate  between 
the  old  a  [far)  and  e  (met)  has  become  established 
a  in  fat,  fare ;  between  a  [far)  and  o  (note),  o  in 
not  and  nor,  and  the  sounds  of  u  in  but,  burn, 
have  also  arisen.   All  these  have  no  special  signs. 
Four  consonants   sh,   zh.  if/,  dh  are  in  the  same 
condition.    The  people  have  long  since  ceased  to 
feel  any  necessity  for  keeping  sounds  and  signs 
together.    Changes  go  on  without  any  record  in 
the  writing:  etymologists  slip  in  new  silent   let- 
ters, on  the  ground  of  imaginary  derivations:  old 
monsters,  fertile  in  the  popular  fancy,  propagate 
themselves  in  the  congenial  environment  :   and. 
altogether,  we  have  attained  the  worst  alphabet- 
ical spelling  in  the  world.    For  the  history  of  all 
these  changes,  see  Ellis's   History  of  English 
Pronunciation  (Ixmdon,  1867):  Sweet's  History 
'/English  Sounds  (London,  1874);  Haldeman's 
43 


Analytic  Orthography  (Phila.,  1858);  Mabch*8 
Anglo-Saxon  Grammar  (N.  Y .,  1870) :  and  the 
articles  Anglo-Saxon,  and  English,  the  Study 
op,  with  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

Orthography,  in  a  narrower  sense,  is  the  art  of 
spelling  correctly,  according  to  the  standard  of  a 
language.  It  firsl  demands  me  attention  of  teach- 
ers as  the  art  of  inculcating  the  spelling  of  English 
according  to  the  dictionaries  of  our  language.  In 
early  times,  there  was  no  standard  English  spell- 
ing. The  printers  added  or  subtracted  letters  for 

convenience  of  spacing;  the  same  word  will  be 
found   spelt   several   different  ways  on  the  same 

page.  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary  (1755)  was  the 
iirst  recognized  standard.  The  common  way  of 
teaching  spelling,  is  to  teach  from  a  spelling-book 
the  form  and  name  of  each  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  ;  then  to  practice  on  combinations 
of  the  letters  in  pairstnaming  each  letter  and 
then  uttering  the  sound  of  the  combination  : 
then  to  practice  in  thesame  way  on  combinations 
of    three  letters:  then  on  words  of  two  syllables, 

and  so  on.  These  syllables  and  words  are  selected 
with  care;  similar  sounds  are  grouped  together, 
and  the  groups  arranged  in  a  progressive  order 
of  difficulty  in  spelling-books.     The  first  steps 
of  this  process  maybe  made  easier  by  using  blocks 
with  the  letters  on  them  for  the  learner  to  name 
and  arrange  into  syllables;  by    setting  him  to 
write  the  letters  on  the  slate,  the  paper,  or  on  the 
blackboard;  by  adding  picturesoi  the  objects  the 
names  of  which  are  spelt;  or  by  the  use  of  rhj  mes, 
and  other  contrivances  of  artificial  memory.  An- 
other method  is  to  begin  with  words  as  who 
ami. after  some  progress  has  been  made  in  reading 
in  that  way,  to  direct  attention  to  the  separate 
letters,  their  names,  and  sounds  (word  method] 
Teachers  proceeding  in  this  way  often  name  the 
letters  by  the  sounds  which  they  have  in  the  word 
to  be  spelt, and  not  by  their  proper  names.  Thisis 
sometimes  called  the  phonic  method.  Scholars  are 
led  on  to  more  difficult  words.  Text-books  of  hard 
words,  more  or  less  classified,  with  rules   for  the 
most  puzzling  groups,  are  prepared,  and  blanks 
for  written  exercises  in  Spelling.  Some  little  help 
may  be  gained  by  rules,  and  mnemonic  contriv- 
ances ;  but  the  standard  spelling  of  our  language 
is  so  irregular,  that  continual  practice  for  many 
years  is  necessary  to  make  any  approach  to  the 
mastery  of  it.     Among  the  most  efficient  helps 
to  the  teacher  is  the  spelling  match,  for  which 
sides  are  chosen  which  contend  for  the  victory. 
It  should  be  noted  that  continual  practice  in  read- 
ing and  writing  is  needed,   or  training  to  spell 
aloud  in  class  will   not    save   from   mistakes   in 
writing.    Further,  the  most  important  words  for 
each  person  are  his  own  vocabulary, — the  words 
which  he  uses  in  his  own  writing.    Perfect  ac- 
curacy in  these  is  the  end  most  to  be  desired  in 
teaching.    If  this  habit  is  once  established, un- 
usual words  will  be  looked  up.  when   the  writer 
has  occasion  to  Use  them.    With  all  aids  ami  arts, 

good  s] idling  is  one  of  the  rare  ami  costly  accom- 
plishments :  and,  naturally,  stress  is  laid  on  it  as 
the  sien  of  a  thoroughly  educated  person  out  of 
all  proportion  to  its  real  value.   It  is  made  prom- 


t>T4 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


inent  in  all  civil  service  examinations  and  en- 
trance examinations  to  colleges  and  universities. 
In  the  civil  service  examinations  in  England,  out 
of  1,972  failures  1,80(5  candidates  failed  in  spell- 
ing. But  it  is  said  that  the  documents  prepared 
by  the  prime  ministers  of  England  show  that  no 
one  of  them  could  have  passed  these  examina- 
tions in  spelling.  The  best  teachers  in  other  re- 
spects often  fail  in  spelling.  English  orthography 
is  the  opprobrium  of  English  scholarship,  and 
the  greatest  hindcrance  to  education  and  to  the 
spread  of  our  language.  <  >ur  children  spend  three 
years  in  learning  to  spell  a  little;  while  German 
children  get  further  in  a  t  welvemonth.  There  are 
about  5,500,000  illiterates  in  the  United  States. 
(See  articles  on  Illiteracy  and  Phonetics.) 
M  i  I  lions  of  dollars  are  spent  every  year  in  printing 
silent  letters.  Earnest  efforts  are  now  making  for 
reform.  The  philological  associations  of  Eng- 
land and  America,  teachers'  associations,  state 
and  national,  in  England  and  America,  and  some 
state  legislatures,  have  committees  appointed  on 
the  subject.  Several  schemes  of  reform  have 
been  presented,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  those  of  A.. I.  Ellis  and  I.  Pitman,  E.  Jones, 
A.  M.  Bell,  and  E.  Leigh.  Mr.  Hell  has  invented 
a  set  of  characters  wholly  unlike  our  present  let- 
ters, which  indicate  by  their  form  the  position 
of  the  organs  of  speech.  It  can  hardly  come  into 
speedy  use  in  common  books.  Scholars  have  be- 
gun to  use  it  somewhat  in  scientific  treatises. 
(See  Bell,  Visible  Speech,  London,  L867.)  Mr. 
Pitman  has  proposed  an  alphabet  containing  16 
new  letters;  and  there  is  already  quite  a  body  of 
literature  in  that  alphabet.  I  le  publishes  a  Pho- 
neiic  Journal,  having  a  circulation  of  1.0,000  cop- 
ies in  various  parts  of  the  world.  ( 'harts  for  lect- 
urers, and  for  school  display,  and  other  means  of 
instruction  adapted  to  it,  are  at  hand.  1  >r.  E.  I  <eigh 
has  combined  a  phonetic  print,  like  Pitman's, 
with  the  standard  spelling.  (See  Leigh,  Pro- 
nouncing Orthography,  St.  Louis,  1864,  and  his 
later  publications  in  New  York.)  Elementary 
books  for  schools,  printed  according  to  his  system, 
have  been  used  for  ten  years  in  St.  Louis,  Wash- 
ington, New  York,  Boston,  and  other  cities,  and 
are  said  to  save  much  of  the  time  usually  spent 
in  learning  to  read.  Editions  of  must  of  the 
elementary  books  (primers,  etc.)  published  in  the 
United  States  are  issued  in  Leigh's  print.  (See 
Phonetics.)  Mr.  Kllis  and  Mr.  Jones  propose 
systems  based  on  the  present  spelling,  using 
always  the  same  letters  for  ea cl I  Bound  that  are 
now  oftenest  used  to  denote  it,  as  follows: 
Mr.  Jones's  scheme)  ,i  as  in  at,  aa  (fathei 
ai{aid),au  [taught), b,c  (cat),ch  (chip),d,  e  [met 
ee  (eel),/,  g(go),  h,  i  (in),  ie  I  pie), ./'.  /.  m,  n,  rig 
(8ing),o  (on),oe(foi  \,oi(oil),oo  out), 

■.  s  (sun  i.  8h  (snip),  /.  ill  [their,  thine),  u  (bun  I, 
ue  (hue),  v,   to,  il).      This  scheme  is  de- 

fective in  giving  the  letters  different  values  in  com- 
bination from  those  which  they  have  when  alone, 
and  in  representing  so  many  elementary  sounds 
by  digraphs.  Besides,  it  does  not  serve  to  bring  our 

spelling  into  harmony  with  other  languages.  Its 
advantage  is,  that  it  can  be  set  up  from  common 


printer's  cases,  and  that  it  can  be  read  by  any  one 
who  can  read  the  old  spelling.  (See  A.  J.  Ellis, 
Early  English  Pronunciation,  London.  1867; 
E.  Jones,  A  Revision  of  English  Spelling  a  Na- 
tional Necessity,  London,  1875 ;  E.  B.  Burns, 
A/tr/lr>-Aii/<  ri'<;i//(Jrt//n:/r<ij>l/>/,'Se\\'YoTk,18'~iG). 

According  to  the  principles  laid  down  by  the 
American  Philological  Association,  by  the  In- 
ternational Convention  for  the  Reform  of  English 
(  hi hoeraphy,  held  in  Philadelphia.  August.  1876, 
and  by  the  Spelling  Reform  Association,  which  are 
generally  approved  by  scholars,  the  Roman  alpha- 
bet is  so  widely  used  that  it  cannot  be  displaced, 
and  the  eff<  >rts  of  scholars  in  adaptingit  to  English 
should  Ijc  directed  to  using  it  with  uniformity 
and  in  conformity  with  other  nations.  The  let- 
ters now  used  in  nearly  their  Roman  sound  are 
a  [far),  b,  c  (k),  d,  e  (met),f,g  (go),  h,  i  (pick), 
I.  in.  //.  o  (note),  p,  q,  r,  s  (so),  t,  u  (rude).  To 
these  it  is  agreed  to  add  r,  >t\  y,z  with  their  com- 
monest English  power.  Three  new  short  vowels 
need  signs,  those  iii  fa!,  not,  but;  for  easy  intro- 
duction, these  should  be  slight  modifications  of  a. 
0,  ".  such  as  for  example  a,  o\  v.  The  Romanic 
languages  have  heretofore  used  onesicn  for  a  short 
vowel  and  its  corresponding  long  sound,  adding 
a  diacritical  mark  when  great  precision  is  needed. 
This  would  be  acceptable  in  English  for  a  (ask, 
far),  a  (fat,  fare),  o  (obey,  note),  er  (net,  nor), 
u  (full,  rude),  d  (but.  burn).  For  e  (let,  1 
two  characters  are  needed,  a  variation  of  e  look 
ing  like  a  is  of  good  promise;  such  as,  for  example. 
s  as  in  fate  :  i  in  pick,  pique,  perhaps  may  stand, 
for  diphthongs  there  follow  at  (by),  au  (house). 
m  ii.  rise),  iu  (music);  but  it  is  best  to  use  for  at 
some  modification  of  i,  and  for  iu  some  modifi- 
cation of  >i,  such  as,  for  example,  j.  ip 

The  consonants  sh  (as  s  in  sugar),  zli  (as  s  in 
pleasure),  ///  (as  in  thin),  <lh  (as  ///  in  thine 
(as  in  sing),  and  perhaps  also  tsh  (as  ch  in  church) , 
dzh  (as  dg  in  judge)  call  for  single  signs:  bur  the 
present  notation  will  answer  tolerably  well,  if  car- 
ried out  with  uniformity,  though  scholars  seek  to 
revive  the  old  signs  for  th  and  <lh.  Thus  we  have 
described  a  complete  alphabet,  such  as  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  philologists  would  seem  to  call  for. 

A  first  siep  for  teachers  who  favor  this  reform 
is  to  cease  to  use  the  old  names  of  the  letters 
which  do  not  contain  the  sounds  here  given  tothe 
letters,  and  call  them  by  names  having  those 
sounds;  e.  //.,  n  should  be  called  a(re)  \  <>  should 

be  named  as  sounded  in  met,  c  as  sounded  in  can. 
Then  drop  silent  letters,  and  finally  spell  all 
words  with  these  letters  uniformly,  according  to 
their  names.      Seed.   HaDLEY,  Essays   Pliilolog- 

ical  and  Critical  N  Y  ';  W.  D.  Whitney,  Ori- 
ental and  Linguistic  Studies,  2d  series.  (N.  Y.)\ 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Philological  Asso- 
ciation. 1S75,  1876;  Address  to  the  American 
Philological  Association.  by  the  President,  F.  A. 
March  (Hartford,  1874);  8.8.  Haldeman,  Ana- 
lytic Orthography  (Phila.,1858);  Proceedings  if 
the  International  <  onventionfor the  Amemlmnit 
if  English  Orthography  (Phila.,1876);  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Spelling  Reform  Association  (Phi\&., 
1876) ;  Pitman's  Phonetic  Journal  (Path.  Eng.). 


OSKALOOSA   COLLEGE 


OWENS   COLLEGE 


675 


OSKALOOSA  COLLEGE,  at  Oskaloosa, 
Iowa,  founded  in  L856,  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Christian  denomination.  The  value  of  the 
buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is  $50,000;  the 
amount  of  its  productive  funds,  $30,000.  Et  com- 
prises a  preparatory  department,  a  collegiate  de- 
partment (with  a  classical  course  of  four  years 
ami  a  ladies'  course  of  three  years), a  Bible  depart- 
ment, and  a  commercial  department.  Facilities 
arc  afforded  for  normal  instruction,  ami  for  in- 
struction in  music,  pointing,  and  drawing.  The 
cost  of  tuition  is  $30  a  year.  In  1874 — 5,  there 
were  (i  instructors  and  200  students  (deducting 
repetitions);  namely,  irregular,  106  ;  collegiate, 
16 ;  preparatory,  34  ;  Bible  department,  14  ;  com- 
mercial, 47.  F.  M.  Bruner,  A.  M.,  is  the  pres- 
ident (1875). 

OTTERBEIN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Wester- 
ville.  Ohio,  founded  in  1S47.  is  under  the  control 
of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an  endow- 
ment of  sso.noo.  The  tuition  fee.  including  in- 
cidental expenses,  is  $24  a  year.  The  university 
ci  u uprises  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, with  a  classical,  a  scientific,  and  a  ladies' 
course.  The  last  is  especially  designed  for  females 
who,  however,  are  also  admitted  to  the  other 
courses.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  12  instructors, 
and  201  students  (72  collegiate  and  129  pre- 
paratory). The  presidents  have  been  as  follows: 
William  R.  Griffith  (principal),  1847—9;  the  Rev. 
William  Davis,  1849 — 50  ;  the  Rev.  Lewis  Davis, 
1 850 — 57  ;  the  Rev.  Alexander  Owen,  1858— CO  ; 
the  Rev.  Lewis  Davis,  D.  D.,  1860—71 ;  the  Rev. 
Daniel  Eberly,  A.  M.,  1871 — 2;  and  the  Rev. 
1 1.  A.  Thompson,  D.  D.,  the  present  incumbent, 
appointed  in  1872. 

OWENS  COLLEGE  (Manchester,  England) 
was  founded  by  the  bequest  of  Mr.  John  Owens, 
a  merchant  of  Manchester,  who.  at  his  death  in 
1846,  bequeathed  the  bulk  of  his  property, 
amounting  to  nearly  £100.000,  to  trustees  to 
found  an  institution  for  teaching  such  branches 
of  learning  and  science  as  were  or  might  after- 
wards be  taught  in  the  English  universities. 
After  extensive  inquiries,  a  college  was  founded 
and  opened  in  1851,  which,  like  rniversity  Col- 
lege. London,  was  to  be  in  connection  with  the 
London  University,  and  was  to  be  absolutely  free 
from  any  religious  disqualification.  The  terms 
of  the  original  bequest  allowed  no  portion  of  the 
endowment  to  be  expended  on  land  or  buildings. 
Accordingly,  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  college, 
624,000  was  contributed  by  the  trustees  and  the 
people  of  Manchester  in  aid  of  Mr.  Owens's 
bequest  and  for  the  foundation  of  scholarships. 
The  home  of  the  college,  for  twenty -two  years, 
was  in  a  large  building  in  Quay  .^t..  which  had 
formerly  been  a  private  house.  But,  in  1867,  j 
the  old  buildings  had  become  inadequate  ;  and 
an  influential  committee  was  formed  to  prepare 
a  scheme  for  the  erection  of  new  buildings  in  a  . 
better  part  of  the  city,  also  for  the  endowment  of 
new  professorships,  and  to  make  an  appeal  for 
the  necessary  funds.  The  response,  in  contribu- 
tions and  legacies,  down  to  July  1876,  was  the 


sum  of  £211,000,  contributed  partly  for  B] 
eial,  and  partly  for  general,  purposes.  In  ad- 
dition to  this,  Mr.  Beyer's recenl  legacy  will  prob- 
ably yield  £100,000  more.  The  new  college  wan 
opened  in  1873;  and,  including  the  site  and  the 
chemical  laboratory,  which   has  room  for  more 

than    KID    students',    it  cost  above   £100,000,  and 

when  completed  will  cost    £50,000  or  £60,000 
more.    A  further  sum  of  £15,000 was  expended 

upon    the   adjoining    buildings    of    the    medical 

school,  previously  known  as  the  Manchester 
Royal  School  of  Medicine,  which  was  now 
for  the  first  time,  united  with  the  college.  Ac 
cording  to  the  new  constitution  of  the  college, 
the  governors  are  42  in  number.  Fourteen  of 
them  form  an  executive  committee,  called  the 
council,  which  transacts  the  external  business  of 
the  college,  while  the  senate,  i.  e.,  the  body  of 
professors,  transacts  its  internal  or  academic 
business. 

The  college  began  with  six  professors,  several 
allied  subjects  being  assigned  to  one  chair. 
There  are  now,  20  professors,  and  22  assistants, 
in  arts,  science,  law,  and  medicine.  The  profess- 
orships are  endowed  :  one  important  result  of 
this  is  that  it  is  possible  to  charge  lower  Ices,  and 
to  bring  the  benefits  of  the  college  within  the 
reach  of  much  larger  numbers.  The  more  im- 
portant chairs  have  an  endowment  generally  of 
£350  a  year,  to  which  a  large  proportion  of  the 
fees  is  added.  In  1852,  evening  classes  were  be- 
gun for  the  sake  originally  of  school-masters;  but 
afterwards  of  all  who  chose  to  come.  The  Work- 
ing Men's  College  in  Manchester  was  incorpo- 
rated with  these  evening  classes  in  1861.  and  the 
result  was  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of  stu- 
dents. These  students,  in  the  session  ending 
in  May,  1875,  numbered  863,  including  35  who 
were  also  students  in  the  day  classes.  In  the 
same  session,  there  were  375  day  students  with 
159  medical  students,  making  a  total  of  1,362. 
There  are  many  valuable  scholarships  and  ex- 
hibitions in  connection  with  the  college.  The 
Rumney  and  Ramsbottom  scholarships,  with  five 
Whitworth  exhibitions,  were  founded  with  the 
design  of  enabling  young  artisans  to  pursue 
scientific  studies  at  the  college  for  two  or  three 
years.  In  1872 — 3,  the  income  of  the  college, 
out  of  which  it  defrayed  its  general  expenditure, 
was  about  £11,000,  of  which  £6,000  was  derived 
from  endowments,  and  £5,000  from  students' 
fees.  This  does  not  include  the  medical  depart- 
ment. It  may  be  added  that  a  proposal  for 
erecting  Owens  College  into  a  university  has. 
been  widely  discussed  this  year  (1876),  and  has 
met  with  considerable  approval. 

The  first  principal  of  the  college  was  the  late 
Prof.  A.  J.  Scott ;  the  second  and  present  prin- 
cipal is  Prof.  J.  G.  Greenwood.  Students  live 
outside  the  college,  and  for  the  most  part  make 
their  own  arrangements  as  to  residence. — See 
The  Calendar  oi  the  college;  Fifth  Rejwrt  of 
the  Royal  Commission  on  Scientific  Instruction 
(1874)  unlh  the  Minutes  of  Evidence  ;  Letter  by 
Principal  Greenwood  in  the  Athenaeum  for 
April  10.,  1875. 


676 


OXFORD   UNIVERSITY 


OXFORD,  University  of,  one  of  the  two 
great  universities  of  England.  Legend  ascribes 
its  origin  to  Alfred  the  Great,  and  university 
College  claims  to  date  from  A.  1).  872;  but  of 
this  we  have  no  proof.  Oxford  first  became 
famous  as  a  school  of  learning  in  the  reign  of 
Stephen,  about  1 140.  Prom  John  it  won  its  ear- 
liesl  charters;  and.  under  bis  successor,  the  num- 

■  of  students  is  said  to  have  risen  to  .'!0,000 
(though  this  included  many  attendants  and  me- 
nials); at  the  end  of  the  I  Itli  century,  it  had  fallen 
to  lf>. nun:  after  the  Reformation,  to  5,000;  it  is 
now  about  2,500.  This  popularity  in  the  earliest 
times  was  due  mainly  to  the  influence  of  in- 
dividual teachers,  famous  men,  like  Grosseteste, 
Roger  Bacon,  Duns  Scot  us.  and  ( tecam.attracte  I 
students,  who  came  from  the  universities  of 
Paris  and  Bologna  to  attend  lectures  at  Oxford. 
Each  teacher  lived  in  a  hall,  or  inn,  with  his 

students,  for  colleges  did  not  yet  exist.  Th il\ 

endowed  teachers  were  the  monks.  But  the  rule 
that  every  student  should  resile  in  a  recogni 
boarding-house,  and  the  example  of  University, 
Mertou,  and  Balliol  colleges,  all  incorporated 
toward  the  end  of  the  Kith  century,  gradually 
effected  the  extinction  of  the  halls,  and  broughi 
about  the  pr  ollege  system.  The  old  chron- 

3  tell  us  of  the  division  of  the  studentsi 
nations  —  North   and  South,   of  the   quarrels 
between  them  even  on  such  questions  as  Nom- 
inalism versus  Realism,  of  theirelecting  proctors 
to  protecl  their  privileges  against  the  chancellor, 

heir  long  feud  and  many  rims  with  the  citi- 
i },  and  of  the  chancellor's  summoning  the  citi- 
zens in  arms  to  keep  the  pear-,  thereby  often  a  1- 

_  in  J  to  the  tiaines.  In  I  "Jo.),  we  readoi  a  riot 

serious  that  the  0  diversity  incurred  papal  ex- 
communication, and  was  force. 1.  with  tin.-  king,  to 
accept  the  pope's  terms:  and,  after  another  great 
tumult,  subsequent  to  the  Black  Death,  town  and 
university  both  put  themselves  into  the  king's 
hands  to  settle  their  differences,  the  settlement 
made  being  greatly  in  favor  of  the  latter.  Al- 
though, during  the  barons'  war,  in  Henry 
Third's  reign,  and  in  the  Lollard  movement,  un  I  t 
Edward  III.  and  Richard II., Oxford  bad  shown 

popular  sympathies,  yet    in    the  next    century  it 

became  decidedly  ecclesiastical,  and  for  some 
time  the  lay  element  played  but  a  small  part  in 
it.  With  the  revival  of  learning,  came  the  fresh 
stimulus  of  Pox's,  Wolsey's,  and  Benry  the 
Eighth's  patronage;  and  ten  out  of  the  twenty 
colleges,  as  well  as  all  the  professorships,  date 
from  1500,  or  later.  The  principles  of  the  Ref- 
ormation were  tobecarried  out  by  a  commis- 
:  Bent  dow  n  t..  t  kford  by  Edward  V  I.  but  the 

< 1 1 1 i ■  - k  succession  of  Mary  prevented  this:  and  we 

find  evidence  of  the  '•  iathoBc  reaction  in  the  foun- 
dation of  Trinity  |  I  55  I  i,  and  St.  John's  i  I 
Under  Queen  Elizabeth,  Protestantism  was  def- 
initely established  (1571),  the  statutes  of  1549 
being  enforced;  bu1  very  little  change  occurred  ex- 
cept in  the  matter  of  religion.  Even  the  old  rule 
of  enjoining  celibacy  on  the  fellows  was  retained. 
The  last  contest  betwei  □  the  nations  took  place  in 
this  reign,  in  the  election  of  Leicester's  suce< 


to  the  chancellorship.  James  T.  granted  the  par- 
liamentary franchise  to  the  universities  in  1606, 
ami  divided  between  them  such  church  patronage 
as  was  still  in  the  hands  of  <  atholics.  ( )xford  tak- 
ing the  south  of  England,  Carnl nidge  the  north; 
and,  in  L617,  be  made  adhesion  to  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England  a  neces- 
sary qualification  far  the  degree, which  was  after- 
wards extended  to  the  matriculation.  In  1628, 
the  election  of  proctors  was  taken  out  of  the 
ha 1 1. Is  of  the  masters,  and  given  to  the  colleges  in 
turn;  and.  in  1638,  something  like  a  real  exami- 
nation for  degrees  was  introduced  in  place  of  the 
merely  formal  disputations.  In  the  civil  wars, 
Oxford  sided  with  Charles  L,  and  consequently 
suffered  from   Cromwell,  though  only  slightly. 

To  Charles  1 1. she  was  heartily  loyal. but  even  the 

firmest  belief  in  "passive  obedience"  was  shaken 
by  his  brother's  measures.  Nevertheless  though 
William  was   generally   welcomed  as  a    savior 

of  so,  niy.  very  many  of  the  fellows  continued 
friendly  to  the  old  dynasty,  and  talked  Jacobit- 
ism  against  the  I  lanoverians. 

In  considering  the  actual  state  and  working 
of  the  University  nowadays,  we  must  carefully 
distinguish  between  it  and  the  colleges.  The  lat- 
ter  are  corporate  bodies  consisting  of  fellows  and 
scholars,  possessing  property  and  a  building — 
the  college  pro]  and  the  unen- 

dowed students  reside.  The  University,  while 
technically  described  as  consisting  of  the  "chan- 
cellor, masters,  and  scholars",  consists  practically 
of  certain  fellows  and  heads  of  colleges  who  till 
various  public  posts,  and  administer  public  trusts. 
Within  their  own  walls,  the  members  of  a  coll 
are  independent,  the  fellows  carrying  out  the 
sen  ices,  lectures,  and  organization  generally:  out- 
side the  university,  officers  intervene,  whether 

the  proctors  to  enforce  public  order,  the  profi  -s- 

ors  to  give  public  instruction,  or  the  examiners 

to    test    candidates    for    degrees,    and    the    \ 
chancellor  to  confer  them.   To  qualify  for  these, 
a  student  must  reside  in  a  college  or  licensed 
lodging-house  L2  terms,  i.e.,  three  academic  years 
of  6  months  each,  and  must  pass  three  examina- 
tions.-    Responsions,    Moderations,   and    Pinal 
Schools.     The  first    is  the  same  for  every  candi- 
date: in  the  latter  two.   however,  he  has  a  el. 
of  either  taking  a   pass  degree,  or  going  iii  for 
"honors"   in  one  or  mere  subjects.     The  lie. 
Schools  in   Moderations  an  classical  and 

mathematical:  but.  in  the  Pinal, a  choice  is  off.  red 

between  classics,  mathematics,  law,  history,  nat- 
ural science,  and  theology.  As  the  competition 
in  these  subjects  is  strong,  and  as  the  result  in- 
fluences greatly  a  man's  chances  of  getting  a  fel- 
lowship, most  candidates  defer  their  filial  exam- 
ination until  their  Kith  or  18th  term,  the  latter 
2  the  latest  allowed. 
Fellowships  are  given  Upon  examination,  to  be 
held  either  indefinitely,  or  only  if  the  bolder 
come  a  clergyman,  and  if.  in  either  case,  he  re- 
main a  bachelor.      Some    few  have,  of  late  yi 

been  granted  (or  renewed)  to  married  men.  Their 
value  varies  from  B200  to  £300  per  annum;  but 
a  resident  fellow  is  generally  a  tutor  also, and  for 


OXFORD   UNIVERSITY 


671 


that  receives  a  proportion  of  the  tuition  fees  paid 
by  the  students.  The  average  total  is  then  from 
E600  to  6800.  The  fellows  manage  the  affairs 
of  the  college  entirely;  one  of  their  Dumber  is 
elected  head  -known  by  various  titles  at  differ- 
ent places,  as  rector,  provost,  master,  president,  or 
the  like— and  he  is  allowed  to  marry.  These  are 
all  said  to  be  "in  the  foundation",  as  arc  also  tin.' 
scholars — with  incomes  of  from  £20  to  £100, 
-ranted  by  the  college,  and  tenable  4  or  5  years 
ind  the  exhibitioners,  or  holders  of  inferior 
scholarships.  Many  colleges  offer  very  valuable 
rewards  of  tins  kind;  and  many  large  schools 
throughout  the  country  confer  similar  si  holar- 
ships  to  last  during  a  similar  period.  Such 
sistance,  of  course,  materially  lessens  a  student's 
expenses,  which,  on  the  average,  may  be  reckoned 
at  £200  to  £250  a  year.  A  less  sum,  however, 
will  suffice,  and  frequently  does;  as  is  shown  by 
die  reported  expenditure    (£60  or   even  less)  of 

several  "unattached"  students,  that  is.  those  who 
attend  lectures  as  members  of  the  university, 
but  live  always  in  lodgings,  and  are  members  of 
no  college.  Such  students  were  first  admitted 
in  1868,  specially  to  diminish  the  expense  of  ac- 
quiring a  degree.  Their  numbers  have  steadily 
increased:  and  the  object  of  their  institution — 
economy — is  certainly  gained.  There  are.  also, 
many  scholarships  offered  by  .the  university,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  colleges,  which  are  ■ 
to  all  undergraduates,  and  some  of  which  arc  of 
considerable  value.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  the  Ireland.  Hertford.  Craven,  and  Derby, 
for  classical  excellence;  the  Junior  and  Si 
mathematical,  in  their  own  province:  the  Bo- 
den  in  Sanskrit ;  the  Radcliffe  Travelling  Fel- 
lowship and  the  Burdett-Coutts  scholarship,  in 
science:  the  Pusey  and  Ellerton,  and  the  Hall 
and  Houghton,  in  divinity.  Special  prizes  are 
given  for  essays  in  certain  subjects:  and  one, 
for  poetry.  The  university,  besides  the  award 
of  these  honors,  has  also  the  charge  of  all 
public  examinations,  of  which  it  fixes  both 
the  manner  and  the  matter,  appointing  the  ex- 
aminers and  regulating  the  standard  of  knowl- 
i'  ige.  Within  the  last  few  years,  it  has  exercised 
its  powers  in  creating  separate  schools — or  ex- 
aminations— for  law  and  history  (previously 
united)  and  for  theology.  It  elects  and  defines 
the  duties  of  the  professors,  ami  its  own  olii 
For  the  former,  the  oldest  foundations  date  from 
Henry  vTEL.who  instituted  the  professorship  of 
Divinity.  Civil  Law,  .Medicine,  Hebrew,  and 
Greek.  Before  his  time  there  was  only  one — the 
Lady  Margaret  Divinity  (1502);  between  1619 
and  1624,  live  others  u  ir  ndowed,  and  the 
rest  are  of  later  origin.  Readers  are  also  ap- 
pointed in  several  subjects,  and  for  modern  lan- 
guages teachers,  who  hold  a  somewhat  less  dig- 
Dined  position.  The  whole  number  of  public 
instructors  is  50.  Their  lectures  are,  in  some  cases, 
free;  in  most,  a  small  fee  is  charged;  and.  though 
but  few  command  large  audiences,  their  teaching 
not  being  supposed  to  "pay"  for  the  examinations. 
almost  all  give  valuable  assistance  to  the  more 
thoughtful    and    industrious  students. — Of  the 


university  officers,  it  will  be  sufficienl  to  men- 
tion the  chancellor,  the  high  steward,  the  vice- 
chancellor,  and  the  proctors.  'I  lie  firsl  was,  in 
old  times,  the  ruling  head  of  the  University;  he 
was  the  nomine,  of  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and 
the  guardian  of  his  rights  ami  privileges.  <  Iradu- 
ally,  the  nomination  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
masters,  the  ratification  only  resting  with  the 
bishop,  till,  in  1338,  that  too  was  taken  awaj  bj 
a  papal  bull.  At  present,  he  is  little  more  than 
an  ornamental  appendage;  the  practical  duties  of 
his  office  being  discharged  by  the  vice-chancellor, 
who  is  nominated  annually  by  the  chancellor 
from  the  heads  of  colleges,  and  holds  office  gen- 
erally lor  a  term  of  four  years;  under  him  arc 
four  pro-vice-chancellors.  He  is  the  resident  head 

of  the  university,  and  presides  in  all  its  meetil 
and,  being  invested  with  the  pow<  ra  of  a  justice  of 
the  peace,  jio.~se.-scs  ci\  il  and  criminal  jurisdiction 
over  its  members.     The   proctors   rank   next  in 
importance.  These  are  two  in  number,  fellows  of 

colleges,  elected  according  to  a  cycle  of  rotation, 
for  one  year  only.  Their  business  is  to  maintain 
discipline  among  the  students  outside  their  college 
w;ills,  to  appoint  public  examiners, and  to  attend 
meetings  of  the  authorities:  and.  ex  officio,  they 
arc  members  of  most  boards  of  management  mi 
university  property  and  tru.-ts.  1  he  highsteward 
— who  was  once  elected  for  his  local  intluci.ee 
and  power  to  protect  tin' university — is  now  of 
somewhat  less  importance  than  the  chancellor, 
his  only  duty  being  to  try  serious  criminal  cases, 
such  as  treason  or  felony.  The  present 
high  steward  is  the  Earl  of  Carnarvon;  the 
chancellor,  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury.  The  rep- 
resentatives in  the  Commons  are  the  lit.  Hon. 
Gathorne  Hardy,  secretary  for  war.  and  the  lit. 
1  [on.  John  Mowbray,  both  elected  by  ( Jonvocatii  i  . 
The  assemblies  governing — or,  we  might  ale 
say.  forming — the  University,  are  four  :  (1)  The 
House  of  Congregation  ;  ('_')  The  House  of  Con- 
vocation; (3)  The  Congregation  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  ;  ami  (4)  The  Hebdomadal  Coun- 
cil, constituted  according  to  the  aci  of  C 
(1)  Congregation  consists  of  Regents  [i.  e.,  Masters 
of  Arts  of  a  certain  standing)  of  all  kinds,  am! 
merely  ratifies  the  nomination  of  examiners,  and 
the  ordinary  degrees.  (2)  Convocation  consists 
of  Regents  and  Non-Regents  {i.e.  all  admitted 
o>l;  g  ■my.  who  have  k  ir  names  on  the 

college  books).  I;  transacts  all  the  other  corporate 
of  the  university, grants  moneys,  sanc- 
tions statutes,  elects  to  all  university  offices  and 
livings,  and  chooses  the  burgesses  for  parliament. 
In  this  assembly,  the  vice-chancellor  (or  his  dep- 
uty)  has  the  right   of  veto  on  all  proceedings 

save  elections:  as  have  also  the  proctors  if  agreed. 
{'.',)  The  Ca/igregation  if  the  University  em- 
braces certain  officials,  and  all  members  of  Con- 
vocation residing  in  Oxford  during  the  year.  !(s 
business  is  legislative,  the  statutes  of  the  Heb- 
domadal Council  being  promulgated  in  it.  and 
amendments  proposed,  which,  if  allowed,  are 
passed  on  to  Convocation  for  approval  or  rejec- 
tion. (4)  Lastly,  we  come  to  the  Hebdomadal 
Council,  in  which  sit  the  chancellor,  vicc-chaucel- 


678 


PACIFIC   UNIVERSITY 


PACIFIC  METHODIST  COLLEGE 


lor  and  proctors,  ex  officio,  as  well  as  G  I  [eada  of 
Colleges,  6  Professors,  and  6  members  of  Convo- 
cation, elected  for  a  term  of  6  years  by  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  University.  This  assembly  meets 
weekly,  and  initiates  all  legislation. 

About  twenty  years  ago,  the  two  universities 
started  schemes  for  the  examination  of  boys  — 
under  the  aame  of  the  middle  class  loeal  exami- 
nations. In  the  Junior  Group,  candidates  were 
to  be  under  1G,  in  the  Senior,  under  1  s  years  of 
age;  every  thing  was  conducted  by  nominees  of 
the  university  ;  perfect  impartiality  and  a  high 
standard  of  merit  were  secured  ;  and  the  exami- 
nations soon  became  popular.  Scholarships  are 
offered  at  three  colleges  in  Oxford  to  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  senior  candidates.  Such  a  test 
has  doubtless  been  of  great  service  in  improving 
the  teaching  in  middle-class  schools,  and  in  calling 
forth  the  emulation  both  of  masters  and  boys ; 
but  it  has  brought  with  it  the  apparently  inevi- 
table result  of  "cramming"  and  overworking  boys 
of  promise.  It  has  lately  been  extended  to  girls, 
by  Cambridge  and  also  by  Oxford.  The  latter 
university  is  behindhand,  however,  in  that  it  has 
not  yet  supplied  any  thing  analogous  to  the 
Cambridge  higher  examinations  for  women  (over 
18  years  of  age),  and  to  the  lectures  given  by 
Gantabs  in  support  of  university  extension 
throughout  the  kingdom;  but,  at  Oxford  itself, 
there  has,  probably,  never  been  a  period  when 
teaching  was  more  careful  and  effective, or  study 
more  earnest,  and  its  results  more  highly  prized, 
than  to-day. 

The  names  of  the  colleges  with  the  dates  of  their 
foundation  are  as  follows:  University,  A..D.  872  (?), 
incorporated  in  L280,  from  funds  left,  in  I-  1'.'.  by 
Win.  de  Durham  for  12  poor  masters  from  Dur- 
ham; Balliol,  12G3 — 8;  Morton,  founded  in  L264, 
at  Maldon,  removed  to  Oxford  in  L274;  Exeter, 
1314;  Oriel,  1326;  Queen's,  1340;  New,  1386; 
Lincoln,  1427;  All  Souls,  14.'57;  Magdalen,  1458; 
Brasenose,  1509  ;  Corpus  Christi,  L516  ;  Christ 
Church,  154G— 7;  Trinity,  1554;  St.  John's,  1555; 
Jesus.  1571  :  Wadham,  1G09  ;  Pembroke,  1624  ; 
Worcester,  1714:  Eeble,1870;  Hertford,  1874. 
The  Halls  are  :  St.  Mary's,  1333  ;  New  Inn.  used 
as  a  mint  under  Charles  I.;  St.  Albans:  and 
St.  Kdmund's,  the  last  as  an  adjunct  of  Queen's 
College.  Of  the  colleges,  the  largest  and  richesl 
is  Christ  Church,  begun  by  Wolsey  under  the 
name  of  Cardinal  College ;  completed  and  en- 
dowed by  Henry  VIII.;  its  undergraduates 
number  249;  those  at  Baliol.  L82.  The  most  com- 
plete is  New  ( 'allege,  which  has,  as  its  nursery, 


Winchester  School,  founded  by  the  same  munif- 
icent patron,  Wm,  of  Wykeham,  and  proportion- 
ately endowed.  New  College  and  Magdalen  are 
both  famous  for  their  handsome  chapels  and 
grounds.  The  total  number  of  undergrade  > 
in  the  calendar  for  1876  is  2,542,  of  whom  213 
are  unattached  I  to  any  college  or  hall).  The  num- 
ber of  matriculations  was,  in  the  last  academic 
year,  718;  of  conferred  degrees:  Bachelors',  3,!)-l  1 . 
and  Masters'.  2">4.  The  revenue  of  colleges  and 
university  together  is  £420.(1(10. —  Besides  the 
above  collegiate  buildings,  there  are  others  of 
great  interest,  also  belonging  to  the  university. 
The  oldest  is  the  Divinity  School,  opened  in 
1480,  and  now  used  chiefly  for  conferring  de- 
grees. Close  to  it  are  the  schools  (1G11  seq.), 
in  which  examinations  are  conducted  ;  and  the 
Sheldonian  Theater  (built  by  Abp.  Sheldon 
from  the  designs  of  Wren,  in  1683b  in  which 
honorary  degrees  are  given  and  prize  composi- 
tions read,  at  the  annual  commemoration.  The 
Bodleian  library  was  founded,  in  L597,  by  Sir 
Thomas  Bodley,  in  place  of  the  small  library, 
which  had  been  scattered  at  the  Reformation. 
Bodley  bought  largely  for  it  during  the  Thirty 
rears'  War;  but  its  usefulness  dates  from 
dames  I.  Connected  with  it  as  a  reading-room, 
is  the  library  built  by  1  >r.  Radcliffe, founder  also 
of  the  Infirmary  and  the  Observatory.  The  Afih- 
molean  museum  (1632)  is  the  properly  of  the 
university,  which  has  also  its  own  press.  Found*  d 
about     L672,   it    was  extended    in    1711.   chiefly 

through  the  profits  of  Lord  Clarendon's  History 
of  lltn  Civil  Wars,  the  copyright  of  which  he 
presented  to  the  university.  It  was  removed  to 
new  buildings  in  1833,  and  is  now  a  very  large 
establishment,  distinguished  by  the  chancellor's 
name.  The  most  recent  building  of  importance 
is  the  new  museum,  elaborately  furnished  with 
scientific  collections  and  apparatus.  The  Tay- 
lorian  Institute,  also,  is  of  late  date;  it  contains 
a  picture  gallery  and  has  an  endowment  for  en- 
couraging the  study  of  modern  languages. 
A nioiig t he  under-graduates  i hemselves, there  are 
many  private  clubs :  but  the  only  one  of  these 
possessing  buildings  of  its  own  is  the  Union 
Chili,  which,  besides  the  ordinary  appliances  of 
a  club-house,  has  a  large  debating-room,  in  which 
the  members  meet  for  weekly  discussions,  during 
term.  Sec  IlntKK.  English  Universities,  trans- 
lated and  edited  by  P.  W,  Newman;  Oseford 
Calendar  and  Ten  Tear  Book;  The  Students 
Handbook  to  the  University  and  Colleges  of 
Oxford  (Clarendon  Press,  Oxford). 


PACIFIC,  University  of  the,  at  Santa 
Clara,  CaL,  under  Methodist  Episcopal  control. 
was  organized  to  L 851,  and  chartered  in  L853.  It 

admits  both  sexes.  It  has  productive  funds  to  the 

amount  of  $40,000,  Libraries  containing  about 

2,00(1  volumes.     The  cost  of   tuition   varies  from 
'-'i'  per  term  of  I  I  weeks,  with] lem  lan- 
guages.     The    collegiate    department    has 


thn 


courses:  classical,  4  years;  Latin  scientific,  3  years: 
and  scientific,  3  years.  There  is  also  a  prepar- 
atory and  a  commercial  department.  In  1875 — 6, 

there  were  10  instructors  and  212  students  (69 
collegiate  and  L43  preparatory).  The  Rev.  A.  S. 
( dUions.  A.  ML,  M.  I'.,  is  (187G)  the  president. 

PACIFIC  METHODIST  COLLEGE  was 
organized  in  L861,  at  Vacaville,  Solano  Co.,  CaL; 


PACIFIC    UNIVERSITY 


PARAGUAY 


679 


chartered  in  18G2  ;  and  removed  to  Santa  Rosa, 
Sonoma  Co..  in  1870.  It  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  South.  Candi- 
dates for  a  degree  have  the  choice  of  four  courses 
of  study.  Two  are  for  males — one  in  letters,  and 
one  in  science;  two  are  for  females — a  special 
course  in  letters,  and  a  special  course  in  science. 
Females  may  also  pursue  the  two  former  courses. 
The  college  has  a  preparatory  department,  and 
affords  instruction  in  pedagogics,  painting  and 
drawing,  music,  and  commercial  branches.  The 
regular  tuition  fees  vary  from  $30 — '570  per  year. 
In  1874 — 7 o, there  were  9  instructors  and  276  stu- 
d  snta,  i  >f  whom  59  were  of  the  collegiate  grade.  The 
presidents  have  been  A.  L.  Fitzgerald,  A.  M.,  from 
1870— 76. and  Rev. \Y.  A.  Pinlay,  I  >.!>.,  since  1876, 

PACIFIC  UNIVERSITY,  at  Forest  Grove, 
Oregon,  chartered  in  1853 — 4,  is  under  evangel- 
ical, but  not  denominational,  control.  Connected 
with  it  is  the  Tualatin  Academy,  chartered  in 
1849.  It  has  an  endowment  of  about  $65,000, 
and  a  library  of  5,000  volumes.  The  university 
has  four  courses;  namely,  classical.  4  years,  leading 
to  the  degree  of  A.  B.;  scientific,  3  years,  leading 
to  the  degree  of  B.  S. ;  ladies'  course,  3  years, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  M.S.  (Mistress  of  Sci- 
ence) ;  and  normal,  2  years.  The  cost  of  tuition 
in  these  courses  is  $45  per  year;  in  the  academy, 
$30.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  8  instructors,  and 
118  students  (13  collegiate  and  105  academic). 

PAGE,  David  Perkins,  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  eminent  of  American  educators,  born 
at  Epping,  N.  H.,  July  4.,  1810 ;  died  at  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  Jan.  1.,  1848.  The  first  part  of 
his  life  was  spent  in  agricultural  labor  on  his 
father's  farm  ;  and  it  was  not  untd  his  sixteenth 
year  that  he  was  permitted  to  enjoy  the  ad- 
vantages of  any  thing  beyond  an  elementary 
education.  In  1826,  he  entered  Hampton 
Academy,  where  he  spent  two  terms  preparing 
for  the  vocation  to  which  he  afterwards  devoted 
his  life.  His  first  service  as  a  teacher  was  in 
the  district  schools,  from  which,  in  a  short  time, 
he  became  associate  principal  of  the  Newbury- 
port  High  School,  in  which  he  remained  12 
years.  He  distinguished  himself  also  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Essex  County  Teachers'  Association, 
before  which  he  delivered  several  lectures  that 
elicited  the  highest  encomiums  from  Horace 
Mann  and  others.  One  of  these,  on  The  Mutual 
Duties  of  Parents  and  Teachers,  was  especially 
-admired,  more  than  6,000  copies  being  printed 
and  distributed.  As  a  speaker,  Mr.  Page  was 
fluent  and  impressive.  "  He  possessed,"  says 
Horace  Mann,  "  that  rare  quality,  so  indispen- 
sable to  an  orator,  the  power  to  think,  standing 
on  his  feet,  and  before  folks."  "  As  a  teacher," 
says  Barnard,  "  he  exhibited  two  valuable  quali- 
fications,— the  ability  to  turn  the  attention  of 
his  pupils  to  the  principles  which  explain  facts, 
and  in  such  a  way  that  they  could  see  clearly 
th_>  connection  ;  and  the  talent  for  reading  the 
character  of  his  scholars,  so  accurately,  that  he 
could  at  once  discern  what  were  their  governing 
passions  and  tendencies — what  in  them  needed 
encouragement,  and  what  repression."    In  1844, 


preparations  were  making  to  open  the  state  nor- 
mal school  at  Albany,  N.  V.;  and  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  Horace  Mann  and  others,  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. Mr.  Pace  was  invited  to  assume  its 
principalship,  which  he  did  the  following  year. 
The  school  commenced  with  25  pupils  ;  but,  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  first  term,  the  number  had 
increased  to  100  ;  and.  at  the  commencement  of 
the  second  term,  there  were  200  students. 
Numerous  obstacles,  incident  to  every  experi- 
ment, such  as  this  was  at  that  time,  opposed  its 
progress ;  but  the  indefatigable  energies,  con- 
summate ability,  and  devoted  spirit  of  its  prin- 
cipal overcame  them  all;  and  every  new  term 
increased  the  popularity  and  success  of  the 
school.  Mr.  Page's  incessant  labors,  however, 
had  exhausted  his  vital  energies ;  and  at  the 
close  of  December,  1-17.  he  was  attacked  with 
violent  fever,  from  which  he  did  not  recover. 
Few  men  have  possessed  that  rare  assemblage  of 
moral  and  intellectual  qualities  which  madf  him 
truly  a  model  teacher.  "  Of  the  himdreds  of 
teachers,"  says  his  biographer,  "  who  were  under 
his  care  at  Albany,  there  was  not  one  who  did 
not  look  up  to  him  with  admiration  and  love  ; 
not  one  who  did  not  bear,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  the  impress  of  his  character  and  influence." 
His  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  origin- 
ally published  in  1847,  has  been  universally  ad- 
mired, and  has  had  a  very  wide  circulation. — 
See  Barnard,  American  Teachers  and  Educa- 
tors (N.  Y.,  1861). 

PALEONTOLOGY.     See  Geology. 

PALATINATE  COLLEGE,  near  the  vil- 
lage of  Myerstown,  Lebanon  Co.,  Pa.,  founded  in 
1868,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  It  has  a  commodious  building  situated 
on  high  ground,  amid  fine  scenery.  The  institu- 
tion comprises  an  elementary,  an  academic,  a  col- 
legiate, and  a  musical  department.  Both  sexes 
are  admitted.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  7  instruct- 
ors and  208  students.  The  Rev.  George  W. 
Aughinbaugh,  D.  D.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

PARAGUAY,  a  republic  of  South  America; 
area  56,715  sq.  m. ;  population,  about  221,000. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Indians,  the  Guarani 
language  being  dominant  throughout  the  repub- 
lic, although  Spanish  is  the  official  language. 
The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  prevailing  religion. 
I  'araguay  was  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  in 
1530.  It  remained  a  part  of  the  Spanish  domin- 
ions until  1811,  when  it  declared  its  independence. 
The  early  history  of  Paraguay  presents  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  attempts  ever  made  to  educate 
a  barbarous  nation.  After  missionaries  of  other 
orders  had  been  unsuccessful  among  the  Gua- 
ranis,  the  Jesuits  entered  the  country,  in  1557, 
and  met  with  wonderful  success.  They  collected 
the  Indians  in  villages,  which  they  called  reduc- 
tions,  and  enlisted  their  sympathies,  by  opening 
to  them  profitable  sources  of  employment,  chiefly 
by  extending  the  commerce  with  mate,  the  so- 
called  Paraguay  tea.  At  the  same  time  they 
strictly  forbade  them  to  hold  any  intercourse 
with  the  Spanish  colonists,  and  obtained  from 
Philip  III.  a  mandate  forbidding  every  body  from 


630        PARENTAL  EDUCATION 


PASSOW 


entering  their  reductions  without  their  permis- 
sion. After  these  measures  had  been  firmly  es- 
tablished, they  began  with  a  strong  hand  to  pul 
their  plans  into  execution.  Every  rerfuc&on  re- 
ceived tw<>  missionaries,  one  for  religious  and 
the  other  for  secular  affairs.  Every  village  was 
built  in  the  same  style,  having  in  the  center  a 
targe  square,  fronting  on  which  were  the  church 
and  the  school-house.  The  streets  were  wide  and 
regular.  Every  Luxury,  both  in  dress  and  habi- 
tation, was  strictly  prohibited  ;  but  the  churches 
were  decorated  with  gold  and  silver.  The  Jesuit  a 
administered  all  property  belonging  to  the  vil- 
lages, and  governed  by  means  of  the  native  ca- 
zi(j">:x,  who.  although  chosen  by  the  inhabitants, 
wen-  entirely  dependent  on  the  fathers.  The 
slightest,  infractions  of  the  law  were  severely 
punished.  The  instruction  given  by  them  con- 
sisted in  teaching  to  read  and  write. and  to  recite 
the  catechism;  but,  owing  to  their  seclusion 
from  the  outer  world,  their  acquirements  availed 
them  but  little.  Edgar  <v>uinet,  one  of  the  most 
bitter  opponents  of  the  Jesuits,  recognized  that 
this  method  of  education,  "which  would  have 
destroyed  older  nations,  was  admirably  adapted 
to  a  ki  in  I  of  grown-up  children  like  the  Guara- 
nis"  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  he  adds  that  -it 
showed  an  unsurpassed  ability  to  attract  these 
children  by  granting  them  every  thine-,  but  what 

would  have  rendered  them  men."  As  theirpower 
increase  I.  the  fathers  grew  more  independent, 
and  finally  broke  off  all  connection  with  the 
home  government.  In  17(>7,  a  royal  decree 
ordered  their  expulsion  from  the  three  provinces 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  Tucu- 
man,  to  which  they  offered  no  resistance.  Their 
reductions  gradually  disappeared,  while  the  Indi- 
ans relapsed  into  barbarism.  Under  the  dictator 
Francia  (1814 — 1840),  who  practiced  the  same 
policy  of  seclusion  that  the  Jesuit  fathers  had  pre- 
viously adopted,  and  under  Lopez,  schools  were 

founded,  and  education  generally,  though  alow- 
ly.  advanced  :  SO  that,  in  L861,  Paraguay  had  as 
many  primary  schools  in  proportion  to  her  popu- 
lation, as  any  of  the  other  South  American  states. 

But  during  the  disastrous  war  that  followed, 
education  was  entirely  neglected.  Since  L870, 
determined  efforts  have  been  made  to  extend  the 
benefits  of  instruction.  The  amount  appropriated 
for  schools,  in  L874,  was  $34,860.  The  capital, 
Asiineion.  formerly,  had  a  colegio,  which  was 
founded  iii  L 783, and  in  which,  among  others, 
candidates   for  the  priesthood  were  educated. 

Lopez    founded  a  gymnasium    under   the   name 

Accidentia  Literaria;  but  the  course  of  in- 
struction embraced  only  two  subjects,  latin 
and  philosophy.    Subsequently  other  subjects,  as 

mathematics,  law.  and  theology  were  added.  It 
was  re-organized  under  the  name  Instituio  </'■  /'ii- 
sefiama;  the  establishment  of  several  colleges  in 

provincial  towns  was  resolved  upon,  and  a  num- 
ber of  young  men  were  sent  to  France  to  be  edu- 
cated as  professors.  See  Lb  Roy,  in  Schmid's 
Wncyclop&die,  art.  Sudamerica. 

PARENTAL  EDUCATION.— See  Homk 
Enuc  \tion. 


PAROCHIAL  SCHOOL,  an  elemental  v 
school  which  is  united  with  a  parish,  and  under 
the  control  of  its  pastor.  Schools  of  this  kind 
arose  early  in  the  middle  ages.  Although  the 
mass  of  the  people  did  not  yet  appreciate  the 
value  of  school  instruction,  the  popes  repeate 
urged  the  erection  of  parish  schools  in  connec- 
tion with  the  churches.  Teachers  of  Holy  Writ, 
and  instructors  in  ecclesiastical  obligations,  w< 
in  particular,  to  be  appointed  in  all  parishes; 
for  it  was  no!  conceived  that  any  person  could 
profitably  take  part  in  divine  service,  if  he  had 
not  received  proper  instruction.  !n  France, 
bishop  Theodulph  of  Orleans  admonished  the 
parish  priests  to  instruct  the  boys  gratuitously 
in  science.  Charlemagne  decreed  that  youths 
should  be  educated  in  reading,  singing,  arith- 
metic, grammar,  and  writing.  A  synod  held  at 
Mayence,  before  the  middle  of  the  9th  century, 
enjoined  that  the  children  be  sent  either  to  the 
convent  or  to  the  parochial  school,  in  order  to 
learn,  at  least,  the  creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
in  the  native  tongue. — For  many  centuries,  the 
elementary  schools  grew  and  developed  inclose 

connection  with    the   church.     The  Reformation 
did  not  change  ihis  relation;  and.  in  Protestant 
as  well   as   in   Catholic   countries,  the  common 
school  continued  to  be  a  parochial  school.     More 
recently,   in    most    countries,  state   authoril 
have  assumed  the.  chief  control  of  the  common 
schools  ;  and  the  parochial  character  of  such  in- 
stitutions has  more  or  less  disappeared  :  although 
many  governments  still  delegate  to  the 
of  the  established  churches  certain  rights  of  in- 
spection,and  maintain  separate  schools  for  dif- 
ferent denominations.    In  the  United  States,  the 
name   parochial   schools  is  now  generally  applied 
to  Roman  Catholic  and  to  Episcopalian  Echo 
which  have  been  organized  m  close  connection 

w  ith  the  parishes  :  because,  in  the  opinion  of  their 

founders,  all  elementary  schools  should  provide 
religious  as  well  as  secular  instruction,  and  should, 
therefore,  have  a  strictly  denominational  char- 
acter.     (^'■'.-  DENOMINATIONAL  Schools.) 

PARSONS  COLLEGE,  at  Fairfield,  fowa, 
founded  iii  1855,  is  under  Presbyterian  control. 

It  has  a  campus  of  I'll  acres.  '_'  handsome  and 
commodious  brii  k  buildings,  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of  about  700 
volun  es.  Itsproducl  ive  funds  amount  to  $24,000, 

nearly.  There  is  an  academic  department,  with 
a  preparatory  and  a  normal  course,  and  a  col- 
legiate department,  with  a  classica]  1 1  years), and 
a  scientific  (3  years)  course.     I  he  .  osl  of  tuition 

IS  $30  a  year  in   the  academic,  and    $36   in    I 
collegiate  department.     Both  sexes  are  admitted. 

Jn  L875-  6,  there  were  ('<  instructors  and  63  stu- 
dents (I  collegiate  and  62  academic). 

PASSOW!  Franz  Ludwig  Karl  Friedrich, 
one  of  the  foremost  representatives  of  lexi 
graphic  literature,  bornin  Ludwigslust,  Germany, 
Sept.  'Jit..  1786; died  in  Breslau, March  11..  L833. 

Me  became,  in  1807,  professor  at  t he  gymnasium 

of  Weimar,  in  L810,  director  of  the  ( kmradin 
ofJenkau,  near   Dantzic,  and  in  1815,  prof eSBOl 
|  at  the  university  of  Breslau.    lie  was  an  en- 


PATIENCE 


PEABODY   FUND 


G81 


tlmsiastic  admirer  of  Greek  culture,  and  not 
only  preferred  the  Greek  language  anil  literature 
to  the  Latin,  but  made  a  practical  attempt,  in  the 
school  of  Jenkau.  to  have  the  study  of  Greek 
begun  before  that  of  Latin.  His  tame  chiefly 
rests  on  his  Greek  lexicon,  which  not  only  began 
an  entirely  new  era  in  the  history  of  classical 
dictionaries,  but  is  generally  regan  lei  1  as  i  >ne  of  the 
most  remarkable  productions  in  the  entire  range 
of  lexical  literature.  The  first  edition  of  the  work 
{HandwGrterbuch  der  griecliischen  Sprache, 
2  vols.,  Leips..  1  Si 9 — 2-1),  appeared  as  a  revision 
of  the  Greek-German  lexicon  of  Schneider:  but, 
in  the  following  editions,  it  was  so  completely  re- 
written by  him,  that  the  4th  edition  (1831)  bore 
only  his  name  on  the  title  page.  Passow's  work 
constitutes  the  basis  of  the  Greek-  English  lexi- 
con of  Liddell  and  Scott.  (See  Greek  Language.) 
The  Prussian  minister  of  education,  A.  Falk, 
(q.  v.).  is  a  son-in-law  of  Passow. 

PATIENCE,  the  calm  endurance  of  neces- 
sary toil  or  suffering.  This  quality,  though 
similar  to  perseverance  in  the  prolonged  effort 
which  its  exercise  presupposes,  differs  from  it 
chiefly  in  the  equable  temper  with  which  that 
effort  is  made.  A  patient  spirit  is  one  of  the 
most  important  elements  in  the  character  of  a 
successful  educator.  Many  occasions,  indeed, 
will  occur,  when  patience  will  be  the  only  virtue 
which  will  command  success.  Its  cultivation, 
therefore,  is  desirable  both  on  this  account,  and 
because  of  its  value  in  mental  discipline.  Its 
possession,  moreover,  is  necessaiy  both  to  the 
teacher  and  to  the  pupil.  To  the  former,  it  is  of 
special  use  in  his  treatment  of  the  varying  dis- 
positions with  which  he  has  to  deal.  The  prov- 
ocations to  impatience  and  ill  temper  are  so 
many  and  so  constant,  that,  without  patience, 
the  teacher's  life  will  be  a  continued  series  of  an- 
noyances. Impatience  in  children  is  the  result 
either  of  temperament  or  hereditary  predisposi- 
tion ;  and,  in  dealing  with  it,  the  teacher  should 
remember  that  nothing  so  tends  to  develop  and 
foster  it  in  his  pupils,  as  a  constant  practical  ex- 
hibition of  it  in  his- daily  intercourse  with  them. 
As  nothing  is  so  infectious  as  ill  temper,  so 
nothing  tends  so  rapidly  to  curb  ill  temper  as 
that  quiet  forbearance  which  a  patient  spirit 
diffuses  around  it  like  an  atmosphere.  The 
mental  powers,  also,  act  with  much  greater  effect 
when  the  calmness  of  the  judgment  is  undis- 
turbed by  ill  temper  or  impatience.  Perseve- 
rance may.  indeed,  exist  without  patience,  and  to 
a  certain  extent  may  accomplish  its  objects  ;  but 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  more  than  half  the  good 
results  which  perseverance  aided  by  patience 
might  accomplish,  are  thrown  away  if  patience 
does  not  accompany  it. 

PAYNE,  Joseph,  one  of  the  most  noted 
English  educators  of  our  times,  born  in  1808  ; 
died  April  30.,  1876.  He  received  his  educa- 
tional training  at  the  University  of  London,  and 
early  distinguished  himself  as  a  teacher  of  En- 
glish. For  a  number  of  years,  he  was  connected 
with  his  alma  mutter.  In  1873,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  newly-founded  professorship  of 


education  in  the  College  of  Preceptors,  the  first 
chair  in   any  public   institution   in    England  as- 

sig 1  to  that   subject.      He  devoted  himself,  in 

this  position,  and  also  by  his  writings,  to  the 
promotion  of  education,  making  the  improv 

nient  nt    methods  of  teaching  his   special  object. 

He  was  tin'  author  of  Lectures  on  Education, 

and  numerous  lectures  and  pamphlets  on  allied 
subjects,      lie   also   took    an  active    part  in   the 

Woman's  Education  Union.  Mr.  Payne  con- 
tributed several  papers  to  the  proceedings  of  the 
Philological  Society  chiefly  on  English  dial. 
and  the  relation  of  Old  English  to  Norman 
French.  Among  his  other  publications,  were 
textbooks  on  English  literature,  entitled  Stud- 
ies in  English  (5th  ed.,  London,  L864)  ;  Studies 
in  English  Prose  (1867);  and  Select  Poetry /i  r 
Children,  which  had  a  very  large  circulation 
(15th  ed.,  1868). 

PEABODY,  George,  an  American  merchant 
and  banker,  born  in  Danvers,  Mas.-...  Feb.  18., 
1795;  died  in  London.  Nov.  -1.,  1869.  Mr.  P 
body's  gifts  to  charitable  and  educational  institu- 
tions have  been  enormous,  if  not  unequaled.  <  >f 
the  latter,  the  principal  are  the  following :  the 
Peabody  Institute,  in  South  Danvers.  which  he 
founded  by  a  gift  of  $30,000,  afterwards  in- 
creased to  $200,000  ;  a  similar  institution  in 
North  Danvers,  endowed  with  $50,000  ;  the 
Peabody  Institute  in  Baltimore.  Md.,  founded 
by  a  bequest  of  8300,000,  to  which  he  added 
$700,000;  the  Archaeological  Institute  of  Har- 
vard College,  with  an  endowment  fund  of 
$150,000;  and  the  department  of  physical 
science,  in  Yale  College,  with  an  equal  fund. 
The  total  amount  of  his  bequests  to  the  cause 
of  education  exceeds  $5,365,000. 

PEABODY  FUND  (Educational),  an 
endowment  of  extraordinary  munificence,  cre- 
ated for  educational  purposes,  by  George  Pea- 
body (q.  v.),  the  first  announcement  of  which 
was  made  Feb.  7.,  1867.  in  the  following  word.-  ; 
"  I  give  one  million  of  dollars  for  the  encourage- 
ment and  promotion  of  intellectual,  moral,  and 
industrial  education  among  the  young  of  the 
more  destitute  portions  of  the  southern  and 
southwestern  states  of  the  Union."  Ten  trustees 
were  selected  by  him  to  carry  his  wishes  into 
effect  ;  and,  at  a  meeting  held  in  New  York, 
March  ID.,  1867,  a  general  plan  was  adopted, 
and  Dr.  Barnas  Sears  was  appointed  agent.  On 
duly  1..  1869,  Mr.  Peabody  added  a  second  mil- 
lion to  the  cash  capital  of  the  fund.  Besides 
this,  there  were  donations  of  Mississippi  and 
Florida  bonds  amounting  to  about  $1,500,000, 
not  realizing,  however,  any  income.  According 
to  the  donor's  directions,  the  principal  must 
remain  unchanged  for  30  years,  the  trustees  be- 
ing enjoined  from  expending  any  portion  of 
it  or  adding  to  it  any  part  of  the  accruing  in- 
terest. The  manner  of  using  the  latter,  as  well 
as  the  final  distribution  of  the  principal,  was 
left  entirely  to  the  discretion  of  the  trust, 
who  are  vested  with  authority  to  fill  vacancies 
in  their  number.  "  Not  a  single  Southern  state." 
says  the  agent,  "  had  a  modern  system  of  public 


C32 


I'KDACOGY 


PEET 


schools  when  the  trustees  first  entered  upon 
their  work,  and  now  (1875)  do  state  is  without 
such  a  system,  existing  at  least  in  law;  and  every 
state  has  either  already  organized  or  is  now 
organizing  its  schools."  While  it  is  not  claimed 
by  the  trustees  that  all  this  has  been  done  by 
means  of  the  distribution  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
fund  :  it  must  be  conceded  that  this  great  work 
has  been  greatly  aided  and  stimulated  thereby. 
'liie  promotion  of  primary  education  for  the 
masses  has  been  the  chief  object  kept  in  view  : 
ami.  iii  the  effort  to  accomplish  it.  the  trustees 
have  followed  the  "sound  maxim  of  giving  help 
to  those,  and  only  to  those, who  help  themselves." 
Hence,  whenever  efficient  measures  have  been 
inaugurated  by  state,  city,  or  town  to  estab- 
lish and  support  a  permanent  system  of  schools, 
and  aid  has  been  needed  to  meet  the  outlay 
necessary  at  first,  contributions  have  been 
promptly  and  liberally  made  to  supplement  the 
funds  publicly  raised.  The  rules  followed  in  the 
distribution  have  been  as  follows:  (I  (All  schools 
ailed  must  have  at  least  LOO  pupils,  with  a 
teacher  for  every  50 ;  must  be  properly  graded, 
and  must  be  continued  during  ten  months  in  the 

year,  with  an  average  attendance  of  not  less  than 
85  per  cent  ;  (2)  The  trustees  act  in  concert  with 
i\\  ■  state  authorities,  and  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  state  superintendent  in  each;  (3)  The 
largest  sum  given  to  a  school  of  loo  pupils  is 
$300;  to  one  of  '-'mi  pupils.  $600,  and  to  one 
of  .'500  pupils,  SI  000  :  but  always  on  the  condi- 
tion that  the  district  pay  at  least  twice  the 
amount  given  from  the  fund. 

PEDAGOGY,  or  Pedagogics  ((Jr. 
•yuyia,  from  rraZc,  waiS6c,  a  boy,  and  ayuydg,  Lead- 
ing or  guiding),  the  science  and  art  of  giving  in- 
struction to  children,  particularly  in  school,  or 
as  by  a  school-teacher  [~aii)<r1i.))uc).  This  term 
is  more  generally  used  in  Germany  than  in  the 
United  States  or  Hreat  Britain,  in  which  the 
theory  and  art  of  the  teacher  or  educator  is  de- 
signated as  instruction  or  education  :  indeed, 
the  word  pedagogue  is,  in  these  countries,  used 
as  a  term  of  reproach.  For  information  in  re- 
gard to  the  various  departments  of  pedagogy, 
Em  cation,  Instki  it  ion.  Didactics,  etc. 

PEET,   Harvey  Prindle,  a  noted   teacher 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb,   born    in    Bethlehem,    •'!.. 

Nov.  in..  L794;died  in  New  York,  Jan.  L.,  1873. 

The  ordinary  life  of  the  country  boy.  working 
on  the  farm  in  summer,  and  attending  the  district 
School  in  winter,  when  associated  with  an  ardent 

thirst  for  knowledge,  is  by  mi  means  an  inap- 
propriate School  for  the  development  of  a  self- 
reliant  character.  Such  was  the  early  life  of  Dr. 
I  Vet,  with  this  additional  advantage,  that  he  Wiis 
.surrounded  by  a  society  exceptionally  reline  I  and 
cultivated  foi-  a.  country  town.    At  the  age  of  21, 

h  ■  began  to  teach;  but.  becoming  ambitious  tor 
illege  e  Lucation,  he  entered  upon  a  course  of 
study  while  he  was  teaching. and  having  finished 
his  preparatory  course  at  A  ndover,  Ma^s..  entered 
Yale  College,  from  which  he  graduated  in  L822. 
Ill'  received  an  invitation  to  teach  in  the  Amer- 
ican Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  at  I  lartford, 


and  entered  there  upon  a  career  which  he  never 
afterwards  abandoned.  His  own  qualifications. 
and  the  society  of  several  eminent  and  successful 
instructors  in  this  peculiar  held,  soon  gave  him 
a  proficiency  that  led  to  his  appointment  as 
steward  of  the  institution,  and.  shortly  after- 
wards, to  his  selection,  by  the  directors  of  the 
New  York  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
for  the  situation  of  principal.  He  entered  upon 
his  new  duties  in  L831,  and  found,  in  the  neces- 
sary re-organization  of  the  institution,  ample  field 
lor  all  his  energy.  In  the  training  of  teachers 
for  the  instruction  of  the  unfortunate  class  with 
whom  he  was  associated,  his  peculiar  ability  and 
patience  were  more  particularly  manifested.  This 
work  of  re-organization  and  instruction  was  long 
and  arduous:  but  the  marked  improvement  which 
followed  placed  the  institution  on  a  higher  level 
of  usefulness  and  reputation,  that  afterwards  led 
to  the  rebuilding  of  it  on  an  enlarged  scale,  and  to 
its  incorporation  by  the  state,  Dr.  Peet  becoming 
its  president.  This  position  he  continued  to  hold 
till  his  death.—  His  peculiar  service  in  the  cause 
of  deaf-mute  instruction  deserves  not  only  com- 
mendation but  careful  study  by  all  engaged  in 
that  peculiar  field  of  educational  labor.  In  L844, 

Horace  Mann,  after  an  extended  examination  of 

the  school  systems  of  Europe,  made  the  assertion 
that  the  institutions  for  deaf-mutes  in  Prussia, 
Saxony,  and  Holland  were  decidedly  superior  to 
any  existing  in  America:  the  ground  of  this  asser- 
tion being  that  while  the  American  system  taught 

pupils  to  converse  by  signs  only,  the  systems 
m  those  countries  taught  the  pupils  actually  to 
speak,  as  well  as  to  understand  spoken  language, 

and  that  this  latter  was  the  only  way  in  which 
their  defect  could  be  thoroughly  remedied.  Mr. 
Matin's  ereat  reputation, though  not  shaking  Dr. 
1'eet's  belief  in  the  superiority  of  his  favorite 
method  that  of  signs,  made  it  necessary  to 
answer  this  charge  in  the  most  conclusive  way. 
To  this  end,  Dr.  Weld,  of  the  Hartford  Asylum. 
and  Dr.  Day,  of  the  New  York  institution.  Mere 
sent  to  Europe  on  a  tour  of  investigation:  and,  in 
the  New  York  institution,  a  class  of  the  most 
promising  pupils  was  formed  for  practice  in  artic- 
ulation ami  lip-reading.  After  a  year's  exper- 
iment, the  class  ]iro\ed  a  failure,  and  the  ex- 
haust ive  report  made  by  Dr.  Day.  on  his  return 
from  Europe,  did  not  sustain  Mr.  Mann  in  his 
assertions.  Dr.Peel  regarded  uneducated  deaf- 
mutes  as  children  in  intelligence;  because,  of  the 

avenues  through  which  intelligence  i>  increased 
and  perfected,  two — hearing  and  speech  are 
closed  from  birth.  An  evidence  of  this  childish 
condition  is  found  in  the  fact  that  their  minds 
are  engrossed  by  concrete  ideas  to  the  almost  en- 
tire exclusion  of  abstract  ones.  Having  satisfied 
himself  of  this,  therefore,  instead  of  attempting  to 
impose  upon  these  immature  minds  complex  and 
abstract  ideas,  such  as  only  a  person  in  the  full 
possession  of  his  faculties  can  entertain,  he  placed 

himself  on  their  level,  and  endeavored  to  watch 
the  very  birth  of  thought,  following  the  processes 
by  which  perceptions  become  conceptions,  and 
st  tidying  t  he  nature  of  the  conception.--  so  formed. 


PEET 


PEIRCE 


683 


This  led  him  to  adopt  a  strictly  natural  method 
in  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes — a  method 
which  should  conform  to  the  natural,  in  the  kind 
of  objects  first  presented  for  observation,  and  in 
the  order  of  presentation.  According  to  this 
plan,  the  first  to  be  employed  are  simple,  tan- 
gible, or  sensuous,  objects,  the  abstract  ideas, 
formed  by  a  generalization  of  these,  having  no 
existence  till  the  concrete  ideas  have  become  per- 
fectly familiar  by  long  usage.  As  to  the  means 
to  be  employed  for  communicating  with  deaf- 
mutes  during  instruction,  his  position  was  always 
that  articulation,  except  in  its  most  elementary 
stage,  being  an  arbitrary  method  for  the  com- 
munication of  thought,  can  be  learned,  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy,  only  by  persons  in  possession 
of  the  faculties  of  both  ear  and  speech;  that  deaf- 
mutes,  therefore,  i.  e.,  born  deaf-mutes,  will  only 
lose  time  and  patience  by  attempting  to  acquire 
the  faculty  of  speech;  and  that  their  efforts  should 
be  turned  to  the  developing  and  perfecting  of 
t'i  !  sign  language  as  their  most  efficient  means 
of  conversation.  Exceptions  to  this  are  made 
in  the  case  of  semi-mutes,  by  which  term  he 
meant  those  who  had  lost  the  faculty  of  hearing 
after  they  had  learned  to  speak  or  read,  the 
semi-deaf,  and  a  few  deaf-mutes  of  exceptional 
ability;  but  as  these  constitute  only  about  fifteen 
per  cent  of  the  whole  number  of  the  deaf,  the 
method  to  be  pursued  should  be  that  which  will 
benefit  the  remaining  eighty-five  percent.  While, 
however,  he  considered  the  sign  language  the 
only  one  natural  to  deaf-mutes,  and  therefore 
the  fittest  for  the  development  of  their  minds, 
it  was  necessary  to  keep  constantly  in  view,  not 
only  the  means  by  which  they  were  to  com- 
municate with  each  other,  but  more  especially  the 
means  by  which  they  were  to  communicate  with 
the  world  around  them,  with  the  members  of 
which  they  were  to  associate,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
on  terms  of  equality.  For  this  purpose,  the  defi- 
ciency of  the  sign  language  is  at  once  evident. 
In  the  investigation  of  the  causes  of  this  defi- 
ciency, Dr.  Peet  discovered  that  the  natural  lan- 
guage of  signs  had  a  syntax  of  its  own,  which  dif- 
fered from  spoken  English  principally  in  the  fol- 
lowing particulars:  (1)  the  order  of  expression 
is  inverted;  (2)  the  time  is  marked  once  only,  as 
in  the  Hebrew;  (3)  of  the  radical  elements,  there 
are  no  variations  corresponding  to  parts  of  speech; 

(4)  there  are  no  inflections  to  denote  gender, 
number,   person,    case,    voice,  mood,  or    tense; 

(5)  particles  and  pronouns  are  seldom  used. 
Methodical  or  arbitrary  signs,  were,  therefore, 
necessary  to  supply  these  deficiencies,  and  the 
extent  to  which  these  should  be  used,  and  the 
method  of  using  them,  became  a  subject  not  only 
of  difficulty  but  of  controversy.  Dr.  Peet  looked 
upon  the  deaf-mute,  while  learning  written 
English,  as  in  the  condition  of  an  English  boy 
learning  any  foreign  language — Latin,  for  in- 
stance. To  such  a  boy,  the  English  word  and 
tin-  Latin  word  were  both,  he  thought,  direct 
representatives  of  the  idea.  His  opponents  held, 
on  the  contrary,  that  only  one  of  these — the  En- 
glish word — was  the  direct  representative;  and 


thai  the  Latin  word  represented  the  idea  indi- 
rectly, ;'.  e.,  through  the  English  one.  Holding, 
therefore,  as  he  did,  that  the  written  word  and 
the  sign  were  equally  direct  representatives  of 
tin1  idea,  he  considered  that,  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage, the  sign  should  be  dropped  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  the  idea  attached  directly  to  the 
written  word.  Acting  on  these  views,  Dr.  Peet 
prepared,  for  use  in  bis  institution,  a  course  of 
instruction,  arranged  to  embody  two  other  prin- 
ciples; namely,  that  ideas  should  be  taught  before 
words,  and  that  difficulties  should  be  gradually 
and  singly  overcome.  It  is  not  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  describe  the  manner  in  which  these  ideas 
are  practically  illustrated,  in  his  series  of  text/ 
1  looks,  or  to  trace  their  further  development  in 
subsequent  works.  Enough  has  been  said  to  in- 
dicate the  distinctive  character  of  his  system;  and 
the  success  which  has  attended  the  use  of  it  in 
the  institution  which  he  conducted  so  many 
years,  and  which  is,  at  present,  under  the  care  of 
his  son,  Isaac  Lewis  Peet — trained  under  parental 
care  for  the  work — appears  to  be  an  ample  vin- 
dication of  its  correctness.  Of  the  place  Dr.  Peet 
should  hold  in  the  ranks  of  those  noble  men  who 
have  given  their  lives  to  the  work  of  education, 
of  his  high  place  among  the  exceptional  men 
who  have  devoted  their  energies  to  the  difficult 
task  of  lifting  the  veil  from  intelligences  clouded 
by  misfortune,  there  can  be  no  question.  The 
essentially  Christian  character  of  the  work  un- 
dertaken, the  ability  and  patience  with  which 
it  was  pursued,  and  the  success  with  which  it 
was  attended,  must  always  claim  our  admiration 
and  demand  for  Dr.  Peet  a  place  among  the 
benefactors  of  his  race.  Besides  his  Course  of 
Instruction,  and  History  of  the  United  States 
(1869),  Dr.  Peet's  published  works  are  to  be 
found  in  articles  furnished  to  various  periodicals, 
in  annual  reports,  addresses,  and  discourses.  By 
means  of  these,  in  addition  to  hisown  researches, 
the  results  reached  by  De  Gerando,  Schmalz, 
and  Guyot  were  first  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  English-reading  public.  Perhaps,  his  most 
valuable  contribution,  however,  was  the  Report 
on  the  Legal  Rights  and  Liabilities  of  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb,  published  in  the  Herald  of  Health 
(New  York,  1868).  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that 
deficiency  of  intellect  on  the  part  of  deaf-mutes 
raises  important  questions  in  regard  to  their  legal 
rights.  This  report  furnishes  valuable  infor- 
mation on  marriage,  the  disposal  of  property, 
the  comprehension  of  the  oath,  and  many  other 
subjects ;  and  being  unique  in  kind,  and  sup- 
plying, as  it  does,  information  not  hitherto  at- 
tainable, it  will  long  be  quoted  as  an  authority. 
—  See  Barnard,  American  Teachers  and  Edu- 
cators; Syle,  Summary  of  the  Recorded  Re- 
searches and  Opinions  of  H.  P.  Peet  (Wash- 
ington, 1873),  reprinted  from  American  Annals 
of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

PEIRCE,  Cyrus,  a  noted  tco.cheT,  born  in 
Waltham,  Mass..  August  L5,  17;>i;;  died  in  West 
Newton,  Mass.,  April  5,1860.  After  attending 
a  district  school  and  the  academy  at  Framing- 
ham,  lie  entered  Harvard  College,  and  graduated 


G84 


PEIRCE 


PENMANSHIP 


in  1810.  For  two  years,  he  taught  school  in 
Nantucket,  but.  in  L812,  returned  to  college  to 
prepare  himself  for  the  ministry.  After  three 
years  spent  in  the  study  of  theology,  the  per- 
suasions of  his  former  patronB  at  Nantucket  in- 
duced him  to  return  to  the  charge  of  the  school 
he  had  relinquished  there;  and,  for  three  years 
more,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  teach- 
ing. Attheendof  that  time,  lie  entered  the 
ministry,  in  which  he  continued  eight  years.  Sus- 
pecting, however,  that  his  want  of  a  pleasing  ad- 
dress was  preventing  him  from  using  his  enei 
to  the  best  effect  morally,  and  that  the  faults  he 
sought  to  correct  in  adults,  could  be  dealt  with 
more  successfully,  if  taken  at  an  earlier  period, 
he  determined  to  abandon  the  pulpit  for  the  desk 
of  the  teacher.  Accordingly,  he  Decame  with  a 
relative  the  joint  prim-ipiil  of  an  academy  at  North 
Andover,  but  their  want  of  agreement  as  to  dis- 
cipline and  methods  of  teaching  led  to  a  sepa- 
ration after  four  years;  and,  in  L831,  he  returned 
to  Nantucket  where,  for  six  years,  he  conducted 
a  large  and  nourishing  schi  »ol.  ( >ne  of  his  most  use- 
ful measures  was  the  grading  of  the  public  schools 
of  Nantucket.  This  led,  shortly  after,  to  his  ap- 
pointment as  principal  of  the  high  school  in  that 
place,  whicn  position  he  held  for  thirteen 
months.  In  1  -s.'J'J.  he  accepted  the  invitation, 
extended  by  Horace  Mane,  to  take  charge  of 
the  normal  school  at  Lexington,  the  establish- 
ment of  which  had  been  decided  upon  as  an  ex- 
periment  by  the  state  board  of  educat  ion.  » raly 
three  pupils  presented  themselves  at  the  opening 
of  the  school,  ami  tin:  prospect  was  most:  dis- 
heartening. The  thoroughness  of  .Mr.  Peirce's 
instruction,  however,  and  his  ardent  devotion  to 
his  work   soon    attracted   attention;    the   apathy 

with  which  his  labors  were  regarded  by  a  large 
majority  of  the  friends  of  education  gradually 
gave  place  to  confidence;  and  the  superiority  of 
the  graduates  of  his  school  to  ordinary  teachers 
soon  placed  the  new  system  in  the  pathway  of 
assured  success.  During  the  three  years  of  his 
labors  at  Lexington,  more  than  fifty  teachers  were 
graduated,  and  the  testimony  generally  given  as 

to  their  fitness  for  the  profession  was  cordial  and 
almost  uniform.  In  connection  with  the  normal 
school,  he  established  a  model  school,  in  which 
the  methods  he  taught  were  put  to  a  practical  test 

under  his  own  supervision.  From  1844  to  1-1'.). 
he  taught  the  Normal  School  at  West  Newton, 
whither  it  had  been  removed  from  Lexington.  The 
principal  characterisl  ics  of  ( 'yrus  1  'eirce  \\  ere  hi? 
deep  moral  convictions,  unwearied  patience,  and 
Conscientious  devotion    to  duty      the  deepest  im- 

Eion  left  on  the  minds  of  all  with  whom 
e  was  associated  being  that  of  his  unswerving 
integrity.  As  the  principal  of  the  first  normal 
school  in  America,  specially  chosen  for  the  work 

by  i  eminenl  in  the  educational  annals  of 

the  United  States,  and  justifying  thai  choice  by 

Self-sacrificing   and   effective    work,   at    a   critical 

moment,  his  name  will  always  he  accorded  a 
prominent  place  among  American  educators. — 
See  Barnard,  American  Teaclieis  and  Educa- 
tors (New  York,  1801). 


PENMANSHIP,  writing  with  the  pen  ;  al- 
though the  term  is  sometimes  used  to  indicate 
any  kind  of  handwriting,  or  chirography,  the 
pen  being  the  most,  important  instrument  for 
writing.  The  ability  to  write  is  one  of  the  two 
fundamental  characteristics  of  an  educated  per- 
son, the  inability  to  read  and  write  constituting 
what  is  technically  called  illiteracy',  and  yet.  in 
advanced  education,  a  legible  or  elegant  stj 
of  handwriting  is  not  considered  of  great  im- 
portance ;  for  the  cases  are  very  few  in  which  a 
candidate  either  for  admission  to  a  college  or 
university,  or  for  a  graduating  diploma,  is  re- 
jected for  not  being  able  to  write,  any  scrawl, 
however  illegible  or  inelegant,  being  usually  ac- 
cepted as  evidence  of  such  ability.  The  conse- 
quence is,  that  good  penmanship  has  not  been 
the  distinguishing  feature  of  college  graduates, 
but  rather  the  reverse.  "When  the  value  of  this 
accomplishment,  in  every  sphere  of  life,  is  con- 
sidered, it  will  be  obvious  that  the  policy  of  thus 
disparaging  penmanship  as  the  accomplishment 
of  a  scholar  is  an  entirely  mistaken  one.  It  is 
true  that  it  cannot  be  considered  as  an  element 
of  superior  instruction  ;  but  those  who  have  the 
direction  of  that  grade  of  instruction,  should  al- 
ways insist  upon  the  completion  of  the  inferior 
grades  as  an  indispensable  i prerequisite  for  ad- 
mission to  higher  studies.  In  elementary  sch 
penmanship  constitutes  a  very  important  brain  h 
of  instruction;  and,  in  these,  sufficient  tine 
should  be  given  to  it  to  insure,  at  least .  a  respect- 
able degree  of  excellence  to  each  of  the  pupils. — 
There  are  various  so-called  systems  of  teaching 
penmanship,  but  the  underlying  principles  are 
the  same  in  all,  the  difference  chiefly  consisting 
in  a,  diversity  in  the  arrangement  of  the  elements 
of  the  letters,  with  slight  modifications  in  their 
forms  and  mode  of  execution,  and  in  the  exer- 
3  for  practice.  In  order  to  write  well,  the 
pupil  must  have  (1)  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  forms  of  the  letters,  and  (2)  a  command  of 
the  pen  to  execute  tliein.  These  two  fundament- 
al acquirements  must  be  made  simultaneously, 

except  that  some  pre\  ioiis  elementary  instruction 
and  practice  in  drawing  will  aid   the  pupil  very 

h  in  his  first  lessons  in  penmanship.  In  ti 
lessons,   the   forms   should  be  adapted  to  the 
pupil's  untrained  muscles,  and  should  increase 

in  complexity  ami  difficulty poripassu  with  the 
training  of  the  hand  and  arm.    The  proper  posi- 
tion of  the  body  and  the  correct    mode  of  hold- 
ing the  pen  are  indispensable  prerequisites 
successful  work     Lessons  in   penmanship  also 

presuppose  a  careful  analysis  of  the  elementary 
forms  of  the  letters;  and.  in  this  respect,  systems 
greatly  differ.    They  have,  however,  many  points 

in  common  indeed  every  thing  that  is  essen- 
tial. Commencing  with  straight  lines,  to  he  made 

at  the  proper  slope. and  with  perfect  parallelism, 
i lie  pupil  advances  progressively  to  the  /"•/-/ 

the  loop,    the    ellipse,    as  ill   the  letter  0,  etc..  till, 

by  practicing  these  ami  their  combinations,  lie 
has  mastered  all  the  small  letters  of  the  script 
alphabet,  when  he  proceeds, in  a  similar  manner, 
w  it  1  l  the  capitals,  from  which  he  paases  to  words. 


PENN    COLLEGE 


PENNSYLVANIA 


685 


phrases,  sentences,  and  paragraphs.  The  copy- 
book should  not  be  used  after  the  pupil  lias  be- 
come thoroughly  familiar  with  the  proper  forms 

of  the  letters,  and  thus  acquired  a  fair  style  of 
writing.    Much  time  is  frequently  lost  in  com- 
pelling pupils,  year  after  year,  to  write  copies. 
Quantity  as  well  .is  quality  should  be  required; 
excellence  in  penmanship  consisting  both  in  cor- 
rectness and  spee.l  of  execution.     Many  useful 
exercises  may  be  blended  with  practice  in  pen- 
manship, as   the  learning  of  the  forms  used  in 
business,  such  as  bills,  receipts,  modes  of  super- 
scribing and  addressing  letters,  etc.     Practice  in 
calligraphy,  or  artistic  penmanship,  is  also  of 
use,  but  should  not  be  carried  to  an  extreme  in 
schools.    The  remarks  of  an  experienced  teacher 
may  here  be  cited:    "Constant  vigilance,   and 
continual  correction  of  errors,  are  indispensable 
to  the  formation  of  a  good  hand.    To  know  how 
to  execute  well,  then,  is  the  grand  requisite  in 
the  teacher  :  the  next,  to  furnish  good  models  ; 
and   the   third,  to  have  a  quick  eye  to  detect 
faults,  and  a  persistent  determination  for  their 
correction.    These  conditions  existing,  and  the 
principle  carried  out,  your  pupils  will  write  well, 
with  a  reasonable  amount  and  duration  of  prac- 
tice'  |  ( riDEON  F.  Thayer,  in  Barnard's  Journal 
of  Education.)  —  See  also  Payson,  Dunton,  etc. 
Theory  and  Art  of  Penmanship  (N.  Y.,  1863)  ; 
Wiokersham,  Methods  of  Instruction  (Phila., 
L865);  How  to  Teach  (N.  Y.,  1874). 

PENN  COLLEGE,  at  ©akaloosa,  Iowa,  under 
the  control  of  the  Friends,  was  incorporated  in 
1866  as  Iowa  Union  College  Association  of 
Friends.  The  name  was  changed  in  1873.  It 
has  an  endowment  of  $5,000,  and  a  library  of 
about  2,000  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $30 
a  year.  The  institution  comprises  a  collegiate 
(a  classical  and  a  scientific  course) ,  a  preparatory, 
a  normal,  and  a  business  department.  Both  sexes 
are  admitted.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  12  in- 
structors, and  38  collegiate,  183  preparatory,  41 
normal,  and  32  business  students,  of  whom  some 
belong  to  more  than  one  department.  John  W. 
Woody,  A.  M.,  is  the  president  (1876). 

PENNSYLVANIA,  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  important  of  the  thirteen  original  states  of 
the  American  Union.  Its  area  is  46,000  sq.  m., 
and  its  population,  in  1870.  was  3,522,050,  of 
whom  65,294  were  colored  persons.  Its  popula- 
tion in  1875,  was  estimated  at  3,941,400. 

Educational  History.  —  This  subject  will  be 
treated  under  the  following  heads:  (I)  The 
Colonial  period:.  (II)  Under  the  constitution  of 
1790:  (111)  Under  the  constitutions  of  1838 
and  1873. 

I.  The  Colonial  Period. — From  the  founding 
of  Penn's  colony  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware, 
may  be  said  to  date  the  beginning  of  Pennsyl- 
vania's educational  history.  The  first  plan  of  the 
{jroprietary  government  drafted  by  Penn  before 
eaving  England,  in  1682,  stipulated  that  "the 
governor  and  provincial  council  shall  erect  and 
order  all  public  schools,  and  reward  the  authors 
of  useful  sciences  and  laudable  inventions  in  said 
provinces."     During  the  following  year,  a  law 


was  enacted  by  the  council  of  the  province,  which 
provided  thai  a  school  should  be  established  for 
the  education  of  the  young.  Immediate  steps 
were  taken  to  put  this  enactment  into  execution. 
The  governor  and  the  council,  perceiving  "the 
-ivat  neeessitv  iheiv  is  of  a  school-master, for  the 
instruction  and  sober  edui  ation  of  youth,"  elect- 
ed <-ne  Enoch  Flower,  a  teacher  of  several  y< 
experience,  to  open  a  school.  The  (.ranches  re- 
quired to  be  taught  were,  reading,  writing,  and 
the  casting  of  accounts.    According  to  the  most 

authentic  records,  this  was  the  first  school  estab- 
lished within  the  present  territorial  limits  of 
the  state,  in  different  parts  of  the  province, 
other  schools  were  organized.  In  1692,  a  school 
was  opened  at  Darby  mow  in  Delaware  Co.)  ; 
and  in  L 698,  the  Society  of  Friends  established 
a  school  in  Philadelphia,  where  all  the  children 
and  servants,  male  and,  female,  "mighl  be  taught, 
and  provision  made  that  the  poor  might 
taughl  gratis."  The  motto  of  the  school,  "Good 
instruction  is  better  than  riches."  was  selected 
by  Penn.  In  1  701 ,  the  charter  of  this  Friends' 
School  was  confirmed  by  a  new  patent  from 
Penn,  bearing  date,  I  Ictober  25.,  1701 .  and,  also, 
by  another,  in  1708,  whereby  the  corporation 
was  "forever  thereafter  to  consist  of  1  .">  discreet. 
religious  persons  of  the  people  called  Quaki 
by  the  name  of  Overset  rs  of  the  Public  School 
founded  in  Philadelphia  at  the  request,  cost,  and 
<  harges,  of  the  people  called  Quakers.''  Another 
charter  was  granted  by  Penn,  in  1711,  for  ex- 
tending the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  corpora- 
tion. Ibis  was  the  first  public  school  in  Penn- 
sylvania ;  and  the  design  of  the  governor  and 
council  in  establishing  this  institution  is  best  set 
forth  in  the  preamble'  of  the  last  charter,  which 
reads  as  follows : 

"  Whereas  tlie  prosperity  and  welfare  of  any  people 
depend  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  good  education 
of  youth,  and  their  early  introduction  in  ti.e  principles 
(if  true  religion  and  virtue,  and  qualifying  them  to 
serve  their  country  and  themselves  by  breeding  them 
in  reading,  writing,  and  learning  of  languages  and  use- 
ful arts  and  sciences,  suitable  to  their  sex,  age,  and 
degree;  which  cannot  be  affected,  in  any  manner,  so 
well  as  by  erecting  Public  Schools  for  the  purpose 
aforesaid." 

As  the  early  settlers  pushed  their  way  west- 
ward, the  progress  of  education  was  accelerated 
by  the  prosperity  of  the  thrifty  colonists.  Thus 
far,  the  schools  established  had  been  chiefly 
under  the  direction  of  the  governor  and  pro- 
vincial council ;  though  do  special  provision  was 
made  by  the  authorities  regulating  the  number 
of  schools  in  accordance  with  the  number  of 
families  in  each  settlement,  as  was  done  in  some 
Other  colonies. — It  should  be  distinctly  under- 
stood that  the  school  established  by  the  Society 
of  Friends  in  1 'i!ts,  ami  supported  by  them  and 
conducted  under  their  direct  and  exclusive  con- 
trol, was  open  indiscriminately  to  persons  of  all 
religious  denominations,  ami  was.  for  more  than 
halt  a,  century,  the  only  public  school  in  the 
province.  In  the  mean  time,  new  settlements 
had  Iwen  formed  in  various  parts  of  the  province; 
and  the  school,  by  reason  of  its  location  as  well 


IJSti 


PENNSYLVANIA 


as  the  want  of  accommodations,  had  long  been  '.  act,  with  a  few  changes,  is  still  in  force  in 
inadequate  to  meet  the  educational  necessities  that  city.  In  L827,  a  number  of  citizens,  ro- 
of the  province.  Private  schools  were,  there-  Biding  in  the  city  and  county  of  Philadelphia, 
fore,  called  into  existence,  whenever  the  colonists  formed  an  association  for  the  promotion  of  edu- 
could  find  means  and  the  opportunity  to  provide  cation  in  the  state,  by  the  establishment  of  a 
for  them.— Among  the  early  German  settlers  the  system  of  public  schools  ;  and,  after  considerable 
proper  instruction  of  their  youth  was  a  subject  agitation,  the  measure,  being  strongly  urged  by 
of  deep  concern.     As  early  as  L755,  they  num-  George  Wolf,  then  governor,  was  adopted  Dy  the 


bereil  30,000  souls;  and.  wherever  a  sufficient 
number  were  settled,  the  church  and  the  school- 
house  were  erected.  From  L760  until  the  close 
of  the  Revolution,  the  vicissitudes  of  the  colony 
were  so  great  as  to  prevent  the  establishment 
of  any  educational   system  whatever.     At  the 

close  of  the  Revolution  the  first  fundamental 
law  adopted  by  the  people  recognized  the 
right  to  provide  schools  and  defray  the  expense 
thereof,  to  a  certain  extent,  from  the  public 
fun<  Is. 

II.  Under  the  <  bnstitvMon  of  1  7!)0.— The  con- 
stitution of  IT!»ii  required  that  the  legislature 
should  ■■  provide  by  law  for  the  establishment  of 
schools  throughout  the  state  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  poor  may  lie  taught  gratis;-'  and,  also, 
that  "the  arts  and  sciences  shall  he  promoted  in 

one  or  more  seminaries  of  learning."  'The  con- 
stitutional convention  of  L790,  however,  did  not 
contemplate   the  establishment   of  a  system  of 

common  schools  which  should  he  five  to  all  the 
children    of    the    commonwealth,    nor,    prior   to 

L 830, was  the  establishment  of  such  a  system 
recognized  by  many  as  a  legitimate  object  of 
state  legislation,  or  even  regarded  as  a  matter  of 
great  public  concern.  The  opinion  which  long 
prevailed  was,  that  this  duty  belonged  exclusive- 
ly to  parents  ami  guardians;  and  when  the  legis- 
lature, soon  after  die  adoption  of  the  constitu- 
tion, took  action  on  the  subject,  nothing  more  was 

done  than  to  make  provision  whereby    the  | r 

children  in  every  district  were  to  be  enrolled  for 
the  purpose  of  attending  school  if  they  wished, 

their  tuition  to  lie  paid  out  of  the  county  funds. 
Laws  of  the  same  import  were  enacted  in   L802, 

l-oi. and  L809.  That  of  the  last  date  was  entitled 
•■  Vn  act  to  provide  for  the  education  of  the  poor 

-rat  is."  and  remained  in  force  up  to  the  time  of 

the  adoption  of  the  first  common-scl I  system. 

in  1834.     The   new  system   was  called  l>y  those 

who  disliked  it  the  "pauper  system."  as  it  drew 

a  line  of  distinction    between   the   rich   and   the 

poor,  the  children  in  all  the  schools  being  divided 

into    two    classes    known    as    pay  scholars   and 

paupers.  The  whole  number  of  children  who  were 

brought  into  the  schools,  in  the  year  1833,  the 
last  iii  which  these  acts  were  iii  force,  was  only 
I  7.  KIT.. -ii id  tin-  whole  amount  expended  iii  their 

behalf,  $48,466.25.  opposition  to  the  pauper 
system  manifested  itself  from  the  beginning;  hut 

many    years     elapsed     before    the    friends  of    a 

broader  and  better  system,  were  able  to  make 
their  influence  felt  in  the  legislature.  This  in- 
fluence was  increased  in  1818,  when  Phila- 
delphia was  exempted  from  the  operation  of 
the  pauper  system,  by  the  passage  of  a  special 

act.  which  provided  for  the  education  of  its 
children    at     the    public     expense.        This    same 


doptei 
legislature,  April  1..  1834.    The  act   passed" was, 

however,  defective,  and  encountered  the  most  vio- 
lent opposition.  During  the  legislative  session 
of  1K-JT — 5,  thousands  of  petitions  were  pre- 
sented, asking  for  the  repeal  of  the  law.  and  few 
of  the  representatives  had  sufficient  courage  to 
defend  it  openly.    Notwithstanding  this,  it  was 

defended  by  ThaddeuS  Stevens,  then  a  represent- 
ative from  Adams  County,  who,  at  this  critical 
moment,  made  oneof  his  most  eloquent  appeals 
in  its  behalf,  and  thus  saved  the  system.  Accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  dames  Findlay,  secretary  of 
the  commonwealth,  and  superintendent  of  com- 
mon schools.../-  officio,  only  93  districts,  out  of 
900,  accepted  the  system  duiing  the  hist  year  it 

was  in  operation.  'I  he  average  length  of  the  school 
term  at  that  time  was  .'!;  months;  the  number 
of  schools.  451;  and  the  number  of  pupils  in  at- 
tendance. 10.S64.  The  average  salary  paid  to 
teachers  was  not  quite  £1  <i  a  month.  ( Opposition  to 
the  law  creating  the  system,  continued  to  in- 
crease as  its  defects  became  more  apparent,    (hie 

of  the  first  official  acts  of  Governor  Ritner,  in 
1 835,  was  to  appoint  as  secretary  of  the  common- 
wealth Thomas  II.  Burrowes,  who,  by  virtue  of 
his  office,  became  superintendent   oi   common 

schools,  lie  remained,  through  his  whole  public 
career,  a  steadfast  friend  oi  the  system.  In  1835, 
a  new  hill  was  presented  "to  consolidate  and 
amend  the  several  ads  in  relation  to  a  system  of 
education  1  •  v  common  schools."  in  securing  the 
passage  of  which  both  Mr.  Stevens  and  Mr.  Bur- 
rowes rendered  valuable  assistance.  The  accept- 
ance of  the  new  law  was  made  optional  with 
each  district,  the  citizens  being  allowed  to  vote 
on  the  question  of  the  continuance  of  the  public 
schools  every  third  year.  'I  he  -real  work  now  to 
he  done  was  to  set  u  re  the  adoption  of  the  syst(  m 
by  the  people,  and  to  put  it  into  operation.  Mr. 
Burrowes,   the  superintendent,  undertook  this 

work.     Me  visited  nearly  all  the  counties  in    the 

state, delivered  addresses. explained  the  law.  pre- 
pared   the    necessary  forms.       and   succeeded    in 

placing  the  system  upon  a  firm  basis.  Hifl suc- 
cess was  so  great  that,  in  the  third  and  last  re- 
port made  during  his  term  of  office  under  Gover- 
nor Ritner,  he  was  able  to  present  the  followii  g 
statistics:  accepting  districts.  840;  number  of 
schools.  5,269  :  number  of  tea. •hers.  n.T.'i'J  ;  num- 
ber of  pupils,  I  7  1.7.'!.'!.  The  state  appropriation, 
also,  had  reached  the  sum  of  $308,819; a  tax  had 

been  raised  tot-  the  support  of  schools,  amount- 
ing   to   S.'{s.'..T>>:  and    the    average    school  term 

had  been  extended  to  5|  months. 

forty  years  elapsed  from  the  time  of  the  or- 
ganization of  the  sta'e  government  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  COmmon-echool  system.     It  must  not. 

however,  he   inferred  that,  during  this  period, 


PENNSYLVANIA 


681 


there  was  no  legislation  relating  to  education; 
such  as  there  was.  however,  was  generally  in  the 
interest  of  private  schools.  The  policy  of  the 
legislature  seemed  to  be,  to  establish,  first,  acad- 
emies, colleges,  and  universities.  The  whole 
Dumber  of  acts  passed,  mostly  in  behalf  of  such 
institutions,  was  L86j  and  the  whole  amounl  of 
appropriations,  in  money  it  its  equivalent,  he- 
stowed  chiefly  on  corporate  bodies,  including 
academies,  colleges,  and  universities,  reached 
nearly  $300,000.  In  L833,  there  were  '_'  universi- 
ties, 8  colleges,  and  50  academies,  all  of  which 
bad  been  Liberally  aided  by  the  state. 

111.  Education  under  the  <  '(institutions  of  1 838 
one?  1873. — In  L838,  a  convention  met  in  Phila- 
delphia to  revise  the  constitution  of  the  state. 
On  the  subject  of  education,  it  recommended, 
without  change,  the  provisions  found  in  the  con- 
stitution of  L790.     The  common-school  system 
had   now   been   in  operation  several   years,   and 
was  gradually  commending  itself  to  the  people. 
Important  changes  in  the   law  took    place    from 
time  to  time.     In  1848,  the  people   having  pre- 
viously, in  the  triennial  election,  in  every  part  of 
the  state,  voted  for  the  continuance   of  the  sys- 
tem, an  act  was  passed  extending  it  over  the  en- 
tire state.     At  this  time,  360,000  youths  of  the 
commonwealth    were    enrolled    in     the    public 
schools,  and  taught  about  five  months  in  the  year. 
at  a  cost  of  about  $600,000.     In  1849,  all  the 
laws  relating  to  schools  were  collected    and  codi- 
fied.   In  January,  1852,  Thomas  H.   Burrowes 
commenced   the  publication  of  an  educational 
journal,  the  title  of  which,  at  the  end  of  the  first 
half  year,  was   changed    to  the   Pennsylvania 
School  Journal;  and,  in  L855,  it  became  the  of- 
tieial  organ  <>f  the  school  department.     In  1870, 
•lames  P.  Wickersham,  the  state  superintendent, 
became  its  editor ;  and,  since  that  time,  it  has 
gained  largely  in  influence  and  circulation.    On 
the  28th  of  December,  1852,  a  small  number  of 
prominent  teachers  and  friends  of  education  met 
at  Barrisburg  and  organized  the  State  Teachers' 
Association,  wdiich  has  convened  annually  since 
that  time.     In  1854,  a  general   school  law  was 
passed,  wdiich  created  the  office  of  county  super- 
intendent, abolished  committees  in  sub-districts, 
assigning,  instead,  additional  duties  to  school  di- 
rectors, authorized  the  appointment  of  a  deputy 
state  superintendent,  introduced  uniformity  of 
text-books  into  the  schools  of  each  district,  fixed 
the   minimum  school  term   at   4  months,  and 
authorized  boards  of  school  directors  to  levy  a 
spi 'i-ial  tax  annually  for  building  pur] >i  >st >s.    A pri I 
17.,  1855,  the  Lancaster  County  Normal  Insti- 
tute wasopened  in MiUersville  by  J.  P.  Wicker- 
sham, who  was  then  superintendent  of  the  above 
'named  county.     In  1857,  the  normal  school  act 
was  passed,  also  a  law  separating  the  office  of 
state  superintendent  from  that  of  secretary  of 
the  commonwealth,  and  creating,  at    the  same 
time,  the  department  of  common  schools.     The 
county  superintendency,  which  had  just  been  put 
in  operation,  under  the   new   law.  was.  at  this 
time,  so  unpopular,  that,  at  times,  it    seemed  as 
if  its  enemies  would  succeed  in  brin<_ring  about 


its  abolition.     Principally,  however,  through  the 

effortsof   the  state   superintendent .   Mr.   ffickok, 

the  office  was  retained:  and  his  administration 
throughout  was  successful  in  the  highesl  degree. 
—In   L859,  the   MiUersville    Normal    Institute, 

under  the  supervision  and  principalshin  of  Ms 
founder,  was  recognized  by  the  state  authorities 
as  the  first  normal  school  under  the  law.  In 
l  B67,cities  and  boroughs  of  over  L0.000  inhabit- 
ants were  authorized  to  elect  superintendents; 
teachers'   institutes  were   legalized   in    all    the 

counties  of  the   state,  and    authority   was   given 

to  the  state  superintendent  to  issue  a  high  grade 
of  certificate,  called  the  permanent  certificate,  to 
teachers  possessing  superior  qualifications. 

Article  \.  of  the  constitution  of  L873  de- 
clares that  the  general  assembly  shall  provide  an 
efficient  system  of  common  schools,  for  all  chil- 
dren above  six  years  of  age. and  shall  appropriate 
each  year  at  least  $1,000,000  for  its  support.    It 

prohibits  the   use  of  any  of  this  m y  for  the 

support  of  sectarian  schools,  and  provides  that 
"women  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  upwards, 
shall  be  eligible  to  any  office  of  control  or  man- 
agement under  the  school  laws  of  this  state".  It 
changes  the  title  Superintendent  of  Common 
Schools  to  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
and  makes  the  term   of  that  office  four  years. 

The  following  table  gives  the  leading  items 
of  schools  statistics  for  L866  and  1876,  thus 
showing,  in  part,  the  progress  of  the  common- 
school  system  during  the  last  ten  years  : 


ls<;i; 


1870 


$2,748,795  08  $4,856,888.91 

725,000.01     1,735,]  18.87 

4,195,258.57    9,163,928.08 

355,000.00    1,000,000.00 


Number  of  districts 1,863  2,103 

"         "schools 13,146  17,497 

"         "  graded  schools.  2,800  5,951! 

"         "pupils 789,389  902,345 

Cost  of  tuition 

"     "  school-houses. . 

Total  cost  of  system. . .  . 

State  appropriation. . . . 

The  state  superintendents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: James Findlay,  1835-  6;  T.  II.  Burrowes, 
1836—8;  F.E.  Shunk,  L839  II  ;  A.  Y.  Tar- 
sons.  1841—2;  Charles  .Met  lure,  1843—5; 
Jesse  Miller,  1846— 8  ;  Townsend  Haines,  1849 
—50;  A.  L.  Russell,  1851—2;  P.  W.  Bughes, 
1853—4  ;  C.  A.  Black,  1854-  5  :  A.  (J.  ( lurtin, 
I  356 — 7.  The  persons  above  named  tilled  the 
office  of  superintendent,  by  virtue  of  holding 
the  office  of  secretary  of  the  commonwealth. 
In  dune,  1857,  the  Department  of  Common 
Schools  was  organized:  and.  since  that  time,  the 
following  named  persons  have  been  commis- 
sioned as  superintendent  :  II.  C.  Hickok,  1858 
—60;  T.  II.  Burrowes,  I860  63;  C.  II.  Coburn, 
1863—6;  J.  P.  Wickersham,  from  1866  to  the 
present  time  1 1*77). 

School  System. — The  educational  interests  of 
the  state  are  intrusted  to  a.  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  who  is  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  commonwealth,  and  confirmed  by 
the  senate.  His  term  of  office  is  I  years.  Ill's 
duties  are  to  decide  all  controversies  between 
school  officers  ;  to  give  advice  and  explanation 


088 


PENNSYLVANIA 


relative  to  the  common-school  law,  the  duties  of 
school  officers,  and  the  rights  and  duties  of 
parents,  guardians,  teachers,  and  pupils  :  to  sign 
all  orders  on  the  state  treasurer  for  the  payment 
of  the  state  appropriation  to  the  several  districts, 
and  for  salaries  of  county  superintendents ;  to 
prepare  blank  forms  fur  the  use  of  school  officers 
and  the  department  of  public  instruction  ;  to 
commission  county,  city,  and  borough  superin- 
tendents; to  appoint  trustees  for  normal  schools, 
and  committees  to  examine  annually  the  grad- 
uating classes  of  the  state  norma!  schools;  to  fill 
all  vacancies  among  county  superintendents  :  and 
to  make  an  annual  report  to  the  governor  and 
the  state  legislature.-  The  school  directors  of 
etch  county  meet  in  convention  at  the  county 
scat,  on  the  first  Tuesday  of  May,  every  third 
year,  and  elect  a  county  superintendent  for  a 
term  of  three  years,  and  fix  his  salary  for  the 
same  time,  lie  must  be  a  legal  resident  of  the 
county;  and  must  have  one  of  the  following 
documents  :  a  diploma  from  a  college,  a  diploma 
from   a  state    normal  school,  a    professional  or 

permanent  certificate,  or  a  certificate  of  com- 
petency from  the  state  superintendent.  lie 
must.  also,  have  skill  and  experience  in  teach- 
ing.— The  duties  of  the  county  superintendent 
are.   to   examine  teachers   and   give    Certificates, 

setting  forth  the  qualifications  of  applicants;  to 
visit  the  schools  as  often  as  possible,  and  give 
instruction  in  teaching  and  school  government  ; 

to  see  that  orthography,  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, geography,  and  grammar  are  taught  in  all 
the  schools;  to  hold  annually  a  teachers' insti- 
tute  which    must    remain    in  session   5  days;   to 

annul  certificates  of  teachers  for  incompetency, 
cruelty,  negligence,  or  immorality:  to  examine. 
affirm,  and  forward  to  the  state  department  the 
annual  reports  of  the  several  boards  ;  and  to  make 
an   annual    report    to    the   state   superintendent. 

Cities  and  boroughs  having  not  less  than  7,000 

inhabitants,  may   elect    superintendents  of  their 

own.  The  duties  and  powers  of  such  officers 
ire  similar  to  those  of  county  superintendents. 
The  state  is  divided  into  school-districts;  each 

township,    borough,  and    city    constituting    one 

district.  School  directors,  generally  six  in  Dum- 
ber, are  elected  in  each  district  by  the  people 
for  a  term  of  3  years,  and  constitute  the  distncl 

school  board.  The  officers  of  each  of  1  hese  boards 

area  president,  a  secretary,  and  a  treasurer.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  president  to  issue  warrants  for 

the  collection  of  taxes;   to  sign  all  orders.  Av><\>. 

and  contracts ;  to  allot   by  oath  or  affirmation 

the  correctness  of  the  annual  statement  of  ex- 
penses, liabilities,  etc..  which    must    be  presented 

to.  an  1  accepted  by,  the  department  of  public 
instruction  before  a  warrant  for  the  annual  state 
appropriation  is  issued.  The  duties  of  the  Becre- 
tarj  are  to  keep  minutes  of  all  the  proceedings 
of  the  board;  to  prepare  duplicates  for  the  tax 
collector:  to  prepare  and   forward  the  annual 

district    report    and   certificate;   to  examine  and 

approve  tnonthlj  reports  of  teachers;  and  to  keep 
in  charge  all  valuable   papers.    The   treasurer 

:\.  b  all  moneys,  disburses  the  school  inonej  - 


on  proper  orders  :  and  settles  his  accounts  an- 
nually with  the  board  and  auditors.  The  school 
boards  must  organize  each  year  within  ten  days 
after  the  first  Monday  in  June.  Their  duties 
are  to  establish  a  sufficient  number  of  schools  ; 
to  fill  vacancies  in  the  board;  to  levy  a  tax  for 
school  and  building  purposes;  to  select  sites  for, 
and  erect,  school  houses  :  to  fix  the  length  of  the 
school  term  ;  to  appoint  teachers  and  fix  salaries; 
to  grade  schools  when  necessary;  to  direct  what 
branches  shall  be  taught  :  to  decide  what  text- 
books shall  be  used  :  and  to  visit  the  schools  at 
least  once  a  month.  These  boards,  also,  may  dis- 
miss teachers  tor  cruelty,  negligence,  incompe- 
tency, or  immorality.  'I  hey  pay  all  expenses  by 
order  on  the  treasurer,  and  publish  annually  a 
statement  setting  forth  the  receipts  and  expend- 
itures of  the  district.  The  school  revenue  is 
derived    fnun   the  following  sources  :   (1)  a  State 

appropriation  of  not  less  than  $1,000,000,  to  be 
annually  distributed  among  the  several  districts 
upon  the  basis  of  the  number  of  taxable  citizens; 
(2)  a  school  tax  not  to  exceed  L3  mills  on  each 
dollar  of  the  assessed  valuation,  to  be  levied  and 
collected  annually,  to  pay  teachers'  salaries  and 
other  necessary  expenses  of  the  schools;  (3)  a 
"building  tax  to  be  levied  and  collected  annually. 
if  the  school  board  deem  it  necessary,  but  not  to 
exceed  the  amount  levied  for  school  purpos 
This  tax  is  used  in  paying  for  sites  for  school- 
houses,  and  the  erection  and  repairs  of  school 

buildings.      The    studies   to   be   pursued    in   the 

common  schools,  not  being  strictly  designated 
by  law,  have  been  left,  bj  the  interpretation  of 
the  state  superintendent,  to  the  discretion  of  the 
local  boards,  who  are  governed  in  their  decision 

by  the  wants  of  their  districts.    These  boards, 

also,  may  establish  separate  schools  for  colored 
children,  whenever   they  can   be  so  located  as  to 

accommodate  20  or  more  pupils.  The  school 
age  is  from  (i  to  'i\    years;   the  school  year, 

•"'  months  of  22  days  each. 

Educational  Condition. —  The  number  of 
school-districts  in  the  State  is  2,103  ;  the  num- 
ber of  schools.  IT.l'JT.of  which  f'.'.C'T  are  graded. 
The  school  revenue,  exclusive  of  £"2S.OOO  for  nor- 
mal schools,  for  the  year  ending  June  1.,  1870, 
was  as  follows : 

Prom  local  tax $8,669,738.67 

"     state  appropriation...     972,000.00 

Total....". $9,631,73 

The  expenditures  for  common-school  purposes 

were  as  follows  ; 

For  tuition $4,866,888.91 

l  'or  building,  purchasing,  and 

renting  school-housea 1,735,1  is.v7 

For  luel,  contingencies,  etc.  2,471,890.90 

Total $9,0 

The  principal   items  of   school  statistics  for 

1876  are  as  follows: 

Number  of  children  enrolled  in  public  schools. 902,346 

\ , .  i  i i  u  v  attendance 578,718 

Number  of  teachers 20,192 

Average  monthly  salary  of  male  teachers $38.72 

••■••'    ■■  female    "      $30.42 

Estimated  value  of  school  property ; 


PENNSYLVANIA 


G80 


Normal  Instruction. — The  normal  school  law, 
enacted  in  1^:">7,  divides  the  state  into  12  dis- 
tricts, allowing  one  normal  school  in  each.  Nine 
have  already  been  organized,  and  arc  in  operation 
under  this  act.  Philadelphia  has  a  girls'  normal 
school,  which  was  opened  in  1848.  The  whole 
number  of  students  who  attended  the  state  nor- 
mal schools  during  1875,  was  3.724;  the  number 
of  graduates,  191  ;  the  number  of  professors  and 
teachers,  1 14;  the  number  of  volumes  in  the  libra- 
ries, 13,000  ;  the  value  of  buildings  and  grounds. 
$9  (0,000;  the  whole  amount  appropriated  to  all 
the  schools.  33f)0,000.  The  entire  income  from 
all  sources  during  the  same  time  was  $357,996.91 : 
total  expenditures  for  all  purposes,  $350,1  73.83. 

Teachers'  Listittttes. — In  1807,  a  law  was 
passed  requiring  a  teachers'  institute  to  be  held 
once  a  year  in  each  county,  to  continue  in  ses- 
sion 5  days.  To  defray  the  expenses,  superin- 
tendents are  entitled  to  draw  from  the  county 
treasury  a  sum  of  money  not  exceeding  $200. 
The  attendance  of  teachers  in  1875,  was  13,523; 
the  number  of  school  directors,  1,812  ;  the  num- 
ber of  instructors  and  lecturers,  435  ;  the  whole 
amount  expended  was  $21,160.54. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  number  of  pub- 
lic schools  in  the  state  in  which  instruction  in 
the  higher  branches  was  given  in  1875,  was  1,601. 
I  Jesides  these,  there  were  88  academies  and  sem- 
inaries, that  reported  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, and  also  7  preparatory  schools,  and  10 
business  colleges. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  following  is  a  list 

of  colleges  and  universities  iu  the  state  : 

[The  names  of  those  for  females  exclusively  are  print- 
ed in  italics  :  those  for  both  sexes,  in  Small  Caps.] 


NAME 


Location 


Ar.i.KUHENT  College.. 

Allentown  Femali  <  '"II . . 

Dickinson  College 

Franklin  and  MarshaU 

College 

Haverford  College .... 
Irving  Female  College . . 
Lafayette  College. .   . . 

La  Salle  College 

Lebanon  Valley  Coll. . 
LehighUniversity. . . . 
Lincoln  University. . . 
Mercersburg  College . 

M<  >N'  iNHAHELA  COLL.  . 

Muhlenberg  College. . 
Nkw  Castle  College. 
Palatinate  College. 
Pennsylvania  College. 
Perm.  Female  Co 
I''  n,i.  Fi  mail  I  < 
Penn.  Military  Acad. . 
Pittsburgh  Female  Coll. 
St.  Francis  College . . . 
St.Joseph'sCollege.. . 
St.  Vincent's  College.. 

SWABTHMORE  COLLEGE 

Thiel  College 

I'niv.  at  LeWTSBUBG  .  . 
University  of  Penn.. . 

I'rsinus  College 

Villauova  College 

Washington  and   Jef- 

i'lTsun  College 

Waynesburg  College, 
Western  Univ.of  Penn. 
WZSXMTNBTZB  COLL... 

Wilson  College 

44 


MeadviUe 
Allentown 
Carlisle 

Lancaster 
Haverford  Coll. 
Mechanicsburg 
Easton 
Chiladelphia 
Annville 
So.  Bethlehem 
Chester  Co. 
Mercersburg 
Jefferson 
Allentown 
New  Castle 
Myerstown 
Gettysburg 
CollegeviUe 
Pittsburgh 
( Iheater 
Pittsburgh 
Loretto 
Philadelphia 
Latrobe 
Swarthmore 
|  GreenevUle 
Lewisburg 
Philadelphia 
Freeland 
Villauova 

Washington 

Waynesbarg 

Pittsburgh 

NewWilrningt'n 
Chanibersburg 


Date 
of 

char- 
ter 


1817 
1867 
1783 

1853 
1833 

1857 
1826 
1S63 
1867 
1866 
1854 
1865 
1867 
1867 
1875 
[868 
1832 
1853 
1  sen 
1862 
1*54 
1844 
1852 
1870 
1864 
1870 
1846 

1755 
1869 

1848 

18112 
1850 
1819 
1852 
1869 


Denomi- 
nation 


M.  Epis. 
Kef. 
M.  Epis. 

Eef.  Ger.) 

Eriends 

Non-sect. 

Presb. 

R  C. 

Un.Breth. 

Pr.  Epis. 

Presb. 

Ref. 

Bap. 

Luth. 

Non-sect. 

Ref. 

Ev.  Luth. 

Non-sect. 

Non-sect. 

Non-sect. 

M.  Epis. 

R.  C. 

R.  C. 

R.  C. 

Friends 

Ev.  Luth. 

Bap. 

Non-sect. 

Ref. 

R.  C. 

Presb. 
Cu.  presb. 
Non-sect. 
Uu. Presb. 
Presb. 


For  further  information  in  regard  to  these  in- 
stil ut  ions,  see  the  respective  titles,  in  other  parts 
of  this  work. 

Professional    ami    Scientific    Instruction. — 

Many  of  the  institutions  enumerated  under  the 
head  of  superior  instruction  have  special  depart- 
ments in  which  professional  or  scientific  instruc- 
tion is  given.  The  principal  schools  of  each  class 
are  enumerated  in  the  following  tables: 
Medical  Schools. 


NAME. 


Hahnemann  Med.  Col- 
lege of  Philadelphia. 

.letters. in  Med. college 

Penn.  Coll.  Of  Dental 
Surgery 

Phila.  College  of  Phar- 
macy  

Phila".  Dental  College. 

Woman's  Med. ( lollege 

of  Pennsylvania 


Location 


Philadelphia 
Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 
Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 


Q-8 


1848 

1825 

1856 

1822 
1863 

1850 


3    £ 
fc   O 

i5S 


13 

17 

20 

3 

21 

14 


11 


140 
500 

90 

316 
105 

75 


Schools  op  Science. 


NAME. 


Location 


Franklin  Institute 

Polj  technic  College  of 

the  State  of  Penn.. . . 
Penn.  stun-  College.. . 
Wagner  Free  Institute 

of  Science 


Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 
State  College 


1824 


1854 
1855 


Philadelphia 

Theological  Schools 


li 


o  c 

V 

6-2 
fc2 


144 
(  300 
\   to 
(1200 


NAME. 


Augustinian  College. . 

of  Villanova 

Crozer  Theological 

Seminary 

Div.  School  of  Prot. 

Epis.  Church 

Moravian  College  and 

Theol.  Seminary 

MeadviUe  Theological 

School 

Missionary  Institute. . 
St. Michael's  Seminary 
St. Vincent's  Seminary 
Theol.  Seminary  of  St. 

Chas.  Borromeo 

Theol.  Seminary  of  the 

Eef.  Church 

Theol.Semiuary  of  Ev 

Luth.  Church 

Theol.Semiuary  of  Ev. 

Luth.  Church 

Theol.    Seminary     of 

Un. Presb.  Church.. . 
Western  Theol.  Sem. 

of  Presb.  church...  . 


Location 


ViUanova 

Upland 

Philadelphia 

Bethlehem 

Meadville 
Selin's  Grove 
Pittsburgh 
Philadelphia 

Lower  Merion 

Lancaster 


P3  r. 


1848 

1867 

1862 

1864 

1846 
1858 
1845 


1838 
1831 
1827 


1830 
1844 


Denomina- 
tion 


R.  C. 

Bap. 

Prot.  Epis. 

Moravian 

Unitarian 
Evan.  Luth. 
R.  C. 
R.  C. 

R.  C. 

Ref. 

Evan.  Luth. 

Evan.  Luth. 

Un.  Presb. 

Presb. 


Gettysburg 
Philadelphia 
Allegheny 
Allegheny 

Special  Instruction. — The  Pennsylvania  Insti- 
tution for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  founded  at 
Philadelphia,  in  1821.  The  minimum  age  for 
admission  is  10  years.  It  combines  with  a  course 
of  elementary  instruction  in  common  school 
branches,  special  instruction  in  industrial  pur- 
suits, principally  shoe-making  and  tailoring.  The 
number  of  instructors,  in  1875,  was  17  ;  the 
number  of  pupils,  338.  The  number  of  gradu- 
ates, since  the  organization  of  the  institution,  is 
1,5(JG.     There  is  a  day  school  for  deaf-mutes  at 


690     PENNSYLVANIA  UNIVERSITY 


PA.   MILITARY  ACADEMY 


Pittsburgh,  which  was  founded  in  1869,  as  a  part 
of  the  school  system  of  that  city,  and  is  supported 
partially  by  a  small  appropriation  from  the  city 
school  fund.  The  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the 
instruction  of  the  Blind,  at  Philadelphia,  was 
founded  in  1833,  as  a  private  institution,  but  has 
been  for  some  time  in  receipt  of  a  state  appro- 
priation, which,  in  1875,  amounted  to  $39,000. 
It  gives  instruction  in  music  and  common-school 
branches, and  special  instruction  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  mechanical  and  industrial  pursuits.  The 
number  of  instructors  and  employes,  in  1876, 
was  63  :  the  Dumber  of  pupils,  207.  Since  its 
foundation,  885  pupils  have  been  admitted.  The 
Pennsylvania  Training  School  for  Feeble-Minded 
Children  was  established,  in  L853,  at  Media.  In 
1875,  the  number  of  instructors  and  employes 
was  GO;  the  number  of  pupils,  225.  Of  .'!72 
children  admitted  since  1864,  about  247  have 
been  dismissed  in  an  improved,  and  49  in  a  self- 
supporting,  condition.  The  three  institutions 
above  mentioned  are  open  to  inmates  from  t he 
two  adjoining  states.  New  Jersey  and  Delaware. 
Girard  College  was  established,  in  1848,  for  the 
benefit  of  wtate  male  orphans  born  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, The  course  of  study  covers  from  8  to  9 
years,  and  includes  common-school  branches,  and 
such  additional  studies  as  lit  for  progress  in  prac- 
tical or  business  life.  The  Educational  Home  for 
Boys,  and  the  Lincoln  Institution, both  in  Phila- 
delphia, are  intended  principally  for  orphans  ;  the 
latter,  for  those  of  soldiers  especially,  though 
others  are  admitted.  Elementary  instruction  is 
given  in  both.  The  Aimwell  School  Association, 
in  Philadelphia,  was  incorporated  in  L859,  its 
origin  being  traced  to  the  efforts  of  Anne  Parish, 
a  Friend,  who  resided  in  Philadelphia  in  L796. 
The  association  formed  by  her  cumbered  ai  first 
only  three  members,  but,  in  L799,  had  increased 
ighteen.  Their  object  was  to  teach  poor  girls 
the  common  English  branches  and  sewing,  rhe 
association  now  numbers  119  members.  in- 
struction of  an  elementary  grade,  or  in  special 
branches,  is  also  given  in  '_'  reform  schools,  and 
more  than  30  orphan  homes  and  industrial 
schools  in  various  parts  of  the  state. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  University  of,  in 
Philadelphia,  comprises  four  departments :  the  de- 
partment of  arts,  the  Towne  scientific  school,  the 
department  of  medicine,  and  the  departmentof 
law.  It  grew  out  of  a  charitable  school  established 
by  subscription  in  L 745,  became  an  academy  in 
I  7  19,  and  was  chartered  >u  '  755,  ;|S  The  Coll 
Academy,  and  <  Iharitable  School  of  Philadelphia- 
It  was  created  a  university  in  L779;  and,  in  1791, 
the  present  organization  was  established.  The  med- 
ical department  dates  from  1765,  and  the  lawde- 
partment  from  L789.In  L 865, anAuxiliary Faculty 
of  Medicine  was  constituted,  for  the  purpose  of 
supplementing  the  ordinary  course  of  medical  in- 
i  in. -lion  by  Lectures  given  during  the  spring 
months  on  certain  collateral  branches  of   science. 

The  university  buildings,  situated  in  the  portion 
of  the  city  known  as  West  Philadelphia, are  new, 

and  comprise  a  hall  for  the  departments   Of  arts, 
science,  and  law,  the  medical  hall,  and  the  uni- 


versity hospital.  The  institution  has  extensive 
chemical  and  physical  apparatus,  cabinets  of  fos- 
sUs  and  minerals,  and  valuable  medical  cabinets. 
The  libraries  contain  about  20,000  volumes.  The 
endowment  amounts  to  about  §1,000,000,  of 
which  only  one  half  is,  at  present,  productive. 
The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  departments  of  arts  and 
science  is  81 50  a  year.  The  regular  course  in  the 
department  of  arts,  comprising  the  usual  collegiate 
branches,  is  four  years.  The  regular  courses  in 
the  scientific  school,  each  of  four  years,  are: 
(1)  analytical  and  applied  chemistry  and  min- 
eralogy; (2)  geology  and  mining;  (3)  civil  en- 
gineering; (4)  mechanical  engineering;  (5)  draw- 
ing and  architecture;  (6)  general  course.  There 
is  also  a  postgraduate  course.  In  1875—6,  the 
number  of  professors  was  as  follows  :  department 
of  arts,  13;  science,  14;  medicine,  7:  medicine 
(auxiliary  faculty),  5;  hospital  12;  law,  5;  total, 
deducting  repetitions.  43,  besides  which,  there 
were  5  lecturers  and  other  instructors.  There 
were  857 students;  namely,  arts,  L14;  science,  L26; 
medicine,  415;  medicine  (auxiliary],  110;  law.  '.'2. 
The  charity  schools  connected  with  the  university 
(one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls)  affording  instruc- 
tion in  the  English  branches,  had  three  teachers 
and  L3()  pupils.  Charles  .).  Stille,  LL.  D.,  is 
(1876),  the  provost  of  the  university. 

PENNSYLVANIA  COLLEGE,  at  Gettys- 
burg, Pa.,  founded  in  1S32,  is  under  Lutheran 
control.  It  grew  out  of  the  Gettysburg  Gymna- 
sium, an  institution  that  had  been  established  for 
the  preparation  of  young  men  for  the  Lutheran 
ministry.   It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  the 

income  of  an  endowment  01  $140,000.  The  col- 
lege has  an  astronomical  observatory,  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus,  a  chemical  laboratory, 
and  a  botanical  and  a  mineralogical  cabinet.  The 
libraries  contain  1.9,550  volumes.  There  is  a 
sieal  and  a  special  scientific  course,  and  a  prepar- 
atory department.  The  cost  of  tuition,  in  the 
college,  is  $50  a  year:  in  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment. $39.  In  1  there  were  12  instructors 
and  L52  students  (83  collegiate  and  69  prepar- 
atory).  The  presidents  ha\e   been  as  follows:  the 

Rev.  Charles  Philip  Crauth,  D.D.,18!  the 

Rev.  lieiiry  Lewis  Baugher,  I  >.  I  >..  1850 — 68;  and 
the  Lev.  Milton  Valentine,  l>.  D.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent (1876),  appointed  in  L868. 

PENNSYLVANIA  MILITARY  ACAD- 
EMY,   at    (holer.    Pa.,   was   founded  in  1862, 

and  is  designed  for  resident  cadets  only.     It   has 

jnodious  buildings  situated  on  an   elevated 

site,  the  grounds   comprising   25   acres,  in  part 

fully  laid  out  and  ornamented  with  trees.  It 

has    astronomical,    chemical,    mathematical,   and 

physical    apparatus,    and    a    library    of    1,200 

The    cost   of    tuition,   board,  etc.,  is 

§550  a  year,  with  music  extra.     The  courses  of 

instruction  are  the  English   (2  yrs.),  collegiate 

preparatory,  scientific   (4  yrs.),  civil  engineering 

1  yrs.),  chemical  and  mining  engineering  (each 

1  yr.), designed  for  graduates  in  civil  engineering, 

and  collegiate  or  classical  (4  yrs.).    The  degrees 

conferred  are  S.  I!„   ( '.  L„  Ph.  B.,  M.  E.,  and  A. 
B.     .Military  instruction,  theoretical  and  practi- 


PA.  WESTERN   UNIVERSITY 


FERSIA 


09 1 


cal.  is  given.  The  former  is  optional :  the  latter 
is  required  of  all,  and  consists  of  drills  in  in- 
fantry and  artillery  tactics  etc.  In  187(5 — 7, 
there  were  10  instructors  and  12(1  students 
(scientific  course,  L13;  English  course,  13).  The 
number  of  graduates  (all  0.  E.),  including  those 
of  1876,  is  7(>.  CoL  Theodore  Hyatt,  M.  A.,  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  The  Western  Uni- 
versity of,  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  was  founded 
in  L819.  It  is  undenominational,  and  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees,  ranging  from  STL'  to  $100 
a  year,  and  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
$275,000.  It  has  a  well-equipped  astronomical 
observatory  (situated  in  Allegheny),  a  cab- 
inet containing  over  10,000  choice  specimens  in 
geology,  conchology,  mineralogy,  and  zoology, 
extensive  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus, 
and  libraries  containing-  about  G,000  volumes. 
The  university  has  a  collegiate  department,  with 
a  classical  course  of  1  years,  two  scientific  courses 
of  3  years  each,  and  two  engineering  courses 
(civil  and  mechanical)  of  1  years  each,  leading 
respectively  to  the  degrees  of  A.  B.,  Ph.  B.  or  S. 
B.,  and,  C.  E.  or  M.  E..  besides,  a  preparatory 
department,  with  a  classical  and  an  English 
course  of  3  years  each.  In  1875 — 6,  there  wire 
1G  instructors  and  272  students,  of  whom  186 
were  preparatory  and  86  collegiate  (29  unclas- 
sified, 11  engineering,  28  scientific,  and  18  clas- 
sical). The  present  chancellor  is  (1870)  George 
Woods,  LL.  1).,  appointed  in  1858. 

PENSIONS,   Teachers'.     The  justice  and 
expediency  of  granting  pensions  to  teachers  of 
public    elementary  schools,  on  retiring  after  a 
long  and  faithful  service,  have  frequently  been 
urged  ;  and.  with  others,  the  following  arguments 
have  been  advanced  hi  support  of  such  a  meas- 
ure :    (1)    The  office  of  elementary  teacher  re- 
quires an  amount  of  bodily  and  mental  vigor, 
patience,  tact,  and  elasticity  of  spirit,  rarely  met 
with  in  any  one  who  has  spent  twenty  or  thirty 
years  in  a  harassing  profession ;  (2)  the  salaries 
received  by  such  teachers  afford  them  no  suffi- 
cient margin  by  means  of  which  to  make  ade- 
quate provision  for  old  age ;    (3)   there  is  no 
prospect  that  the  salaries  of  teachers  will  be  in- 
creased to  any  great  extent  in  the  future  ;  since, 
by  means  of  normal  and  training  schools,  the 
supply  of  teachers  is  generally  greater  than  the 
demand ;  (1)    since,   therefore,   teachers  cannot 
themselves  make  due  provision  for  old  age,  the 
government  employing  them  should  do  so ;  be- 
cause, if  it  does  not,  the  service  will  suffer  by 
the  retention  of   aged  and   worn-out  teachers 
beyond  the  period  of  superannuation.     In  view 
of  these  facts,  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Edu- 
cation, in  England,  by  a  minute  dated  Dec.  21., 
L846,  enacted  the  following:  "That  a  retiring 
pension  maybe  granted  by  the  Committee  of 
'  'ouncil  to  any  school-master  or  school-mistress 
who  shall  be  rendered  incapable,  by  age  or  in- 
firmity, of  continuing  to  teach  a  school  efficient- 
ly ;    provided   that  no  such  pension  shall   1  >c 
granted  to  any  school-master  or  school-mistress 
who  shall  not  have  conducted  a  normal  or  ele- 


mentary school  for  fifteen  years,  during  seven, 
at  least,  of  which  Buch  school  shall  have  been 
under  inspection."  This  minute  was  afterward 
modified,  and  the  amount    to  be  annually  es 

pended  in  pensions  was  limited,  Aug.  6.,  L851, 
to  £6,500;  but,  subsequently,  even  this  was 
ignored.  English  teachers  and  their  friends 
have,  however,  claimed  that  the  govemmeni 
having  held  out  the  inducement  to  persons  to 
enter  upon  and  continue  in  the  service  as  teach- 
ers, is  morally  bound  to  giant  the  pensions  thus 
virtually  promised.  In  L872,aseled  committee 
of  the  Bouse  of  Commons,  appointed  to  con- 
sider the  matter,  reported  against  the  teachers' 
claims;  but  the  code  of  1876  permits  the  payment 
of  pensions. — In  1876,  a  law  permitting  such 
pensions  passed  the  assembly,  in  the  state  of 
New  Voric.  but  failed  in  the  senate. —  In  Prus- 
sia, teachers  of  public  schools,  being  regarded 
as  state  officers,  are  entitled  to  pensions.  1  Iverj 
teacher,  however,  is  required  to  make  an  annual 
contribution  to  the  pension  fund  (from  1  to  2 
per  cent  of  his  annual  salary),  and  has  also  to 
pay  into  the  same  one-half  of  his  first  year's 
salary.  Special  funds  have  been  established,  by 
private  munificence,  in  connection  with  many  of 
the  schools,  for  the  support  of  the  widows  and 
orphans  of  deceased  teachers.  The  /  estalozzi- 
verein  of  Germany  is  a  society  one  of  the  sp 
cial  objects  of  which  is  to  aid  superannuated 
teachers. — In  France,  the  pensions  of  school 
teachers  and  their  widows  are  regulated  by  the 
law  of  June  9.,  1853.  All  the  pensions  are 
entered  in  the  grand  book  of  the  public  debt. 
In  aid  of  the  pension  fund,  contributions  an 
made  from  the  following  sources  :  (1)  a  deduc- 
tion of  5  per  cent  of  the  regular  salary  ;  (2)  one- 
twelfth  of  the  first  year's  salary,  and  of  every  in- 
crease of  salary  ;  (3)  all  deductions  made  in  con- 
sequence of  absence,  and  all  fines  imposed  upon 
teachers.     A  tea  .  ins  to  be  entitled  to  a 

pension  when  he  is  GO  years  i  r  after  hav- 

ing been  in  office  30  years.  The  amount  of  the 
pension  is  based  upon  the  average  of  the  incomes, 
subject  to  the  above  deductio  ived  during 

the  last  six  years  of  service.  (For  a  full  account 
of  French  legislation  on  this  subjeei .  see  ( .'  ui":ai:i>. 
La  Legislation  de  I'lnst,  ire,  vol. 

in.)  —  In  Servia,  in  1875,  regulations  were 
adopted  granting  to  teachers  who  resigned  after 
ten  years'  service,  40  per  cent  of  the  salary  pre- 
viously received,  and  2  per  cent  more  for  eveiy 
additional  year's  service,  for  35  years,  after 
which  the  teacher,  of  whatever  grade,  is  entitled 
to  his  full  salary  as  a  pension. 

PERCEPTION,  or  Perceptive  Faculties- 

See  [nTELLECTUAL   EDUCATION. 

PERSIA,  a  country  of  western  Asia,  having 
an  area  of  about  638,000  sq.  in.,  and  a  popula- 
tion estimated  at  5,000,000,  nearly  all  of  whom 
are  Mohammedans. 

I.  Ancient  Persia.  —  Among  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic  tribes  west  of  India,  the  Bactrians  were 
the  first  to  attain  any  considerable  culture. 
They  were,  however,  soon  reduced  in  impor- 
tance by  the  neighboring  and  kindred  nation, 


692 


PERSIA 


PERU 


the  Medes,  and  subsequently  still  more  by  the 
Persians,  who  in  the  6th  century  B.  C,  under 
Cyrus  the  Great,  overran  a  large  part  of  west- 
ern Asia.  While  China  had  its  family  educa- 
tion, and  India  that  of  caste,  education  in  Per- 
sia was  decidedly  a  national  institution.  There, 
as  in  India,  the  people  were  divided  into  sev- 
eral distinct  castes;  but  the  separating  line 
was  qoI  strictly  drawn;  and,  before  the  king,  all 
were  equal.  The  state,  as  represented  by  the 
king,  was  the  highest  object  of  veneration;  and 
all  interests,  whether  of  caste,  of  the  family,  or 
of  children,  were  subordinated  to  it.  The  edu- 
cation of  the  people  was  like  their  life.  In 
Persia,  the  child  was  born  and  educated  for 
the  state  ;  and,  for  that  reason,  we  see  here,  for 
the  first  time,  physical  combined  with  mental 
education.  The  national  education  of  the  Per- 
sians comprised  the  first  twenty-four  years  of 
life.  Very  little  was  done  for  the  education  of 
girls,  since  they  occupied,  as  among  most  of  the 
oriental  nations,  an  inferior  position.  Boys  re- 
mained, up  to  their  7th  year,  with  the  women; 
but  after  that,  the  national  education  began.  In 
all  the'  larger  towns,  there  were  public  educa- 
tional institutions  in  which  the  boys  lived  to- 
gether. These  schools  were  open  to  every  one, 
as  any  Persian  could  legally  occupy  the  highest 
offices.  In  their  schools,  they  were  instructed 
to  practice  truth,  justice,  and  self-command,  and 
were  trained  in  riding,  the  use  of  the  bow  and 
arrow,  and  other  weapons.  Reading  anil  writing 
were  also  taught,  but  in  a  limited  degree.  <  >n  the 
completion  of  his  1 5th  year,  the  boy  \\  as  regarded 
as  entering  upon  the  age  of  a  young  man.  The 
bond  connecting  the  parents  and  the  children  was 
now  dissolved;  for  the  young  man,  now  belong- 
ing to  the  state,  must  prepare  himself, by  suitable 
physical  exercises,  for  the  chase  and  for  war. 
On  completing  his  25th  year,  the  youth  became  a 
man  and  a  citizen.  1  To  accepted  the  duties  which 
he  had  to  perform  up  to  his  50th  year,  after  w  hich 
he  was  obliged  to  care  for  the  general  welfare  by 
supervising  or  conducting  the  education  of  the 
boys.  Persian  education  was.  on  the  whole,  au 
effort  to  in lpart  moral  and  physical  perfection. 
School  instruction  seems  to  have  been  neglected, 
probably  because  the  state  needed,  al  first,  only 
moral  and  physical  exct  Hence  in  its  citizens;  for 
when  the  Persians  had  become  a  great  nation, 
they  regarded  the  preparation  for  citizenship  as 
the  grand  object  of  education;  and,  if  in  this 
they  partly  lost  sight  of  the  individual,  they, 
for  the  first  time  in  history,  recognized  educa- 
tion as  a  matter  of  public  concern     a  duty  of 

the  state.    This  principle  was,  however,  not  fulls 

carried  out;  for  the  female  aex  were  almost  en- 
tirely excluded  from  public  education,  and  the 
of  the  people  had  no  time  for  it.  be- 
ing forced  to  work  in  order  to  support  the  king 
ami  his  servants,  or  to  expose  their  lives  in  war. 

\<  nophon  tells  us  that,  besides  the  general  edu- 
cation,   there    was    a    particular    education    for 

the  higher  classes.  In  the  dialogue  Alcibiades 
which  is  ascribed  to  Plato),  the  education  of 
the  kings  is  described  as  follows :  "At  the  com- 


pletion of  his  7th  year,  the  boy  learns  to  ride 
and  to  hunt;  and,  in  his  14th  year,  he  is  handed 
over  to  the  so-called  royal  preceptors.  These  are 
four  noble  Persians,  selected  for  their  virtues. 
and  known  as  the  wisest,  the  most  just,  the  most 
temperate,  and  the  bravest  of  men." 

II.  Modern  Persia. — According  to  the  in- 
stitutions of  modern  Persia,  the  boy.  in  his  C»th 
year,  is  consigned  to  the  care  ■  if  a  private  teacher, 
or  is  sent  to  school.  It  was  formerly  considered 
unneces:,ir\  to  educate  girls;  but,  at  the  present 
time,  in  Persia,  female  education  is  steadily  gain- 
ing ground.  For  the  poorer  classes,  there  are 
mixed  schools,  in  which  instruction  is  given  for 
a  certain  small  compensation;  but  all  schools  are 
private  institutions,  and  any  man  able  to  write 
may  open  a  school.  As  soon  as  the  children 
possess  a  knowledge  of  the  alphabet,  and  can 
spell  with  some  facility,  the  Koran  is  taken  up, 
which  is  read  by  the  teacher  with  an  Arabic  ac- 
cent, and  is  repeated  and  learned  by  heart  by 
the  children,  without  being  translated  or  under- 
stood by  them.  At  the  same  time,  the  most  im- 
portant and  most  difficult  study,  writing,  is  be- 
gun. The  teacher  writes  a  line  as  a  model,  and 
the  children  are  required  to  imitate  the  char- 
acters on  a  piece  of  paper.  When  the  Koran 
has  been  read  several  times,  the  children  are 
given  Saadi'a  Gulistan  to  read;  and  they  read 
the  numerous  tales  contained  in  this  work  with- 
out understanding  their  meaning,  and  learn  its 
epigrams  by  heart.  This  is  considered  the  high- 
est attainment  of  education;  for  the  Persians 
like  to  spice  their  conversation  with  quotation-. 
On  completing  their  loth  year,  the  poorer  boys 
enter  the  business  of  their  father,  or  accept  the 
position  of  page.  The  wealthier  boys,  however, 
are  consigned  to  the  care  of  a  teacher,  who  in- 
structs them  in  grammar  and  letter-writing,  ex- 
plains to  them  difficult  passages  from  the  legends 
and  the  laws,  and  reads  with  them  the  Shaft 
Nameh  [Book  of  Kings)  of  Firdousi.the  odes  of 
Mali/,  and  other  works.  This  generally  com- 
pletes their  education,  and,  at  the  15th  or  16th 
year  of  age,  they  enter  the  civil  or  military 
service  of  the  state.  Recently,  high  schools  or 
colleges  have  been  established  ill  the  principal 
cities,  (.n  the  European  plan.  The  studies  pur- 
sued are  astronomy,  astrology,  rudimentary 
chemist r\  alchemy,  logic,  metaphysics,  mathe- 
matics, theology,  and  the  Arabian  and  Persian 
languages.  In  the  government  college,  in  Teheran, 
ruction  is  given  in  French  and  English. 
Shiraz  has  the  largest  number  of  colleges  (ten), 
but  the  most  extensive  college  is  al  Ispahan.  For 
a  full  account  of  the  educational  system  of  mod- 
ern Persia,  see  Polak,  Persien.  JJas  Land  und 
Bewohner  ( Leipsic,  1  86 

PERU,  a  republic  of  South  America,  having 
an  area  of  510,000  sq.  m..  and  a  population  ol 
abc-Ul  2,500,000.  Of  the  inhabitants.  :.7  per 
cent  are  Indians.  22  percent,  half-breeds,  II  per 
cent,  whites,  and  7  per  cent,  negroes  and  their 
descendants.  Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  be- 
long to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Peru 
was  first  discovered  by  Francisco  Pizarro,  who, 


PERU 


PESTAL0ZZ1 


in  1531,  began  the  conquest  of  the  country  for 
the  king  of  Spain:    and,  in   less  than    twenty 
years,  the   Spanish    rule   was   completely   estab- 
lished.    Among  the  Spanish  provinces  of  South 
America,  which,  during  the   tirst    part  of  the 
litth  century, achieved  their  independence,  Peru 
was  the  last  to  rebel;  but,  in  L826,  it  gained  a 
final  victory  over  the  Spaniards,  by  the  capture 
of  Callao. —  Under  the  incas,  the  native  rulers 
of  Peru,  the  people  made  considerable  advance- 
ment  in  education:  but  they  remained,  in  this 
respect,  inferior  to  the  Aztecs.    The  Spaniards, 
soon  after  their  conquest  of  the  country,  began 
to  introduce  their  educational  system.    The  uni- 
versity of  Lima  was  founded  in  L551;  and,  in 
L571,  its  faculties  were  regularly  organized.     In 
1650,  it  had  over   '20   professors  of  the  Spanish 
and  Quichua  languages,  law,  medicine,  philoso- 
phy,  and  theology.       Besides    the    university, 
there  were  in  Lima  several  other  institutions  of 
learning,  one  of  which  was  particularly  devoted 
to  giving  instruction  in  Latin  and   literature. 
The   elementary   schools    were   free,   and   even 
furnished  the   children  with  books  and  writing 
materials.     Owing  to  the  numerous  civil  wars, 
education  was.  for  a  long  time,  at  a  stand-still 
in  the  republic.     In  L855,  public  instruction  of 
all  grades  was  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a 
direction  general  de  estudios ;  and,  since  that 
time,  it  lias   made  steady  progress.     President 
Pardo,  in  his  message  of  IS 74.  states  that  -  ad- 
mission to  the  universities  is  now  confined   to 
such  as  are  quite  prepared  to  enter  upon  uni- 
versity stui lies.  A  number  of  competent  teachers 
have  been  engaged  in  Europe,  and  the  services 
of  many  more  will  be  engaged.     Arrangements 
are  likewise  on  foot  for  the   establishment  of 
suitable  normal  schools.  The  departmental  coun- 
cils are  authorized  to  institute  correctional  agri- 
cultural schools  for  uneducated  children,  to  be 
supported  out  of  certain  branches  of  the  ordinary 
contributions."  According  to  the  latest  accounts. 
there  were  in  the  republic  790  elementary  or  pri- 
mary schools.  Of  these,  502  (450  for  boys,  and  52 
for  girls)  were  public,  and  288  (206  for  boys,  and 
62  for  girls)  were  private.  The  number  of  pupils 
was  34,326,  of  whom  29,687  were  boys,  and 4,639 
were   girls.       The   normal   school   for   primary 
teachers.  in  Lima,  had  300  pupils:  of  whom,  36 
were  supported  by  the  state.  In  order  to  improve 
female  education,  the  Peruvian  congress,  in  1873, 
passed  a  law  that  every  community  of  more  than 
500  inhabitants,   should   establish  a  school  for 
girls.  There  are  5  universities — in  Lima.  Trujillo, 
Ayacucho.  Cuzco,  and  Puno.  These  universities, 
however,  only  confer  degrees,  the  studies  being 
pursued  in  colegios,  of  which  there  were,  accord- 
ing to  the  latest  accounts.  .'{0,  and  of  these. .'!  were 
for  girls.     The  largest  of  these  were  the  Colegio 
ili- San  Carlos,  and  the  Colegio  de  /</  Tndepen- 
dencia,  both  in  Lima,  the  latter  of  which  is  con- 
sidered the  best  medical  school  in  South  America. 
There  are  also  38  private  colegios,  of  which  14 
are  for  girls:   and.  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  6 
dioceses,  there  are  so-called  seminarios  concilia' 
res,  in  which,  besides  theology,  mathematics  and 


|  law  are  taught.    There  is,  also,  in  Lima  a  mil- 
itary school,  a  school  of  navigation,  ami  a  Bchool 

of  midwifery.      See    Li:    Hoy    in  ScHMID's  Ency- 

clopddie,  art.  Swdamerica. 

PESTALOZZI,  Johann  Heinrich,  on,'  of 
the  greatest  of  modem  educators,  was  born  Jan. 
•'-'•■  L746,  al  Zurich.  Switzerland,  and  died  at 
Neuhof,  Febr.  17..  L827.     Ashe  lost. when  only 

six    Mars  old,  his    father,   who   was   a    physician 

of  modesl  means,  his  training  depended  chiefly 
upon  his  mother.  Even  in  earlyyouth,  Pestalozzi 
evinced  those  characteristics  which  distinguished 
him  through  life — piety,  sympathy  for  the  poor 
and  degraded,  a  love  of  children,  and  an  uncom- 
promising sense  of  justice.  In  compliance  with 
the  wish  of  his  grandfather,  who  was  a  Protestant 
clergyman,  he  studied  theology;  but  his  very 
first  effort  at  preaching  proved  such  a  decided 

failure,  that  lie  turned    directly  to  the   Btudj  of 

law.  Ahout  this  time  (1764),  Rousseau's  tlmite 
fell  into  his  hands,  and  gave  him  the  hopethal 
his  longings  for  the  improvement  of  hiscountry'a 

lower  classes  could  be  successfully  Satisfied.      fie 

had  come  to  realize  that  the  principal  cause  of 

the  misery  of  the  multitude  was  their  ignorance, 
which  prevented  a  proper  and  advantageous  use 
of  the  political  rights  they  enjoyed.  His  fun- 
damental conclusion,  therefore,  was.  that  wh en- 
tile masses  are  stupid  and  brutalized,  democracy 
can  produce  no  blessings;  and.  hence,  that  his  first 
effort  should  be  to  aid  in  the  rearing  up  of  good 
citizens,  the  preparing  of  devoted  hearts  and 
manly  intellects  for  his  countn*.  He  proposed 
to  effect  this  result  not  simply  by  instruction 
but  by  a  judicious  blending  of  industrial,  intel- 
lectual, and  moral  training.  He  rightly  saw  that 
it  was  not  enough  to  impart  instruction  to  chil- 
dren, but  that  their  moral  nature  should  be  par- 
ticularly cared  for.  and  habits  of  activity  instilled 
into  them  through  agricultural  and  industrial 
labors.  To  his  way  of  thinking,  the  great  draw- 
back on  the  side  of  industry  was  the  weakening 
of  the  natural  affections  and  the  development  of 
the  mercantile  spirit,  without  having  the  moral 
resources  and  consolations  afforded  by  rural  oc- 
cupations. He, therefore,  preferred  to  withdraw- 
to  a  farm,  there  to  gather  about  him  the  children 
of  the  poor,  and  to  foster,  in  the  coining  men  and 
women,  the  taste  for  domestic  life  and  the  senti- 
ment of  human  dignity.  Previous  to  the  purchase 
of  land  in  order  to  put  his  scheme  into  practice, 
he  retired  to  the  estate  of  a  friend,  celebratedfor 
his  improved  methods  of  cultivation,  and  there 
prepared  himself  for  his  new  task  with  his  usual 
zeal.  In  1  761).  he  bought  a  tract  of  about  100 
acres,  and  named  this  possession  Neuhof.  In 
the  same  year  he  married  a  lady  of  means  and 
culture.  By  1775,  the  place  was  ready  for  the 
realization  of  his  projects.  He  opened  what  mav 
be  considered  the  first  industrial  school  for  the 
poor.  He  gathered  about  him  a  number  of 
ragged  and  half-starved  children,  and  lived  with 
them  the  life  of  the  poor,  in  order  to  teach  them, 
in  their  poverty,  how  to  become  active  members 
of  the  great  human  family.  He  soon  found, 
however,  to  his  great  sorrow,  that  these  vagabond 


694 


PESTALOZZI 


children  could  never  be  made  to  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  laborious  and  regular  life 
lie  desired,  as  long  as  their  parents  were  not  far 
removed  ;  for  the  latter  had  but  too  frequently- 
encouraged  vagabondage  as  a  source  of  income. 
In  1780.  his  own  straitened  financial  circum- 
stances obliged  him  to  abandon  the  enterprise. 
His  experience  he  embodied  in  the  publication 
Evenings  of  a  Recluse  (1780).  which  proves 
that,  in  the  midst  of  his  failures,  he  bad  profited 
by  important  discoveries  in  the  realm  of  human 
knowledge,  and  in  the  principles  which  underlie 
all  true  processes  of  education, — results  which 
have  transmuted  his  individual  disappointments 
and  failures  into  blessings  for  the  world.  He 
published,  in  this  little  treatise,  a  programme 
for  his  future  exertions,  surveyed  the  mode  of 
life  of  the  people,  and  laid  bare  their  defi- 
ciencies, indicating  the  only  remedy ;  namely, 
a  return  to  nature  and  to  truth.  The  general 
favor  with  which  his  views  were  received  in- 
duced him  to  follow  with  other  writings  in 
their  advocacy.  Of  these  publications,  bis  L/ien- 
h<ir<l  und  Gerirud  (Basel,  1781 — 9,  -t  vols.) — 
a  popular  tale,  presenting  a  picture  of  exalted 
virtue  in  the  midst  of  crime  and  error — created 
quite  a  sensation.  It  circulated  far  and  wide, 
and  was  translated  into  many  languages.  '1  he 
government  of  Bern  decreed  him  a  gold  medal. 
which  he  was  afterward  obliged  to  turn  into 
money  to  supply  his  family  with  the  necessaries 
of  life.  Not  until  17!).w.  did  Pestalozzi's  oppor- 
tunity come  again  to  put  his  theories  into  practice. 
In  this  year,  Ins  friend  I. (grand,  one  of  the  Swiss 
Directory,  appointed  him  to  establish  an  orphan 
school  at  Stanz,  in  the  canton  of  Uhterwalden. 
The  French  revolution  had  given  rise  to  turbu- 
lence anil  anarchy.  Stanz  had  been  sacked  by  the 
French  troops,  and  stood  inflames.  Thousands 
were  homeless.  Many  a  child  saw  itself  bereft 
of  parents  and  friends.  Of  such  children,  Pes- 
talozzi  gathered  eighty  in  the  Ursuline  convent. 
which  had  been  spared;  and  alone  (his  wife  hav- 
ing remained  at  Neuhof)  he  cared  tor  them,  lived, 
played,  and  prayed  with  them,  and  earnestly  In- 
structed them.  Hi'  "manifested  an  amount  of 
vigor,  self-forget  fulness,  and  enthusiasm  such  as 
the  world  has  seldom  seen  combined  in  the  soul 
<>f  one  frail  mortal"  (Krusi).  "I  had  to  act.'' 
■ays  he  himself,  ••amidst  a  confusion  of  elements. 

und  amidst  unbounded  misery;  but  the  zeal  that 

urged  me  on  to  .seize  the  possibility  of  realizing, 
at  last,  the  dream  of  my  entire  life  would  have 
transported  me  to  the  summit  of  the  highest 
Alps,  and  through  air  and  tire."  liis  aim  was 
to  imparl  to  the  school  the  character  of  a  family. 

Being  without  books  and  without  apparatus,  lie 

directed  his  v\  hole  attention  to  those  natural  ele- 
ments which  are  found  in  the  mind  of  every 
child,     lie  taught  numbers, instead  of  figures; 

living  sounds,  instead  of  dead  character-:  deeds  of 
faith  and  love,  instead  of  abstruse  creeds;  suh- 
Btanoe,  instead  of  shadow;  realities,  instead  of 
signs.  His  main  object  Beemed  to  be.  to  ascertain 

the   kind  of  instruction  most  needed  by   the 

Iren,  and  how  to  base  it  upon  their  previous 


knowledge.  When  he  saw  them  interested,  he 
pursued  the  same  topic  for  hours,  and  left  it  only 
when  the  interest  flagged  or  the  point  was 
gained.  He  gave  them  no  lessons  to  commit  to 
memory,  but  always  something  to  mvestigate. 
They  gained  little  positive  knowledge,  but  their 
love  of  knowledge  and  power  of  acquiring  it  in- 
creased daily.  Being  without  assistance,  he  was 
driven  by  necessity"  to  set  the  elder  and  better- 
taught  scholars  to  teach  the  youuger  and  more 
ignorant :  and  thus  he  struck  out  the  mutual  in- 
struction system,  which,  about  the  same  time. 
Lancaster  (q.v.)  was,  under  somewhat  similar 
circumstances,  led  to  adopt  in  England.  At  the 
end  of  a  single  term,  the  result  of  this  course  of 
instruction  was  manifestly'  great.  The  children 
had  improved  so  much,  both  physicahy  and 
morally,  that  Pestalozzi  said :  '1  hey  seemed  en- 
tirely different  beings  from  those  1  had  received 
six  months  before,  neglected,  ragged,  and  filthy.'' 
But  yet  the  troubles  of  that  agitated  period 
would  not  allow  him  to  continue  his  benevolent 
labors.  Already,  in  1799,  the  orphan  house  was 
converted  into  a  military  hospital,  and  Pestalozzi 
left  Stanz.  A  vacancy  in  a  school  at  Burgdorf, 
in  the  canton  of  Bern,  was  offered  him  shortly 
after,  and  he  promptly  engaged  to  fill  it.  though 
a  very  inferior  position  for  a  man  who  had  made 
all  Europe  talk  about  his  theory  of  education. 
But,  even  from  this  humble  position,  he  was  dis- 
missed  in  a  very  short  time,  the  head-master  per- 
ceiving that  Pestalozzi  had  succeeded  in  gaining 
the  attention  and  affection  of  the  children  in  a 
higher  degree  than  he  himself.  Fortunately, 
another  school  in  the  town,  taught  by  an  old 
dame,  made  room  for  him;  and,  in  this  obscure 
place,  he  taught  until  the  vacant  chdteam  was 
placed  at  his  disposal  for  the  establishment  of  a 
normal  school.  Several  well-known  educators, 
Kriisi.  Tobler,  and  Buss,  joined  him  in  the  en- 
terprise; and  it  was  not  long  before  the  celebrity 
and  success  of  the  school  led  the  government  to 
adopt  and  support  it.  In  1803,  when  the  castle 
was  needed  by  the  Bernese  authorities,  Pestalozzi 
was  assigned  a  deserted  monastery  in  Miincheu- 
Buchsee,  near  Hofwyl,  and  was  invited  to  co- 
operate with  Pellenberg  (q.v.),  who  had  sus- 
tained a  similar  establishment  at  that  place  for 
nearly  20  years.  The  two  educational  reform- 
ers failed,  however,  to  agree  in  plans;  and  Pesta- 
lozzi was.  in  L805,  permitted  to  occupy  the  va- 
cant castle  of  Vverdun.  canton  of  \  and.  There 
he   met    with    his    greatest    success.      Celebrated 

men  and  women  of  the  refined  nations  of  the 

world  visited  the  institution,  and  went  away 
speaking  only  words  of  praise.  1  lis  corps  of  in- 
structors had  been  strengthened,  from  time  to 
time,  until  it  contained  22.  Among  the  pupils 
of  Vvetilun.  nearly  every  nation  of  Europe  was 
represented.  Many  of  the  students  were  of 
mature  mind,  and  were  graduates  of  other 
schools.  The  school  was.  of  Course,  a  home. 
The  pupils  were  made  to  rise  early,  their  food 
was  good  but    plain,  and   special   attention  was 

paid  to  physical  exercise.    The  contemplation  of 

nature  and  her  laws  w;is  regarded  as  lirst  in  the 


PESTALOZZI 


PHARMACEUTICAL  SCHOOLS    G95 


curriculum  of  study,  and  from  it  a  basis  was 
secured  for  formal  exercises  in  language  and 
composition.  According  to  Pestalozzi's  plan, 
composition  comes  before  analysis,  and  the  use 
of  language  before  rules.  Mathematics  was  the 
branch  in  which  the  pupils  made  the  greatest 
progress;  and  that  because  the  science  of  num- 
bers could  be  most  easily  brought  within  the 
laws  of  progressive  development,  which  form 
the  basis  of  the  Pestalozzian  philosophy.  His 
principle  was:  "The  organism  of  the  human 
mind  is  subject  to  the  same  laws  that  nature 
universally  observes  in  the  development  of  her 
organic  products."  1  [ence,  he  founded  all  knowl- 
edge on  perception,  and  demanded  that,  by  a 
progress  as  uninterrupted  as  possible,  and  with  a 
constant  incitement  of  the  pupil  to  self-activity. 
he  should  be  made  to  advance  from  what  had 
been  already  acquired  by  him  to  higher  results, 
these  results  being  arrived  at  as  consequences 
following  from  wdiat  had  been  previously  estab- 
lished. Objects  themselves  became,  in  Pesta- 
lozzi's hands,  the  subjects  of  lessons  tending  to 
the  development  of  the  observing  and  reasoning 
powers — not  lessons  about  objects.  For  the  suc- 
cessful accomplishment  of  his  purpose,  he  classi- 
fied all  science  in  its  relation  to  the  work  of  in- 
struction, and  adopted,  by  analogy  from  nature. 
the  doctrine  of  form  and  number  as  universal 
educational  means,  and  to  these  added,  ultimately. 
that  of  sound.  This  continues,  to  our  day,  the 
guide  of  objective  teaching,  though  improve- 
ment has  been  made  in  classification.  He  as- 
signed to  form  the  subjects  drawing,  writing, 
and  geometry;  to  number,  arithmetic,  in  all  its 
departments;  and  to  sound,  speaking,  reading, 
singing,  and  all  the  possible  exercises  of  the 
organs  of  speech.  He  placed  under  sou  ml. 
geography,  history,  and  natural  science ;  but 
modern  object  teachers  have  provided  a  special 
class,  called  that  of  place.  Special  attention, 
however,  was  directed  by  Pestalozzi  to  moral 
and  religious  training  as  distinct  from  mere  in- 
struction. His  object  was  to  lead  the  pupil  to 
the  living  source  from  which  spring  humility, 
s "It-devotion,  and  an  active  striving  for  perfec- 
tion of  character.  And  here,  too,  gradation  and 
3.  regard  to  the  nature  and  susceptibilities  of 
children  were  conspicuous  features  of  his  sys- 
tem. The  one  great  fundamental  principle  of 
his  pedagogical  system,  is  the  natural,  progres- 
sive, ana  symmetrical  development  of  all  the 
powers  and  faculties  of  the  human  being.  This 
great  truth  had  long  existed  as  an  intellectual 
conviction  in  the  minds  of  philosophers,  and  had 
even  been  expressed  in  proverbs  and  apothegms; 
but  it  was  Pestalozzi  who  first  showed,  by  nat- 
ural experiment,  how  it  might  be  made  the 
basis  of  universal  education,  and  the  means  by 
which  humanity  might  be  elevated.  (For  a  crit- 
icism on  Pestalozzi's  system,  see  Kriksi,  Pes- 
talozzi:  His  Life,  Work,  and  Influence!) 

Unfortunately  for  the  material  success  of 
Pestalozzi,  dissensions  arose  among  his  teachers, 
in  which  he  himself  became  implicated.  The  num- 
ber of  his  pupils  rapidly  diminished,  the  estab- 


lishmeiit  became  a  losing  concern, and  Pestalozzi 
was  again  involved  in  debt,  which  even  the  pub- 
lication of  his  works  in  a  collected  form  (Stutt- 
gart and  Tubingen,  L5  vols.,  1819  -26)  failed 
to  liquidate.  En  1825,  he  retired  from  his 
laborious  duties  to  Neuhof,  where  his  grandson 

then  resided.     His  g I  wife  had  died  In  1815; 

and,  in  great  despondency  and  mortification,  ha 

spent  his  remaining  days.  A  great  many  insti- 
tutions bear  his  name;  and  the  first  centennial 
anniversary  of  his  birth  was  celebrated,  in  1846, 
with  appropriate  ceremonies,  not  only  in  Switzer- 
land but  all  over  Germany.     At  his  grave,  a 

monument  was  erected  by  the  cant( f  Aaigau. 

The  best  biography  of  Pestalozzi  in  German  is 
that  by  Blochmann  (1846),  the  latest  by  Morf 
(1864).  In  French,  the  most  complete  is  by 
Chavanne  (1853).  In  English,  the  latest  is  by 
Kriisi  (Cincinnati,  1815).  —  See  also  Barnard, 
Pestalozzi    and   Pesfalozzianism   (New  York, 

L859),  and  the  article  ( >BJECT  TEACHING. 
PHARMACEUTICAL  SCHOOLS.     The 

healing  art  has.  for  ages,  embraced  both  the  ap- 
plication of  therapeutical  knowledge  and  the 
supply  and  preparation  of  remedial  agents:  and. 
until  the  separation  of  these  branches  as  the  arts 
of  medicine  and  of  pharmacy,  at  a  comparatively 
recent  time,  the  history  of  medicine,  and  of  med- 
ical schools  and  literature,  embodied  that  of 
pharmacy;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  at  an  earlier 
period,  both  medicine  and  pharmacy  were 
merged,  to  a  large  extent,  in  the  pursuits  and 
history  of  alchemy.  Aside  from  the  earliest 
traditions  of  the  first  crude  stages  of  medical  and 
pharmaceutical  science  in  Egypt,  at  so  remote  an 
age  as  the  Kith  century  B.  ('..  as  recorded  in  the 
Papyrus  Ebers,  the  art  of  pharmacy,  as  a  spe- 
cial branch  of  that  of  medicine,  seems  to  have 
been  first  practiced  among  the  Arabs;  and 
establishments,  recognized  for  the  supply  of  re- 
medial agents,  are  said  to  have  been  first  insti- 
tuted in  Bagdad,  in  the  year  754  A.  I).  The 
first  systematic  attempt  at  a  methodical  collec- 
tion and  classification  of  recognized  formula  is 
said  to  have  been  compiled  by  the  Arab  physi- 
cian and  philosopher  Sabor  elm  Sahel.  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  9th  century.  In  conjunct  inn 
with  medicine,  pharmacy  was  first  taught,  as  a 
branch  of  university  instruction  at  the  celebrated 
school  at  Salerno.  During  the  following  cent- 
uries, the  establishing  of  pharmacies  and  meas- 
ures for  a  legal  regulation  of  the  art  of  pharma- 
cy extended  into  western  Europe;  and  the 
newly  established  universities  became  centers  of 
research  and  learning.  Yet  the  absorbing  prob- 
lems of  the  transmutation  of  base  metals  into 
gold,  and  of  the  existence  of  a  universal  remedy, 
potent  to  avert  disease,  to  heal  sickness,  to  main- 
tain or  restore  youth,  and  to  prolong  life,  for 
centuries  engaged  the  aims  and  inspired  the  ef- 
forts of  the  wisest  and  most  learned  men,  in  a 
search  throughout  nature  for  the  -philosopher's 
stone"  and  the  "elixir  of  life."  The  long  pur- 
suit of  these  phantoms,  and  the  visionary  but 
most  productive  speculations  of  alchemy,  re- 
sulted in  the  accumulation  of  a  vast  amount  of 


(596 


PHARMACEUTICAL  SCHOOLS 


chemical  and  physical  knowledge,  and  in  the  most 
important  discoveries  in  the  domain  of  chem- 
ical operations,  processes,  and  products.  These 
added  largely  to  the  compass  of  the  materia 
med 'tea,  and  contributed  much  to  prepare  that 
revolution  in  the  intellectual  world,  no  less  than 
in  the  material  resources  of  men.  which,  at  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  culminated  in  the  over- 
throw of  old  ideas  and  systems,  and  laid  a  foun- 
dation for  the  modern  theories  of  chemical  philos- 
ophy, for  the  subsequent  wonderful  strides  in 
their  practical  applications  to  all  the  affairs  of 
industrial  and  social  life,  and  for  their  productive 
influence  upon  the  advancement  of  physiological, 
pharmaceutical,  and  analytical  chemistry. —  Dur- 
ing the  struggles  of  this  remarkable  revolution, 
which,  among  its  other  results,  separated  medi- 
cine and  pharmacy  as  independent  correlative 
branches,  the  latter  was  the  leading  and  most 
successful  cultivator  of  chemistry,  and  attained 
at  that  time,  and  especially  at  the  close  of  the 
last  and  the  first  half  of  the  present  century,  in 
continental  Europe,  its  culmination.  It  supplied 
from  among  its  ranks  the  newly-created  chairs 
both  of  chemistry  and  of  pharmacy,  and  fre- 
quently of  botany  also,  at  the  universities  and 
special  schools  for  medicine,  pharmacy,  agri- 
culture, and  kindred  arts;  the  increasing 
branches  of  chemical  industry  and  manufacture, 
too,  were  largely  and  successfully  occupied  and 
cultivated  by  pharmacists.  Pharmacy  emanci- 
pated itself  more  and  more,  in  the  civilized  coun- 
tries, from  co-education  with,  and  subordination 
to,  medicine  ;  special  schools,  or  at  the  univer- 
sities, special  chairs,  for  instruction  in  pharma- 
ceutical chemistry  and  pharmacognosy,  were  es- 
tablished ;  and  both  the  standard  of  qualification 
and  the  practice  of  pharmacy,  like  that  of  med- 
icine, were  restricted  and  controlled  by  the 
state.  Since  the  middle  of  the  present  century, 
by  the  rapid  strides  in  the  progress  and  applica- 
tion of  the  physical  sciences,  particularly  of 
chemistry  in  its  various  relations,  the  position 
of  pharmacy  has  somewhat  changed.  Chemistry 
lias  risen  to  a  commanding  station  among  the 
physical  sciences,  and  in  the  industry  and  wealth 
of  nations;  its  application  in  the  manufacture 
and  supply  of  all  chemical  products  cheaply  on 
a  commercial  scale,  has  largely  deprived  the 
pharmacist  of  one  of  the  original  and  most  im- 
portant and  instructive  objects  of  his  pursuit,  — 
tin'  preparation  of  medicinal  chemicals  and  many 
of  the  pharmaceutical  products.    On  the  other 

hand,  pharmacy  is  losing  scope  by  the  decrease 
in  the  use  of  medicines,  in  consequence  of  the 
general  increase  of  hygienic  knowledge,  and  the 
progress  of  medical  science.  The  former  pre- 
eminently professional  character  of  pharmacy 
has,  in  consequence,  gradually  given  way  to  a 

more  mercantile  and  trade  aspect.  But,  notv  ith- 
standing  the  diminution  of  its  resources  and  of 
its  former  scope  of  application,  the  rcqui.»ite 
Standard  of  proficiency  is.  as  yet.  every-where 
maintain*  d  ;  and,  in  countries  of  a  growing  civi- 
lization, pharmaceutical  education  is  continually 

and  correspondingly  raised.  Most  countries,  then- 


fore,  at  present,  either  have  special  schools  for  the 
higher  education  of  pharmacists,  or  else  afford 
instruction  in  the  pharmaceutical  branches  at 
universities,  or  medical  or  technical  institutions. 
In  the  amount  of  the  preparatory  education 
required,  the  high  standard  of  scientific  and 
practical  qualification,  and  the  restrictions  en- 
forced by  law  and  controlled  by  the  government, 
Germany  ranks  highest.  The  candidate  for 
apprenticeship  must  have  attained  maturity  for 
the  second  class  (Ober-S<>< -u mln)  of  the  gymna- 
sium, or  must  have  passed  through  a  real  school. 
The  apprenticeship  must  last  three  years; during 
which  time  the  pupil's  progress,  and  the  obliga- 
tory instruction  by  his  master,  are  controlled 
by  annual  examinations  by  a  delegate  of  the 
district  government.  At  the  close  of  the  appren- 
ticeship, and  after  successfully  passing  an  exami- 
nation before  a  board,  also  appointed  by  the 
district  government,  the  candidate  has  to  com- 
plete his  practical  experience  by  serving  for  three 
years  more  as  clerk  :  and  he  is  then  entitled  to 
enter  upon  the  obligatory  course  of  university 
study  at  any  one  of  the  20  <  rerman  universities. 
Be  is  five  to  attend  such  lectures  as  he  may 
choose  :  and.  at  the  close  of  each  lecture  term 
he  may  select  another  university,  according  to 
his  option  :  while  the  state  requires,  with  un- 
compromising severity,  the  satisfactory  passage 
of  a  comprehensive  final  examination.    To  this 

the  Student  is  only  admitted  after  having  at- 
tended the  lectures  and  laboratory  instruction 
for  at  least  three  lecture  terms  \\\  years)  :  and. 
upon  passing  it.  the  state  grants  him  a  license  for 
the  practice  of  pharmacy  throughout  the  empire. 
Many  graduates  choose  to  acquire,  by  a  continu- 
ation <,('  university  and  laboratory  studies. and 
by  the  subsequent  passage  of  an  examination  be- 
fore the  philosophical  faculty  of  a  university. the 
degree  of  Ph.  D. —  Similar,  and  nearly  equally 
strict,  is  the  course  of  pharmaceutical  education 
and  qualification  in  Austria.  Hungary.  Russia, 
Switzerland.  Sweden.  Norway,  and  Denmark; 
but  somewhat  less  strict  in  lioumania.  Italy,  and 
Greece.    In  France, pharmaceutical  education  is 

controlled  by  the  state  so  far  that  students,  after 
a  more  or  less  brief  experience  in  drug-stores, 
have  to  attend,  for  one  or  two  years,  the  lectures 
at  one  of  the  pharmaceutical  schools  at  Paris, 
Nancy,  or  MontpeUier,  or  at  the  medical  and 
pharmaceutical  schools  at  Nantes  or  Marseilles, 
and  subsequently  must  pass  an  examination. 
Upon  the  satisfactory  passage  of  this. the  student 
receives,  according  to  the  time  of  his  study  and 
the  price  he  is  able  to  pay.  the  diploma  ;us  a 
pharmacien  of  the  first,  or  of  the  second  class. 
The  former  is  entitled  to  establish  himself  indis- 
criminately, while  the  latter  is  allowed  to  do  BO 
onl\  in  small  cities.  The  standard  of  pharma- 
ceutical education  is  somewhat  higher  in  Bel- 
gium and  the  Netherlands,  but  perhaps  less  strict 

in  practical  proficiency.  The  student  has  lir-t 
to  attend  lectures,  and  then  to  attain  skill  and 
experience  in  pharmacy,  when  he  is  admitted 
to  examination  and  subsequently  to  practice.  In 
Spain  and  Portugal. the  courst  of  pharmaceutical 


PHARMACEUTICAL   SCHOOLS 


PHILADELPHIA 


69T 


education,  and  the  qualification  required  on  the 
part  of  the  state,  seem  to  be  similar  to  those  in 
France.  The  three  Spanish  universities  in  Mad- 
rid, Barcelona,  and  Granada,  and  the  medical 
schools  at  Lisbon, Oporto,  and  Coimbra,  in  Port- 
ugal, afford  lectures  to  pharmaceutical  students. 
Education  in  this  department,  in  Turkey,  while 
it  is  not  uniformly  obligatory,  embraces  an  ap- 
prenticeship of  three  years,  and  a  subsequent 
attendance  upon  the  lectures  at  the  Imperial 
Institute,  in  Constantinople,  which  also  has 
the  direction  of  the  examination,  and  grants 
licenses  to  those  who  apply  for  and  pass  it  suc- 
cessfully. In  Great  Britain,  the  state  has  exert- 
ed an  obligatory  influence  on  the  qualification 
of  pharmacists  since  1868;  but  it  leaves  this 
control  to  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Great 
Britain,  and  to  the  Privy  ( Ymncil.  The  only  re- 
striction consists  in  a  registry  statute,  requiring 
two  successive  examinations:  a  preliminary  one 
for  registration  as  "  apprentice  or  student'*,  and  a 
minor  examination,  for  a  license  as  "chemist  and 
druggist",  or  a  major  examination  for  a  license 
as  "pharmaceutical  chemist."  The  state  of 
pharmacy,  and  the  standard  of  pharmaceutical 
education,  in  the  various  countries  of  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  America,  is  comparatively  little 
known.  In  several  of  them,  as  for  instance,  in 
Mexico,  Brazil.  Peru,  and  others,  the  state  exer- 
cises a  more  or  less  strict,  although  not  uniform- 
ly efficient,  control;  while,  in  other  states,  either 
.  the  qualification  for  the  practice  of  pharmacy  is 
not  restricted,  or  the  control  is  more  nominal 
than  real.  Pharmaceutical  education  and  prac- 
tice in  Canada  stand  in  close  relation  to  those  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

The  standard  of  pharmacy  and  pharmaceu- 
tical education  in  the  United  States  is  not  uni- 
form, because  it  is  not  obligatory ;  and  until 
recently  it  has  been  left  entirely  to  individual 
option  and  efforts.  AVhile  sporadic  attempts  to- 
ward some  kind  of  legal  regulation  have  mostly 
failed  of  virtual  effect,  yet  a  strong  and  increas- 
ing body  of  accomplished  pharmacists,  largely 
strengthened  by  the  immigrated  German  element, 
has  grown  up  ;  and,  by  its  influence  and  efforts, 
has  contributed  gradually  to  raise  the  standard 
of  pharmacy,  and  to  attain,  in  several  states,  and 
in  a  number  of  the  largest  cities,  some  authori- 
tative control  of  the  qualification  of  pharma- 
cists. Chartered  local  associations  (colleges  of 
pharmacy)  have  been  established  in  these  cities 
and  states,  and  they  have,  in  pursuit  of  their 
aims  and  objects,  founded  schools  of  pharmacy. 
Chartered  schools  of  pharmacy  were  in  existence, 
in  1870,  in  the  following  cities:  Philadelphia 
(founded  in  1821);  New  York  (1831);  Balti- 
more (1855):  Chicago  (1859);  Boston  (1867); 
Ann  Arbor  (1868);  Cincinnati  (1870);  St.  Louis 
(1871);  Louisville  (1871);  San  Francisco  (1872); 
Washington.  1).  C.  (1873);  Nashville  (1873). 
These  institutions  grant,  upon  their  own  mutual- 
ly recognized  authority,  diplomas  with  the  de- 
gree of  Graduate  of  Pharmacy,  to  those  candi- 
dates, without  regard  as  yet  to  their  preliminary 
education,   who  have  had  experience  in  drug- 


stores for  four  years,  have  attended  a1  least  two 

courses  of  lectures  at  one  of  the  pharmaceutical 

schools,   or    at    some    medical  or  kindred  college, 

where  chemistry,  chemical  analysis,  botany,  phar 
macognosy,  and  practical  pharmacy  are  taught, 
and  who  subsequently  have  passed  a  satisfactory 
examination  before  a  board  of  trustees  of  the 
College  of  Pharmacy.  The  colleges  and  schools 
of  pharmacy  in  the  United  States  have  thus  far 

acted  harmoniously  in  their  voluntary  and  suc- 
cessful efforts  for  a  gradual  and  uniform  eleva- 
tion of  the  scope  and  the  standard  of  education 
and  proficiency  among  pharmacists.  The  most 
serious  drawback  to  general  .and  permanent  re- 
sults consists  in  the  absence  of  any  authoritative 
national  or  state  restriction  and  control  of  the 
practice  of  pharmacy,  and  in  a  consequent  exce.-.- 
ive  and  detrimental  overcrowding  of  the  pro- 
fession, and  for  causes  previously  stated,  in  a 
general  decrease  in  the  compass  of  legitimate  ap- 
plication,  and  in  the  resources  and  material  pros- 
perity of  the  art  of  pharmacy. 

PHILADELPHIA,  the  chief  city  of  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  second  in  popu- 
lation in  the  United  States,  the  number  of  its 
inhabitants,  in  1870,  being  674,022,  and  the  es- 
timated number,  in  1876,  "50.000. 

Educational  History. — The  first  school  opened 
in  the  city  of  Philadelphia  was  the  private  En- 
glish school  of  Enoch  Flower,  in  168.*!.  Recom- 
mendations in  favor  of  education  had  been  pre- 
viously made  by  William  Penn,  but  had  no1 
been  acted  on.  In  1689,  the  Society  of  Friends 
!  established  a  public  school — not  public,  however, 
in  the  modern  acceptation  of  the  word,  since  it 
was  founded  "at  the  request,  costs,  and  charges, 
of  the  people  called  Quakers."  This  school  is 
still  in  existence.  In  1750,  a  charitable  school 
for  young  men  was  founded  by  Franklin  :  and. 
by  1752,  the  number  of  schools  in  the  colony  of 
Pennsylvania — and  probably,  therefore,  in  Phil- 
adelphia— must  have  considerably  increased,  as 
the  legislature,  in  that  year,  found  it  expedient 
to  appoint  trustees  and  managers  for  them.  The 
provisional  constitution  of  the  state,  adopted  in 
1776,  declares,  in  its  44th  section,  that  "  a  school 
shall  be  established  in  each  county  by  the  legis- 
lature, for  the  convenient  instruction  of  youth, 
with  such  salaries  to  the  masters,  paid  by  the 
public,  as  may  enable  them  to  instruct  youth  at 
low  prices;''  but  no  immediate  steps  appear  to 
have  been  taken  to  make  this  provision  of  any 
practical  value.  In  1786,  a  tract  of  60,000  acres 
of  land  was  set  apart  by  the  legislature  for  the 
public  schools  of  the  state;  and  the  7th  section  of 
the  constitution  of  1790  provides  that  "the  legis- 
lature shall,  as  conveniently  as  may  he.provide  by 
law  for  the  establishment  of  schools  throughout 
the  state,  in  such  manner  that  the  poor  may  be 
taught  </r>i/is."  The  dissatisfaction,  however, 
caused  by  this  law,  rendered  it  inoperative  for 
several  years.  In  L809,  another  ad  for  the  free 
education  of  the  poorwas  passed;  but  the  same 
dissatisfaction  caused  the  law  to  remain  a  dead 
letter,  the  rich  objecting  to  being  taxed  in  behalf 
of  the  poor,  and  the  poor  being  too  proud  to  ac- 


698 


PHILADELPHIA 


cept  as  a  gift  the  education  of  their  children. 
These  objections  on  the  part  of  the  two  classes 
appear  frequently  in  the  early  legislation  of  the 
colonies  in  regard  to  free  public  schools.  When 
it  became  apparent  that  the  law  of  1809  was  of 
no  practical  value,  a  supplement  was  procured  in 
favor  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  by  which  the 
commissioners  of  Philadelphia  County,  with  the 
approval  of  the  councils  and  commissioners  of 
districts,  were  directed  to  establish  pubhc 
Schools.  Under  this  system,  2,000  children  re- 
ceived instruction  in  1816,  at  an  expense  of 
$23,000.  Serious  objections  to  this  system, 
however,  were  made,  on  account  of  its  class  dis- 
tinctions, and  its  want  of  economy,  which  re- 
sulted in  tlie  formation  of  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Public  Economy,  of  which  Rob- 
erts Vaux  was  chairman.  In  Is  18,  this  society, 
both  composed  of,  and  aided  by,  the  ablest 
and  mosl  influential  citizens  of  Philadelphia, 
procured  the  passage  of  an  act  which  provided 
for  the  free  education  of  all  the  children  of  the 
city,  and  which  did  not  contain  the  objectionable 
features  of  previous  acts.  This  erected  the  city 
and  county  of  Philadelphia  into  a  separate 
school-district,  each  district  of  the  city  being  de- 
nominated  a  section.  Sectional  directors  were 
appointed  by  the  several  councils,  as  well  as  con- 
trollers, one  from  each  section,  to  be  known  as 
the  Board  of  School  Controllers.  Of  this  board, 
Huberts  Vaux  was  the  first  president.  This  act 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  the 
present  common-school  system  of  Philadelphia. 
It  applied,  however,  to  that  city  alone  ;  and  the 
people,  failing  to  discriminate  between  its  pro- 
visions and  those  of  the  law  of  1809,  which  was 
still  in  force  in  the  remainder  of  the  state,  in- 
cluded them  all  in  their  condemnation.  The 
friends  of  the  Philadelphia  law,  therefore,  formed 
an  association  known  as  the  Pennsylvania 
Society  for  Promoting  Public  Schools,  with 
branches  in  various  parts  of  the  state  ;  and  de- 
tcriniii  >d,  if  possible,  to  procure  the  passage  of 
a  new  common-school  law,  which  should  extend 
th  •  advantages  of  the  local  law  over  the  state. 
This  was  accomplished  in  1834,  \\h  n  a  general 
law  was  passed  providing  for  the  free  education 
of  all  persons  in  the  state  between  the  ages  of  6 
an  1  21  years.  Faults  were  soon  found, however, 
with  the  practical  operation  of  this  measure:  an  1 
>mpts  were  made  to  repeal  it.  but  failed, 
owing  largely  to  its  able  advocacy  by  Thaddeus 
Stevens,  then  a  member  of  the  legislature.  In 
the  session  of  L835 — (J,  an  improved  law  was 
passed,  after  an  animated  contest  in  the  legis- 
lature, an  1  remained  in  force  substantially  till 
L854.  Shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the 
Schools  on  a  permanent  basis,  it  was  discovered 
that  the  elementary  character  of  the  instruction 
given  was  iua  lequate    to  the   wants  of  the  city. 

lii  L 838, accordingly, the  Central  High  School 
was  opened,  with  1  teachers  ami  (i.'t  pupils. 
This  was  Followed,  in  L840,  by  the  establishment 
of  the  Girls'  High  and  Normal  School,  an  in- 
stitution which,  in  1875,  reported  an  average 
attendance  of  641  .students.    The  growth  of  the 


'  schools  is  best  shown  by  the  following  figures: 
attendance  in  1820,  5,369:  in  1830,  5,371;  in 
L840,  23,192  ;  in  1850,  48,056  ;  in  i860,  63,530; 
in  1870,  82,891 ;  in  1875,  95,552. 

School  System. — The  city  constitutes  one  school 
district,  known  as  the  First  School- District  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  control  and  management  of 
the  pubhc  schools  is  intrusted  to  a  board  of 
public  ediicaiion  consisting  of  31  members,  one 
from  each  ward,  with  a  subordinate  board  for 
each  ward.  The  members  of  the  board  are  ap- 
pointed for  3  years  by  the  judges  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas,  and  of  the  district  court.  They 
exercise  a  general  supervision  over  the  common 
schools,  making  such  rules  for  their  own  govern- 
ment  aad  for  that  of  the  schools,  as  they  deem 
expedient.  They  appoint  a  secretary  and  an 
assistant  secretary,  whose  powers  are  limited. 
There  is  no  city  superintendent.  The  schools  are 
supported  by  a  city  tax.  They  are  divided  into 
primary,  secondary,  grammar,  and  high  schools: 
and  it  is  claimed  that  this  distinction  was  first 
made  in  Philadelphia.  There  are,  also,  consol- 
idated schools  and  night  schools.  The  number  of 
the  schools,  in  1  ^7.").  was  224  primary,  127  sec- 
ondary. 29  consolidated,  63  grammar,  and  2  high 
schools. 

The  principal  items  of  school  s(a(is/ics  are  as 
follows  : 

Total  attendance  in  1875 95,552 

Average    "  "    "    82,976 

Number  of  teachers,  males 77 

"  females 1.P01 


Total 1,878 

Receipts $1,1  46,929.29 

Expenditures 1,634,653.26 

The  sttidies.  taught  in  the  primary  schools,  are, 
reading,  spelling,  penmanship,  arithmetic— men- 
tal and  practical  —  ami  music,  accompanied  by 

exercises  in  dictation,  object  lessons,  and  gymnas- 
tics, and  by  instruction  in  morals  and  manners. 
To  these  are  added,  in  the  secondary  schools,  ar- 
ticulation and  pronunciation,  drawing,  composi- 
tion, definitions,  and  geography,  and  a  general 
review  of  the  studies  pursued  in  the  previous 
grade.  The  studies  peculiar  to  the  grammar 
Bchools,  are  grammar  ami  history,  with  instruc- 
tion in,  and  reviews  of,  previous  studies.  Pupils 
Erom  the  grammar  schools  arc  admitted  to  the 
Central  High  School  and  to  the  Girls' Normal 
School  semi-annually,  upon  a  satisfactory  ex- 
amination by  a  committee  of  principals  oi  the 
boys'  ami  girls'  grammar  schools.  The  Central 
High  School,  in  addition  to  the  studies  usually 
pursued  in  schools  of  this  class,  sj\es  instruction 
in  Latin, German,  the  natural  sciences,  the  higher 
mathematics,  and  mental  and  moral  philosophy. 
It  is  authorized  to  confer  upon  all  Students  who 
complete  the  l  years'  course,  the  degree  of  Bach- 
elor of  Arts,  and  that  of  Master  of  Arts  upon 
all  graduates  of  not    less   than    ■>  years'  standing 

who  shall  be  entitled  to  it.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents in  attendance,  ill  L875,was  601.  The  Girls' 

Normal  School  grants  diplomas  to  its  pupils  at 
graduation.  The  average  number  of  students  in 
attendance,  in  1  ^ 7 ."> ,  has  been  previously  stated 


PHILADELPHIA 


PHONETICS 


099 


to  be  641 ;  the  number  in  its  graduating  class 
■was  135.  Annual  examinations  of  applicants  for 

the  position  of  teacher,  or  special  examinations, 
when  necessary,  are  held  by  a  committee  of  the 
board  of  education,  assisted  by  principals  of  gram- 
mar schools  and  members  of  tlic  Faculty  of  the 
Central  High  School.  Two  grades  of  certificates 
— principals"  certificates  and  assistants'  certifi- 
cates— are  issued,  the  first,  to  persons  not  under 
20  years  of  age  who  pass  a  satisfactory  exam- 
ination in  the  studies  prescribed  by  the  board; 
the  second,  to  persons  not  under  17  years  of 
age  who  obtain,  in  the  same  studies,  a  Stated 
average  somewhat  less  than  that  necessary  for 
the  position  of  principal.  The  holder  of  a  prin- 
cipal's certificate  is  immediately  eligible  to  any  po- 
sition lower  than  that  of  principal ;  and,  after  one 
year's  teaching,  is  eligible  to  the  position  of  prin- 
cipal of  a  primary  school;  after  2  years'  teaching, 
to  that  of  a  secondary  school:  and.  after  .'!  years 
teaching,  to  that  of  a  grammar  Bch<  M  >1.  The  hi  >1<  ler 
of  an  assistant's  certificate  may  hold  the  position 
of  assistant  in  any  public  school;  and,  after  3 
years'  teaching,  may  become  principal  of  a  pri- 
mary or  secondary  school.  Principals  and  assist- 
ants" certificates  are  also  issued  to  the  graduates 
of  the  Girls'  Normal  School.  The  number  of 
public  evening  schools  opened  in  1875  was  47, — ■ 
20  for  males,  11  for  females,  10  for  both  sexes, 
and  (>  for  colored  people  (both  sexes).  They  re- 
mained open  4  months,  the  aggregate  number  of 
pupils  being  14,443;  the  number  of  teachers, 
226.  Three  important  events,  occurring  in  1875 
in  connection  with  the  common-school  system  of 
the  city,  may  be  mentioned.  The  first  was  the 
offer  of  the  trustees  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania to  receive  into  its  scientific  department 
annually,  for  a  four  years'  course,  10  pupils  from 
the  public  schools  free  of  expense.  The  second 
was  a  similar  offer  from  the  directors  of  the 
Philadelphia  School  of  Design — 10  female  pupils 
being  offerei  1  free  instruction  in  art  for  the  pre- 
scribed course,  of  4  years.  The  third  event  of  im- 
portance was  the  examination  made,  during  the 
summer,  by  a  committee  of  the  board  of  educa- 
tion and  a  corps  of  scientists,  into  the  sanitary 
condition  of  the  schools  of  the  city.  The  results 
of  their  inquiries  have  been  arranged  in  tabular 
form,  and  published  :  and.  bearing  as  they  do 
upon  the  schools  of  other  cities  and  states,  can- 
not fail  to  be  of  permanent  interest  and  value. 
The  number  of  private,  denominational,  and 
parochial  schools  in  Philadelphia  is  very  large  ; 
but  no  statistical  report  of  their  number  or  re- 
sources is  attainable.  The  institutions  for  higher, 
professional,  scientific,  and  special  instruction 
are,  also,  numerous,  chief  among  which  may  be 
enumerated,  in  addition  to  those  given  under 
the  title  Pennsylvania  (q.  v.),  Girard  College. 
which,  though  not,  strictly  speaking,  an  educa- 
tional institution  of  a  superior  grade,  but  an  or- 
phan asylum, provides  an  8  i  years'  course  of  study 
for  the  children  and  youth  under  its  care  ;  the 
Polytechnic  College,  incorporated  in  1853;  the 
Franklin  Institute;  the  Wagner  Free  Institute 
of  Science ;  the  Divinity  School  of  the  Protest- 


ant Episcopal  Church  :  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Theological  Seminary ;  the  Jefferson,  the  Eclec- 
tic, the  Hahnemann,  and  the  Women's  Medical 
colleges;  the  Pennsylvania  College  of  Dental 
Surgery;  the  Philadelphia  Dental  College;  and 
the  Philadelphia  College  of   Pharmacy.    There 

are.  also,  a  philosophical  and  a  historical  society, 

academies  for  science  and  art,  and  many  libraries. 

PHILANTHROPIN,   or    Philanthropi- 

num,    the  name   of   an  educational    institution, 

founded  in   177  1.  by  Basedow  (q.  v.).    It  soon 
became  so  famous  that  its  admirers,  who  wi 
called    Philanthropinists,  expected  from   it  an 
entire  regeneration  of  educational  systems,  and 

founded  numerous  schools,  in  imitation  of  il.as  a 
model.  Most  of  these  were  short-lived,  that 
founded  by  Salzmann  (q.  v.),  at  Schnepfenthal, 
alone  maintaining  itself  until  the  L9th  century. 
Some  of  the  principles  and    practices   on  which 

the  Philanthropinists  laidgreal  stress,  have  beea 

generally  abandoned  by  modern  educators;  others 
have  quite  Commonly    been    accepted,    and   have 

contributed  to  the  progress  made  by  the  science 
and  art  of  education  in  our  days. — Bee  Quick, 
Educational  Reformers  (Cine.,  1^74). 

PHILOLOGY.     See  Langi  use. 

PHONETICS  ((Jr.  tjuwrrrticd,  from  <,uv>h 
voice),  a  term  used  to  denote  not  only  the 
science  of  voice-sounds  (phonology),  but  the  arts 
of phonotypy  (printing  words  by  their  sounds), 
andphonography  (writing  words  by  their  sounds). 
It  is  also  used  to  designate  phonetic  teaching,  or 
the  practical  application  of  phonetics.  In  all 
these  cases,  the  use  of  the  term  phonetic  as  an 
adjective  is  more  common:  as.  phonetic  scietta  , 
phonetic  print,  phonetic  writing,  and  phonetic 
teaching.  In  this  article,  these  will  be  severally 
treated  in  the  order  here  enumerated. 

I.  Phonology,or  phonetic  science,is,  properly, 
a  branch  of  the  science  of  acoustics,  which  em- 
braces a  consideration  of  the  sounds  used  in 
speech,  as  well  as  those  used  in  singing,  and  in 
other  departments  of  music.  Phonology  is  related, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  physiology,  as  far  as  the  organs 
of  speech,  and  their  action,  are  concerned  ;  and, 
on  the  other,  to  philology,  being  now  recognized 
by  the  most  eminent  philologists  as  lying  at  the 
very  foundation  of  that  science,  and  hence  of 
much  greater  importance  than  any  mere  ortho- 
graphic etymology  can  be.-  This  subject  can  be 
best  presented  and  understood  by  approaching  it 
from  the  side  of  our  own  language, and  consider- 
ing the  elementary  sounds  of  that  language  in 
their  natural  order  and  relations.  This  will  lay 
a  good  foundation  for  the  study  of  general  pho- 
nology, and  for  a  comparison  of  the  sounds  of  all 
languages.  The  Knglish  language  contains  nearly 
all  the  sounds  needed  for  a  full  outline  of  pho- 
nology; and,  moreover,  in  Webster's  and  Worces- 
ter's dictionaries  (now  very  generally  accepted  as 
standards  oi  reference. — in  the  United  States, 
universally  adopted  as  such),  there  is  to  be  found 
a  complete  analysis  of  these  sounds — one  in 
which  they  fully  agree,  though  neither  presents 
them  in  their  natural  order,  giving  them  merely 
as  the  particular  sounds  of  the  letters.     In  ar- 


700 


PHONETICS 


ranging  them  according  to  the  latest  results  of 
phonetic  science,  we  may  take  these  distinctions 
as  we  rind  them  in  the  dictionaries,  where  they 
are  correctly  made  :  (1)  the  sixteen  simple  vowel 
sounds  heard  iii  the  following  words :  fate  (same 

as  ei  in  re/7).  i<tt,  C'/iv,  tV/r.  /«k.  "11.  wlwt  (same 

as  o  in  not) ;  mete  (same  as  /  in  pique),  met,  fin, 
note,  whole  [recognized  as  an  English  sound, but 

not  sanctioned  in  orthoepy],  r//de,  p/dl,  //s,  "in. 
These  naturally  arrange  themselves  in  the  fol- 
lowing ofder.  with  tin;  addition  of  ii  and  S  from 
the  German  to  complete  the  scale  : 

VOWELS. 
Full  Vowels.  Stopped  Vowels. 

Long,  when  accented.  Staccato  or  exploded. 

Brief,  when  unaccented.      Always  short  in  English. 


(1) 


'a, 


(8) 


FBONT 

SERIES 

pique 

i 


veil 

e 


MIDDLE 

SEHIES 

kiihn 

it 

Goethe 
0 

care   her 
X    9 

far 

a 


BACK 
SERIES 

rude 

u 

note 
0 
all 
O 


FRi  INT 
SERIES 

fin 


met 

e 


MIDDLE 
SERIES 

Kiinste 


fat 
U 


it 

Boecke 
0 
mb  what 

ask 

a 


BACK 
SERIES 

pull 

U 


whole 
0 


my 


oil 

vi 


Diphthongs. 
out 


tune 

iu 


use 
[I 


The  full  and  stopped  vowels  occur  in  pairs, 
and  in  three  corresponding  series,  as  shown  in 


the  following  table 


pique  fin 

i     i 

\i  i\  in- 1 

e    e 


kiihn  Kiinste 

it    It 
i  kw  the  Bflcke 

o  b 


care  fat 
3d  13 


her  vs 
,i  9 


rude   pull 
11        II 
note  whole 
0        0 
all  what 
V)    V 


far  ask 

u  a 

No  distinction  is  made  in  these  tables  between 
the  sound  of  e  in  term  or  i  in  girl,  and  that  of 
ii  in  urn  <>r  in  /«;•/.  These  sounds,  however, 
though  kindred,  are  distinguishable,  and  are  so 
marked  by  Webster,  who  says,  "The  vulgar  uni- 
versally, and  many  cultivated  speakers  both  in 
England  and  America,  give  thee  in  such  won  Is 
the  full  sound  of  "  in  urge,  as  murcy  for  mercy, 
turm  for  term,  etc.  Hut.  in  the  most  approved 
style  of  pronunciation,  the  organs  are  placed  in 
a  position  intermediate    between  that   requisite 

for  sounding   U   in  furl    and  that  for  soundi 

in  met,  thus  making  as  Smart  observes)  'a  com- 
promise between  the  two'.-'  The  vowel  sounds. 
as  arranged  in  the  above  tables,  may  be  thus  de- 
scribed.   Starting  from  the  fundamental  sound, 

a  IU  far  (or  a    in    ask),    they   branch  upward  in 

(I)  a  front  series,  with  the  tongue  risingupward 
and  forward,  lo  i  in  />/'/"<■•,  (2j  a  middle  series, 
with  the  tongue  rising  to  ii.  directly  upward, 
and  not  pushed  forward  or  backward  ;  and 
a  back  series,  with  the  tongue  rising  upward 
and  backward  to  n  in  rude.     'The  succession   in 


the  order  of  the  sounds  as  judged  by  the  ear. 
corresponds  to  that  of  the  movements  of  the 
tongue,  as  perceived  by  the  muscular  sense.  The 
diphthongs  are  arranged  below  the  simple  vowels 
according  as  they  terminate  in  the  upper  front 
vowel  i  or  the  upper  bach  vowel  u.  'The  rela- 
tions of  the  full  and  corresponding  stopped  vow- 
els to  each  other,  as  affected  by  quantity,  may 
be  further  studied  by  the  aid  of  the  following 
arrangement  of  words,  in  which  they  respective- 
ly occur  in  accented  and  unaccented  syllables 
(the  double  letters  indicating  prolonged  sounds): 


eat 

ii 


11 
mate 

ee 


eternal 

i 


kulm 

it 


Kiinste 

ii 


ee 

care 

;iec 


it 

i 

maternal 

e 


Goethe    Bocke 
0  0 


V.V 


met 

e 

clairvoyant      cut 
X  80 


carry 
13 


99 


curtail 


curry 

9 


prude 
UU 

prudentda 
U 

wood 

u  u 

U 

oak 

location 

00 

O 

spoken 

OO 

O 

aught 

authentic 

DO 

T) 

not 

VV 

V 

part 
(HI 


act 


partake 
U 


ask 

a 


It  may  be  observed  that  the  stopped  vowels 
do  not,  and  cannot,  rise  quite  BO  high  in  the 
scale  as  their  corresponding  full  vowels:  but 
this  difference  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  in  the 
fundamental  pair,  a  a,  and  in  the  lower  front 
pair,  a'  B- 

The  following  is  a  synoptical  arrangement  of 
consonant  sounds,  a e  German  sounds  be- 
ing added,  [a,  indicates  aspirates  ;  /.  subtonics  : 
//.nasals;   I,  liquids  ;    r.  vowel  consonants]  : 

CONSONANTS. 


LIP 

I.IP- 

TONGUE- 

TIP- 

TOP- 

BOOT* 

TEETH 

TEETH 

xoNoxnt 

TONGUE 

roNous 

tip 

tone 

c/iin 

cat 

(a) 

p 

I 

ch 

C 

be 

do 

jar 

.ait 

W 

1) 

(I 

J 

(r 

son 

V 

tMn 

u* 

*Ae 

let 

(") 

0 

f 

th 

S 

Bh 

fi) 

trie 

veil 

Mis 

zone 

oraal 

Tay 

w 

ro 

V 

dli 

/ 

zb 

9 

7ii  e 

no 

Beftor 

M/"/ 

w 

111 

n 

lot  rare 

Q 

Dg 

(0 

ut&at 

1  r.i 

he 

(«) 

ll\V 
toe 

ye 

b 

(«} 

W 

y 

For  an 

account  of  the  development 

of  the 

Dret 

.111     UK 

■thod  I 

f  indicat 

ine  tins 

•  soundi 

in  the 

PHONETICS 


701 


English  language,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 

article  Oil  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

II.  Phonetic  Print. — The  elementary  Bounds 
nf  the  English  language  are  usually  represented 

in  dictionaries  by  diacritical  marks  ;  but  various 
methods  of  phonotypic notation, other  than  this, 
have  been  employed.  That  of  Dr.  Edwin  Leigh 
h;is  been  extensively  used  for  school  purposes, 
and  has  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  pop- 
ularity. An  ingenious  system  of  representation 
approximating  to  the  diacritical,  is  used  in 
Shearer's  ( 'ombinaiion  Speller  (NewTork.,181  1 1. 
The  notation  employed  in  the  above  vowel  and 
consonant  scales,  using  only  the  common  letters 
of  the  alphabet  for  temporary  and  critical  use, 
is  in  substantial  accordance  with  the  plans  of 
Dr.  Thornton  (1790), of  the  Dutch  alphabet,  of 
.Mr.  Bill's  in  the  Alphabet  of  Nature  (1844),  and 
Palaeotype  (1868),  of  Prof.  Haldeman  (1860), 
and  of  3.  P.  Andrews  (1876).  It  is  not  incon- 
sistent with  those  of  Pickering,  Lepsius,  and 
others,  which  have  been  used  in  printing  Asiatic 
and  new  languages.  It  harmonizes  these  various 
plans,  and  is  in  very  exact  accordance  with  a 
phonotypic  plan  that  is,  perhaps,  as  good  as  any 
yet  proposed,  and  has,  moreover,  a  good  and 
facile  script  corresponding  to  both. 

III.  Phonography,  or  phonetic  writing,ia  its 
more  general  sense,  would  include  any  script  in 
which  the  letters  are  used  to  denote  sounds;  but 
it  is  now  appropriated,  in  a  special  sense,  to  Pit- 
man's particular  system  of  phonetic  short-hand. 
For  an  account  of  various  efforts  to  construct  a 
phonetic  long-hand  script,  for  the  English  and 
other  languages,  see  the  publications  of  Isaac 
Pitman  and  Elias  Langley.  For  a  history  of 
short-hand  (stenography) , see  a  valuable  treatise 
by  Mr.  Pitman  published  in  connection  with  his 
'•  Fonotypic  Journal"  in  18-47,  in  which  he 
describes  120  systems,  and  gives  the  alphabets 
of  86  A-B-C  systems,  from  that  of  Tyro — 
Cicero's  freedman — (B.  C.  60),  down  to  those  of 
Gurney  (1753),  Byrom  (1767),  Taylor  (1786), 
Mayor  (1789),  Lewis  (1815),  and  Floyd  (1818) ; 
giving,  also,  specimens  of  passages  written  in  the 
seven  most  successful  systems,  and  adding  the 
alphabets  and  specimens  of  the  seven  phonetic 
systems  from  Tiffin  (1750)  to  Sproat  (1846). — 
Pitman's  phonography  was  invented  in  18.37, 
and  so  thoroughly  matured  by  its  author  before 
1844,  that  its  main  features  remain  unchanged  ; 
though,  with  the  co-operation  of  leading  phonog- 
raphers  in  England  and  America,  some  of  its 
minor  details  have  been  improved  or  modified. 
It  can  be  studied  in  Pitman's  manuals,  especially 
those  of  1860  and  1865  ;  or  as  it  appears  in  the 
text-books  of  Andrews  and  Boyle  (Boston.  1 84  fi  i : 
Langley  (Cincinnati,  1851),  Graham  (X.  Y.. 
L858),  Ben  Pitman  (Cincinnati,  1855),  .Marsh 
(San  Francisco,  1868),  Munson  (X.  V..  1866), 
and  E.  V.  Bums  (X.  Y.,  1872).  In  connection 
with  any  of  these  (especially  those  prior  to  1860), 
Parkhurst's  Stenophonographer  (X  Y..  1852 — I 
76)  can  be  used,  and  will  give  to  the  investigator, 
teacher,  or  practical  reporter,  the  history  and 
discussion  of  the  various  improvements,  proposed  I 


or  made,  simv  1852. — Phonography,  notwith- 
standing its  many  advantages  over  the  ordinary 

script,  has   made  but    little    progress  since   that 

time  as  a  general  method  of  writing,  its  use, 
at  present,  being  almost  exclusively  technical. 
I  fence,  it  has  not  been  generally  tut  reduced  as  a 

branch  of  instruction,  except  iii  commercial 
schools,  or  for  the  special  purposes  of  preparing 
for  the  occupation  of  the  reporter. 

IV.  Phonetic  teaching  now  quite  generally 
constitutes  a  part  of  the  lowest  grade  of  ele- 
mentary instruction,  its  object  being  to  facilitate 
the  teaching  of  children  to  read.      (See    PHONIC 

Method.)     By  means  of  phonetic  exercises,  the 

vocal  organs  of  children  are  trained  to  clearness 
and  correctness  of  enunciation,  while  the  ear  is 
cultivated  so  as  to  be  able  readily  to  distinguish 
sounds.  At  the  same  time,  children  necessarily 
acquire  a  better  idea  of  the  use  of  letters  and  of 
the  sounds  which  they  are  employed  to  denote. 
Most  educators,  at  the  present  time,  recommend 
this  mode  of  teaching;  although  there  is  some 
diversity  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  applied. 
Beginning  with  simple  words  in  which  single 
Letters  are  used  to  denote  simple  sounds,  and  in 
which  no  silent  letters  occur,  the  child  is  led  to 
perceive  the  use  of  the  letters,  and  to  associate 
with  them  their  proper  sounds,  the  teacher 
passes  progressively  to  more  complex  and  ir- 
regular combinations,  until  the  pupil  is  able  to 
analyze  words  into  their  component  sounds,  and 
state  how  these  sounds  are  represented.  After 
such  preliminary  exercises,  in  order  that  the 
pupil  may  fully  understand  the  relations  of  the 
sounds  to  each  other,  and  be  systematically 
drilled  in  their  utterance,  all  the  elementary 
sounds  must  be  presented  synoptically.  This  is 
done  by  phonetic  charts,  which  should  exhibit 
(1)  a  logical  enumeration  of  the  elementary 
sounds,  illustrated  by  their  use  in  well-chosen 
words;  and  (2)  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  with 
their  various  sounds,  and  diphthongal  combina- 
tions. Very  many  of  the  faults  in  articulation 
so  frequently  met  with  may  be  prevented  or  re- 
moved by  persistent  drilling  in  the  elementary 
sounds.  These  phonetic  drills  may  comprise 
exercises  in  the  vowel  sounds  by  themselves; 
but  the  consonant  sounds  are  often  most  effect- 
ively practised  in  combinations  with  vowels.  In 
teaching  persons,  whether  children  or  adults,  to 
pronounce  a  foreign  language,  this  training  is  in- 
dispensable. Of  course.it  should  be  preceded 
by  a  careful  investigation  into  the  particular 
defects  which  constitute  what  is  called  the 
"foreign  accent,''  so  that  the  elementary  sounds 
involved  may  be  made  the  special  subject  of  the 
drill.  Phonetic  analysis  should  not  cease  in  the 
Lower  grades,  but  should,  at  every  stage,  consti- 
tute a  part  of  the  regular  reading  or  elocution- 
ary exercises.  Like  the  fingers  of  the  pianist  or 
violinist,  the  vocal  organs  need  constant  tech- 
nical exercise  in  order  that  they  may  perform 
their  office  most  effectively.  The  enunciation 
of  the  open  vowel  sounds  constitutes  a  most 
important  part  of  vocal  training.  (See  Voice, 
Culture  ok  the.) 


702 


PHONIC  METHOD 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


PHONIC  METHOD,  a  term  applied  to  a  I 
method  of  teaching  reading,  in  accordance  with  I 
which  pupils  are  taught,  in  pronouncing  words, 
to  use  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  instead  of  their 
names,  so  that  they  may  at  once  perceive  the 
result  of  the  combination,  and  thus  without  dif- 
ficulty give  the  correct  pronunciation.  For  ex- 
ample, when  the  pupil  is  required  to  pronounce 
the  word  dog,  he  does  not  say  de-o-ge,  dog,  but 
gives  to  each  letter  the  proper  sound,  phoneti- 
cally, and  thus  at  once  pronounces  the  word  dog 
as  the  necessary  product  of  the  elements  thus 
combined.  This  method  is  considered  by  teach- 
ers to  possess  many  advantages  over  the  old- 
fashioned  way  of  compelling  the  pupils  to  learn 
the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and 
then  teaching  them  to  read  by  spelling  exercises. 
(SeeOaTHOOB  \i'nv.) 

PHONICS.  See  Orthography,  and  Phonet- 
ics. 

PHRENOLOGY.  See  Character,  Discern- 
ment OF. 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  maybe  defined 
as  that  systematic  training  of  the  bodily  powers 
which  tends  to  render  them,  in  the  highest  pos- 
sible degree,  efficient  in  their  several  functions. 
The  necessity  for  this  training  is  generally  ac- 
knowledged, as  a  basis  for  the  higher  depart- 
ments of  education.  Among  the  ancients — the 
Persians,  the  <  J  reeks,  and  the  Romans,  especially, 
the  highest  respect  was  accorded  to  physical  cult- 
ure; and  the  means  employed  were  generally 
well  adapted  to  the  purpose,  although  merely 
empirical :  but,  at  the  present  time,  the  re- 
searches of  science  ought  to  supply  a  far  better 
and  more  accurate  basis  for  an  effective  system 
of  bodily  training. —  Physical  education  looks  to 
two  objects  :  (1)  to  encourage  a  normal  devel- 
opment of  bodily  powers  ;  and  (2)  to  check  mor- 
bid growth.  Incidentally  to  these,  of  course, 
the  preservation  of  health,  that  is,  protection 
against  disease,  is  an  important  object  ;  since  a 
condition  of  health  is  the  foundation  upon  which 
all  physical  culture  must  rest  ;  indeed,  if  chil- 
dren are  successfully  protected  from  morbid  in- 
fluences and  disturbances,  normal  development 
must  result. 

(1)  The  application  of  appropriate  means  to 
stimulate  or  guide  the  development  of  the  bod- 
ily  powers  ates    what    is  called  physical 

training.  This  training  may  be  (1)  general,  or 
I'l)  special.  Up  to  a  certain  age,  all  physical 
exercise  must  have  for  its  object  general  develop- 
ment; beyond  that,  the  special  purpose  of  the 
training  must  dictate  the  nature  of  the  exercise 
to  be  employed.  Military  drill,  it  is  tru< 
often  employed  in  schools  to  promote  general 
development,  bu1  there  is  very  much  required  in 
military  discipline  thai  is  quite  unnecessary  for 
ordinary  physical  culture.    The  importance  of 

bematic  e  has  been  considered  in  the 

articles  calisthenics  and  gymnastics  (q.  v.).  Such 

rcise,  however,  musl  nol   look  exclusively  to 

muscular  development  ;  1  mt    to   the   prompt   OS6 

of  muscular  power  in  obedience  to  the  dictates 

of  mind.     Such  power  systematically  exercised 


in  any  given  direction  becomes  almost  automatic, 
as  is  seen  in  the  case  of  the  skillful  oarsman, 
rider,  or  swordsman ;  or  in  adepts  in  athletic 
games,  such  as  those  of  ball  and  cricket.     All 
si  uli  means  of  physical  culture  become  of  special 
value,  as  bringing  the  powers  of  the  body  under 
the  immediate  control  of  the  will ;  and,  hence, 
under  the  name  athletics,  they  have  been  gener- 
ally encouraged  by  those  who  have  the  direction 
of  superior  education.  In  the  same  category,  are 
to  be  placed  the  exercises  which  regard  the  due 
development  of  other  physical  powers,  as  the 
senses,  the  vocal  organs,  the  lungs,  and.  in  a  closer 
relation  to  intellectual    education,    the    brain. 
Educators  err  greatly    in    forgetting  that  the 
brain  is  a  physical  organ,  and  that  its  exerci- 
subject  to  the  same  laws  and  to  the  same  limita- 
tions as  other  bodily  organs  :  and  that,  therefore, 
physical  considerations  should  have  a  controlling 
weight  in  determining  the  means  and.  to  Bome 
extent,  the  methods  of  intellectual  training.  (See 
Brain.) — .Many  are  inclined  to  regard  the  direc- 
tion of  physical  training  as  unnecessary.    They 
think  that  the  physical  powers  of  children  and 
youth  receive,  in  the  instinctive  and  irrepressible 
exercises  natural  to  that  age.  a  sufficient  educa- 
tion  for  ordinary  purposes.     From   this  view 
arises  a  neglect  which  is  fraught  with  serious 
injury.     Not  only  does  the  individual  fail  to  act 
appropriately  and  energetically  at  every  trying 
period  of  his  life;  but.  in  most  eases,  his  action 
falls  somewhat  below  what  is  required  for  effect- 
ive results,  through  want  of  the  full  co-operation 
of  the  bodily  powers:  and,  toward  the  close  of  life, 
decrepitude  is  accelerated  by  the  partial  atrophy 
occasioned   by  imperfect  development  and  by 
disuse. 

i '_'  i  To  check  morbid  growth  or  to  prevent  dis- 
ease, careful  attention  must  be  given  to  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  child,  particularly  in  school; 
as  there  he  is  subjected  to  constant  restraint, 
and.  hence,  cannot  exercise  his  natural  instincts 
which  would  prompt  him  to  escape  from  such 
surroundings.  The  preservation  of  children 
from  morbid  influences  in  school  depends  upon 
a  great  variety  of  circumstances,  for  a  full  enu- 
meration of    which,  see  BvQIEHE,   SCHOOL. — The 

practical  aim  of  physical  education,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  modem  fife,  is  almost  always  intellect- 
ual. Gymnastics  and  calisthenics,  however,  in- 
directly exert  a  moral  influence  which,  of  itself, 
makes  their  practice  desirable.  This  is  that 
magnanimity  which  is  produced  in  generous 
minds  by  the  consciousness  of  bodily  health  ami 
power,  and  a  disposition  to  use  that  power 
worthily.  A  feeling  of  inferiority  has  always 
associated  with  it  an  element  of  immorality, 
which  leads  its  possessor  to  acts  of  duplicity  ami 

meanness  to  preserve  his  equality.    There  is  still 

another   phase  of   physical    education    to  be  con- 
that    which    relates   to  the  joint   action 

of  tin    mind  and  body  through  the  i hum  of 

the  senses.  (See  EAR,  EYE,  and  SENSES,  EdUCA- 
non  OF.)  The  minute  subdivision  of  labor  char- 
acteristic of  the  age  in  which  we  live,  by  giving 
a   utilitarian   value   to   the   cultivation   of   the 


PHYSICS 

senses  is  rapidly  constituting  this  an  element  of 
increasing  importance.     Already,  the  success  of 

numerous  trades  and  employments  is  dependent 
upon  a  nicety  of  discrimination  by  means  of  the 
eye,  the  ear,  the  taste,  or  the  touch;  and  the  number 

of  these  is  steadily  increasing.  The  cultivation 
of  the  senses,  therefore,  is  desirable  from  a  merely 

utilitarian  point  of  view;  while  for  general  cult- 
ure, such  as  is  required  in  many  of  the  arts,  its 
absolute  necessity  is  manifest.     Many  considera- 
tions and  interests,  therefore,  conspire  to  make 
the  subject  of  physical  education  one  of   con- 
stantly increasing  importance. 
PHYSICS.    See  Science. 
_  PHYSIOLOGY  i  ( .'r.  v,  «f>  nature,  and  ?,;;  oc, 
discourse),  the    science     which    treats   of   vital 
phenomena — as  contradistinguished  from  anato- 
my,   which    treats    of    the    structure    of   living 
bodies  and  the  materials  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed.    In  the  course  of  education,  it  presup- 
poses some  preliminary  knowledge  of  chemistry, 
physics,  anatomy,  and  especially  of  microscopic 
anatomy,  or  histology;  and.  in  turn,  it  precedes  the 
study  of  hygiene,  or  the  laws  of  health,  and  that 
of  pathology,  or  the  science  of  abnormal  function. 
As  a  science,  physiology  is  of  recent  origin;  though 
the  name  has  been  in  use  from  antiquity.  Like  all 
other  natural  sciences,  as  Dalton  observes,  "there 
is  only  one  means  by  which  physiology  can  1  ie 
studied;  that  is,  by  the  observation  of  nature." 
It  has  been  built  up  by  experiment ;  and  many 
of  its  most  essential  truths,  and  these  in  their 
practical    results  the  most   important  to  man- 
kind, have  been  gained  through  vivisection.     As 
the  principal  foundation  of  hygiene,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  its  principles  should  be  so  far  made  an 
element  of  general  education  as  may  conduce  to 
a  just  appreciation  of  nature's  sanitary  code 
How  this  may  best  be  accomplished  is  a  question 
that  has  hardly  received  the  attention  it  deserves. 
School  physiology,  in  many  cases,  consists  of  a 
smattering  of  anatomy;  in  others,  of  a  still  more 
unsubstantial  fabric    of  information  regarding 
function  ;  or.  in  still  others,  of  a  blending  of  the 
two  with  hygienic  doctrines,  often  based  not  on 
a  wide  conception  of  biological  truths,  but  on 
the  meager  knowledge  gained  by  personal  ex- 
perience.    The  difficulty  has  always  consisted  in 
attempting  to  build  upon  too  narrow  a  founda- 
tion, and  that  by  means  of  an  erroneous  method. 
Thus,  the  attempt  is  made  to  teach  the  elements 
of  physiology  without  a  sufficient  groundwork 
of  chemistry  and  physics,  and  exclusively  from 
books,  instead  of  from  practical  experience  in 
the  laboratory.    The  results  have  been — as  those 
of  book  learning  and  lecture  teaching  in  natural 
Science,    without    observation    and    experiment, 
always  must  be — unreal  and  evanescent ;   hence. 
by  such   instruction   the   true   nature    of   vital 
phenomena   is  never   clearly  apprehended;   and 
the  hygienic  deductions  are,  of    course,  corre- 
spondingly illogical.    Doubtle-s.  a  greal  amount 
of  knowledge  has  been  imparted,  in  these  later 
days,  to  the  people  in  general   on  this  subject; 
but  the  advance  that  has  been  made  in  sanitary 
practice  is,  probably,  due  not  so  much  to  the 


rnYSTOLocY 


ro.3 


results  of  school  education,  as  to  the  Improved 

education  of   medical    men.  and   to   tlieir  advice 

spoken  and  written  to  communities,  learning  im- 
practical experience  the  penalty  of  infringing 
hygienic  laws.  The  real  n^msite  in  general 
education  on  this  subject,  appears  to  be,  that, 

when   a,   Sufficient    foundation    has    been    laid,  a 

practical  course  of  biology  should  be  employed 

to  elucidate  the  general  laws  of  lit-:  and  then 
'he  habit  of  scientific  thought  and  reasoning, 
formed  by  such  training,  will  lead  to  a  correct 
application  of  general  principles  to  the  special 
conditions  of  human  life.  Some  such  course  oi 
biological  study  as  .1  Course  of  Practical  Instruc- 
tion in  Elementary  Biology,by  Huxley  and  Mar- 
tin.might  properly  form  a  part  of  the  curriculum 

of  every  collegiate  institution;  and,  in  all  scl Is 

of  a  lower  made,  as  much  preparation  should  be 
made  for  such   a   course  as  is  practicable.     Ob- 
jective teaching,  in   outline,  of  anatomy,  by  the 
dissection  of  the  lower  animals,  accompanied  by 
such  simple  practical  suggestions  as  arise  from 
the  interpretation   of  the   mechanical   arrange- 
ments of  the  body,  may  be  early  commenced: 
but,  in  all  cases,  this  foundation  should  be  laid 
systematically,  with  a  definite  end  in  view,  and 
by  instructors  who  have  qualified  themselves  to 
teach,  by  following  a  complete  practical  course, 
such  as  is  above  suggested.  'J  caching  merely  from 
text-booksand  by  pictures,  will  be  almost  useless, 
because  superficial ;  and  no  demonstrations,  even 
from  the  best  models,  can  ever  be  so  effective 
as  those  from  actual  dissections  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals.    A  pupil   will  gain  a  better   idea  of  the 
appearances  presented  by  his  own  organs,  and  of 
tlieir  own  relations  to  one  another,  from  seeing 
a  demonstration  of  those  of  a  rabbit  or  a  dog, 
for  example,  than  from  any  rigid,  and  necessarily 
unreal,  model,  however  skillfully  constructed  i 
colored.     Such  models,  however,  admirably  si 
serve  secondary  demonstrations.     The  educator 
who  contemplates  laying  a  foundation  for  physi- 
ology should  refer  to.  I   Course  of  I  try 
/'rue/if,/  Physiology,  by  Poster  and  Langley — a 
work    intended    to  succed   that  of    Huxley  and 
Martin,  above  mentioned.     From  this  guide  to 
laboratory  work,  he  will  learn  what  physiological 
investigation   implies  and  requires;  and  he  will 
realize  upon  what  basis  rests  the   information 
contained  in  the  re-organized  physiological  text- 
books:  such  as    Dalton's   Treatise  mi   Human 
Physiology,   Flint's    Physiology  if  Man.  and 
the  more  reliable  of  school  physiologies,  such  as 
Huxley'.-,  Elementary  Lessons  in  Physiology,  and 
Dalton's  Treatise  on   Physiology  and  Hygit 
and    Draper's    Anatomy   and   Physiology.    To 
aid  him   in  demonstrations  of  the  dissections  of 
the    lower   animals,    hi1   should   have   at    hand  a 
trustworthy   treatise    on    human  anatomy,  such 

as  Morrell's  Studenfs  Manual  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  and  Ghiideio  Dissection, and  Mivart's 
Lessonsin  Elementary  Anatomy.   Everyteacher 

should.also.be  familiar  will:  Carpenter'B  Prin- 
ciples qf  Mental  Physiology;  also,  by  the  same  au- 
thor, PrinMples  of  <  'omparative  Physiology,  and 
Principles  of  Human  Physiology.  (See  Science.) 


704 


PIARISTS 


PIO  NONO  COLLEGE 


PIARISTS,  or  Fathers  of  the  Pious 
Schools,  a  religious  order  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  members  of  which  are  specially  de- 
voted to  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  youth.  This 
order  was  founded  by  Joseph  of  Calasanza,  or 
Calasantius.  a  Spanish  priest,  by  the  opening  of 
a  free  school,  at  Rome,  in  1  .V.)7.  A  large  number 
of  children  were  soon  gathered  in  this  school, 
under  the  instruction  of  Calasanza  and  his  asso- 
ciates; and,  by  a  decree  of  Paul  V.,  the  association 
assumed  the  rank  of   a  religious  congregation. 

O  DO 

Soon  afterward  (1G22),  it  was  made  a  religious 
order,  Calasanza  being  its  first  general,  and 
soon  spread  through  Germany,  Poland,  Italy, 
and  some  other  ci  m  nt  ries.  In  1860,  the  Piarists 
bad  33  houses  in  Germany,  28  in  Italy,  32  in 
Hungary,  11  in  Poland,  and  at  least  30  in  Spain. 
In  Italy,  they  have  since  been  suppressed  ;  and 
the  only  country  in  which  they  conduct,  at 
present,  educational  institutions  of  note,  is  the 
Austro  - 1  lungarian  Monarchy.  In  Cisleithan 
Austria,  in  1870,  they  had  2'J  houses,  with  297 
members  ;  included  in  which  were  4  under-gyni- 
nasia.    (See  Roman  Catholic  Church.) 

PICTURES.  One  of  the  earliest  efforts  of 
the  human  mind,  after  spoken  language,  appears 
to  be  the  communication  of  ideas  by  tangible  ob- 
jects. The  use  of  pictures  and  images  is  com- 
mon among  savages  every-where.  It  is  no  less 
characteristic  of  the  infant  mind  among  civilized 
races,  children  being  not  only  interested  in  look- 
ing at  pictures,  but,  by  a  natural  prompting,  at- 
tempting to  imitate  them.  The  first  ideas  which 
the  child  takes  from  objects  being  concrete, 
its  means  of  expressing  them  takes  the  concrete 
form — its  first  effort  being,  as  near  as  possible,  a 
reproduction  of  the  objects  themselves.  Not  till 
a  higher  development  has  been  reached,  is  it 
fitted  to  make  use  of  a  system  in  which  purely 
arbitrary  forms  are  employed.  This  early  and 
almost  universal  instinct,  therefore,  involving,  as 
it  must,  the  ability  to  understand  ideas  so  com- 
municated, suggests  the  peculiar  fitness  of  this 
method  for  use  in  the  instruction  of  children. 
This  form  of  expression  being  attended  with  so 
much  pleasure,  it  finds  its  natural  place  in  the 
kindergarten  system  ;  and  wc  find,  accordingly, 
various  exercises  there  for  the  employment  of  it. 
It  is  even  extended  into  the  ordinary  school  sys- 
tem in  the  shape  of  object  lessons.  But  this 
method,  useful  as  it  is  at  certain  stages,  has  its 
limitations.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that, 
with  children,  the  object  itself,  for  purposes  of 
insi  ruction,  is  always  better  than  any  represen- 
tation of  it.  As  the  picture  of  an  animal,  for 
instance,  is  only  one  phase  of  the  form  of  that 
animal,  and  docs  not  usually  lake  into  con- 
sideration size,  color,  and  many  other  essential 
qualities,  only  a  \cry  imperfect  impression  call 
be  gained  from  it.      This  fact  should  suggest  the 

limitations  mentioned.     These   have   reference 

principally  to  the  end  to  be  attained,  to  the  cor- 
rectness of    the    picture,   and    the    number    and 

nature  of  the  objects  represented.     As  to  the 

'■"i-rectncss  of  the  picture,  little  need  be  said;  as 
modern    publications,    ill    this    respect,    show    a 


'  constant  improvement,  and  leave  little  to  be  de- 
J  sired.  The  number  of  objects  represented  in 
i  each  picture  should  be  limited,  single  figures 
being,  at  first,  given  ;  afterwards  two  or  three. 
The  objects  represented,  also,  should  be  familiar 
things,  and  several  of  a  kind,  inasmuch  as,  by 
the  contemplation  of  these,  the  child's  conceptivc 
facidty,  or  imagination,  and  powers  of  general- 
ization are  exercised.  In  this  respect,  also,  the 
right  method  in  primers  and  elementary  books, 
is,  as  a  rule,  instinctively  taken — though  not  al- 
ways. The  value  of  this  last  restriction,  at  a 
later  period,  may  be  easily  illustrated.  If  the 
object  be  to  give  an  idea  of  some  animal  never 
seen — the  camel,  for  instance — the  task  is  made 
comparatively  easy  from  the  child's  having  seen 
illustrations  of  somewhat  similar  objects  with 
which  it  is  familiar  ;  as  the  horse,  cow,  etc.  It 
seizes  at  once  upon  the  points  of  resemblance, 
and,  immediately  after,  upon  the  points  of  dif- 
ference, and  thus  makes  a  positive  addition  to 
its  knowledge.  But  let  the  same  child  be  con- 
fronted with  a  picture  of  a  star-fish,  or  a  print- 
ing-press, and  the  probability  is,  if  it  has  never 
seen  these  or  any  similar  objects,  that  it  will 
get  only  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  either.  The 
reason  is  obvious.  AVith  no  previous  prepara- 
tion, it  is  called  upon  to  establish  in  its  mind  an 
entirely  new  conception,  solely  from  the  picture, 
without  any  corresponding  tangible  basis  in  its 
experience.  The  result  is  a  thwarting  of  the 
tendency  to  generalization — so  strong  with  chil- 
dren always — and  a  confusing  of  the  mind  by 
an  indistinct  conception,  invariably  accompanied 
with  a  loss  of  interest.  The  special  uses  to 
which  pictures  are  put,  whether  as  diagrams  in 
illustration  of  particular  studies,  or  as  part 
of  a  higher,  artistic  education,  need  not  here  be 
considered.  The  publication  of  the  Orbis  Sfen- 
I  suoHium  Pictus,  by  Comenius,  was.  probably, 
the  earliest  attempt  to  use  pictures  as  a  direct 
I  and  systematic  means  of  instructing  children. 
(See  Comenius.) 

PIO  NONO  COLLEGE,  at  St.  Francis  Sta- 
tion on  Chicago  and  North-western  Railroad,  4 
m.  from  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  was  founded  in  1871. 
It  is  under  Roman  Catholic  control,  and  admits 
none  but  Catholics.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees,  which,  including  board,  tuition,  etc  are  ■- 
per  quarter  of  21  months.  For  music,  telegraphy, 
and  phonography  there  is  an  extra  charge.  The 
course  of  study  embraces  thorough  instruction 
in  the  English,  German,  and  French  languages, 
mathematics  in  all  its  branches,  book-keeping 
and  history.  The  number  of  pupils,  in  L875  6, 
wasaboul  60.  The  first  president  was  the  Rev. 
•Joseph  Sal/.inann.  I>.  !>..  who  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  incumbent  (1876),  the  Rev.  Theo- 
dore Bruner.    The  normal  school  at  the  same 

place,    for    the  education  of  teachers   and  organ- 
ists for  Catholic  schools  and   churches,  has  been. 

since  the  organization  of  the  institution,  under 
the  same  presidency  as  the  college.     In  L876, 

this  school  had  70  pupils.     A   Catholic  deaf  and 

dumb  institution,  in  connection  with  the  normal 
school,  was  founded  in  L876. 


PITTSBURGH 


•705 


PITTSBURGH,  a  large  and  important  city 
©f  Pennsylvania,  having  a  population,  in  1870) 
of  121,215,  which,  in  1876,  was  estimated  to 
have  increased  to  130.000.  The  town  was  laid 
out  in  1704,  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1  79  I, 
and  as  a  city  in  1816.  Since  that  time,  its  bound- 
aries have  been  enlarged  no  less  than  live  times 
—in  1836,  '46,  '66,  '68,  and  "7'2. 

Educational  History. —  Pittsburgh  promptly 
availed  itself  of  the  provisions  of  the  state  school 
law  of  1834  (see  Pennsylvania);  and.  the  next 
year,  a  public  school  was  opened,  which  com- 
menced with  au  enrollment  of  only  5  pupils. 
From  that  time  till  1855,  the  Pittsburgh  schools 
were  under  the  control  of  the  state,  and  each 
ward  board  had  full  control  of  the  educational 
and  financial  interests  of  its  own  school ;  but,  at 
the  latter  date,  the  legislature,  by  a  special  act, 
consolidated  the  several  wards  into  one  school- 
district,  placing  the  management  of  the  schools 
under  the  control  of  a  central  board  of  educa- 
tion, composed  of  one  member  from  each  ward, 
or  sub-district,  to  be  elected  by  the  ward  board. 
The  following  year,  the  first  public  high  school 
"was  established.  In  1808,  in  pursuance  of  an  act 
establishing  the  office  of  city  superintendent  of 
schools,  (ieorge  J.  Luckey  was  elected  to  that 
office,  to  which  he  has  several  times  been  re- 
elected, his  fourth  term  expiring  in  May,  1878. 
Previous  to  his  election,  there  was  great  diversity 
in  school  management  and  methods  ;  but,  under 
his  earnest  and  efficient  administration,  a  good 
degree  of  uniformity  has  been  established.  The 
following  shows  the  growth  of  the  public  schools 
since  their  consolidation  in  one  school-district,  in 
1855.  In  185(5,  the  enrollment  of  pupils  was 
6,724;  in  1860,  it  was  7.608  ;  in  1865,  it  had  in- 
creased to  8,743;  in  1870.  to  12,883  ;  in  1875,  to 
20,483  ;  and,  in  1876,  to  21,488. 

School  Si/stem. — The  general  management  of 
the  system  is  vested  in  the  Central  Board  of 
Education,  consisting  of  36  members,  one  from 
each  district,  and  holding  office  for  three  years, 
one-third  of  the  board  being  changed  each  year. 
There  are.  besides,  sub-district  boards,  one  in 
each  ward,  each  consisting  of  6  members,  having 
the  same  term  of  office  as  the  members  of  the 
central  board,  and  one-third  retiring  annually. 
Each  of  these  ward  boards  appoints  its  own 
teachers,  and  levies  the  tax  necessary  for  the 
payment  of  janitors  and  other  expenses  ;  but  the 
central  board  appoints  the  teachers  of  the  high 
school,  fixes  the  salaries  of  all  the  teachers  em- 
ployed in  the  city,  and  levies  the  tax  necessary 
for  their  payment.  It  has  the  exclusive  control 
of  the  high  school,  and  prescribes  the  text-books 
to  be  used  in  all  the  schools. — The  course  of  in- 
struction prescribed  for  the  ward  schools  com- 
prises the  usual  common-school  branches,  in- 
cluding music  and  drawing.  There  are  13  grades, 
embracing  a  7  years'  course.  Pupils,  in  passing 
from  the  ward  schools  to  the  Central  High 
School  are  required  to  pass  an  examination  in 
reading,  spelling,  grammar,  composition,  arith- 
metic, algebra,  geography,  history,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  natural  philosophy,  besides  writing. 
45 


drawing,  music,  and  calisthenics.     Tn    order  to 
succeed  in  this  examination  they  must   give,  on 

an  average.  65  per  cent  of  correct  answers   in  all 
the  studies,  and  not  tall  below    ID  percent  in  any. 

The  High  School  is  divided  into  three  depart* 
ments;  (1)  academical,  (2)  normal,  and  (3)oaa> 

lnereial.    Ike  studies  pursued  in    the  academical 
depart  incut  are  Latin.  <  J  reck.  German,   algebra, 

geometry,  trigonometry,  surveying,  astaMmojaay, 
chemistry,  physics,  botany,  physiology,  physical 
geography,  zoology,  geology,  general  history, 
composition  and  rhetoric,  mental  and  moral 
philosophy,  mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing, 
elocution,  and  music.  In  the  normal  department, 
the  course  consists  of  arithmetic  and  algebra; 
English  grammar,  literature,  and  composition  ; 
geography;  the  history  and  constitution  of  the 
I  cited  States:  drawing  and  music;  physiology 
(by  lectures];  elements  of  chemistry, geology, and 
physics  ;  theory  of  teaching,  and  two  or  more 
weeks'  practice  in  the  same.  The  commercial 
course  includes  the  department  of  theory  (3 
months),  the  intermediate  department  (3  months), 
and  the  department  of  practice  (4  months). — 
The  superintendent  has  authority  by  law  to  call 
teachers'  institutes,  and,  like  the  comity  super- 
intendents, to  draw  from  the  county  treasury 
moneys  for  their  support ;  also  to  elect  a  com- 
mittee on  permanent  certificates  for  the  city  of 
Pittsburgh.  Four  stated  sessions  of  the  teachers' 
institute  are  held  annually  in  the  city  ;  namely, 
on  the  third  Friday  evening  and  the  following 
Saturday  forenoon  of  the  months  of  January, 
March,  May,  and  October  ;  and  a  three  days' 
session  during  the  week  preceding  the  annual 
opening  of  the  schools.  The  stated  meetings  are 
devoted  to  professional  lectures  and  discussions, 
and  practical  exemplifications  of  methods  by  the 
introduction  of  actual  classes  of  pupils,  who  re- 
ceive lessons  in  the  presence  of  the  institute. — 
Examinations  for  teachers'  licenses  are  held  by 
the  superintendent,  assisted  by  a  board  of  ex- 
aminers, in  accordance  with  the  general  law  of 
the  state. 

School  Statistics. — Besides  the  I  Vntral  High 
School,  there  are  39  ward  schools,  each  of  which. 
in  pursuance  of  the  law  of  1869  consolidating 
the  wTards,  is  known  by  a  distinctive  name,  in- 
stead of  a  numerical  designation.  There  are  also 
evening  schools.  The  other  items  of  importance, 
for  1876,  are  as  follows  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 21,488 

Average  monthly  enrollment 17,180 

Average  daily  attendance 14,501 

Enrollment  in  evening  schools 4,086 

Attendance  in  evening  schools 1,769 

Number  of  teachers  in  day  schools.       419 

Total  tax  levied  for  school  purposes $602,941.37 

Total  valuation  of  school  property $1,904,500.00 

Goal  pei  pupil,  on  annual  enrollment $16.00 

There  arc  9  secondary  schools,  including  2 
commercial  colleges,  and  1  school  of  design,  em- 
ploying 16  teachers,  and  attended  by  2,297  pu- 
pils. The  Roman  I  latholic  parochial  schools  are 
attended  by  8,073  pupils. — For  information  in 
regard  to  higher  institutions  of  learning,  see  the 
article  on  Pennsylvania. 


S06 


PLATO 


POETRY 


PLATO,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Greek 
philosophers,  was  born  at  Athens,  42!>  or  430 
B.  ( '-.  and  died  about  348.  Jle  was  of  illustrious 
descent,  on  both  his  father's  and  his  mother's  side: 
but  v«tv  little  is  definitely  known  regarding  his 
early  life.  From  his  own  writings,  we  learn  that 
lie  intended  to  enter  public  life,  but  became  dis- 
gusted with  the  corruption  and  general  depravi- 
ty of  the  times,  and  turned  his  attention  to  the 
siinly  of  philosophy.  When  he  was  twenty  years 
old,  he  became  a  pupil  of  Socrates;  and,  for  eighl 
years,  he  constantly  atteuWl  his  great  teacher. 
Alter  the  death  of  Socrates,  Plato  made  ex- 
tended journeys,  and,  about  389,  spent  a  short 
time  at  the  court  of  the  tyrant  Dionysius,  in 
Syracuse.  Alter  an  absence  of  twelve  years,  he 
returned  to  Athens,  and  founded  a  school  for  the 
instruction  of  youth  in  the  principles  of  philos- 
ophy, in  a  small  garden  in  the  Accidentia,  a  pub- 
lic grove  or  park  which  Academus  had  given 
for  gymnastic  exercises;  and  hence.  Plato's  school 
was  called  the  Academy.  Adorned  with  statues, 
temples,  and  sepulchers,  surrounded  with  high 
trees,  and  intersected  by  a  gentle  stream,  it  af- 
forded  a  delightful  retreat  for  contemplation. 
How  much  Plato  valued  mathematical  studies, 

as  a  preparation  for  higher  speculations,  appears 
from  the  inscription  he  put  over  the  entrance  of 
his  private  house,  in  which  he  gave  instruction  to 
a  few  select  disciples  :  Let  im  one  ignorant  of 
<i  'ometry  enter  here.  1  le  was  attended  by  a  crowd 
of  hearers  of  every  description.  Among  them 
were  many  who  became  celebrated  as  statesmen 
or  as  philosophers.  Kven  women  attended,  and 
people  of  distinction  did  not  hesitate  to  be  his 
hearers.  (See  Atiif.ns,  and  A.CADEMY.)  lie  was 
surnamed  the  Divine,  because  of  his  wisdom  and 
learning.     Statues  and  altars  were  erected  to  his 

memory,  and  the  day  of  his  birth  was  long  cele- 
brated as  a  festival,  Under  his  name  we  have  41 
dialogues,  L3  letters,  and  a  collection  of  philo- 
sophical definitions  ;  but  only  the  dialogues  have 
been  positively  ascertained  to  be  genuine.  Plato, 
alone  among  the  pupils  of  Socrates,  had  carefully 
studied  all  the  philosophical  systems  of  antiquity 
as  far  as  they  were  accessible  to  a  I  rreek  inquirer; 
ami,  in  his  dialogues,  he  considers  the  various 
theories  in  turn,  and  develops  his  own  system 
only  in  his  strictures  in  relation  to  them.     As 

with    Socrates,    BO    with    Plato,   ethics,    i.   ''.,  the 

metaphysical  idea  of  the  good,  is  the  principal 

.subject   of   philosophy.     The  highest  g 1  is  not 

pleasure,  nor  knowledge  alone,  but  the  greatesl 
ible  likeness  to  the  I  »i\  inity,  as  the  absolute 
I.  Virtue  is  the  imitation  of  God, or  the  free 
effort  of  man  to  attain  to  a  resemblance  to  his 
original  or.  in  oilier  words,  a  unison  and  har- 
mony of  all  our  principles  and  actions,  according 

to  reason, whence  results  the  highest  deizreeoi 
happiness,    virtue  is  one,  but  compounded   of 

■  elements:    wisdom,  courage   Or  constancy. 

temperance,    and    justice;     these    arc    otherwise 

termed  the  four  cardinal  virtues.  They  arise 
out  of  an  independence  of,  and  superiority  to, 
the  influence  of  the  senses:  they  are  the  product 

of  I  ne  health  and  beauty  of  the  soul. —  The  State, 


being  a  society  of  individuals,  is,  therefore,  sub- 
ject to  the  same  obligations  on  a  large  scale. 
Its  end  should  be  liberty  and  concord:  its  highest 
mission,  the  training  of  the  citizens  to  virtue. 
The  education  of  youth  should  be  regulated  by  a 
consideration  of  the  duties  which  they  are  ex- 
pected to  perform  in  the  state.  In  the  ideal 
state,  each  of  the  three  principal  functions  and 
corresponding  virtues  of  the  soul  is  represented 

by  a  particular  class  of  citizens:  (1)  the  rulers, 
w  hose  virtue  is  wisdom:  (2)  the  guardians  or  war- 
riors, whose  \irtne  is  valor:  and  (3)  the  manual 
laborers  and  tradesmen,  whose  virtue  is  obedience 
and  self-restraint,  and  whose  training  should  be 
only  in  their  particular  trades.  The  education 
of  the  other  or  higher  classes  is  to  begin  as  early 
as  the  third  year  of  age,  and  to  continue  until 
the  sixth,  by  the  narration  of  myths  :  to  be  fol- 
lowed, from  7  to  10,  by  gymnastics  :  from  10  to 
13,  by  reading  and  writing;  from  1-1  to  16,  by 
poetry  and  music;  from  16  to  18,  by  mathe- 
matical sciences;  and  from  18  to  20,  by  mili- 
tary exercises.  At  this  last  age,  the  tirst  sifting 
takes  place  -those  of  inferior  mental  capacity 
but  valorous,  to  become  warriors;  the  rest  to 
continue  until  the  age  of  30,  learning  the 
sciences  in  the  more  exact  and  general  form 
becoming  their  maturity.  Next,  the  talent  for 
dialectics  is  tested;  and  then  follows  a  second 
sifting.  The  less  promising  are  given  practical 
public  offices ;  theresl  pursue  the  study  of  dia- 
lectics until  the  age  of  35,  and  are  then  intrusted 
with  positions  of  authority,  continuing  in  the 
study  of  philosophy,  so  as  to  become,  finally,  the 
best  fitted  in  liie  state  for  its  highest  offices. 
Regarding  a  good  teacher  as  one  of  the  agents 
most  essential  for  the  formation  of  good  pupils, 
Plato   lays  down  rules    by  which  to  distinguish 

between  a  good  and  a  bad  teacher,  and  recom- 
mends those  in  ]  lower  to  exercise  the  lit  most  scru- 
tiny and  care  in  the  selection  of  instructors  to  he 
employed  by  the  state. — This  theory  of  educa- 
tion, principally  set  forth  in  his  Republic  and  in 
his  Laws,  was  probably  never  fully  reduced  to 
pract  ice;  ye1  the  spirit  of  all  Ins  doctrines  seems  to 
bave  exerted  a  powerful  intlueiice  o\cr  his  coun- 
trymen for  centuries.  Foranaccounl  of  Platq'a 
attempt  to  establish  a  model  government  in  Syr- 
acuse, see  Grote,  History  of  Gr  e,  vols.  x.  and 
xi.  The  best  English  edition  of  Plato's  Dialog  - 
isbyJowETT  (Oxf.  and  N.Y..  L871).  For  litera- 
ture on  Plato's   Philosophy,  and  the  different 

edit  ions  of  his  writings,  we  must  refer  to  1'  i  la  i;- 

weg,  History  of  Philosophy,  on  his  educational 
system,  see  Schmidt,  Geschichte  </•  r  Pddagogik, 
vol.  i.;  Kapp, Platan's  Erziehungslehre  (Minden, 
L833);  Bomback,  Entwickelung der  Platonischett 
Erziehungslehre  (Rottweil,  L854);  Wittmann, 
Ergiehung  mnl  Uhterricht  bei  l'l<tt<>  (Giessen, 
L868) ;  Cramer,  Geschichte  der  Erziehung  im 
I   erthum  (Elberf.,  18381 ;   Draper,   Intellectual 

opmentof  Europe  (rev.  edit.,  L876). 
POETRY,    or   the    written    expression    of 
beauty,    IS  an    important    instrument    in    certain 
depart nts  of  intellectual    culture,  besides    aid- 
ing in  the  education  of  the  emotions  and  scnsibil- 


rOETTlY 


ro7 


ities.and  in  the  cultivation  of  taste.  (See  Esthetic 
i 'i  i. ii  re.) — The  pupil's  first  knowledge  of  writ- 
ton  poetry  is  usually  obtained  from  the  school 
reader.    The  manner  of  its  presentation  there, 
however,  is  susceptible  of  improvement.    The 
free  use  of  figures  of  rhetoric,  and  of  obsolete  or 
unusual   words  and  phrases,  renders  poetry  in- 
appropriate to  the  minds  of  children  till  after 
the  usual  modes  of  expression   have    become 
familiar.   Its  proper  time  for  presentation,  there- 
fore, is  when  rhetoric  is  studied — that  is, during 
the  latter  part  of  a  high-school  course,  or  in 
the  college.     Vet  nothing  is  more  common  than 
to  find  a  highly-involved  passage  from   Shake- 
speare, or  an  abstruse  paragraph  from    Words- 
worth, in  a  reader  intended  for  pupils  of  iron: 
ten  to  fifteen,  years  of  age.     Some  vague  or  half- 
considered  idea  that  these  passages  are.  in  sum  - 
way.  to  serve  as  models,  by  being  thus  presented, 
or  are  necessary  for   elocutionary   purposes,   is 
probably  in  the  mind  of  the  compiler.  But  what 
should  we  think  of  the  music  teacher  who  should 
present  a  symphony  of  Beethoven,  as  a  model,  to 
a  beginner  practicing  the  scales?   The  parallel 
case  is  quite  as  absurd.     The   result  is   bad   in 
two  ways:  (I)  the  unintelhgibility,  to  the  child, 
of  such  a  poetical  selection  deprives  it  of  all 
use  as  a  model ;   and  (2)   the  disgust  thus  occa- 
sioned becomes  permanent,  and  leads  the  pupil, 
even  in  manhood,  to  avoid  a  reperusal  of  the 
author  thus  used.  How  many  persons,  of  mature 
years,  date  their  dislike  to  Milton,  for  instance, 
from  an  enforced  use  of  his  works  as  reading  or 
parsing  exercises  in  early  youth  !    The  introduc- 
tion of  poetry  into  the  school  curriculum  should 
follow   the   natural   plan,  the  first  poems  used 
being  exceedingly  simple,  containing  no  words 
beyond  the  vocabulary  of  the  child,  and  treating 
of  subjects  and  objects  of  every-day  familiarity. 
An  excellent  plan  would  be  to  place,  as  an  intro- 
ductory lesson  in  reading,  a  paraphrase  in  prose 
of  the  poem  to  be  used.     In  this  way,  the  pupil, 
being   possessed  beforehand  of  the  meaning  of 
what  he  is  approaching,  is  at  liberty  to  give  more 
attention  to  the  poetical  mode  of   expression, 
this  being  the  principal  thing  to  be  considered  : 
for.  if   the  meaning   were   the    principal  thing, 
prose  would  be  preferable — it  being  more  direct 
and  in  more  familiar  language. — The  fact  that 
rhythmical  language  is,  in  many  cases,  of  assist- 
ance to  the  memory,  indicates  its  peculiar  fitness 
for  certain  educational   purposes.     By  its  aid, 
abstract  truths  and  arbitrary  rules  may  often  be 
fixed  in  the  mind,  in  a  way  not  possible  by  any 
other.     Moral  truths,  also,  may  often  be  better 
retained  in  the  memory  by   their  expression  in 
rhythmical    form.      The    experience    of    most 
persons  will  probably  furnish  illustrations  of  this 
fact.     There  appears  to  be  a  limit  to  this  use  of 
rhyme,  however,  determined  partly  by  the  nat- 
ure of  the  things  to  be  remembered,  and  partly 
by  the  esthetic  effect  produced  by  such  use.     It 
may  be  said,  in  general,  that  all  concrete  ideas 
and  relations,  —  those  which,  upon  suggestion, 
call  up  in  the  mind   material  images — do  not 
require  the  aid  of  rhyme  to  fix   them  in  the 


memory;    while    ideas   and    relations  of   an  es- 
sentially abstract  or  arbitrary  nature,  are  more 
easily  retained  in  the  memory  by  a   rhythmical 
expression  of  them.    As  an  illustration  of  a  vio 
lation  of  the  first  proposition,  may  be  mentioned 
a  rhymed  text-book  ou  geography.    In  the  rtudj 
of  geography,  the  definitions,  descriptions,  i 
hem-  always  accompanied  by  pictures  and  maps, 
are   firmly  fixed    in  the  mind  by  the  eye     the 
most  effective  of  all  the  agents  used  in  acquir 
in-  knowledge.    To  call  in  the  aid  of  the  ear 

therefore,   is  Superfluous,    and    tends,    rather,   to 

distraction.  It'  there  had  been  originallj  anj 
vagueness  of  conception  left  by  the  image  ad- 
dressed to  the  eve.  the  ear  might,  with  propriety , 

he  called  in  to  aid    it:    but.  from   the  nature  of 
things,   this   is   impossible.     'I  he  picture   of  a 
material  object  will  always  present  to   the  mind 
a  clearer  idea  of  it.  than  any  verbal  description. 
A   further  objection,   in  this  case.  is.  that  the 
rhymed  version, degenerating, as  it  isalmosl  bum 
to  do,  into  grotesque  doggerel,   familiarizes  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  with  the  most  degraded  form 
of  poetry,  ami  tends  to  unlit  it  for  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  higher.     In  regard  to  the  second 
proposition  mentioned  above,  it  may  be  said  that 
we  naturally  seek  some  short,  succinct  form  for 
expressing  generalizations,  and  abstract  and  ar- 
bitrary relations,  which  shall  make  them  conve- 
nient for  use  ;  and  that  form  is  often  found.     If 
the  poetic  form  would  enable  us  to   remember 
them  more  distinctly,  and  if  no  objection  to  its 
use  could  be  raised,  it  would   he  allowable;  but 
if  this  form,  besides  adding  little  toour  ability  to 
remember,  is  open   to   the  additional  objection 
that  it  presents  to  the  undiscriminatmg  mind  of 
the  pupil  a  bad  poetical  model,  it   would  seem 
that  it  ought  not  to  In'  used.     It  can  hardly  be 
claimed    that    rhymed    versi  'lis    of    the    Lord's 
Prayer,  or  of  the  Proverbs,  for  instance — of  the. 
propositions  of    geometry,  or  of   the  rules  of 
arithmetic,  have   helped  us  materially  to  learn 
more  readily  or  appreciate  more  fully  the  truths 
contained    in   them.     The    very  nature  of  some 
truths  is  averse  to  ornament;  and  the  use  of  it,  in 
such  cases,  should  be  discountenanced.—  A    fre- 
quent result  of  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful, 
which   underlies  all    poetry,   is   the   attempt    of 
youth   souner  or   later   to   write  poetry.      Every 
teacher's  experience  will  supply  instances  of  this. 
This   inclination   usually   makes    its   appearance 
between  the  ages  of   L5  and   20,  in  minds  that 
have  a   natural   taste  for  beautiful  objects,  after 
a  considerable  command  of  language  has  been 
obtained,  and  before  the  realities  of  lite  have 
come  to  darken,  with  their  shadows,  the  bright 
sky  of  youth.      As  not  one  in  a  hundred,  how- 
ever, of  those  who  write  verses,  at  this  age,  will 
become  a  poet,  the  teacher's  course  is  plain.   His 
method  of  cure  should  be.  unsparing  criticism. 
but  applied  in  a  kindly  spirit.   It  will  require  only 
a  few   exposures  Of   had  rhymes,  false  similes  and 

metaphors— and  of  these,  the  most  preposterous 

will  generally  be  found  to  be  the  most  cherished 
by  the  writer — to  recall  the  would-be  poet  to  a 
more  sober  and  useful  pursuit. 


708 


POLITENESS 


PORTUGAL- 


POLITENESS.     See  Manners. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  See  Social 
Economy. 

POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOLS.  See  Scien- 
tific Schools. 

POPULAR  EDUCATION.  See  EDUCA- 
TION, and  National  Education. 

PORTUGAL,  a  country  in  the  Booth-west  of 
Europe,  having  an  area  of  35,813  square  miles, 
and  a  population,  in  L872,  of  4,367,882,  nearly 
all  of  Whom  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  speak  the  Portuguese  language. 

Educational  History.  -The  first  ruler  in 
Portugal  to  ex^rt  himself  actively  in  behalf  of 
education  was  Dom  Diniz,  in  the  L3th  century. 
In  L290,  he  founded  the  University  of  Lisbon, 
which,  after  several  changes  of  locality,  was 
finally  settled  at  Coimbra;  he  also  established 
elementary  schools  for  the  poorer  classes.  In 
1  ."'40,  the  Jesuits  were  called  to  Portugal,  and 
gradually  obtained  an  almost  complete  control  of 
secondary  instruction  ;  but,  in  the  I  sth  century, 
they  were  expelled  from  the  country  by  Pombal. 
At  the  same  time,  a  decree  was  issued  to  secu- 
larize instruction,  and  faculties  of  philosophy 
and  mathematics  were  added  to  the  University 
of  Coimbra.  No  record  in  relation  to  elementary 
instruction  is  found  until  the  18th  century;  and 
the  number  of  primary  schools,  previous  to  I  772, 
was  only  about  400,  while  Creek  and  Latin  were 

taught  only  in  convent  scl Is.  Pombal  estab- 
lished 257  Latin  primary  schools,  and  founded 
and  provided  for  21   professorships  of  rhetoric 

and  history,  besides  schools  of  philosophy,  logic, 
metaphysics,  and  the  moral  sciences,  lie  also 
gave  his  attention  to  the  endowment  and  super- 
vision of  seminaries  fur  the  priesthood,  and  re- 
organized the  University  of  Coimbra  after  the 
model  of  the  Italian  universities.  With  the 
overthrow  of  Pombal,  the  clergy  and  nobility 
again  resumed  control  of  public  education.  I  Hir- 
ing the  wars  and  revolutions  of  the  first  half  of 
the  present  century,  education  was  necessarily 
neglected.  Iii  1836,  a  general  system  for  the 
re-organization  of  the  public  schools  of  all  grades 
was  prepared  by  De  Compos,  vice-rector  of  the 

Coimbra  University.  This  was  modified  by  the 
regulations  of  Is  11.  In  ]S~f>,  a  new  law  was 
prepared  by  the  minister  of  the  interior,  which 
is  now  in  force. 

Primary  Instruction. — According  to  the  law 
of  L875,  there  must  be  two  classes  of  primary 
schools,  the  elementary. and  the  higher  element- 
ary   schools.       Instruction    is    free    only    in    the 

former.  Every  parish  must  have  separate  ele- 
mentary schools  for  boys  and  for  girls;  but.  in 
very  small  parishes,  mixed  schools  are  allowed. 
Every  arrondissemeni  must  have  a  higher  ele- 
mentary school.  Teachers  are  appointed  by  the 
communal  council,  upon  the  nomination  of  a 
school  commission.  This  commission  consists  of 
three  members  of  the  communal  council,  a  v>\> 
ivsen tat  ive  of  the  charitable  institutions  of  the 
commune,  ami  the  sub-inspeetor  of  the  auron- 
disnement.  The  communal  council  can  remove 
tea  hers,  but  only  in  connection  with  the  signer 


of  the  contract  of  appointment,  after  a  trial  of 
the  accused,  and  after  the  school  commission 
has  passed  a  unanimous  resolution  to  that  effect. 
At  the  head  of  the  educational  system,  is  the 
supreme  council  of  studies:  with  the  minister  of 
the  interior  as  president,  and  the  rector  of  the 
university  of  Coimbra,  or  his  delegate,  as  vice- 
president.  It  is.  furthermore,  composed  of  eight 
regular  judges  and  a  large  number  of  irregular 
judges.  The  regular  judges  are  men  distinguished 
for  learning  and  good  character:  while  the  irreg- 
ular  judges  are  profeSBOzs  at  Coimbra,  or  grad- 
uates from  that  university.  Candidates  for  the 
position  of  teacher  must  be  twenty-one  years  of 
age.  and  possess  a  certificate  of  health  and  mor- 
als, signed  by  the  pastor  of  their  place  of  resi- 
dence. They  must  pass  a  public  examination, 
which  is  intended  to  ascertain  their  maturity  of 
mind,  rather  than  their  actual  acquirenn 
Teachers  are  of  two  degrees.  Those  of  the  first 
degree  are  appointed  either  for  life  or  for  three 

years:  those  of  the  second  degree,  for  life  only. 
Instruction  is  given  in  the  primary  schools  daily, 
except  on  Sundays  and  holidays:  but  when  there 
is  no  holiday  during  the  week.  Thursday  is  free. 
The  daily  sessions  are  from  8  to  11  o'clock  in  the 
i and  2  to  5  in  the  afternoon,  from  Oc- 
tober till  Easter;  the  rest  of  the  year,  from  7  to 
111  A.  M.  and  from  3  to  6  P.  M.  'The  study  com- 
missioners may  also  authorize  teachers  to  form 
evening  classes  for  adults.  Every  year  the  study 
commission  publishes  a  list  of  all  children  of 
school  age.     The  names  of  those  parents  who  fail 

to  have  their  children  registered,  are  read  by  the 
minister  from  the  pulpit,  and  a  list  of  them  is 
nailed  to  the  church  door.  Upon  repeated  of- 
jes,  lines  are  imposed.  In  the  same  manner, 
regular  attendance  is  enforced.  The  branches  of 
instruction  in  the  elementary  schools  comprise 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  language,  morals,  and. 
for  girls,  sewing.  In  the  higher  elementary  schools, 
there  are  taught,  in  addition  to  these  branches, 
linear  drawing,  history,  the  elements  of  the  nat- 
ural sciences,  and  agriculture.  Five  seminaries 
are  to  be  established  for  male,  an  1  two  for  female 

teachers.  In  1869,  there  were,  1,997  schools  for 
boys  ami  .'!ti'_'  for  girls,  making  a  total  of  2,359. 
The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  was  1 1  7,.''>n.r>,  of 
whom  99,358  were  boys,  and  17,947  girls.  The 
number  of  pupils  attending  the  schools  was 
62,937,  of  whom   frj. 7*_'ll  were   boys,   and    10,217 

were  girls.  Besides  these,  there  are  many  ex- 
c'llent    private   scl Is   in   the  principal  cities. 

There  wre  also  5  normal  schools  for  males,  with 
100  students,  and  one  for  females,  with  2(1 
students. 

5  condcary  Instruction. —  Secondary  instruc- 
tion is  imparted  in  Lyceums,  which  correspond 
pretty  much  to  the  French  institutions  of  that 
name.  At  some  of  the  lyceums,  agriculture  and 
rural  economy  an-  taught;  and.  at  lunchal, 
Madeira,  and  other  places  on  the  islands  belong- 
ing to  Portugal,  I'rench  and  English;  while,  in 
oilier   places,    tin urse    of    studies    comprises 

chemistry,  natural  history,  mechanics, book-keep- 
ing, trigonometry,  mathematical  geography,  and 


POTTER 


PRECEPTORS,  COLLEGE  OF      709 


other  branches.  Greek,  German,  and  Knglish  are 

not    obligatory:    hut   a   knowledge   of    these  Ian 

guages  is  advantageous  ;it  the  final  examination. 
Candidates  for  the  appointment  of  professor  in 
a  lycenm  must  he  at  Least  25  years  of  age.  The 
examination  is  both  oral  ami  written.  Graduates 
of  thf  Coimbra  university  are  preferred,  ami  the 
appointments  are  made  for  life,  ami  in  the  name 
oi  the  king.  Besides  the  lyceums  of  the  state. 
there  are  private  colleges,  the  teachers  of  which 
must  also  possess  a  license  to  teach.  They  are 
likewise  subject  to  inspection  by  thegovermni  nt. 

Teachers  in  the  lyceums.  as  well  as  in  the  pri- 
mary schools,  are  exempt  from  taxation  and  mil- 
itary duty.  Independently  of  the  lyceums.  the 
government  may  establish  Latin  classes  in  L20 
of  the  most  important  places  near  the  capitals 
of  the  several  districts.  These  classes  are  in- 
structed in  public  building,  have  each  a  library, 
and  are  provided  with  the  necessary  books  of 
instruction.  The  number  of  lyceums,  in  1869, 
was  21,  with  3.744  students. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  Superior  instruction 
is  afforded  in  the  University  of  Coimbra,  which 
has  five  faculties:  theology,  medicine,  math- 
ematics, and  philosophy.  In  1859,  Dom  Pedro  V., 
in  order  to  excite  a  greater  interest  in  education. 
opened,  at  his  own  expense,  a  faculty  of  bt 
lettres,  with  five  professorships,  which  hold  the 
same  rank  as  those  of  the  university.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Coimbra  has  from  900  to  1.000  students. 

Special  Instruction. — Special  instruction  is 
given  in  the  following  schools:  19  theological 
schools  and  courses,  one  polytechnic  school  at  1  .is- 
bon.  and  one  at  Oporto,  3  medico-surgical  schools, 
one  school  of  veterinary  surgery,  one  general 
agricultural  institute,  one  commercial  school,  five 
industrial  schools,  two  academies  of  fine  arts, one 
conservatory  of  music,  an  army  school,  a  navy 
school,  and  a  military  college,  in  Lisbon. — See 
Schmid.  Pddagogische  Erua/clopadie,$at.  Portu- 
gal; Brachhllt,  Die  Staaten  Europa's;  <  Tironik 
des  Volksschulwesens,  1875;  Report  of  the  U.  S. 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1873. 

POTTER,  Alonzo,  an  American  educator, 
born  in  Beekman,  N.  Y.,  July  6.,  1800  ;  died  in 
San  Francisco,  Feb.  4.,  1865.  He  graduated 
with  first  honors  at  Union  College  in  1818,  be- 
came a  tutor  there  in  1819,  and,  in  1821,  was 
made  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy. While  holding  the  latter  position,  he 
declined  the  presidency  of  Geneva  College.  He 
was  rector  of  St.  Paul's  church.  Boston,  from 
1826  to  L831,  which  position  he  resigned  in  the 
latter  year  to  accept  that  of  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  Union  College,  of  which  institu- 
tion he  became  vice-president  in  L838.  He  was 
made  bishop  of  Pennsylvania  in  1845,  which  po- 
sition he  held  till  his  death.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  treatise  on  logarithms,  and  one  on  descrip- 
tive geometry,  both  prepared  for  the  use  of  his 
classes  while  professor  in  Union  <  lollege,  hut  not 
published.  His  most  noted  educational  work 
was  that  published  in  connection  with  G.  B. 
Emerson,  entitled  Tin-  School  and  the  School- 
■muster  (1842).     Besides  this,  he  was  the  author 


of  many  addresses,  discourses,  etc.,  upon  SUbjectB 
connected  with  education.     Interesting  notices 

Of   his    life   and    works   mas   be  found    ill   llishop 

Stevens's  funeral  ser n  (Oct.  19.,  1865),  and  in 

Memoirs  of tht  h\feand  Services  of  the  Rt.  Rev. 
.1.  Potter,  l>.  I).'.  I.L.  !>..  by  the  Rev.   Dr    M. 

A.  De  Wolfe  iF'hila..   1-71). 

PRACTICE,  Schools  of.  See  Teachers' 
Seminaries. 

PRAXIS  (Gr.  -/mc,  from  rrpdaaeiv,  to  do), 
a  particular  form  of  exercise  designed  to  afford 
practice  to  the  pupils:  as  a  praxis  for  parsing  or 
analysis,  in  teaching  grammar. 

PRECEPTORS,'  College  of  f  L  »n<  l<  m),  is  a 
body  founded  in  1846  to  enable  teachers,  partic- 
ularly in   private  schools,  to  acquire  a  sound 

knowledge    of     their    profession,    and     to    give 

them  the  opportunity  of  obtaining  certificate- 
attesting  their  attainments  and  fitness  to  teach. 
The  first  promoters  of  the  college,  deploring 
the  incompetency  of  so  many  teachers,  desired 
that  every  one  entering  the  profession  should 

provide  himself  with  such  a  certificate,  as  a 
guarantee  to  the  public  and  to  his  fellow- 
teachers.    The  movement  (which  had  originated 

at  Brighton!  spread  rapidly:  and.  within  a  year. 
there  were  1000  members.  (As  to  the  qualifica- 
tion for  membership,  sec  below.)  These  were 
formed  into  a  corporate  body,  in  1849.  The 
lowest  diploma  which  the  college  grants  is 
that  of  Associate,  ncxi  come  those  of  Licen- 
tiate and  Fellow.  Candidates  for  all  these 
diplomas  are  examined  in  the  science  and  ait  oi 
education:  and  are  excused  the  other  Subjects,  if 
they  have  previously  passed  els,. where  what  is 
recognized  as  an  equivalent  examination,  (hie 
peculiarity  of  the  examination  for  those  who 
have  to  pass  in  all  the  subjects,  is.  that  each  sub- 
ject may  be  taken  up  separately,  and  the  rest 
when  the  candidate  pleases.  This  is  very  con- 
venient for  hard-worked  teachers  who  have 
little  leisure.  There  is  not.  however,  a  very 
large  demand  for  these  diplomas.  The  number 
of  persons,  male  and  female,  at  present  holding 
them  is  33S.  of  whom  19  are  Fellows.  L30 
licentiates,  and  159  Associates.  Unfortunately, 
in  regard  to  the  membership,  the  very  error, 
for  many  years,  was  committed  which  the 
college  was  founded  to  do  battle  against.  The 
promoters  intended  to  include  among  the  first 
members  all  persons  of  respectability,  both  males 

and  females,  who  were  at  the  time  engaged 
in  teaching,  ami  paid  a  yearly  subscription  of 
one  guinea.  But  they  also  intended,  at  no 
distant  date,  hut  a  date  not  assigned,  to  sub- 
ject all  candidates  for  membership  to  examina- 
tion. Amid  the  pressure  of  other  business, 
however,  and  of  crippled  resources,  the  latter 
intention  was  lost  Bight  of.  It  would  seem,  also. 
that  there  hail  been  some  laxity  in  the  grant- 
ing of  diplomas.  The  consequence  was  that 
A.  c.  I'..  L.C.P.,  F.  C.  P.  with  M.c.  P.  became 
involved  in  one  common  depreciation.  It  must 
he  understood  that  the  college,  in  its  documents, 

had  always  drawn  a  char  distinction  between 
examined  and  unexamined  members — a  distinc- 


no      PRECEPTORS,  COLLEGE  OF 


PRESBYTERIANS 


tion  which  the  general  public  could  not  be  ex- 
pected to  bear  in  mind  or  even  to  apprehend. 

The  investigations  of  the  Schools  Inquiry 
Commission,  along  with  a  general  movement  on 
the  part  of  various  learned  bodies  for  stricter 
conditions  of  membership,  drew  the  attention  of 
the  more  active  members  of  the  college  to  the 
necessity  of  reform  ;  and,  since  the  spring  of  1870, 
no  member  has  been  admitted  without  either  be- 
ing examined  by  the  college,  or  showing  that  he 
has  passed,  elsewhere,  one  of  the  examinations 
specified  in  the  regulations.  The  college,  there- 
fore, was  never  in  a  more  healthful  and  hopeful 
state  than  at  the  present  time.  The  stricter  reg 
ulations  have  not  diminished  the  number  of 
applications  for  membership,  there  being  970 
members  in  Nov..  1876.  Of  these,  243  are  also 
holders  of  diplomas.  The  remaining  95  holders 
of  diplomas  are  not  members,  and  do  not  share 
in  the  government  of  the  college.  —  The  journal 
of  the  college,  which  publishes  reports  of  its 
proceedings,  is    the    Eiluaitiniiul    Tinifs,    which 

was  commenced  in  Oct.,  L847,  and  is  published 

monthly;  hut.  though  the  official  organ,  it  is  not 
the  property  of  the  college. 

In  1872,  a  professorship  of  education  was 
instituted;  and  the  late  Joseph  Payne  was 
appointed  to  the  chair.  He  commenced  bis  first 
course,  at  the  beginning  of  L873,  to  a  class  of 
about  70  teachers,  most  of  whom  were  ladies. 
The  office  has  since  been  held  by  the  Rev.  R. 
II.  Quick,  author  of  Essays  on  Educational 
Reformers  (London  and  Cincinnati);  by  Mr. 
Mciklejohn,  lately  appointed  to  the  new  chair 
of  education  at  St.  Andrews,  Scotland  ;  and  by 
Mr.  ('room  Robertson,  professor  of  logic  at  Uni- 
versity College,  London. 

There  are  other  kindred  duties,  in  addition  to 
those  at  first  contemplated,  which  the  college  lias 
undertaken.  A.t  Christmas,  L850,  it  conducted 
its  first  examination  of  schools;  and  the  system 
was  in  full  operation  in  L854,  two  years  before  the 
scheme  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  four  years  be- 
fore that  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  These 
examinations  are  held  every  half  year  at  various 
centers,  simultaneously;  and  certificates,  with 
prizes  for  the  most  distinguished,  are  bestowed 
upon  the  successful  boys  and  -iris.  The  number 
01  candidates  at  these  examinations,  in  1  875,  was 
about  2,800,  coming  from  about    L50  schools. 

There  is  also  a  system  in  operation  for  the 
examination  of  schools  .by  visiting  examiners; 

under    which    the    examiner    makes    an    official 

reporl  of  the  state  of  the  school,  but  no  certifi- 
cates are  granted.  The  (  lollege,  moreover,  eon- 
ducts  the  preliminary  examinations  in  arts,  for 
various  medical  corporations,  The  number  of  pu- 
pils at  these  examinations  is  about    5,800  a  year. 

[n  June  L861,  were  commenced  the  monthly 
me  stings  of  members  and  their  friends, at  which 

*  ill* 

papers  on  educational  subjects  arc  read  and    dts- 

cussed.    These  meetings  tend  to  "corporate  feel 

ing   and    helpful    union."  for  those    members,  at 

least,  who  live  in  London  or  its  vicinity.  The 
papers,  many  of  them  of  great  value,  are  gener- 
ally reported  at  length  in  the  next  number  of  the 


Educational  Times.  There  is  an  educational 
library  of  nearly  4,000  volumes,  to  which  con- 
stant additions  are  made,  mostly  by  gift. — 
The  college  is  managed  by  a  council  of  48 
members,  twelve  of  whom  retire  every  year. 
They  are  elected  at  a  general  meeting  of  mem- 
bers. In  addition  to  these  48,  all  ex-presidents 
of  council  become  members  of  it  for  life.  Anions 
the  presidents  of  the  council,  have  been  Dr. 
Jacob,  late  of  Christ's  Hospital;  Dr.  Kennedy, 
late  of  Shrewsbury;  and  Dr.  Haig-Brown,  of 
the  Charterhouse.  At  present  Dr.  Jex-Rlake,  of 
Rugby,  is  the  president. 

The  college  is  doing  a  good  and  useful  work 
for  middle-class  schools,  and  its  further  useful- 
ness is  hindered  only  by  its  want  of  funds.  It 
needs  a  more  complete  educational  library,  a 
more  commodious  home  than  its  present  one  (at 
42  Queen  Square,  Bloomsbury),  and  an  endow- 
ment for  its  professorship,  lor  this  last purpose 
between  £400  and  £500  has  been  contributed  up 

to  the  present  time.  In  1875,  the  members' sub- 
scriptions yielded  £521 ;  the  net  profits  from  the 
examinations  produced  a  sum  perhaps  somewhat 
larger  than  this  ;  and  there  seem  to  be  no  other 
sources  of  income. — See  a  paper  by  J.  Payne  on 
the  history  of  the  college  in  the  Educational 
Times,  July,  1868;  The  Charter,  Regulaticms, &nd 
other  documents  of  the  College;   Speech   of  Dr. 

Jex-Blake,  in  the  Educational  Times  for  Feb., 
I >- 7 1 '>  :  Demogkst  and  Montdcci,  De  VEnseigne- 
ment  Secondaire  en  VAngleterre,  vol.  i.;  Schools 
Inquiry  Commission,  vols.  i..  iv„  vii„  ix.  (1868). 

PREPARATORY  SCHOOLS,  schools  for 
secondary  instruction,  in  which  pupils  are  pre- 
pared tor  admission  to  the  college  or  university. 

PRESBYTERIANS,  a  denomination  of 
( Ihristians distinguished  by  theirsupport  of  asys- 
tcin  of  church  government  by  presbyters.in  oppo- 
sition, on  the'  one  hand,  to  Episcopalians  (q.  v.), 
and,  on  tin'  other,  to  Congregationalists  (q.  v.). 
The  Presbyterians,  in  this  respect,  agree  with 
the  Reformed  churches  (q.  V.),  and  were,  like 
them,  modeled  after  the  plan  laid  down  by  Cal- 
vin, in  his  Institutes.  The  Presbyterians  con- 
stitute the  established  church  in  Scotland,  and 
are  a  numerous  body  in  all  other  parts  of  the 
British  Empire,  as  well  ae  in  the  United  States. 

Both  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States,  they 
are  divided  into  a  number  of  independent  or- 
ganizations. In  1875,  delegates  from  a  large 
number  of  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  churches 
met  in  London.  England,  to  form  an  Alliance  of 
Reformed    Churches    throughout    the    World, 

which  is  to  be  a  voluntary  and  co-operative,  but 
not  an  organic  union.  We  treat  in  this  article 
(I)  of  the  Presbyterians  in  thePritish  Empire; 
and  (II)  of  the  Presbyterians  in  the  United 
States. 

1.  Presbyterians  in  the  British  Empire. — 
(1)  The  bulk  of  the  population  of  Scotland  has 
been  Presbyterian  since  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century;  and. at  present, the  aggregate  number 
of  the  different  Presbyterian  bodies  exceeds  85 
per  cent  of  the  total  population.  The  established 
church,  called  the  Church  of  Scotland,  has  about 


PRESBYTERIANS 


111 


1.300  congregations ;  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land (organized  in  1843),  900 ;  the  United 
Presbyterians,  GOO;  and,  besides  these,  there  are 
several  smaller  bodies.  The  progress  of  edu- 
cational institutions  of  all  classes  has,  therefore, 
been,  to  a  great  extent,  under  the  influence  of 
the  Presbyterian  Churches.  (See  Scotland.) 
No  church  in  Europe  has  taken  more  prompt 
and  energetic  steps  for  the  general  diffusion  of 
■school  education  than  the  Presbyterians  of  Scot- 
land. As  early  as  1695,  it  was  enacted  "that 
there  be  a  school  founded  and  a  school-master 
appointed  in  every  parish  by  advice  of  the  pres- 
byteries, and  to  this  purpose  that  the  heritors 
do,  in  every  congregation,  meet  among  them- 
selves, and  provide  a  commodious  house  for  a 
school,  and  modify  a  stipend  to  the  school- 
master, which  shall  not  be  under  10  merks 
(£6  13  s.  4d.)  nor  above  20  merks".  As  almost 
all  the  population  of  the  country  is  Presbyterian, 
the  common-school  system  has  preserved  a  pa- 
rochial character.  When,  in  1843,  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  was  organized,  it  was  re- 
solved to  erect  schools  in  connection  with  the 
congregations  of  the  Free  Church,  and  the  edu- 
cational scheme  which,  in  consequence,  has 
sprung  up,  is  co-extensive  with  the  parochial 
system  of  the  Established  Church.  In  1873,  of 
2,108  schools  inspected  by  the  government  in- 
spectors, 1,379  belonged  to  the  Established  and 
577  to  the  Free  Church;  while,  of  non- Presby- 
terian schools,  there  were  86  belonging  to  the 
Episcopal,  and  66  to  the  Catholic  Church. — The 
Scottish  universities  of  Edinburgh,  Clasgow, 
.and  Aberdeen  are  in  organic  connection  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  by  means  of  theological 
professorships  ;  while,  at  St.  Andrews,  an  entire 
college,  St.  Mary's,  is  appointed  solely  to  the 
teaching  of  theology  and  the  languages  connected 
with  it.  The  Free  Church  has  established  a 
divinity  school  in  Edinburgh,  called  the  New 
College  of  the  Free  Church.  This  college,  which 
was  completed  at  a  cost  approaching  £40,000,  is 
provided  with  a  more  complete  staff  of  profess- 
ors than  any  similar  institution  in  Scotland, 
and  with  more  effectual  means  of  training  an 
educated  ministry  than  is  to  be  found  elsewhere 
in  Great  Britain.  The  Free  Church  has  also  built 
a  divinity  hall  in  Aberdeen.  It  has  also  two 
normal  schools,  —  one  in  Edinburgh  and  one  in 
Clasgow,  for  the  training  of  school-masters.  The 
teachers  receive  a  salary  from  a  general  fund, 
which  is  raised  by  monthly  contributions  in  all 
the  conoresations,  and  which  is  divided,  at  the 
•end  of  the  year,  according  to  a  certain  scale, 
proportioned  to  the  qualifications  of  the  re- 
spective teachers. — The  United  Presbyterians 
have  likewise  a  divinity  hall.  The  number  of 
their  Sunday-schools  is  12,129,  with  92,502 
scholars. 

(2)  In  Ireland,  the  Presbyterians  constitute 
about  8  per  cent  of  the  total  population,  and  are 
almost  confined  to  the  province  of  Ulster.  In 
the  schools  of  the  National  Board  of  Education, 
the  Presbyterian  children,  in  1874,  numbered 
115,258,  equal  to  about  11  per  cent. — A  Pres- 


byterian college  (Magee  College)  was  opened 
at  Londonderry,  Oct.  10.,  L865.  In  1846,  Mrs. 
Magee,  widow  of  the  Rev.  William  Magee,  a  Pres- 
byterian  minister,  left  £20,000  in  trust,  for  the 
erection  and  endowment  of  a  Presbyterian  col- 
lege. This  sum  was  allowed  to  accumulate  for 
some  years,  until  eventually  the  trustees  were 
authorized,  by  a  decree  of  the  Lord  Chancellor. 
to  select  a  convenient  site  at  or  near  London- 
derry. The  Irish  Society  have  granted  an  an- 
;  nual  endowment  of  £250  to  the  chair  of  natural 
philosophy  and  mathematics, and  £250  for  five 
years  toward  the  general  expenses  of  the  col- 
lege. The  Rev.  Richard  Dill,  who  died  in  1858, 
bequeathed  £5,000,  to  establish  two  professor- 
ships. The*  appointment  of  the  trustees  is  vested 
in  the  General  Assembly.  The  professors  are 
required  to  sign  the  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith,  but  no  religious  test  is  prercribed  for 
students. — The  majority  of  the  Irish  Presby- 
terian ministers  are  educated  in  the  Ceneral  As- 
sembly's Theological  College,  at  Belfast.  Previous 
to  the  passing  of  the  Irish  Church  Act,  in  186!).  a 
parliamentary  grant  of  £1.750  per  annum  suf- 
ficed for  the  maintenance  of  six  professors,  at 
£250  each,  leaving  £250  to  defray  the  expense  of 
management.  The  government,  on  the  passing 
of  the  act,  granted  a  sum  of  £43,976  as  compen- 
sation; and  the  interest  of  this  sum,  together 
with  that  on  £5,000  subscribed  by  friends  of  the 
institution, and  the  fees  of  the  students,  makeup 
the  annual  income.  Patrons  have  recently  add- 
ed prizes,  worth  from  £20  to  £50  per   annum. 

(3)  In  England,  the  first  presbytery  was 
formed  in  1572  ;  and,  for  a  time,  the  Presby- 
terians formed  the  leading  Puritan  element  in 
the  Church  of  England.  At  the  time  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly,  Presbyterianism  was,  for  a 
short  time,  even  raised  to  the  position  of  the 
established  religion  of  England.  The  Presby- 
terians having  been  overthrown  politically  at  the 
Restoration,  and  crushed  ecclesiastically  by 
their  ejection  from  the  national  church,  a  large 
portion  gradually  merged  into  Congregationalism 
or  Unitarianism.  The  scattered  fragments  of  the 
old  orthodox  Presbyterianism  of  England  form- 
ed, in  1836,  the  English  Presbyterian  Church, 
which,  in  1876,  numbered  157  congregations, 
and  29,045  communicants.  It  had  also  2,926 
Sunday-schools,  with  27,000  scholars.  By  a  union 
with  the  United  Presbyterians  of  England,  con- 
summated in  1876,  the  number  of  the  Congre- 
gations was  raised  to  263,  and  that  of  members, 
to  50,000.  The  Church  has  a  theological  college 
at  London,  which  is  partially  endowed,  and  is 
under  the  charge  of  three  professors. 

(4)  British  Dependencies. — In  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  the  Presbyterians  are,  in  point  of 
numbers,  the  third  among  the  religious  denom- 
inations, being  only  exceeded  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  and  the  Church  of  England.  The  four 
provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
New  Brunswick,  had,  in  1871,  a  population  of 
107,259  connected  with  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  437,439  persons  connected  with  various 
Presbyterian  bodies.  Ontario  has  a  Presbyterian 


712 


PRESBYTERIANS 


university  at  Kingston,  called  Queen's  University 
and  College,  which   received  a  royal  charter  in 

1841 ,  and  contains  the  four  faculties  of  theology, 
law,  medicine,  and  arts.  In  Quebec,  there  is 
McCill  University,  at  Montreal,  with  several 
affiliated  colleges,  and.  in  Nova  Scotia,  a  Pres- 
byterian college,  at  Halifax.  In  Australia,  the 
colony  of  Victoria  had,  in  1K7<>.  .'5  Presbyterian 
colleges— Scotch  College  at  Melbourne.  Ceelong 
College,  and  Ballarat  College, 

II.  The  Presbyterians  in  the  United  States  in- 
clude several  bodies,  here  considered  separately. 

(1)  Presbyterian  Ghterch  in  tfie  United  States 
of  America. — Presbyterian  churches  had  been 
established  in  Maryland  before  the  close  of  the 
1 7th  century.  In  1710,  the  first  'synod  was 
formed,  and  in  17SH  the  Ceneral  Assembly  was 
organized.  The  Cumberland  Presbyterians  se- 
ceded in  1810;  and,  in  L838,  the  Church  divided 
into  the  Old  School  and  the  New  School,  which 
reunited  in  1871.  The  churches  in  the  South- 
era  States  withdrew  in  1861,  and  have  since 
maintained  a  separate  organization.  In  1876, 
there  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Ceneral 
Assembly  4.7  1 1  ministers,  5,077  churches,  and 
535,210  members.    The   Presbyterian  church. 

from  the  earliest  period,  has  been  an  earnest 
worker  and  Strenuous  advocate  for  education  : 
and  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  secession  of 
the  Cumberland  branch  was  the  tenacity  with 
which    the   General    Assembly    insisted   on    high 

educational    qualifications    for    ministers.     As 

early  as  L739,  a  proposition  was  brought  before 
tile  Synod  of  Philadelphia  for  the  election  of  a 
school  or  seminary  of  learning.  The  synod  ap- 
proved   of     the    design     and     appointed    a 

committee  to  carry  it  into  effect,  and  in 
1741.  a   synodal    SCl I    was    established.     The 

College  of  New  Jersey,  at  Princeton,  chartered 
in  1746  and  opened  in  1717.  was  founded 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Synod  of  New 
fork.  Other  institutions  have  been  organ- 
ize'!  under    Presbyterian    auspices,  as   follows  : 

Washington  and  Jefferson  College,  Washington, 
Pa..  1802;  Hamilton  College,  Clinton.  N.  V.. 
1815;  MarwilleColle.ee.  Maryvffle,  Tenn.,  L819; 
Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky.,  1823;  Hanover 
College,  Hanover,  Ind.,  1*27;  Lafayette  College, 
Easton.  Pa.,  L831;  Wabash  College,  Crawfords- 
ville,  Ind..  1832;  Lincoln  University,  Oxford, 
Pa.,  L853;  University  College,  San  Francisco, 
OaL,  1859;  Blackburn  University,  Cariinville, 
DL,  1867;  Kin--  College,  Bristol,  Tenn.,  1868; 
University  of  Wooster,  Wooster,  <>..  L870; 
Evans  University,  Evans,  Col.,  1*71  ;  and  Par- 
sons College,  Fairfield,  Iowa.  L875.  Three  colleges 
are  jointly  under  Presbyterian  and  Congrega- 
tional control;  namely,  Knox,  at  Calesbuig.  III.. 
1841  :  I'.eloit.at  Beloit.  Wis.,  1847  ;  and  Olivet, 
at  olivet.  Mich.,  L828.  The  academies  and  female 
colleges  under  the  auspices  of  the  denomination 

are  numerous.  The  Church  has  1 3  theological 
seminaries,  as  follows  :  at  Princeton,  V  J., 
1812;   ai    Auburn.  N.  V..  L820  ]    Western.  Alle- 

fheiiy  <  'it  v.  Pa.,1  625;  Lane, ( Cincinnati,  <>..  L832; 
Inion,N.  Y.City.  L836;  at  Danville,  Ky.,  1853; 


Theological  Seminary  of  the  Northwest.  Chicago, 
111.,  1859;  Blackburn  University  (theological 
department),  1867;  at  San  Francisco.  <  !al.,  L869; 
t  ierman.  Newark.  N.J.,  1869;  <  ierman,  Dubuque, 
la.,  1870;  Lincoln  University  (theological  de- 
partment). 1871;  and  Fiddle  Memorial  Institute 
(theological  department),  <  harlotte.  N.  C.  1867. 
Of  these,  the  last  two  are  for  colored  people,  and 
the  two  immediately  preceding  them,  for  Ger- 
mans. In  1*7."> — 6.  they  bad.  in  all.  56  profess  cs 
and  578  students.  The  number  graduating  that 
year  was  134.  The  board  of  education  of  the 
Church,  in  187(>.  received  $72,040,  and  gave 
financial  aid  to4f>S  students  i'1'22  theological, 21 8 
collegiate, and  18  academical).  In  the  same  year, 
the  Church  maintained,  for  freednaen,  39  day 
schools,  with  65  teachers  and  3,176  pupils,  and 
f>  higher  schools,  with  903  students,  of  whom 
43  were  preparing  for  the  ministry.  The  foreign 
mission  field  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  embraces 
— besides  several  Indian  tribes  in  the  United 
States-  Mexico,  the  United  States  of  Colombia, 
Brazil,  <  hili.  Liberia  and  Gaboon  (  Africa), 
India,  Siam,  China.  Japan,  Persia,  and  Syria. 
'1  he  mission  schools  had  13,501  pupils  in  1*7C>. 

(2)  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  ///-  i'uii<<I 
States,  frequently,  also,  called  The  Presbyterian 
Cfwrch  South.-  Cn  the  4th  of  December  1861, 
commissioners  from  all  the  presbyteries  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  within  the  Confederate 
States  met  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  and  organized  as  a 
General  Assembly.  The  style  and  title  chosen 
for  the  Church  was.  The  Presbyterian  Church 
of  the  Confederal  States  of  America;  but  after. 

the  capitulation  of    the  Confederate    armies,  the 

name  was  changed  as  above.  After  the  dose 
of  the  war.  the  presbyteries  in  Kentucky  and 
Missouri,  with  a  large  majority  of  the  con- 
gregations and  people,  united  themselves  with 
the  Southern  <  hurcb.  This  Church  now  ilv7ti) 
(insists  of  1*-'  synods.  62  presbyteries,  1,82] 
churches.  1,079  ministers,  and  112,183  commu- 
nicants. The  moneys  contributed  for  all  the  pur- 
poses in  the  last  ecclesiastical  year  amounted  to 
§1,138,681.  The  General  Assembly,  through 
committees  of  its  appointment,  maintains  for- 
eign missions  in  the  Indian  Territory.  Mexico. 
South  America, Greece,  Italy.  India,  and  <  hina: 
and  domestic  missions  in  new  and  destitute 
localities  in  the  South.  It  also  aids  in  the  educa- 
tion for  the  ministry  of  young  men  of  limited 
means. and  in  the  publication   and  dissemination 

of  a  religious  and  doctrinal  literature.  It  has  a 
publishing  house  in  Richmond,  \'a.  The  Pres- 
byterian Church  declares. in  its  constitution,  that 
••because  it  is  highly  reproachful  to  religion, 
and  dangerous  to  the  <  burch,  to  intrust  the  holy 
ministry  to  weak  and  ignorant  men.  the  presby- 
tery shall  try  each  candidate,  as  to  his  knowledge 

of  the  Latin  language,  and  the  original  languaj 

in   which   the    Holy   Scriptures  were   written. 

They  shall  also  examine  him  in  the  arts  and 
sciences."    The  first   written  text  required  of  the 

candidate  is  "a  I >ut in  exegesis  on  some  common 

head  in  divinity."    The  common  requirement  m 

its  presbyteries  is  equal  to  the  ctirriculum  ;i 


PRESBYTERIANS 


713 


most  American  colleges.  The  demands  of  the 
Church  for  the  education  of  its  ministry  and  its 
own  youth  have  every-where  made  it  the  patron- 
ess of  learning'  and  engaged  it  in  the  founding  of 
institutions  for  higher  education.  It  has  been 
ijhe  pioneer  of  education  in  nearly  all  the  older 
Southern  communities.  During  the  civil  war. 
many  of  the  institutions  of  learning  founded 
and  endowed  }y  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
South,  perished  by  the  loss  of  endowments  in  the 
general  financial  wreck.  Among  them,  were 
Oglethorpe  University,  via.,  Oakland  College, 
Miss.,  La  Grange  College,  Tenn.,  and  other 
valuable  institutions  of  less  prominence.  Centre 
( 'ollege,  Ivy.,  was  lost  through  decisions  of  the 
United  States  courts  in  favor  of  a  minority  ad- 
hering to  the  old  Assembly.  Others  were  sus- 
pended by  the  enlistment  of  the  students  in  the 
armies,  and  were  crippled  by  the  partial  loss  of 
endowments.  The  following,  founded  and  en- 
dowed by  Presbyterians,  survived  the  disasters 
of  the  war,  and  now,  under  Presbyterian  control 
or  auspices,  are  rendering  valuable  service  to  the 
country:  Hampden  Sidney  College,  Va.,  David- 
son College.  X.  C,  Stewart  College,  Tenn.,  West- 
minster College,  Mo.,  King  College,  Tenn.,  and 
Austin  College,  Texas.  Central  Cniversity,  at 
Richmond,  Ky.,  has  been  founded  and  success- 
fully opened  since  the  war.  The  synods  of  Nash- 
ville, Memphis,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Arkansas, 
and  Texas,  conjointly,  have  also  projected  a  uni- 
versity (the  South- Western)  to  be  strictly  under 
Presbyterian  control,  for  which  they  are  now 
soliciting  an  endowment.  It  has  been  located 
at  Clarkesville,  Tenn.  Stewart  ( 'ollege  has  been 
merged  in  it.  The  financial  prostration  of  the 
South  since  the  war,  has  rendered  the  endow- 
ment of  its  institutions  of  learning  slow  and  dif- 
ficult.— Of  academies  and  schools,  competent  to 
prepare  boys  for  college,  or  young  men  for  the 
university,  or  to  give  a  good  mathematical  and 
classical  education,  thorough  as  far  as  it  goes,  to 
those  whose  means  do  not  admit  of  more  elaborate 
courses,  there  is  a  great  insufficiency  throughout 
the  South.  Those  which  had  previously  ac- 
quired success  and  reputation,  were  generally 
broken  up  through  the  disastrous  effects  of  the 
war,  and  the  poverty  and  depression  of  the  people 
have  operated  to  the  discouragement  of  efforts 
to  establish  others.  Of  such  institutions,  there 
are  some  of  a  high  character,  maintained  under 
Presbyterian  auspices  ;  as,  the  Bingham  School, 
Mebanesville,  N.  C,  Pleasant  Ridge  Academy, 
Green  Co.,  Ala.,  Edgar  Institute,  Paris,  Ky., 
Military  and  Classical  Institute,  Danville,  Ky., 
Finlay  High  School,  Lenoir,  N.  C,  and  Kemper 
Institute,  Booneville,  Mo. — The  Southern  Pres- 
byterian Church  has  two  theological  seminaries, 
each  endowed  and  furnished  with  buildings, 
libraries,  and  four  professors  of  eminent  ability 
and  learning :  Union  Seminary,  at  Hampden 
Sidney,  Va.,  and  Columbia  Seminary,  at  Colum- 
bia, S.  C.  It  has  recently  established  a  third,  at 
Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  for  the  education- and  training 
of  colored  men  for  the  ministry;  and  for  this,  it 
is  now  gathering  an  endowment.     There  are  no 


Presbyterian  schools  or  colleges  for  girls  in  the 
South  endowed  beyond  the  provision  of  build- 
ings, apparatus,  and  libraries;  but  there  are  many 
institutions  under  Presbyterian  control  or  au- 
spices, in  which  every  reasonable  comfort  is  com- 
bined with  advantages  lor  the  t  borough  educa- 
tion and  accomplishment  of  girls.  Among  these, 
are  many  female  colleges,  collegiate  institutes, 
and  seminaries  which  afford  a  high  grade  of  in- 
struction, and  are  widely  esteemed  for  general 
excellence  and  efficiency. 

The  work  of  education  for  the  ministry  is  con- 
ducted by  the  General  Assembly,  through  an 
executive  committee  located  at  Memphis,  Tenn. 
In  the  last  ecclesiastical  year,  the  committee 
received  from  the  churches,  for  this  purpose, 
$15,131,  from  which  95  young  men,  prosecuting 
their  studies  at  various  colleges  and  theological 
seminaries,  received  assistance. 

(3)  The  Cuml/erloml  Presbyterian  Church. — 
This  Church  was  organized  February  4.,  1810, 
in  a  log  cabin,  in  Dickson  Co.,  Term.,  by  three 
Presbyterian  ministers.     !t  grew  out  of  the  con- 
troversies incidental  to  the  ( ireat  Western  Revival 
of  1800,  which  is  regarded  by  many  as  one  of  the 
most  important  religious  movements  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Protestant   <  hunch  of  the  United 
States. as  it  firmly  fixed  the  people  of  the  Valley 
of  the  Mississippi  in  the  <  hristian  faith.     After 
ten  years  of  anxiety  and  distress,  the  new  Pres- 
byterian Church   was  organized   upon  what  is 
claimed  to  be  a  medium  theology,  as  between  the 
extremes  of  low  Arminianism   (Semi-Pelagian^ 
ism)  and  high  Calvinism  (Antinomianism).  In  it, 
an  evangelical   follower  of  John  Calvin   or  of 
John  Wesley   could    alike  feel  at  home.     The 
Church  grew  very  rapidly.     The  Minutes  of  the 
Forty-Sixth  General  Assembly,  1876,  show  26 
synods,  including  nearly   125  presbyteries,  ex- 
tending over  the  territory  between  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  reaching  from 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  on  the  east,  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west.     The  following  sta- 
tistical summary  is  approximately  correct:  minis- 
ters, 1,275;    licentiates.  280;    candidates,  220; 
congregations,    2,000 ;    elders,   6,750 ;    deacons, 
2,000;  total  communicants,100,000;  persons  in  the 
Sabbath  schools,  55,000;  value  of  church  proper- 
ty,  $2,250,000  ;    contributed   during   the  year, 
$350,000.  The  following  are  the  principal  institu- 
tions of  learning  under  the  control  of  this  Church: 
Cumberland  College,  Princeton,  Ky.,  founded  in 
1829, discontinued  in  1861;  Cumberland  Univer- 
sity, Lebanon,  Tenn..  founded  in  1  842,  which  has 
the  leading  law  school  in  the  South  ;  Bethel  Col- 
lege, McKenzie,  Tenn.,  1847  ;   Waynesburg  Col- 
lege, Waynesburg,  Pa.,  1850  ;   McGee  College, 
College    Mound,    Mo..    1853,    now   suspended; 
Lincoln  University,   Lincoln,  111..  1866  ;   Trini- 
ty University,  Tehuacana,  Texas,    1876 ;    Cane 
Hill  College,  Boonsboro,  Ark.,  1 852.  The  General 
Assembly,  in  1876,  approved  the  establishment 
of  a  Union  Medical  College,  in  connection  with 
the  three   universities  of  the  Church,  namely,' 
Cumberland,  Lincoln,   and  Trinity.     It  is  to  be 
located  at  St.  Louis,  or  some  other  large  city. 


T14 


presbyteriaxs 


Waynesburg,  Lincoln,  and  Trinity,  admit  young 
ladies  on  equal  terms  with  young  men.  There 
are  also  several  institutions  exclusively  for  girls, 
owned  by,  or  under  the  patronage  of.  the  <  'hurch. 

(4)  The  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America  was  founded,  in  1858,  by  the  Union  of 
the  Associate,  commonly  called  Seceder,  Church 
(which  originated  in  the  secession  of  the  Erskines 
and  others  from  the  established  church  of  Scot- 1 
land,  in  1733,  and  sent  its  first  missionaries  to  I 
America,  in  1753),  and  the  Associate  Reformed 
Church,  which  was  formed,  in  1782,  by  the 
union  of  part  of  the  Associate  Church  and  part 
of  the  Reformed,  or  Covenanter,  Church,  which 
organized  its  first  presbytery  in  America  in 
1770.  The  Church,  in  1876,  had  8  synods,  57 
presbyteries,  77.11  1  members,  and  638  Sabbath 
schools  with  53,364  scholars. 

Previous  to  the  Revolutionary  war.  the  As- 
sociate Church  in  Scotland,  and  that  in  America, 
were  not  two  churches  but  one;  and  its  ministers 
were  educated  in  Scotland.  Prom  the  first,  the 
ministers  were  well  educated,  must  of  them  hav- 
ing received  university  degrees.  Even  when  the 
churches  in  the  colonies  suffered  from  a  scarcity 
of  clergymen,  they  did  not  propose  to  license  the 
uneducated,  but  to  provide  for  an  education  as 
thorough  as  that  of  a  Scottish  university,  in  L764, 
the  Presbytery  (organized  in  1754)  made  a  re- 
quest lor  more  ministers, and  forone  ableto  teach 
'•the  languages  and  philosophy",  which  brought 
from  Scotland,  the  Rev.  John  Smith,  who,  lor  the 
next  lour  years  (1778  L782),  by  appointmenl 
of  the  Presbytery,  "directed  the  Studies  of  such 
as  were  pursuing  a  course  with  a  view  to  the  h<  ily 
ministry."  The  way  was  prepared  for  ecclesi- 
astical as  well  as  for  political  independence.  The 
reception  of  a  minister  from  a  division  of  the 
Seceder  Church  (Burgher),  different  from  that 
(Anti-Burgher)  by  which  the  ministers  of  the 
American  Presbytery  had  been  sent  out.  pre- 
pared the  way  for  a  separation,  which  was  prac- 
tically effected  in  178  1,  when  the  Presbytery  of 
Pennsylvania  prepared  and  adopted  a  "Narra- 
tive and  Testimony"  in  addition  to  the  ConfeS- 
siOD   of    Faith,   without   consultation  with  the 

homes; 1.     Although,  after  this,  many  of  its 

ministers  came  from  Scotland  and  Ireland,  often 
with  a  formal   appointment,  yet  from   this  date. 

more  than  before,  the  Church  proposed  to  edu- 
cate its  own  clergy.     In   L792,  a  Log-house  was 

built  for  a  theological  seminary;  a  good  num- 
ber of  books,  contributed  largely  by  friends  in  | 
Scotland,  wire  placed  in  Eudolpha  Ball;  and 
the  Rev.  lb-.  John  Anderson  was  elected  pro- 
fessor. The  first,  of  its  ministers  educated  in  the 
United  States  was  licensed  in  1  7 95.   At  the  time 

of  the  union,  the  Associate  Church  had  253  min- 
isters, almost  all  educated  in  its  own  seminaries. 
The  Associate  Reformed  Church  was  independ- 
ent i)f  the  mother  churches  from  the  beginning. 
In  1796,  its   synod   resolved    to    establish  a  fund 

to  sustain  a  prof essoT  of  theology,  and  to  assist 

students.  The  fund  ($5,000),  WTth  avaluable  li- 
brary,   was  collected,  for   (hi     most    part,  bj    the 

l.'  t.  J. M.  Mason,  I  >.l  >.,  in  Scotland  and  England. 


The  seminary  was  established  in  Xew  York  City 
in  1804.  At  the  time  of  the  union,  it  had  231 
ministers,  almost  all  American  by  birth  and  edu- 
cation. Now  (1876)  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  has  three  theological  seminaries:  oue  at 
Xenia,  Ohio  (1855),  the  legal  successor  of  those 
at  Service,  Pa.  (1T'.*2 — 1819),  at  Philadelphia 
(1821 — 6),  at  Canonsburg  (1821 — 55),  at  Ox- 
ford, Ohio  (1839—58),  at '  Monmouth.  111.  (1858 
— 74);  a  second  at  Xewburg.  \.  Y.,  which  was 
at  first  in  New  York  City  (1804—21),  and  was 
removed  to  its  present  location  in  1829,  where, 
except  an  interval  of  !)  years  (1858 — 67).  it  has 
continued  in  operation  ;  and  a  third  at  Alle- 
gheny I  lity,  Pa. .which  has  received  students  every 
year  since  its  establishment,  in  1825.  Over  500 
students  have  been  educated  in  the  third,  and 
over  800.  in  the  others.  The  endowment  fund 
of  Xenia  is  $30,000;  of  Xewburg.  $50,000;  and 
of  Allegheny.  $80,000.  All  have  good  buildings 
and  libraries,  numbering  6,000,  5.0(10.  and  8,000 
volumes,  respectively.  I'revious  to  1852.  the  As- 
sociate and  Associate  Reformed  churches  made 
no  attempt  to  found  independent  colleges.  Their 
members  joined  with  other  Presbyterians  in 
establishing  and  endowing  colleges,  as  in  the 
case  of  Jefferson,  Canonsburg,  Pa.  (1802 — (15), 
often  taking  a  leading  part  in  the  enterprise, 
and  frequently  furnishing  the  presidents,  most 
of  the  professors  and  .students,  and  the  largest 
share  of  the  funds.  A  Presbyterian  College  was 
started  in  Washington.  Iowa  (1855— 64), but  was 
soon  abandoned.  Ohio  Central,  at  Iberia,  Ohio, 
was,  for  a  time  (18(37 — 75),  under  the  control  of  a 
presbytery  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church; 
an  1,  under  another  presbytery,  was  placed  Lin- 
coln College  (1872),  Greenwood,  Mo..  Westinin- 
ter  I  'ollege,  Xew  Wilmington,  Pa.  (1852),  estab- 
lished by  the  Associate  Church,  and  Monmouth 
("ollege,  Monmouth,  111.  (1855),  by  the  Associate 
Reformed  Church,  became  the  property  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  in  1858.  These  in- 
stitutions have  been  open,  from  the  first,  to  both 
sexes,  as  well  as  to  colored  students.  Knoxville 
i  Tenn.i  College  (1876),  costing  $20,000,  is  for  the 
education  of  colored  students.  The  Freedinan's 
Hoard  of  the  C.  P.  Church,  organized  soon  after 
the  slaves   were  emancipated,  rcpoi  ted.  in  L876, 

its  receipts  for  the  previous  year  as  amounting 
to  $12,388.  The  college  at  KJnoxville  is  sustained 
by  this  board,  and  is  designed  to  furnish  teach- 
ers and  preachers  for  the  I  reedmen.  lntheC.P. 
foreign  mission  stations,  a  large  number  of  boys 
and  girls  (about  3,000)  are  under  instruction 
every  day.  The  Training  College.  Osiout,  Upper 
Epypt,  in  L874,  had  an  attendance  of  84  art 
students  and  10  theological  students,  the  whole 
number  being  237.  It  has  also  a  building  and 
an  endowment  fund.— No  ladies'  seminary  has 
been  endowed  in  the  I".  P.  Church,  but  many 
excellent     schools     have     been     conducted     and 

patronized  by  the  members.    The  Church  has  a 

board  of  education,  which  reported  to  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  in  L876,  that  its  total  receipts 
for  the  year  had  been  $2,673.     This  board  aided 

20  young  men  in  preparing  for  the  ministry. 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION 

PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION.  See  Edu- 
cation. 

PRIMER  (Lat.  liber pHmarius,  a  little  book 
containing  the  offices  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  so  called  because  used  at  prime  prima 
hora — the  tirst  hour),  originally  a  small  book  of 
prayers,  or  for  elementary  religious  instruction, 
but,  at  the  present  time,  an  elementary  reading- 
book  of  the  lowest  grade.  The  literature  relating 
to  primers,  or  A-B-C  books,  is  very  curious  and 
interesting,  some  of  these  books  having  had  great 
fame  on  account  of  their  long  and  extensive  use. 
One  of  the  very  earliest  was  Luther's  (or  Melanch- 
thon's)  Child's  Little  Primer,  containing  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  etc.  (See  Luther.)  In  1534,  a 
Prymer  in  Englyshe  with  certain  prayers,  etc., 
was  printed  by  John  Byddell;  and.  in  1545,  King 
Henry  VIII.  ordered  an  English  Form  of  Public 
Prayer,  or  Prymer,  to  be  printed ;  and  to  be 
"taught,  lerned,  and  red''  throughout  his  domin- 
ions. Bienrod's  primer,  containing  an  illustrated 
alphabet,  was  the  earliest  publication  of  this  kind 
in  German,  dating  back  to  the  middle  of  the 
10th  century.  The  horn-book  was  the  simplest 
and  most  noted  of  primers.  (See  Horn-Book, 
and  Christ  Cross  Row.)  The  Royal  Primer 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  New  England  Primer 
also  had  great  fame. — See  Barnard's  Journal, 
vol.  xii.,  art.  A-B-C  Books  and  Primers. 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND,  a  British 
province  of  North  America, formerly  (until  IT!)!') 
called  St.  John,  having  an  area  of  2,175  square 
miles,  and  a  population,  according  to  the  census 
of  1871,  of  94,021.  It  was  under  French  rule 
until  1703,  when  it  was  ceded,  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  to  the  British.  In  1873,  it  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

The  free-school  system  dates  from  1853  ;  but 
the  existing  law  went  into  operation  in  1808.  The 
lieutenant-governor  appoints  a  board  of  educa- 
tion, consisting  of  11  members,  including  the 
two  provincial  examiners.  This  board  may  can- 
cel a  teacher's  license  on  proof  of  misconduct, 
may  alter  a  school  site  on  the  requisition  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  householders,  and  may  also  alter 
district  boundaries.  There  are  five  trustees  for 
each  district,  elected  by  the  resident  householders. 
Two  trustees  are  elected  and  two  retire  annually. 
The  trustees  may  allow  the  school-house  to  be 
used  as  a  place  of  worship,  and  may  also  permit 
the  teacher  to  hold  an  evening  school  therein. 
Exclusive  of  grammar-school  masters,  there  are 
two  classes  or  grades  of  teachers.  Those  of  the 
lower  grade  must  be  qualified  to  teach  book- 
keeping, English  grammar,  reading,  arithmetic, 
and  geography;  while  those  of  the  higher  grade 
are  expected  to  be  proficient  in  algebra,  geom- 
etry, trigonometry,  mensuration,  surveying,  nav- 
igation, and  the  use  of  the  globes.  If  the 
school  of  his  own  district  is  not  in  operation,  a 
child  may  attend  the  nearest  school,  unless  the 
attendance  there  exceeds  50.  All  residents  from 
6  to  17  years  of  age  are  entitled  to  attend  the 
district  school.  The  normal  school  is  under  the 
control  of  the  board.  A  grammar  school  may  be 
established  for  two  adjoining  districts,  instead 


PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 


715 


of  district  schools;  but  the  teacher  must  be 
competent  to  teach  Latin,  Greek,  and  French. 
The  salaries  of  the  teachers  range  from  £40  to 
£100  a  year,  paid  from  the  provincial  treasury. 
In  1874,  there  were  355  schools  in  operation,  of 
which  L 8  were  grammar  schools.  The  number 
of  pupils  was  L6.292,  and  of  teachers  453.  The 
number  of  teachers  licensed  during  the  year  was 
46,  besides  whom  the  normal  school  had  27  pupil- 
teachers.   In  addition  to  the  public  Bel Is,  there 

are  several  private  institutions.  A  higher  educa- 
tion is  provided  for  in  two  colleges,-  Prince  of 
Wales  College  (Protestant  Episcopal),  and  St. 
Dunstan's  (Roman  Catholic).  —  See  Marling, 
Canada  Educational  Directory  for  1876; 
Lovell's  Gazetteer  of  British  North  America. 

PRIZES.      See  EMULATION. 

PROGRAMME.    See  S.  i i,  MANAGEMENT. 

PROMOTION.  See  School  Management. 

PRUSSIA.     See  Germany. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  Free  Schools,  or 
Common  Schools,  arc  designations  applied  to 
schools  established  for  the  free  elementary  edu- 
cation of  all  the  children  in  a  community  or  state. 
The  support  of  such  schools,  either  wholly  or  in 
part,  by  the  state,  presupposes  that  it  is  for  the 
general  interest  of  every  community  to  promote 
the  diffusion  of  education  among  all  classes.  (Sec 
National  Education.)  In  ancient  times,  this 
principle  was  recognized  by  free  or  democratic 
states:  Sparta  based  her  safety  and  prosperity 
upon  the  proper  education  of  every  child  in  the 
community  ;  and  Athens  had  public  schools  for 
all  classes  of  her  free  citizens.  It  was,  however, 
reserved  for  modern  times, and  for  the  free  states 
of  the  American  Union  to  carry  out  this  principle 
to  the  fullest  extent,  providing  gratuitous  edu- 
cation, of  every  grade,  for  all  classes — making 
common  schools  not  eleemosynary  institutions, 
but  seminaries  in  which  the  children  of  the  rich 
and  the  poor  might  meet  together  in  common. 
and  share  alike  in  the  blessings  and  advantages 
of  education.  Free  schools,  so  called,  that  is. 
"schools  for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  poor 
children  can  be  traced  back,"  says  Barnard,  "to 
the  early  ages  of  the  Christian  Church.  Wher- 
ever a  missionary  station  was  set  up,  or  the 
bishop's  residence,  or  seat  [cathedra,  hence 
cathedral)  was  fixed,  there  gradually  grew  up  a 
large  ecclesiastical  establishment,  in  which  were 
concentrated  the  means  of  hospitality  for  all  the 
clergy,  and  all  the  humanizing  influences  of 
learning  and  religion  for  that  diocese  or  district." 
Connected  with  these,  were  the  song  scoles, 
where  poor  boys  were  taught  to  chant,  iuullecture 
scoles,  where  clerks  were  instructed  in  reading, 
and  subsequently,  grammar  schools,  for  classical 
instruction.  Convent  schools,  connected  with  the 
monasteries,  were  the  germs  of  the  universities; 
and  the  endowments  which  these  schools  received 
from  princes  and  prelates  enabled  them  to  afford 
an  education  to  the  children  of  the  indigent  as 
well  as  to  those  of  the  wealthy.  (See  Cathedral 
Schools.)  Royal  grammar  schools  were  founded 
out  of  the  old  endowments  by  Henry  VIII. 
(See  Grammar  Schools.)     "The  free  schools  in 


716 


"PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 


PUPIL  TEACHER 


England,''  says  Barnard,  "were  originally  estab- 
lished in  towns  where  there  was  no  old  convent- 
ual, cathedral,  royal,  or  en<  1<  m&  1  grammar  schools. 
With  very  few  exceptions,  these  schools  were 
founded  and  endowed  by  individuals,  for  the 
teaching  of  Creek  and  Latin,  and  for  no  other 
gratuitous  teaching.  The  gratuitous  instruction 
was  sometimes  extended  to  all  the  children  born 
or  living  in  a  particular  parish,  or  of  a  particular 
name.  All  not  specified  and  provided  for  in 
the  instruments  of  endowment  paid  tuition  to 
the  master."  (See  England.)  For  the  history 
of  public  or  free  schools  in  othtiy  countries,  and 
in  the  several  states  of  the  American  Union,  see 
under  the  respective  titles. — One  of  the  most  im- 
portant questions  in  regard  to  public  schools  is, 
whether  the  education  afforded  should  be  wholly 
free,  or  whether,  in  the  case  of  all  children  whose 
parents  are  able  to  pay,  a  tuition  fee  should 
be  demanded,  gratuitous  instruction  being  given 
to  those  only  who  are  in  indigent  circumstances. 
In  many  countries,  the  latter  system  is  in  oper- 
ation. The  arguments  against  it  were  clearly 
and  forcibly  summarised  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Birmingham  (England)  school  board,  in  June. 
1875,  acting  in  behalf  of  the  free  system  : 
"(1)  Because  compulsory  education  is  enforced 
in  the  interest  of  the  whole  community,  and  will 
be  most  effectually  and  economically  carried  out 
under  a  tree  system;  (2)  because  the  cost  of  this 
education  is  unfairly  distributed  by  any  other 
plan;  (3)  because  the  fees  act  as  a  direct  tax 
upon  attendance,  and  tend  accordingly  to  prevent 
the  result  for  which  the  schools  are  established, 
the  expense  incurred,  and  the  compulsory  laws 
enforced:  I  1)  because  the  alternative  practice  of 
partial  exemption  is  calculated  to  pauperize  great 
numbers  of  persons  who  have  hitherto  escaped 
any  form  of  charitable  relief."  In  defense  of  b 
free  system,  many  citations,  both  of  opinion  and 
fact  may  be  made.  Talleyrand  said  :    "The  chief 

object  of  the  state  is  to  teach  children  to  become 
one  day  its  citizens.  It  initiates  them,  in  a  man- 
ner, into  the  social  order  by  showing  them  the 
laws  by  which  it  is  governed,  and  giving  them 
the  first  of  their  means  of  existence.  Is  it  not 
jnst,  then,  that  all  should  (earn  gratuitously  what 

ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  necessary  condition 
of  the  association  of   which    they  are    fco  become 

members?  This  elementary  instruction  seems  to 

be  a  del  it  which  society  owes  to  all,  and  which 
it    must    pay    without    the  slightest    deduction." 

This  sentiment   has  been  repeated  by  scores  of 

the  best  and  most  liberal  thinkers.  It  IB  con- 
tended that  the  establishment  of  free  schools  by 

the  state  is  not  only  proper  as  an  act    of  justice, 

but  expedient  as  a  measure  of  policy.  England, 

it  ha-  been  said.  pays  for  pauperism  and  crime 
five     times    as     much    as   for   education:    while 

Switzerland  pays  seven  times  as  much  for  edu- 
cation as  for  pauperism  and  crime:  and.  it  is 
contended  that  wherever  U-rv  education  prevails, 
there  is  more  freedom,  more  public  and  private 
virtue,  and  more  Bocial  and   political  stability. — 

It  has  been  said,  on  the  other  hand,  that  uni- 
versal education  unfits  the   members  of  a  com- 


munity for  the  lower  and  more  laborious  pur- 
suits of  life;  at  any  rate,  that  it  reduces  the 
ranks  of  t  he  mechanic  and  day-laborer,  and  in- 
ordinately increases  those  of  the  professions,  and 
of  those  connected  with  commercial  life,  thus 
diminishing  the  producers  and  increasing  the 
non-producers.  But  to  this,  it  is  replied  that 
(1)  the  education  of  the  masses  will,  under  all 
circumstances,  not  extend  beyond  elementary  in- 
struction, which  will  be  beneficial  in  every  pur- 
suit, however  humble:  (2)  those  who  from  lowly 
stations  rise  to  positions  of  eminence  by  means 
of  free  education,  must  do  so  by  means  of  talents 
the  proper  exercise  of  which  must  be  beneficial 
to  the  community;  and  (3)  many  of  those  who 
are  denominated  non-producers  are  often  the 
persons  who,  by  their  inventions  and  discoveries, 
increase  the  producing  power  of  labor  sometimes 
a  hundred-fold.  The  inventor  of  the  steam-engine, 
the  cotton-gin,  or  the  sewing-machine,  might 
never  have  done  a  day's  labor  in  his  life:  but  he 
certainly  would  not  have  been  a  non-producer 
on  that  account.  Scotland  offers  an  instructive 
example  of  the  effects  of  a  free  system  of  edu- 
cation. Dr.  L.  I'layfair.  in  a  speech  delivered 
June  20.,  1870,  said  :  "Every  peasant  in  Scotland 
knows  that  it  is  his  own  fault  if  he  docs  not  ac- 
quire such  knowledge  in  his  own  school  as  will 
enable  him  to  aspire  to  the  university  rOut  of 
3,500  students  at  the  Scotch  universities,  about 
500  are  the  sons  of  wage-making  artisans  or 
peasants."  A  similar  state  of  things  exists 
in  nearly  all  of  the  United  States.  There  is, 
however,  no  lack  of  peasants  or  farmers  in  either 
country.  (See  Morlet,  The  Struggle  for  National 
Education,  London.  1873.)  The  educated  intel- 
ligence and  industrial  skill, not  merely  the  mus- 
cular power  of  its  people,  constitute  the  most  im- 
portant and  most  productive  part  of  a  nation's 
capital  :  and  this  the  free  school  is  the  most 
effective  instrumentality  in  maintaining  and  en- 
larging.    (Bee  Crime  and  Education.) 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  English.    See  Eng- 
land. 

PUNISHMENT.     See  Corporal  Punish- 
ment, and  bi:  w:. 

PUPIL-TEACHER,   a  term  used,   chiefly 
in  England,  to  designate  a  boy  or  a  girl  employed 

to  perforin  certain  duties  connected  with  the 
teaching  and  management  of  a  school.  The 
English  Elementary  Education  Act  of  18/0,  re- 
quires that ''pupil-teachers  (1]  be  not  less  than 
L3  years  of  age,  at  the  date  of  their  engagement; 
lie  of  the  same  sex  as  the  certificated  teacher 

under  whom  they  serve,  except   that,  in  a    mixed 

school,  female  pupil-teachers  may  serve  under  a 
master,  and  may  receive  instruction  from  him 
out  of  school  hours,  on  condition  that  some  re- 
spectable woman,  approved  by  the  managers,  be 

invariably  present    during    the    whole    time   that 

such  instruction  is  being  given;  (3)  be  presented 
to  the  inspector  for  examination  at  the  time  and 
place  fixed  by  his  notice;  (4)  pass  the  required 

examinations  and  produce  tin-  proper  certificates; 
(5)  that   not  more    than    four   pupil-teachers   are 
in    the    school    for   every     certificated 


engaged 


PYTHAGORAS 


QUEBEC. 


717 


teacher  serving  in  it. — Such  a  system  is  favorable 
to  economy,  but  cannot  be  productive  of  tin- 
best  results  in  the  teaching  of  the  school.  It  is 
an  offshoot  of  the  monitorial  system  (q.  v.);  and, 
to  some  extent,  is  subject  to  the  same  objections. 
Hence,  we  find  complaints  of  its  inefficiency, 
arising  from  the  circumstance,  inseparable  from 
the  system,  that " pupil-teachers  are  regarded  too 
much  as  teachers,  and  too  little  as  pupils."  A 
correspondent  of  the  Schoolmaster  (London,  July 
17.,  1875),  writing  from  personal  experience, 
says:  "Schools  can  frequently  be  found  where  90 
or  100  children  are  placed  under  a  master,  who, 
instead  of  being  supplied  with  teachers  compe- 
tent to  instruct  the  several  classes  into  which  the 
scholars  must  necessarily  be  divided,  is  only 
furnished  with  one.  or  perhaps  two  lads,  whom 
he  is  expected  to  instruct  in  the  art  of  teaching, 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  duties  of  the  school." 
Of  course,  the  pupils,  in  such  a  school,  must  be 
very  imperfectly  taught.  In  December,  1874, 
there  were  employed  in  the  public  schools  of 
England  and  Wales.  20.162  certificated  teachers, 
1,999  assistants,  and  27,321  pupil-teachers.  The. 
engagement  of  pupil-teachers  is  for  five  years,  at 
the  end  of  which  time  they  may  be  admitted 
into  a  training  college,  on  passing  the  required 
examination.  —  The  system  of  pupil-teachers 
formerly  prevailed  in  some  of  the  cities  of  the 
United  States,  notably  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
in  which  it  was  continued,  in  the  schools  of  the 
Public  School  Society,  for  many  years.  These 
pupil-teachers,  called  monitors,  were,  as  in  the 
English  schools,  apprentices,  and  were  expected 
to  attend  a  Saturday  or  evening  normal  school  ; 
and,  on  passing  a  final  examination,  were  em- 
ployed as  full  teachers.  This  system  has  ceased 
to  exist  in  most  of  the  American  schools. 

PYTHAGORAS,  a  celebrated  Greek  philos- 
opher, born  on  the  island  of  Samos,  in  580  B.  G; 
died  in  Metapontum,  in  southern  Italy,  about 
500.  He  was  so  enthusiastic  in  his  search  for 
knowledge  that  he  spent  30  years  (as  is  said)  in 
travel,  in  order  to  obtain  it,  visiting  Egypt, 
Phoenicia,  Arabia,  Babylonia,  India,  and  even 
Gaul.  Too  modest  to  take  the  title  aofog  (wise 
man),  lie  was  the  first  to  assume  that  of  (pu.6<jo<j>og 


(lover  of  wisdom).  "I Te  was, "says  Schmidt  (ffis- 
tory  of  Education),  "  the  first  <  J  reek  in  whom  the 
spirit  of  the  East  was  united  with  that  of  the 
West,  and  in  whom  the  culture  of  Babylon, 
Egypt,  and  westernmost  Asia  combined  to  de- 
velop that  of  the  Greeks  in  a  new  and  glorious 
form."  At  Croton.  in  southern  Italy,  whither 
he  emigrated  about  531)  B.  ('..  lie  established  his 
famous  school,  and  enunciated  the  doctrines  of 
his  peculiar  system,  the  fruit  of  his  researches 
and  contemplations.  <  >f  this  system,  the  metemp- 
sychosis was  a  cardinal  principle,  co-ordinate  with 
that  of  the  purification  of  the  soul  (/co&zftxnc), 
since  the  former  was  the  necessary  agency  for 
effecting  this  purification  ;  and  the  latter,  in  its 
ultimate  consummation,  was  designed  to  bring 
man  into  a  fit  condition  to  hold  communion  with 
the  Deity  (dfufatlv  toJ  Qey).  Self-knowledge 
he  regarded  as  the  indispensable  condition  for 
self-improvement  —  as  the  basis  of  all  culture, 
the  highest  aim  of  which  is  to  obtain  a  full 
understanding  of  the  essence  and  relations  of  the 
objects  around  us.  and  to  live  in  harmony  with 
them,  and  with  the  true  end  of  man's  being. 
Music  (fiovatK?/  irtufitia)  was  in  itself  one  of  the 
most  important  instruments  of  this  culture,  em- 
bodying and  typifying  the  harmony  of  the  uni- 
verse, as  well  as  aiding  the  soid  in  its  efforts  to 
bring  itself  into  the  same  harmony.  Religious 
devotion  was  an  important  means  to  consum- 
mate this  result ;  and  hence  he  based  education 
upon  religion.  The  good  of  society  could  be  pro- 
moted only  by  such  education,  the  fruit  of 
which  would  necessarily  be  civil  and  political 
liberty,  because  it  would  produce  nobleness  of 
soul  in  every  citizen.  His  practical  system,  there- 
fore, comprehended  special  means  for  the  educa- 
tion of  children,  as  well  as  the  instruction  of 
adults.  His  school  at  Croton  was,  however, 
designed  only  for  the  latter ;  and  its  pecidiar 
rules,  practices,  and  arrangements  deserve  a  care- 
ful study.  —  See  Schmidt,  History  of  .Education 
(N.Y.,1872);  Grote,  History  of  Greece;  Schmidt. 
Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  vol.  i.;  Zeller,  Die 
P ythagorassage  (Leipsic,  1865)  ;  Ueberweg, 
History  of  Philosophy,  trans,  from  the  German 
(N.  Y.,  1872). 


aUADRrVIUM.    See  Arts. 

QUEBEC,  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  having  an  area  of  193,355  sq.  miles ; 
and  a  population,  in  1871,  of  1,191,516.  (See 
Ontario.) 

Educational  History. — The  first  school  in  the 
province  was  that  of  the  Franciscan  Father  Du- 
plessis.  at  Three  Rivers,  founded  in  1616.  In  1632, 
the  Jesuits,  who  afterward  exercised  great  in- 
fluence on  education,  opened  their  first  school  in 
Quebec  for  the  instruction  of  the  Indians;  and,  in 
1635,  they  founded  the  Seminary  of  Notre  Dame 
des  Anges,  which  afterward  became  the  Jesuit 
college  of  Quebec.  For  over  a  century,  education 
remained  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the 


Catholic  clergy.  Among  the  larger  schools  estab- 
lished during  this  period,  were  the  convent  of 
the  Ursulines,  founded  in  1639,  the  Seminary  of 
Quebec,  in  1 678,  and  the  theological  seminary  in 
Montreal,  in  1647.  In  1653,  Sister  Margaret 
Bourgeois  founded  the  order  of  the  congregation 
of  Notre  Dame  at  Montreal,  and  established  a 
number  of  schools.  The  Recollets  and  Jesuits 
also  supported  many  primary  schools.  In  1737. 
the  Christian  Brothers  undertook  the  task  of 
popular  instruction,  but  were  unsuccessful,  owing 
to  the  apathy  of  the  government  and  of  the  set- 
tlers. In  1774,  the  order  of  Jesuits  was  sup- 
pressed in  Canada,  and  its  estates  vested  in  the 
Crown.     It  was  not,  however,  until  1831  that 


718 


QUEBEC 


these  estates  were  surrendered  to  the  provincial 
parliament  for  the  support  of  education.  In 
1  801,  an  act  was  passed  providing  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  schools,  under  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution for  the  Advancement  of  Learning.  This 
act  produced  but  slight  results;  and  the  Royal 
Institution,  at  present,  has  charge  of  very  little 
else  than  of  the  McGill  institutions,  and  these 
only  by  the  special  desire  of  their  founder. 

School  Law. — The  principal  provisions  of  the 
present  school  law  are  as  follows:  The  estates 
of  the  Jesuits  form  the  so-called  Superior  Edu- 
cation Investment  Fund,  the  revenues  of  which, 
together  with  other  moneys  appropriated  for  the 
purpose,  form  an  income  fund,  to  be  distributed 
among  the  universities,  and  all  other  educational 
institutions,  except  the  elementary  schools.  To 
this  fund.  $20,000  is  annually  added  from  the 
revenue  of  the  province;  and  a  sufficient  amount 
must  be  added  from  the  common-school  fund, 
so  as  to  make  up  the  sum  of  Sss,000.  The 
council  of  public  instruction  is  appointed  by 
the  lieutenant-governor,  consisting  of  1  (i  Roman 
Catholics  and  8  Protestants.  The  superintend- 
ent is  president,  e.r  (ifficio,  and  a  member  of  both 
committees,  with  a  vote  in  that  of  his  own 
religion.  The  council  makes  rules  for  schools 
and  examiners,  and  selects,  or  causes  to  be  pub- 
lished, the  books  to  be  used,  except  those  on 
religion  and  morals;  and  it  may  hold  the  copy- 
right thereof,  the  profits  accruing  from  which 
go  to  the  income  fund.  It  may,  also,  revoke  a 
teacher's  certificate  for  sufficient  cause.  Every 
municipality  elects  a  board  of  five  commission- 
ers, who  hold  office  for  five  years.  The  religious 
minority  in  any  municipality  may  dissent;  and 
may  nominate,  in  writing,  to  the  chairman  of  the 
commissioners  three  trustees,  who  may  exercise, 
in  respect    to  the  dissentient   schools,  the   same 

powers  that  the  commissioners  have  in  regard 

to  the  common  schools.  The  commissioners  ap- 
point the  teachers,  and  regulate  the  studies,  fees, 

etc.  No  other  books  than  those  prescribed  by 
the  council  can  be  used  ;  but  the  cure,  priest,  or 

officiating  minister  has  the  exclusive  right  to  des- 
ignate the  books  for  religious  instruction  tube 
used  in  the  sehoois  of  his  faith.  The  schools 
are  open  for  children  from  5  to  10  years  of  age; 
but  a  fee  may  be  charged  only  for  those  from  7 
tn  II.  Separate  schools  for  girls  may  be  estab- 
lished. Inspectors  are  appointed  by  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor ;  and,  in  their  visits,  have  the  power 

of  the  superintendent,  from  whom  thej  receive 
instructions.  The  resident  clergy  of  the  denom- 
ination to  which  the  school  belongs,  the  superior 
judges,  the  members  of  the  legislature,  resident 

justices  of   the  peace,  the    warden  or   mayor,  the 

senior  captain  and  superior  resident  officers  of 
militia  and  the  superintendent, are  school  visit- 
ors, and,  as  such,  may  take  pari  in  the  exami- 
nations of  teachers,  and  have  access  to  all  docu- 
ment.-. In  Quebec  and  Montreal,  the  corporation 
appoints  six  I! an  Catholic,  and  six  Protestanl 

C issi re,  one  balf  to  be  renewed  annually. 

»  Mherw  ise.  the  same  law  applies  to  these  eit  iea  as 
to  the  reel  of  the  province.     Any  fabrique,  i.  e-. 


the  cure  and  church-wardens  of  a  parish,  may 
establish  one  school  for  every  hundred  families. 
and  acquire  and  hold,  for  each  school,  property 
not  exceeding  $  W0  in  value.  Such  schools  may 
be  placed  for  one  or  more  years  under  the  school 
laws,  if  the  fabrique  and  school  commissioners. 
agree;  and  the  cure  or  church-warden  of  any 
fabrique  contributing  nol  less  than  $50  a  year 
to  a  school  under  commissioners,  may  hold  the 
office  of  commissioner;  but  no  fabrique  or 
school  can  be  united  with  the  schools  of  coni- 
missioners  of  another  faith. 

Primary  Schools. — In  L873, there  were  3,25  f 
elementary  schools  under  the  school  laws,  with 
141,990  pupils;  4  normal  schools, with  246  pu- 
pils; 156  independent  schools,  with  6,261  pupils; 
TH)  dissentient  schools,  with  7,665  pupils;  L29 
teaching  convents,  with  24,236  pupils,  and  343 
model  schools,  with  28,588  pupils.  Of  the  dis- 
sentient schools.  186,  with  6,156  pupils,  were 
Protestant;  and  34,  with  1,509  pupils,  were 
Roman  Catholic.  During  the  same  year,  662 
candidates  for  teachers'  certificates  were  ex- 
amined, of  whom  58  were  rejected.  There 
were,  in  L874,  three  normal  schools;  the  Jacques 
Cartier,  with  b>  male  pupils,  and  the  McGill 
school,  with  6  male  and  L06  female  pupils,  both 
in  .Montreal :  and  the  I  aval  school,  in  Quebec, 
with  43  male  and  56  female  pupils;  making,  in 
all.  254  pupils  for  the  three  normal  schools. 

Secondary  Schools. — There  are  two  classes  of 

colleges,  classical  and  industrial,  which  occupy 
a  position  similar  to  the  high  Bchools  of  Ontario. 
They  are  chiefly  boarding-schools,  although  a 

few  day  scholars  are  also  admitted.  The  course 
of  studies  in  each  comprises  those  usually  taught 

in  high  schools.   The  time  accessary  to  complete 

the  course,  varies  from  4  to  111  years.  The  total 
number  of  colleges,  in  1873,  was  37,  with  7.113 
students. 

Universities. — There  are  three  universities, — 
McGill  College  and  University,  in  Montreal;  the 
University  of  Laval,  in  Quebec;  and  the  Ini- 
versity  of  Bishop's  College,  in  Lennoxville. 
McGill  College  was  established  by  a  bequest  of 
•lames  Met  rill,  a  merchant  of  Montreal,  who  died 
in  L813.  Byroyal  charter,  which  was  received 
in  L821,  and  amended  in   L852,  the  governors. 

principal,  and  fellows  of  McGill  College  con- 
stitute the  corporation  of  the  university;  and, 
under    the    statutes    framed    by    the    governors, 

have  the  power  of  granting  degrees  in  all  the 

arts  and  faculties  in  Met  rill  t  'ollege,  and  coif 
affiliated  with  it.  These  arc  Morrin  ('ollege.  in 
Quebec;  the  Congregational  College  of  British 
North  America,  in  Montreal:  and  the  Pres- 
byterian College  oi  Montreal.  Teachers  trained 
in    the    McGill    Normal    School   arc  entitled   to 

provincial  diplomas.  McGill  University  had.  in 
L873,  1 'J  professors  and  l_  students  in  the  legal 

faculty,  I'-l  professors  and  L30  students  in  the 
medical  faculty,  and  1<>  professors  and  290  stu- 
dents in  the  faculty  of  arts.  The  University  of 
Laval,  in  Quebec,  was  founded  in  L852,  and  re- 
ceived the  royal  charter  the  same  year.  It 
is  governed    by  the    Roman   Catholic  Church. 


QUESTIONING 

The  Quebec  Seminary  is  the  collegiate  depart- 
ment of  Laval  University.     The  university  had, 

in  1873,  5  professors  and  54  students  in  the 
theological,  5  professors  and  .'!7  students  in  the 
legal,!*  professors  and  SS  students  in  the  medical 
faculty,  and  ID  professors  and  !)"  students  in 
t lie  faculty  of  arts.  The  University  of  Bishop's 
College,  in  Lennoxville,  is  governed  by  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church.  It  was  opened  in 
1845,  and,  in  1853,  received  the  royal  charter 
which  gave  it  university  powers.  It  had,  in 
1873,  a  theological  faculty,  with  5  professors  and 
54  students,  and  a  faculty  of  arts,  with  9  pro- 
fessors and  ss  students.  A  medical  faculty  has 
been  organized  since  that  time.  There  is  also  a 
large  number  of  professional  colleges  and  col- 
legiate schools. — See  Marling,  Canada  Educa- 
tional  Directory  and  Yearbook  for  1870; 
Lovell's  Directory  of  British  North  America 
(1873);  Ciiauveau  (formerly  minister  of  public 
instruction  in  Quebec),  in  Schmid's  Encyclopadie 
(2ded.,  187G),art.  Canada). 

QUESTIONING.     See  Interrogation. 

QUINTILIAN  ( Quintilian us), Marcus  Fa- 
bius,  a  Roman  teacher  and  educational  writer, 


RAIKES 


719 


was  born  probably  in  Calagurris,  Spain,  in  40 
A.  D.;  died  about  118.  lie  was  the  first 
public  teacher  of  oratory  at  Home,  receiving  a 
regular  salary  from  the  imperial  treasury,  and 
continuing  his  instruction  for  about  20  years. 
His  principal  work.  Be  Fnstitutione  Oratoria 
Libri  XII,  called  also  Tnstitutiones  Oratorio;, 
is  of  considerable  importance  in  the  history  of 

education,  as  the  first  and  second  hooks  contain 
Quintilian's  views  on  all  important  educational 
questions.  He  insisted  that  the  education  of  the 
child  should  begin  with  the  nurse,  who  should 
teach  the  child  a  correct  pronunciation,  lie 
strongly  recommended  public  schools  in  prefer- 
ence to  private  schools.  The  study  of  Greek 
should  begin  before  that  of  the  native  language 
(Latin):  and  the  course  of  instruction  should 
embrace  reading,  writing,  grammar,  music,  and 
geometry.  Elocution  should  be  taught  by  an 
actor.  The  educational  principles  commended  by 
Quintilian,  have,  however,  only  the  training  of 
good  rhetoricians  in  view. — See  Pilz,  Quintilian, 
ein  Lehrerleben  aus  der  romisdu-u  Kaiscrzcit 
(Leipsic,  1863)  ;  Barnard's  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation, vol.  x.  and  xi. 


RABANUS  {Hrabanus  or  Rhabamis)  Mau- 
rus,  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  the  middle 
ages,  born  about  776,  died  in  856.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  partly  in  the  monastery 
of  Fulda,  and  subsequently  studied  at  Tours, 
where  he  became  the  favorite  pupil  of  Alcuin. 
Having  returned  to  Fulda,  he  assumed  the  direc- 
tion of  the  convent  school.  When  he  was  elected 
abbot  of  Fulda,  in  822,  he  gave  up  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  non-clerical,  but  continued  that  of 
the  theological,  students.  The  school  of  Fulda 
became,  through  him,  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  the  age.  Young  men  from  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy  flocked  to  it  in  great  numbers,  and  its 
pupils  were  eagerly  sought  for  as  good  teachers. 
Eabanus  has  frequently  been  called  the  first 
teacher  of  Germany  (primus  prceceptor  Ger- 
man ice),  not  only  because  he  instructed  large 
numbers  of  young  men,  through  whom  learning 
was  spread  throughout  that  country,  but 
also  because  he  was  the  first  to  instruct  in  the 
German  language,  and  to  establish  a  school  for 
other  than  clerical  students.  Among  his  nu- 
merous works,  was  a  kind  of  encyclopaedia  of 
knowledge,  entitled  De  Universo,  which  exerted 
considerable  influence  upon  the  progress  of  edu- 
cation in  the  middle  ages.  —  See  Kixstmann, 
Eabanus  Mdgnentius  Maurus  (1841);  Bach, 
Ueber  Rabanus  Maurus.  als  ScJn'i/fer  des  deut- 
schen  Schulwesens  (1835);  Spengler,  heben  des 
heiliqen  Rhabanns  Maurus  (1856). 

RACINE  COLLEGE,  at  Racine,  Wis., 
founded  in  1852,  is  under  Protestant  Episcopal 
control.  It  has  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course, 
with  a  classical  and  a  mathematical  school  as 
preparatory  institutions.  The  regular  charge  for 
tuition,    board,    etc.,  is  $400  per    year.      The 


library  contains  3,000  volumes.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  18  instructors  and  180  students  (35 
classical,  10  scientific,  102  in  the  classical  school, 
and  33  in  the  mathematical  school).  The  Rev. 
James  De  Koven,  I).  P.,  is  (1877)  the  warden. 

RAGGED      SCHOOLS.       See      Reform 
Schools. 

RAIKES,  Robert,  an  English  printer  and 
philanthropist,  born  at  Gloucester.  1735  ;  died 
April  5.,  1811.  His  attention  was  specially  di- 
rected to  the  condition  of  the  children  of  the 
poor,  on  taking  a  walk  one  Sunday  through  the 
suburbs  of  his  native  place,  lie  engaged  four 
women,  keepers  of  dame  schools,  to  instruct  as 
many  children  as  he  should  send  to  them  on 
Sunday,  for  which  they  were  to  receive  a  shilling 
each.  The  children  came  in  large  numbers,  caus- 
ing a  marked  improvement  in  the  manners  and 
morals  of  the  place.  In  these  efforts,  he  was  greatly 
aided  by  the  Rev.  T.  Stock.  This  was  the  origin  of 
our  present  Sunday-school.  By  means  of  publica- 
tions, notably  that  of  a  letter  of  Mr.  Paikes  in 
the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  in  L784,  public  at- 
tention was  called  to  his  scheme  ;  and  the  system 
was  adopted  in  all  the  principal  towns  and  cities, 
and  spread  rapidly  through  Creat  Britain,  even 
attracting  the  attention  of  the  queen,  who  ex- 
pressed her  approbation  to  Mr.  Paikesin  person. 
The  first  obstacle  lie  encountered  was  a  want  of 
funds  to  pay  the  teachers.  This  was  soon  over- 
come by  the  teachers'  offering  their  services 
gratuitously.  The  secular  teaching,  which  was  a 
part  of  the  original  Sunday-school  system,  was 
discontinued,  with  the  exee|  ition  of  reading  which, 
for  a  long  time,  held  its  place,  in  course  of  time, 
however,  week-day  schools  becoming  general, 
this  was  given  up  ;  and  the  Sunday-school,  as  we 


720    RANDOLPH  MACOX  COLLEGE 


RAUMER 


now  know  it.  took  its  place  among  recognized 
educational  agencies.  From  that  time,  its  spread 
has  been  rapid  and  uninterrupted;  and  through- 
out Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  the 
Sunday-school  is  now  the  constant  attendant 
of  the  church.  —  See  Sketch  of  the  Life  of 
Robert  Rat  ken  mid  the  History  of  'Sunday-Schools 
(New  York)  :  and  W.  M.  Cornell,  Life  of  Rob- 
ert Raikes  (New  York,  1864).  (See  also  Sunday- 
Schools.) 

RANDOLPH  MACON  COLLEGE,  at 
Ashland.  Ya..  chartered  in  1832  and  or- 
ganized in  1834,  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  It  has 
productive  funds  to  the  amount  of  $25,000,  ex- 
tensive philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus,  a 
cabinet  of  minerals,  and  libraries  containing 
1 1 .000  volumes.  The  course  of  study  is  distributed 
into  separate  schools,  including  schools  of  Latin, 
Greek,  Knglish,  French.  German,  pure  mathe- 
matics, applied  mathematics,  natural  science, 
chemistry,  physiology  and  hygiene,  moral  philos- 
ophy and  metaphysics,  Biblical  literature',  and 
oriental  languages.  The  degrees  conferred  are 
Graduate  in  a  school.  Bachelor  of  Science, 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  Master  of  Arts,  the  last 
three  requiring  graduation  in  several  schools. 
A  handsome  new  lecture  hall  has  recently  been 
erected.  This,  with  the  other  buildings,  now 
planned,  and  an  additional  endowment  fund, 
will  considerably  increase  the  facilities  of  the  hi- 
st itution.  The  tuition  fee  for  three  or  more 
schools  is  $75  per  year.  Candidates  for  the 
ministry  are  exempt  from  the  payment  of 
tuition  fees.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  11  instruct- 
ors and  235  students.  The  Rev.  James  A. 
Duncan,  A.  M.,  D.  D.,  is  (187(5)  the  president. 

RATICH,  Wolfgang,  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man educator,  was  born  in  1571.  at  Wilsten,  in 
Boktein,  and  died  in  1(535,  at  Rudolstadt.  A 
difficulty  in  his  speech  compelling  him  to  give  up 
the  design  of  becoming  a  preacher,  he  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  1 1  el  new  and  Arabic 
Languages,  and  mathematics.  He  claimed  to  be 
the  inventor  of  a  new  system  of  instruction, 
vastly  superior  to  the  prevailing  ones.  In  L612, 
he  addressed  a  memorial  to  the  Diet  at  Frank- 
tort  in  behalf  of  his  system,  in  which,  he  as- 
serted, that  not  only  could  old  and  young  in  a 
short  time  easily  learn  I  lebrcw,  <  ireek,  Latin,  I  Ger- 
man, philosophy,  theology,  and  the  arts  and  scien- 
ces, but  that  uniformity  of  Language  and  religion 
could  he  introduced  into  the  whole  empire.  Sev- 
eral princes  were  led  to  interest  themselves  in  his 
scheme.  Professors  Bel  wig  and  •lung,  of  Giessen, 
and  Granger,  Brendel,  Walter,  and  wolf,  of  Jena, 
were  invited  to  investigate  it.  They  judged  it 
excellent  ill  theory,  and  made  a  favorable  report 
upon  it.  b'atich  agreed  with  Prince  Ludwig,  of 
Anhalt  Kolheii,  and  I  hike  John  Krnest.  of  WVi 
mar,  to  instruct  children  by  his  new  system,  and 
also  by  it  to  qualify  teachers  to  give  instruction 
in  any  language  in  less  time,  and  with  less  labor, 
than  by  any  other  method  used  in  Germany,  A 
printing-office  was  furnished  him  in  kothen, 
and  his  1  looks  were  printed  in  six  languages.     A 


school  was  established  for  him,  with  135  schol- 
ars. But  Ratich  proved  incompetent  to  give 
practical  effect  to  his  theories.  He  became  un- 
popular, and,  being  an  earnest  Lutheran,  fell 
under  the  ban  of  the  religious  prejudices  of 
a  community  attached  to  the  Reformed  faith. 
His  school  failed,  in  a  short  time.  Prince  Lud- 
wig quarreled  with  him,  and,  in  1619.  impris- 
oned him  ;  but  released  him  in  1620,  upon  his 
giving  a  written  declaration  that  "he  had 
claimed  and  promised  more  than  he  knew,  or 
could  bring  to  pass."  His  system  was  now 
attacked  by  some  who  had  been  his  friends. 
The  Countess  Anna  Sophia  von  Schwarzburg- 
RudoLstadt,  however,  recommended  him  tu  the 
Swedish  chancellor  Oxenstiern  ;  and,  at  there- 
quest  of  that  statesman.  Drs.  Bruckner,  .Meylart, 
and  Ziegler  having  examined  his  method,  made 
a  favorable  report  upon  it,  in  1634. — Ratich. 
without  doubt,  had  a  practical  conception  of  the 
objects  of  education.  He  preferred  to  give  in- 
struction in  those  branches  which  could  be  made 
useful  in  life,  rather  than  to  pay  so  much  atten- 
tion to  the  dead  languages.  In  his  memorial  to 
the  Diet  at  Frankfort,  he  held  that  the  child 
should  first  learn  to  read  and  speak  the  mother- 
tongue  correctly,  so  as  to  be  able  to  use  the 
( !ei  man  Bible.  Hebrew  and  Greek  should  then 
be  learned,  as  the  tongues  of  the  original  texts 
of  the  Bible,  after  which  Latin  might  be  studied. 
His  views  were  embodied  in  a  number  of  rules, 
or  principles,  the  chief  of  which  are  :  (1)  Every- 
thing should  be  presented  in  its  order,  a  due 
regard  being  always  had  to  the  course  of  nat- 
ure ;  (2)  Only  one  thing  should  be  presented  at 
a  time;  (3j  Kach  thing  should  be  often  repeated: 
(4)  Every  thing  should  be  taught,  at  tirst.  in  the 
mother-tongue  ;  afterward,  other  languages  may 
be  taught;  (5)  Every  thing  should  be  done  with- 
out compulsion  j  ((>)  Nothing  should  be  learned 
by  rote  ;  (7)  There  should  be  mutual  conformity 
in  all  things;  (8)  First  the  thing  by  itself,  and 
afterward  the  explanation  of  it;  that  is  to  say. 
a  basis  of  material  must  be  laid  in  the  mind  before 
any  rules  can  be  applied  to  it :  thus,  in  teaching 
grammar,  he  gave  no  rules,  but  began  with  tha 
reading  of  the  text,  and  required  that  the  rules 
should  be  deduced  from  it  ;  (9)  Every  thing  by 
expression,  and  the  investigation  of  parts.  In 
his  Methodus,  he  has  left  minute  directions  to 
teachers  concerning  the  details  of  the  course,  and 
the  proper  methods  of  instruction  ;  but  they  are 
very  prolix,  and  impose  an  immense  amount  of 
labor  on  the  teacher, without  seeming  to  call  for  a 
corresponding  degree  of  exertion  on  the  part  of 

the  pupil.  <  'oinenius,  after  reading  his  book,  re- 
marked that  he  "had  not  ill  displayed  the  faults 
of  the  schools,  but  that  his  remedies  were  not 
distinctly  shown."  Ration's  works  were  written 
in  Latin,  and  are  diffuse,  tedious,  and  some- 
what pedantic. 

RAUMER,  Karl  Georg  von,  a  German 
professor  and  author,  born  in  Worlitz,  April  9., 
L783;  died  in  Eriangen,  June  2.,  1865.  He  was 
educated  at  Gottingen,  Halle,  and  Freiberg,  and 
was  appointed  to  a  position  in  the  mineralogies] 


READING 


721 


bureau  in  Berlin,  in  1811  ;  and,  shortly  after,  to 
that  of  professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  university 
of  Breslau.  He  acted  as  aid  to  (jneisenau  in  the 
campaign  of  1813 — 14  against  the  French.  From 
1819  to  1 823,  he  was  a  professor  in  the  university 
of  Halle, and  afterward  taught  in  Nuremberg  till 
1827,  when  he  received  the  appointment  of  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  and  mineralogy  in  the 
university  of  Krlangeu.  He  is  chiefly  known  by 
his  geographical  and  geological  works  ;  but  his 
principal  claim  to  the  attention  of  educators  is  his 
Geschichtc  der  Pddagogik,  or  History  of  Peda- 
gogy, published  in  4  volumes  (Stuttgart,  1846 — 
55).  An  English  translation  of  the  larger  portion 
of  this  work  has  appeared  in  Barnard's  Journal 
of  Education;  also,  separately,  under  the  title 
German  Educators. 

READING,  as  the  basis  and  instrument  of 
all  literary  education,  is  the  most  important 
branch  of  school  instruction.  After  the  child 
has  learned  to  talk,  he  may  be  taught  to  under- 
stand, and  to  give  vocal  expression  to,  such  writ- 
ten language  as  is  adapted  to  his  degree  of  men- 
tal development.  To  do  this  involves  an  asso- 
ciation, in  the  mind,  of  the  printed  form  of  the 
word  (1)  with  its  proper  sound,  or  pronunciation, 
and  (2)  with  the  idea,  which  it  is  intended  to 
express.  In  teaching  children  to  read,  the  first 
of  these  processes  requires  the  principal  atten- 
tion ;  but,  as  progress  is  made,  the  second  con- 
stantly increases  in  importance.  The  word,  and 
not  the  letters  composing  it,  is  the  true  element 
in  reading.  No  one  can  be  said  to  know  how 
to  read  who  is  obliged  to  stop  at  the  word,  and 
study  its  composition,  before  he  can  pronounce 
it.  The  due  meaning  and  pronunciation  of  every 
word  must  be  immediately  recognized  by  the 
mind,  without  pause  or  hesitation,  in  the  act  of 
reading.  But  the  word  is  made  up  of  separate 
characters,  representing  elementary  sounds  ;  and 
hence  arises  a  diversity  of  methods  in  teaching 
children  to  pronounce  words.  The  alphabet 
method,  or  A-B-C  method  (q.  v.),  requires  that 
the  child  should  learn  the  names  of  all  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  and  then,  by  means  of  a  spelling 
process,  learn  the  proper  pronunciation  of  their 
combinations.  This  process  is  condemned  by 
most  teachers  of  the  present  time,  as  long  and 
tedious,  as  well  as  illogical ;  the  method  most 
generally  preferred  being  that  denominated  the 
word  method  (q.  v.) ,  by  which  the  child  learns 
at  once  to  pronounce  short  words,  and  is  taught 
the  sounds  and  names  of  the  letters,  by  an  anal- 
ysis of  them.  When  the  sounds  of  the  letters 
are  used  instead  of  the  names,  the  process  has 
been  called  the  phonic  method  (q.  v.),  which,  in 
modern  didactics,  is  most  generally  approved. 
<  'ertainly,  it  is  more  rational  to  expect  that  a 
child  will  perceive  the  true  pronunciation  of  a 
word  through  an  analysis  of  the  sounds  of  the 
letters,  than  by  using  their  names,  many  of  which 
afford  no  key  to  the  sound.  For  example,  if  the 
word  be  cat,  the  child  reaches  the  pronunciation 
at  once  by  enumerating  the  sounds  Tc-a—t ;  while 
by  spelling,  he  is  obliged  to  say  se-d-te,  introdu- 
cing souncls  entirely  foreign  to  the  word.  In  the 
46 


I  one  case,  the  mental  association  required  is  sim- 
|  pie  and  direct ;    in  the  other,  it  is  complex  and 
indirect,     it  is  true  that,  by  long  and  diligent 
rote-teaching,  children  learn  to  read  by  the  latter 
method;  but  the  question  arises,  are  they  not 
to  a  certain  extent  unfitted  for  other  instruction 
by  so  illogical  a  process?  Auxiliary  to  the  phonic 
method,  and,  indeed,  dictated  by  its  needs,  is  the 
phon$tic  method,  in  which  the  absurd  contradic- 
tions of  the  alphabet  are  removed  by  using  the 
letters  slightly  modified,  so  as  to  have  a  character 
for  each  separate  sound,  and  each  sound  repre- 
sented by  one,  and   only  one,  character.     (See 
Orthography,  and  Fhonktics.)     These  various 
methods  are  dictated  by  what  may  perhaps  be 
called  the  mechanics  of  reading;  but,  in  con- 
nection with  that,  the  teacher  must  always  bear 
in  mind,  that  what  the  child  is  learning  to  pro- 
nounce is  a  symbol  of  thought ;  and,  hence,  at 
every  step,  the  pupil's  understanding  is  to  be  ad- 
dressed.   Beading,  as  a  part  of  education,  has  a 
twofold  object :  (1)  to  understand  what  is  read  ; 
and  (2)   to   give   proper   oral  expression  to  it; 
that  is  to  say,  reading  is  either  for  the  purpose 
of  gaining  information  for  one's  self,  or  for  im- 
parting information  to  others.    To  teach  a  pupil 
to  read  properly  implies  far  more  than  correct 
elocution.    It  implies  the  development  of  that 
judgment  and  spirit  which,  being  brought  to  the 
perusal  of  useful  books,  or  other  reading  matter, 
will  enable  the  student  to  gather  up  information, 
and,  in  every  available  manner,  make  the  realm 
of  books  tributary  to  his  own  mental  wants. 
Hence,  as  auxiliary  to  reading,  the  proper  mean- 
ing of  words,  phrases,  and  idioms  must  be  taught ; 
and  exercises  must  be  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  to  what  extent  the  pupil  has  re- 
ceived correct  ideas  from  what  he  has  read. 
When  the  object  is  to  teach  the  pupils  elocution, 
the  exercises  should  be  specially  adapted  to  that 
end.     Thus,  the  pupil,  having  read  in  order  to 
understand  for  himself,  should  be  required  to 
read  the  same  passage  for  the  information  of  his 
fellow  pupils.    For  this  purpose,  it  has  been  rec- 
ommended, in  class  teaching,  to  permit  only 
the  pupil  reading  to  use  the  book,  all  the  others 
being  required  to  listen ;  because,  in  this  way. 
the  pupils  will  be  on  the  alert  to  hear  and  know 
the  meaning  of  what  is  read,  and  will,  besides, 
better  appreciate  the  true  end  of  reading  ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  one  reading  will  endeavor 
to  pronounce  correctly,  enunciate  distinctly,  and 
emphasize  naturally.     Reading-books  should  be 
constructed  with  a  special  reference  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  object ;  and  hence,  the  lessons 
should  be  adapted,  at  each  stage,  to  the  mental 
status  of  the  pupils.     Moreover,  the  material 
should  not  consist  of  mere  fragments,  without 
any  logical  continuity  ;  but  should  be  of  such  a 
character  as  to  discipline  the  mind  in  connected 
thinking  upon  suitable  subjects,  and  to  awaken 
an  interest  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.     Usually, 
this  essential  object  of  reading  in  schools  is  de- 
t 'ea ted  by  the  use  of  extracts  from  essays  on  dif- 
ficult, abstract  subjects,  or  from  authors  whose 
style  is  too  complex,  and  whose  vocabulary  is  too 


722 


REAL  SCHOOLS 


ponderous  for  children.  Simultaneous  reading 
is  commended  by  some  teachers  as  an  elocution- 
ary drill,  as  being  useful  (1)  to  impart  habits  of 
distinctness  of  enunciation,  (2)  to  remove  the 
habit  of  too  rapid  or  too  slow  a  style  of  reading, 
(3)  as  a  means  of  voice  culture  fur  elocution. — 
See  Currie,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Com- 
mon-School Education;  Wickeksham.  Methods 
of  Instruction  :  How  to  Teach  (X.  Y.,  1874). 
(See  also  Elocution,  and  Voice.) 

REAL  SCHOOL,  or  Real  Gymnasium, 
the  name  used  in  Germany  to  designate  a  kind  of 
high  school.  This  term  was  used  as  early  as  1706; 
but  the  first  permanent  real  school  was  founded 
by  J.  J.  Hecker  in  1747.  (See  Germany,  and 
Heckee.)  The  real  schools  are  utilitarian  in  char- 
acter, and  aim  to  teach,  like  the  scientific  depart  - 
1 1  njnts  of  the  American  college,  only  those  branches 
designed  to  develop  the  jirac/icul  man.  They  are 
strictly  the  people's  schools,  and  aim  to  fit  espe- 
cially for  occupation  in  trade  and  industry.  Hence 
they  are  sometimes  called  higher  burgher  schools. 
Their  course  of  study  is  more  advanced  than  thai 
of  the  elementary  and  common  schools ;  and  they 
should  always  bear  the  name,  as  they  do  in  some 
instances,  real  gymnasia,  because  they  are  the 
preparatory  schools  for  institutions  affording  to 
the  would-be  merchant,  artist,  artisan,  etc..  ad- 
vantages like  those  offered  by  the  classical  gym- 
nasia to  the  future  theologian,  lawyer,  physician, 
etc.  The  realists  claim  that  the  gymnasium  is  a 
preparatory  school  for  the  patient  toiler  in  in- 
vestigation, giving  a  (raining  unfit  for  practical 
life  :  but  that  the  real  schools  meet  this  want  by 
educating  the  boy  to  become  n/ tract ical  manj  not  a 
scholar.  They  pay  less  regard  to  verbal  knowl- 
edge, but  more  to  mathematics  and  its  appli- 
cation to  the  arts,  and  arrange  the  whole  course 
so  as  to  facilitate  the  development  of  those 
mental  habits  which  are  favorable  to  the  highest 

practical  success,  and  yet  provide  an  adequate 
intellectual  culture.  According  to  the  Prussian 
school  regulation,  their  purpose  is  to  afford  a 
scientific  preparatory  training  for  those  higher 
pursuits  which  do  not  absolutely  require  academ- 
ical studies  under  any  special  faculty.  The  Prus- 
sian government,  though  it  lias  refused  to  sup- 
port these  schools,  obliging  the  towns  in  which 
they   are    located   to  maintain  them,  has  recog- 

ni/.eil  their  efficiency  by  permitting,  since  1871, 
graduates  of  those  of  the  first  order  to  be  re- 
ceived into  the  different  branches  of  the  civil 
service,  and  to  be  relieved  from  military  duty. 
like  gymnasia  students,  after  one  year's  service, 
instead  of  three,  with  the  privilege  of  advance- 
ment to  the  commissioned  ranks  in  case  of  mobil- 
ization. Since  the  unification  of  the  German 
nation,  the  schools  of  this  order  in  the  different 
States  are  being  bp  lUghl  to  a  standard  harmonious 
with  the  Prussian,  Those  of  northern  Germany 
are  quite  well  regulated  ;  those  of  southern  Ger- 
many are  slowly  but  steadily  improving. — The 
genera]  division  and   management  of  the  real 

■ols  of  the  first  order  are  the  same  as  those  of 

the  gymnasia.    The  course  of  study  extends  over 

nine  years  and  through  six  classes.     The  average 


age  of  admission  is  nine  years,  and  of  discharge, 
eighteen.  The  attention  which  the  gymna- 
sium gives  to  the  classical  languages,  the  real 
school  pays  to  the  modem.  V*  hde  the  former 
schools  teach  only  French,  and  merely  enable 
the  learner  to  read  it  without  a  dictionary,  and 
to  compose  in  it  with  moderate  ease;  the  latter, 
substituting  English  for  Greek,  give  the  learner 
a  good  knowledge  of  both  French  and  English. 
Thus,  the  same  familiarity  which  the  classical 
stiu  lent  acquires  with  the  history  of  ancient  litera- 
ture, the  realist  acquires  with  modern  literature. 
AN'hilo  ancient  history  is  not  ignored,  the  events 
of  the  last  three  centuries,  and  the  political 
changes  which  brought  about  the  present  status 
of  civil  society  are  carefully  considered.  Far 
greater  attention,  also,  is  paid  to  the  exact  scien- 
ces. There  are  some  real  gymnasia  whose  students 
are  exempt  from  the  restrictions  put  upon  the 
graduates  of  the  real  school.  They  teach  Creek, 
though  less  of  it  than  the  classical  gymnasia, 
and  permit  the  substitution  of  a  modern  for  a 
classical  language,  in  the  last  two  years  of  the 
course,  or,  at  least,  for  Hebrew,  which  is  an 
elective  study  in  all  the  Prussian  gymnasia.  Of 
the  real  schools  of  inferior  order,  the  so-called 
higher  burgher  school  has  a  course  extending 
through  only  seven  years,  the  prima,  or  highest 
class,  alone  requiring  two  years;  while  all  other 
classes  require  one  year's  attendance.  The  real 
schools  of  the  second  grade  provide,  in  their 
lower  classes,  for  elementary  and  common- 
school  training.  They  also  permit  a  deviation 
from  the  regular  course,  and  provide  for  elective 
Studies,  among  which  is  Latin;  but  some  ex- 
clude Latin  altogether.  These  schools  are 
certainly  misnamed;  they  are.  really,  of  the 
third  grade,  and  the  higher  burgher  schools  are 
of  the  second  grade.  In  1875,  an  effort  was  lie- 
gun  to  modify  the  course  of  the  gymnasia  so  as 
to  admit  of  a  choice  of  classical  or  scientific 
study,  in  older  to  do  away  with  the  real  schools; 
but  the  probability  is  that  the  last-named  schools 
will  continue  in  their  present  organic  form,  pos- 
sibly so  modifying  their  course  of  study  as  to 
ignore  the  wants  of  the  civil  service,  to  which 
hitherto  more  or  less  attention  has  been  paid, 
and   to  secure  greater  efficiency  of   training   for 

mechanical  and  commercial  pursuits.  In  Ger- 
many, there  are  now  about  300  real  schools  of 
the  first  order,  and  600  of  the  inferior  grade. 
In  the  German  provinces  of  Austria,  there  are 
'A~  of  the  firsl  grade,  and  about  LOO  of  an  inferior 
grade.  Ileal  schools  have  been  generally  estab- 
lished in  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  and  very 

recently,  in  Russia,  where  they  are  rapidly  in- 
creasing. See  M  vqee,  Diedeutsche  Burgerschule 
(Stuttgart.  L840);  Loth,  Die  Reakcliid-Frago 
(l.eips..  L870)  :  KuKissn;,  Velter  Renlismus  und 
ttealschulwesen  (Berl.,  L872),  fair,  critical,  and 
complete;  Gai.i.enkami1.  Die  Reform  il<r  Itiihe- 
ren  Lehranstalten  (Berl.,  1874);  Schmidt,  (■'■- 
schichte  der  P&dagogik,  vol.  n.;  and.  especially, 
Barnard,  Qerman  Teachers  and  Educators. 
Against  their  maintenance,  see  Laas,  Gymna- 
sium und  Realschule  (Berl.,  L875). 


RrA  ESSES 


RECITATION 


7 '23 


RECESSES.      See  Hygiene,  School,  and 

School    MANAGEMENT. 

RECITATION,  a  term  used  in  American 
colleges  and  schools,  to  denote  the  rehearsal  of  a 
lesson  by  pupils  before  their  instructor,  or  the 
repetition  of  something  committed  to  memory. 
The  manner  in  which  the  teacher  should  con- 
duct the  daily  recitations  of  his  class  is  a  matter 
of  very  great  importance,  since  apparently  perfect 
recitations  may  be  gone  through  with  which  not 
only  have  little  educative  value,  but  may  even  be 
productive  of  positive  harm  to  the  mind  of  the 
pupil.  The  surest  guide,  in  this  respect,  is  that 
which  is  derived  from  a  consideration  of  the  es- 
sential meaning  of  the  word  education,  no  method 
of  recitation  having  any  value  which  does  not 
keep  constantly  in  view  the  development  of  the 
pupil's  mental  powers.  It  should  always  be  re- 
membered by  the  teacher  that  the  supreme  ob- 
ject of  the  recitation  is  to  accustom  the  pupil,  by 
daily  practice,  to  use  the  faculties  of  which  he 
is  possessed.  Many  a  so-called  recitation  results, 
by  too  much  explanation  on  the  part  of  the  teach- 
er, in  a  reversal  of  the  functions  of  the  teacher 
and  his  class — the  former  reciting  to  the  latter, 
instead  of  the  latter  to  the  former.  The  passive 
attitude  of  mind  in  which  pupils  listen  to  a  long 
explanation  is  the  very  attitude  from  which 
they  need  to  be  roused.  There  are  two  stages 
in  the  development  of  a  mental  power  as  pro- 
duced by  the  exercises  of  the  class  room:  (1)  the 
knowing  what  to  say;  and  (2)  the  saying  of  it. 
The  first  stage  the  pupil  is  supposed  to  have 
reached  by  the  study  of  the  lesson;  the  second, 
and  most  important  one,  is  not  passed  through 
by  the  pupil  in  the  case  above  supposed.  Of  far 
greater  service  is  it,  therefore,  to  the  pupil,  to  be 
allowed  to  state  the  result  of  his  study  in  his 
own  language,  halting  and  imperfect  though  it 
be,  than  to  compel  him  to  listen  to  an  exposition 
by  the  teacher.  Under  the  first  condition,  it  will 
be  apparent,  at  every  step,  whether  he  really 
understands  his  lesson;  and,  if  he  does,  every  day 
will  add  to  the  copiousness  of  his  vocabulary, 
and  his  ease  of  mental  action,  and  give  to  his 
recitation  its  highest  educative  result;  while, 
under  the  second — the  condition  of  a  ''passive 
recipient"', — there  will  always  be  apparent  to 
every  discerning  person,  an  inexact  apprehension 
of  the  thought  presented,  a  certain  degree  of 
insincerity,  strengthened  into  a  mental  habit 
through  fear  of  ridicule,  and  mental  powers 
"rusting  in  disuse".  Even  apt  pupils,  under  such 
conditions,  will  become,  at  best,  theorists  or 
dreamers — critics,  ready  to  pass  judgment  upon 
others'  performances,  but  powerless  to  act  for 
themselves.  The  utmost  that  can  be  claimed  for 
this  method  is,  that  a  single  faculty,  that  of 
memory,  has  been  cultivated;  while  this  culti- 
vation has  been  accomplished  not  only  by  the 
neglect,  for  the  time  being,  of  the  other  powei-s, 
but  at  their  expense;  since  the  pupil  is  daily  be- 
coming confirmed  in  the  idea  that  they  are 
properly  exercised,  and,  by  pursuing  all  future 
studies  in  the  same  way,  acts  to  their  permanent 
injury.     It  is  not  intended  by  this  to  discoun- 


tenance the  explanation  of  those  difficult  points 
which  will  always  occur,  sometimes  thr6ugh  a 
feebleness  of  the  pupil's  understanding,  and  at 
others  through  a  failure  of  the  text-book  to  sup- 
ply a  link  necessary  to  the  continuity  ofthought. 
Such  explanations  are  Legitimate,  and  should  be 
made  in  language  suited  to  the  pupil's  compre- 
hension; the  most  thoughtful  educators  agreeing 
in  this,  that  one  of  the  gra\  est  errors  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  is  an  explanation  in  terms  so  un- 
familiar as  to  be  unintelligible,  or  so  as  to  leave 
on  the  mind  of  the  pupil  only  a  vague  and  un- 
satisfactory impression.  One  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous merits  of  an  able  teacher  is  [usability 
to  explain,  in  concise  and  simple  language,  the 
difficulties  which  necessarily  beset  the  paths  of 
his  pupils.  But  it  must  always  be  borne  in 
mind  that  one  of  the  greatest  merits  of  a  recita- 
tion is  to  compel  the  pupil  to  discover  and  present 
for  himself  the  difficulties  which  he  has  encount- 
ered.— The  method  of  simultaneous  recitation  is 
open  to  the  objection  that  by  it  the  errors  of 
backward  pupils — and  those,  therefore,  who  are 
most  in  need  of  instruction — are  concealed  under 
the  readiness  of  the  more  forward.  The  result 
usually  anticipated  from  this  method,  i.  e.,  a 
quickening  of  the  mental  powers  of  backward 
pupils  under  the  spur  of  emulation,  does  not  ap- 
pear in  practice.  Says  an  eminent  teacher, 
"Simultaneous  recitation  may  sometimes  be  use- 
ful. A  few  questions  thus  answered  may  serve 
to  give  animation  to  a  class,  when  their  interest 
begins  to  flag;  but  that  wdiich  may  serve  as  a 
stimulant  must  not  be  relied  on  for  nutrition. 
As  an  example  of  its  usefulness,  I  have  known  a 
rapid  reader  tamed  into  due  moderation  by 
being  put  in  companionship  with  others  of 
slower  speech,  just  as  we  tame  a  friskful  colt  by 
harnessing  him  into  a  team  of  grave  old  horses. 
But  aside  from  such  definite  purpose.  I  have  seen 
no  good  come  of  this  innovation."  Though  this 
method  is  resorted  to  often  from  necessity  in 
large  schools,  its  operation  should  be  carefully 
watched.  It  is  open,  also,  to  the  objections  com- 
mon to  all  rote  teaching,  the  answer  committed 
to  memory  from  the  book  being  never  so  sure  an 
indication  of  the  pupil's  apprehension  of  the 
meaning,  as  his  answer,  before  the  class,  in  his 
own  language.  This  latter  furnishes  not  only  an 
accurate  register  of  the  pupil's  real  progress,  but 
is  a  mental  exercise  of  the  highest  value,  since  it 
leads  to  accuracy  of  conception  and  expression, 
and  increases  the  power  of  continuous  thinking. 
(See  Concert  Teaching.) — The  first  requisite 
for  skillfully  conducting  a  recitation  is  a  thor- 
ough preparation  by  the  teacher  for  the  partic- 
ular lesson  he  is  to  hear,  so  that  he  may  be  able 
to  follow  each  step  taken  by  the  pupil,  and  may 
stand  ready,  at  any  moment,  to  supply  the  needed 
word  in  which  the  pupil  is  striving  to  embody 
his  thought.  This  word,  in  case  the  pupil's  con- 
ception of  the  idea  is  correct,  but  its  expression 
unfamiliar,  will  usually  be  some  simple  generic 
one  for  which  the  special  or  technical  word  may 
properly  be  substituted  by  the  teacher.  Another 
point  to  be  remembered  is  the  order  in  which  the 


*24 


IM  CITATIONS 


REFORM    SCHOOLS 


different  parts  of  a  subject  are  presented.  Where 
these  parts  depend  upon  each  other  by  a  natural 
progression,  as  they  frequently  do,  a  skillful 
teacher  will  so  order  the  recitations  of  a  class 
that  those  parts  of  the  subject  which  are  the 
natural  stepping-stones  to  other  parts,  shall  be 
presented  first,  such  an  arrangement  conducing 
powerfully  to  a  correct  comprehension  of  the 
subject  as  a  whole.  In  some  studies — in  the 
natural  and  exact  sciences,  almost  always — this 
method  is  absolutely  necessary:  but,  while  in 
other  branches  its  value  is  not  so  apparent,  the 
advantage  to  be  derived  from  its  adoption  is 
generally  considerable. — A  thorough  compre- 
hension by  the  pupils  of  the  subject  under  con- 
sideration will  insure  the  maintenance  of  three 
other  conditions  necessary  to  success  in  teaching, 
and  usually  quite  strenuously  insisted  on  by 
writers  on  the  subject;  namely,  animation,  at- 
tention, and  a  natural  tune.  When  pupils  under- 
stand what  they  are  reciting,  their  attention  and 
animation  are,  by  that  fact,  made  certain;  and  a 
natural  tone  is  instinctively  adopted.  In  youth, 
the  appetite  for  new  truths  is  so  eager,  the  ex- 
ultant feeling  which  accompanies  the  conquest  of 
difficulties  is  so  keen,  that  the  reflection  of  this 
in  the  voice  and  manner  of  the  pupil  is  a  matter 
of  certainty.  Indeed,  their  opposites,  — inat- 
tention and  want  of  animation,  are  generally 
considered  by  educational  writers  as  an  indica- 
tion of  a  want  of  comprehension — as  the  sure 
test  by  which  the  teacher  may,  at  any  moment, 
judge  of  the  success  of  his  instruct  ion.  The  length 
of  recitations  has  been  more  carefully  considered 
during  the  past  few  years  than  ever  before,  the 
weight  of  authority  having  constantly  inclined 
to  a  diminution  of  the  time  considered  proper 
for  this  purpose  only  a  generation  ago.  Currie, 
for  example,  considers  that  fifteen  minutes  is  the 
proper  medium  for  classes  of  very  young  children. 
twenty  being  the  maximum;  while  half  an  hour 
is  the  average  for  classes  generally,  the  fixing  of 
the  attention  for  a  longer  period  not  being  at- 
tended with  profit.  In  classes  of  older  children, 
and  in  advanced  instruction,  the  time  of  recitation 
may,  of  course,  be  considerably  prolonged  beyond 
these  limits,  the  principle,  however,  being  still 
carefully  observed. — 1>.  1*.  Tag'  says  on  this 
subject  :  'Asa  motive  for  every  teacher  to  study 
carefully  the  art  of  teaching  well  at  the  recitation, 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind   that   then   and  there 

be  comes  before  his  pupils  in  a  peculiar  and 
prominent  manner;  it  is  (here  his  mind  comes 
specially  in  contact  with  theirs,  and  there  thai  he 
lays  in  them,  for  good  or  for  evil, the  foundations 

of  their  mental  habits.      It  is  a1  the  recitation  in 

a  peculiar  manner  thai  he  makes  his  mark  upon 

their  minds;  and  as  the  seal  upon  the  wax.  so  his 
mental  character   upon  theirs   leaves  its  impress 

behind."  3«  I'.  I'.  Page,  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Teaching  (N.  T.,  L854);  Currie,  Common 
S<h<><>[  Education,  and  Early  mid  Infant  Sc 
Education  (Edinburgh,  L857);  Lb  Vawx,  The 
nee  oud  Art  if  Teaching  (Toronto,  lv7."'  : 
and  -I.  P.  Wickebsham,  School  Economy  (Fhila., 
1868). 


REFORM  SCHOOLS,  or  Reformatories, 

are  institutions  founded  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
claiming children  who.  from  various  causes — 
neglect,  early  subjection  to  evil  influences,  innate 
depravity,  etc..  —  have  entered  upon  a  career 
of  vice  or  crime.  Such  schools  strive  not  only 
to  prevent  the  youth  from  committing  offenses 
which  tnusl  be  dealt  with  by  law.  but  to  edu- 
cate him  so  that  his  influence  shall  be  active 
for  good.  Though  the  name  reform  school  has 
been  somewhat  loosely  applied  to  various  houses 
or  institutions  for  reclaiming  children  or  youth 
from  evil  courses, an  important  distinction  exists 
between  such  institutions  and  the  reform  school 
proper.    Notwithstanding  this  strict  definition, 

j  however,  the  term  will  be  used  in  this  article  to 
designate  all  institutions  whose  object  is,  by 
active  educational  means,  to  reclaim  their   in- 

1  mates  whether  under  judicial  sentence  or  not. 
The  manlier  in  which  this  reclamation  has  been 
effected  in  different  countries,  furnishes  an  inter- 
esting chapter  in  the  history  of  human  ingenuity 
and  philanthropy.  The  history  of  reform  schools 
in  Germany  begins  with  the  Reformation,  when 
work-houses  were  established  in  Amsterdam.  Ley- 
den,  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  and  other  cities,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  occupation  to  those  who  were 
prohibited  from  vagrancy  by  laws  then  first  en- 
acted. Young  thieves  were  placed  in  the  care  of 
the  magistrate  to  receive  religious  instruction, 
and  every  work-house  was  provided  with  a  special 
department  in  which  refractory  children  were 
placed  for  discipline.  Parents  were  permitted 
to  send  there  obstinate  or  froward  children  to 
undergo  treatment,  either  gratuitously  or  for  a 
small  charge,  which  entitled  them  to  certain  priv- 
ileges. The  benevolent  movement  thus  begun 
soon  led  to  the  establishment  of  houses  of  correc- 
tion, industrial  schools,  orphan  houses,  and  kin- 
dred institutions, all  differing  somewhat  from  the 
reform  school  and  from  each  other,  but  all  spring- 
ing from  substantially  the  same  idea — the  rescue 
of  children  from  a  condition,  actual  or  prospect- 
ive, of  vice  or  crime.  The  originator  of  the  mod- 
ern reform  school  in  Germany  was  J.  D.Falk, 
Avho  formed  a  society,  called  Friends  in  A 
which,  in  L818,  had  found  homes  for  300  cliil- 
i.  to  whom  elementary  instruction  was 
given  in  religion  and  industrial  branches.  The 
institution  thus  founded  at  Weimar  was  named 
Lutherhof,  and  was  followed  by  the  establish- 
ment of  similar  ones  in  Erfurt,  Goldberg,  and 
I  allien.  ( 'on  temporal  icons  with  the  institution  of 
I'alk  were  those  of  Overdyk  and  Dusselthal, 
founded  by  Counts  Adalbert  and  Werner  von 
der  Ricke,  which  arc  still  in  existence,  and  have 
an  average  attendance  of  300  children.  The  re- 
form school  of  B<  llggen,  in  the  southern  part  of 
Baden,  was  founded  in  L816.  It  was  the  fij 
school  of  the  kind  in  southern  Germany,  and  was 
followed  by  one  in  Neiihof.  and  a  reform  school 
for  girls  in  Krlangen.  The  first  reform  school 
in  Berlin  was  opened  in  L825, and  has  recently 
been  very  much  enlarged.  It  is  the  model  on 
which  similar  institutions  have  been  0  d  at 

MemeL  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  Pceen,   KLonigB- 


REFORM    SCHOOLS 


725 


berg,  and  Stettin.  The  foundation  of  houses  of 
correction,  however,  by  the  government,  has 
caused  the  disappearance  of  all  these  later  in- 
stitutions except  that  at  Stettin.  A  house  of 
correction  was  founded  in  Hamburg,  in  L829. 
At  the  present  time,  there  are  12  houses  of  fliis 
class  in  Prussia,  3  in  Saxony.  1  in  Wiirtemberg, 
1  in  Hamburg,  and  1  in  Bremen.  A  reform 
school  was  established  in  Lichtenstein,  in  1836, 
and  another  in  Tempelhof,  in  1843 — both  in 
connection  with  the  normal  schools  in  those 
places.  There  is  also  a  central  school  of  this 
class  at  Reutlingen,  with  7  associated  schools  or 
branches.  It  appears  that  Wiirtemberg  has 
done  more  in  this  direction  than  any  other  Ger- 
man state.  In  1867,  it  contained  32  reform 
schools :  26  Protestant,  5  Catholic,  and  1  Jew- 
ish, with  accommodations  for  1,667  children,  and 
an  actual  attendance  of  1,269.  Many  societies 
exist  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  neglected  chil- 
dren into  homes  and  schools,  all  of  which  work 
under  the  direction  of  a  central  committee  of  char- 
ity. In  Switzerland,  7  farm  and  reform  schools 
were  established  between  1810  and  1830  ;  from 
1830  to  1*40,  12  more  were  founded;  from  1841 
to  1846,  10  more  ;  and  from  that  to  the  present 
time,  15;  so  that  now  Switzerland  has  44  schools 
of  this  kind,  with  1.543  pupils.  In  Baden,  in 
1843,  a  Protestant  school  was  founded  at  Dur- 
lach,  and  a  Catholic  one  at  Mariahof,  the  pupils 
in  each  numbering  about  50.  The  most  cel- 
ebrated of  these  reform  schools,  however,  was 
the  Rauhes  Haus,  formed  in  Hamburg  by  J.  H. 
Wichern,  in  1833.  As  this  has  been  for  a  long 
time  a  model  for  schools  of  the  kind,  a  short  ac- 
count of  its  organization  and  management  will 
not  be  out  of  place.  In  1833,  J.  H.  Wichern 
went,  with  his  mother,  to  live  on  a  small,  rude- 
ly cultivated  farm  near  Hamburg,  taking  with 
him,  in  accordance  with  a  vow  made  to  compan- 
ions in  a  home  missionary  society,  12  boys  gath- 
ered from  the  wrorst  haunts  of  vice  and  misery  in 
the  city.  The  organization  naturally  suggested 
to  him  by  the  circumstances,  was  that  of  the 
family;  his  mother  personating  the  mother  of  the 
family,  and  himself  the  father.  Here  the  boys 
received  elementary  instruction,  mental  and  re- 
ligious, and  were  trained  to  labor  on  the  farm. 
The  project  attracted  general  attention;  and, from 
time  to  time,  other  cheap  houses  were  built,  some 
for  boys,  and  some  for  girls,  each  to  accommodate 
about  the  same  number  of  inmates,  till,  in  time, 
the  rough  farm  was  converted  into  a  little  village 
with  its  church,  school-house,  workshops,  and 
gardens.  This  w  as  the  origin  of  the  "family  plan."' 
since  adopted  in  reformatory  institutions  in  many 
parts  of  the  civilized  world.  The  fundamental 
idea  of  the  Rauhes  Haus,  however,  originally  pro- 
claimed and  never  lost  sight  of,  was  that  of  mis- 
sionary work  among  poor  and  neglected  children. 
It  became  at  once  a  training  school  for  mission- 
aries. The  heads  of  families,  teachers,  overseers 
of  workshops,  etc.,  formed  a  religious  brotherhood 
known  as  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Rauhes  I  laus, 
the  members  of  which,  after  serving  an  apprentice- 
ship in  this  simple  community,  where  poverty 


was  their  lot,  ami  devotion  to  duty  their  only 
reward,  went  out  into  the  world  as  missionaries, 
particularly  among  thepoor.  From  its  foundation 
to  1867,  the  Rauhes  I  laus  had  received  and  edu- 
cated nearly  800  children,  the  average  annual 
j  attendance  being  about  L20.  The  number  of  per- 
sons connected  with  the  establishment,  in  the 
year  mentioned,  was  450.  The  whole  number  of 
reform  schools  in  Germany,  in  L867,  was  354. 
The  influence  of  the  Rauhes  I  laus  has  been  very 
great,  reformatory  institutions  on  the  family  plan 
having  been  established  in  Russia.  Switzerland, 
France,  Belgium.  Sweden.  England, and  in  many 
of  the  states  of  the  American  Union. — The  first 
reform  school  in  England  was  founded  near  Lon- 
don by  the  Philanthropic  Society,  in  1788.  This 
was  followed  by  one  in  Warwickshire,  in  1818f 
in  wdiich  outdoor  labor  was  first  made  a  part  of 
the  training.  In  1830,  another  school  was  estab- 
lished by  Captain  Brenton,  who  believed  that  no 
person  under  the  age  of  16  should  be  sent  to 
prison.  His  institution,  however,  and  that  in 
Warwickshire  were  closed  for  want  of  support. 
In  1834,  a  reformatory  school  for  girls  was  estab- 
lished at  Chiswick,  to  which  the  name  of  The 
Victoria  Asylum  was  given.  In  1838,  a  separate 
prison  was  established  at  Parkhurst  for  prisoners 
under  the  age  of  16,  the  discipline  in  which  was 
reformatory  rather  than  penal.  The  institution 
founded  by  the  Philanthropic  Society  at  St. 
George's  in  the  Fields  became,  through  lack  of 
interest  in  its  success,  at  first  a  poor-house,  and 
afterwards  a  penitentiary;  and,  i:i  1850,  was  dis- 
continued, its  property  being  removed  to  Redhill 
in  Surrey,  where,  on  the  family  plan,  it  now  con- 
stitutes the  largest  reformatory  in  England. 
Since  that  time,  schools  have  been  established  at 
Ilardwicke  Court,  Kingswood,  Stoke  Farm,  and 
Saltley.  In  1854,  the  Reformatory  Schools  Act 
was  passed,  magistrates  being  authorized  to  com- 
mit to  reform  schools  youths  under  16  years  of 
age,  for  not  less  than  2  nor  more  than  5  years, 
making  an  allowance  in  each  case  for  their  main- 
tenance. In  Scotland,  industrial  schools  were  es- 
tablished, at  the  same  time,  for  destitute  and 
vagrant  children  under  14  years  of  age.  In  1856, 
there  were  34  reform  schools  in  existence  in 
Great  Britain;  and,  in  1863,  there  were  64  in  ex- 
istence, with  an  attendance  of  4,677.  of  whom 
1,0(10  were  girls.  The  English  law  divides  reform 
schools  into  two  kinds :  reform  schools  proper, 
intended  for  correction  ;  and  industrial  schools, 
intended  for  prevention,  admission  to  one  or  the 
other  being  determined  by  differences  in  age  and 
previous  condition  in  regard  to  crime.  In  1*7.'!. 
there  were  in  Great  Britain  45  reformatories  for 
boys,  and  20  for  girls,  with  4,424  inmates  in  the 
former,  and  1,151  in  the  latter.  The  number  of 
industrial  schools  at  the  same  time  was  1011,  with 
an  attendance  of  7,598  boys,  and  2.587  girls. — 
In  England  and  Scotland,  there  is  another  class 
of  reform  schools,  called  ragged  schools,  designed 
to  bring  together  and  instruct  poor  and  neglected 
children — generally  boys,  and  thus  prevent  them 
from  falling  into  vice  and  crime.  The  idea  of 
such  schools  is  attributed  to  John  Pounds,  a 


T26 


REFORM   SCHOOLS 


poor  shoe-maker  of  Portsmouth,  who,  in  1819, 
commenced  to  gather  around  him  the  ragged 
children  of  his  district,  in  order  that  he  might 
instruct  them  as  he  sat  at  work;  and  in  this 
benevolent  task,  he  continued  till  his  death,  in 
L839.  A  more  effective  movement  in  that  direc- 
tion was  commenced  by  Sheriff  Watson,  of  Aber- 
deen, in  which  city  a  ragged  school  was  opened 
in  1841 ;  but  there  was  a  large  Sunday-school  of 
this  kind  in  London,  in  1838;  and  the  Field 
Lane  school  was  opened  in  1843.  Through  the 
systematic  efforts  of  the  Ragged  School  Union 
of  London,  a  large  number  of  such  schools  have 
been  established.  These  include  day  and  evening 
schools  and  Sunday-schools.  Similar  schools 
under  different  names  have  been  organized  in 
other  countries. 

In  France,  reform  schools  are  known  as  cor- 
rectional and  penitentiary  colonies.  Some  are 
founded  and  supported  entirely  by  the  state, 
others, by  individuals,  under  government  sanction. 
The  maximum  age  is  16.  The  penitentiary  colony 
receives  children  who  have  committed  crime 
through  ignorance,  and  who  are  acquitted,  there- 
Fore,  from  want  of  evidence  of  criminal  intent. 
but  are  thought  to  require  special  training,  and 
young  prisoners  sentenced  for  more  than  'i  months 
but  not  more  than  2  years.  The  correctional  colony 
receives  prisoners  sentenced  for  more  than  2yearSj 
and  insubordinates  from  the  penitentiary  colony. 
In  1862,  there  were  36  colonies  for  boys,  and  25 
for  girls;  the  number  of  inmates  being  6,604 
boys,  and  1,878  girls.  The  most  successful  of 
the  French  reform  schools  is  that  at  Mettray, 
founded  by  Demetz,  in  L839.  The  inmates 
are  divided  into  families  of  50;  the  average 
number  in  the  school  or  colony   being,  at   the 


present  time,  700.  Agricultural  and  mechanical 
labor  is  carried  on,  the  colony  being,  in  lar^e 
measure,  self-supporting.  Less  than  4  per  cent  of 
those  who  have  left  the  colony  have  relapsed  into 
crime.  The  success  of  the  school  is  largely  attrib- 
uted to  the  correspondence  and  supervision  kept 
up  between  it  and  the  pupils  after  they  have  left. 
The  number  of  similar  organizations  founded 
after  the  example  of  Mettray  is  411. — In  Belgium, 
agricultural  reform  schools  exist  at  Ruysselede, 
\\'yngheiie,  and  Beernem.  They  form  practically 
one  institution,  the  object  of  which  is  the  rec- 
lamation of  juvenile  delinquents  of  both  sexes, 
who  are  not  criminals.  —  In  the  United  States, 
the  name  usually  given  to  the  reform  school  is 
house  of  refuge.  The  oldest  institution  of  the  kind 
is  that  on  Randall's  Island.  N.Y.,  which  was  found- 
ed in  L825.  It  is  the  largest  reformatory  of  its  class 
in  the  United  States,  the  average  number  of  its  in- 
mates being  800.  They  are  of  both  sexes,  and  are 
sent  to  the  institution  upon  conviction  for  petty 
offenses.  Their  discipline  consists  of  daily  labor 
for  6  or  8  hours,  and  study  for  about  3  hours. 
The  period  of  detention  depends  upon  their  con- 
duet;  and.  on  their  discharge,  homes  are  found  for 
the  more  deserving.  The  house  of  refugein  Boston 
was  opened  iii  1827;  that  in  Philadelphia,  in 
the  following  year:  and  that  in  New  Orleans,  in 
I  J- 17.  The  establishment  of  reformatories  as 
state  institutions  was  first  made  in  Massachusetts, 
in  1848,  the  state  reform  school  at  Westborough 
being  then  established.  Since  that  time,  individ- 
uals, cities,  and  several  of  the  States,  have  estab- 
lished schools,  many  of  them  on  the  family  plan. 
A  list  of  such  institutions  existing  at  the  present 
time  in  the  United  States,  is  given  in  the  sub- 
joined table  : 


Reform  Schools  in  the  United  States. 


NAME 


City  and  I  lonnty  Industrial  School.. 

Connecticut  industrial  School  for  (iirls 

"  Reform  School 

St.  Mary's  Reformatory 

state  Reform  School 

Indiana  Reform  Institute  for  Girls 

House  ol    Itel'llge 

Iowa  State  Reform  School 

state  Reform  School  (girls) 

House  ol  Refuge 

Hoys'  House  ol    UH'ugc 

State  Reform  School 

House  of  Refuge  for  Juvenile  Delinquents 

House  of  Ref.  a  Institution  for  I  iolored  Children 

[.inland  Industrial  School  for  Girls 

city  of  Boston  Almshouse  School 

Hod I  Reformation  for  Juvenile  Offenders.. 

:-tatc  Industrial  School  for  Girls 

Lawrence  Industrial  Bel I 

i  loose  of  Employment  and  Reformation 

State  Primary  School 

I'lummer  Farm  School 

Mate  Reform  School 

Worcester  Truant  Reform  School 

Detroit  Bouse  of  Correction 

Michigan  State  Reform  School 

Minnesota  state  Reform  School 

1  Lou  e  ol  Refuge 


Location 


San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Middletown,  Ct 

W.Meriden,Ct 

Chicago,  111 

Pontiac,  HI 

Indianapolis,  lnd..  . 

l'laintield,  lnd 

Eldora,  Iowa 

Balem,  Iowa 

Louisville,  Ky 

.New  Orleans,  La.. . 
Cape  Elizabeth,  Me. 
Baltimore,  Md 

Howie.   Md 

Orange  drove,  Md. 
Boston,  Mass 

Lancaster,  Mass.. . . 

Lawrence,  Mass..  .  . 

Lowell.  Mass 

Monson,  Mass 

Balem,  Mass 

\\  estborough,  Mass 
Worcester,  Mass. 

Detroit,  Mich 

Lansing,  Mich 

St.  Haul.  Minn 

St.  Louis,  Mo 


When 

founded 

Control 

1858 

1870 

Corporate 

1 85 1 

State 

L863 

— 

1871 

State 

1*74 

State 



State 

1868 

lsi;;, 

Municipal 

I860 

Municipal 

1  B62 

Mate 

1 85fi 

Municipal 

Is;:; 

( lorporate 

L866 

Directors 

1856 

Municipal 

1827 

Municipal 

L856 

State 

L874 

Municipal 

1 85 1 

Municipal 

L866 

State 

L870 

Private 

1848 

Slate 

L863 

Municipal 

lsr,| 

Municipal 

L866 

State 

L868 

State 

Is,,  4 

— 

REFORMED  CHURCHES 
Reform  Schools  in  the  United  States  (continued). 


727 


NAME. 


New  Hampshire  State  Reform  School 

New  Jersey  State  Reform  School 

State  Industrial  School  (girls) 

Truant  Home 

House  of  the  Good  Shepherd 

Industrial  School 

House  of  the  Holy  Family  Association  etc. 

House  of  Mercy 

Home  for  Women 

House  of  the  Good  Shepherd 

Home  for  Fallen  and  Friendless  Girls 

House  of  Refuge 

The  Isaac  T.  Hopper  Home 

The  Midnight  Mission 

Western  House  of  Refuge 

New  York  Catholic  Protectory 

House  of  Refuge 

Protectory  for  Boys 

Hume  of  Refuge  and  Correction 

The  Retreat; 

State  Reform  School 

Ohio  Girls'  Industrial  School 

House  of  Refuge 

Pennsylvania  Reform  School 

House  of  Refuge  (white) 

House  of  Refuge  (colored) 

Western  House  of  Refuge 

Sheltering  Arms 

Providence  Reform  School 

Vermont  Reform  School 

Industrial  School  for  Boys  . .   

Girls'  Reform  School 

Reform  School  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 


Location 


Manchester,  N.  H.. . 
Jamesburg,  X.  J., . 

Trenton,  X.  J 

Brooklyn,  X.  Y...  . 
E.  New  York,  X.  V. 
New  York,  X.  V..  . 


Randall's  Island,  X.  Y. 
New  York,  X.  Y 


Rochester,  XT.  Y 

Westchester,  N.  Y. 

Cincinnati,  O 


Cleveland,  0. 


Lancaster,  0 

Lewis  Centre,  0.. 

Toledo,  0 

Allegheny,  Pa.. . . 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Pittsburg,  Pa.. . . 
Wilkinsburg,  Pa. . 
Providence,  R.  L. 
Waterbnry,  Yt.. . 
Waukesha,  Wis.. 
Washington,  D.C. 


When 
founded 


1 855 
L867 
1871 
1857 
1868 
L868 
lvTl) 
Is.",. | 
1867 
L867 
1866 
1 825 
1845 
18(J7 
1846 
1863 
1850 
1868 
1870 

ISIlit 

Is.")  7 
1869 
Is:.", 
1854 
1826 
1850 
1854 
1873 
1850 
1865 
1m;o 
1873 
ISO!) 


Control 


State 
State 

Municipal 
Municipal 
.Municipal 

Trustees 


Managers 
<  iorporate 
Private 

Trustees 

State 

Municipal 

Municipal 

Catholic 

Municipal 

State 
State 
Municipal 

Managers 

State 

Managers 

Private 

Municipal 

State 

State 

Trustees 

Territorial 


REFORMED    CHURCHES.— After  the 

Tise  of  the  Reformation,  in  the  16th  century,  it 
vas  for  a  time  common  to  divide  the  Protestants 
of  Europe  into  two  large  bodies,  the  Lutheran 
( 'hurch  (q.  v.)  and  the  Reformed  Church.  The 
latter  included  all  the  ecclesiastical  organizations 
which  regarded  Zwingli  and  Calvin  as  their 
•earliest  and  foremost  leaders.  In  the  British 
Isles,  these  churches  assumed  the  name  Presby- 
terians (q.  v.) ;  and  the  name  Reformed  Churches 
was  henceforth  only  applied  to  the  churches  of 
this  type  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  When 
the  Evangelical  Church  was  formed,  by  the  union 
of  the  two  sister  churches  in  Prussia,  in  1817, 
and  afterward  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  the  Re- 
formed ( 'hurch  entered  heartily  into  the  union, 
casing  to  exist  in  name,  but  not  in  spirit  or  life. 
In  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  Austria,  Hun- 
gary, France,  and  Russia,  the  Reformed  ( 'hurch 
continues  to  exist  under  its  old  name.  In  the 
I  "nited  States,  offshoots  of  the  German  Reformed 
and  Dutch  Reformed  churches  occupy  a  prom- 
inent place  among  the  churches  of  the  country. 
This  subject  will  be  distributed  under  the  follow- 
ing heads:  (I)  The  Reformed  Churches  of  Eu- 
rope; (II)  The  Reformed  Churches  in  the  New 
World. 

I.  The  Reformed  Churches  of  Europe. — 
(1)  The  Reformed  Church  of  Germain/  properly 
commenced  its  history  in  the  Palatinate,  in  the 
jfear  1563,  when  the  Elector  Erederick  published, 
for  the  use  of  his  schools  and  churches,  the  Hei- 
delberg Catechism,  which  had  been  prepared  by 
two  professors  of  the  university  of  Heidelberg — 


Olevianus,  a  disciple  of  Calvin,  and  Ursinus,  a 
disciple  of  Melanchthon.  The  tenets  of  the  Re- 
formed ( 'hurch  were  also  accepted  in  Bremen, 
Nassau,  Anhalt,  Lippe,  Hesse  Cassel,  and  by  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  ;  but  were  never  enter- 
tained by  more  than  a  small  minority  of  the  Ger- 
man Protestants.  They  are  closely  allied  to  what 
has  been  called,  in  history,  Melanchthon ian  Lu- 
theranism.  The  university  of  Heidelberg  was  the 
most  famous  school  connected  with  the  German 
Reformed  Church.  (2)  In  Holland,  the  Reformed 
Church  became  early  the  prevailing  religion,  and 
greatly  distinguished  itself  by  its  interest  in  both 
popular  and  university  education.  The  eager 
choice  of  a  university,  in  preference  to  a  perpet- 
ual annual  fair,  by  the  people  of  Leyden,  in 
1574,  is  a  well-known  incident.  A  free  univer- 
sity was  also  established  at  Franeker,  in  1585. 
The  universities  of  Groningen  and  Ctrecht  were 
founded,  respectively,  in  1614  and  1636.  In 
these  famous  schools,  most  of  the  ante-Revolu- 
tionary ministers  of  the  Dutch  Church  in 
America,  who  were  of  Hollandish  birth,  had 
been  trained,  being  about  70  in  number.  The 
cause  of  education  in  Holland  was  identified 
with  that  of  Protestantism.  At  the  Synod 
of  Dort  (1618 — 19),  decrees  were  passed  in 
behalf  of  education,  and  parochial  schools  were 
established  throughout  Holland.  Intelligence 
so  rapidly  increased  in  this  little  state  that  she 
was  called  compendium  orbis.  Motley  says  that 
the  New  England  pilgrims  had  previously 
found  the  system  of  free  schools  already  estab- 
lished in  Holland.     The  Reformed   Church,  as 


728 


REFORMED    CHURCHES 


the  church  of  the  majority  of  the  people  and  of 
the  government,  has  exerted,  and  still  exerts,  a 
considerable  influence  upon  the  entire  educational 
system  of  the  country,  although  the  school  law- 
sanctions  the  principle  of  unsectarian  instruction. 
A  theological  faculty  is  connected   with  each  of 
the  universities  of   Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  Gron- 
ingen,  which,  in  1874.  had  an  aggregate  of  10 
professors  and  about  300  students.   The  <  'hurch. 
in  1875,  had  1.340  congregations,  1,660  clergy- 
men, and,  in  18G9,  a  population  of   1,956,593 
souls.    The  Christian  Reformed  Church,  which 
separated  from  the  state  church,  on  the  ground 
that  the  latter  was  subject  to  Rationalistic  in- 
fluences, in  1875,  had  3-10  congregations  and  240 
ministers;  and.  in  1869,  a  population  of  107,123 
souls.     This  Church  has  a  theological  seminary 
at  Kampen.  (See  Netherlands.)     (3)  In  Switz- 
erland, the  Reformed  Church  is  still,  as  in  the 
Netherlands,  the  church  of  the  majority  of  the 
people  (about  1,500,000,  or  58  per  cent  of  the 
population),  and  is  the  state  or  national  church  in 
all  the  Protestant  cantons.  As  such,  it  is  directly 
or  indirectly  connected  with  educational  institu- 
tions of  all  grades.     (See  Switzerland.)    The- 
ological faculties  are  connected  with  the  univer- 
sities of  Zurich,  Bern,  Basel,  ami  <  reneva.  As  the 
church  is  without  self-government,  but  is  entirely 
ruled  by  the  state   authorities,   Free  Churches 
have    been    organized  in  a  number  of  cantons, 
which    have    established    theological  schools  at 
Geneva,    Lausanne,   and    Neufchatel.       (■!■)     In 
Austria  proper,  Hungary,  France,  and  Russia, 
the   Reformed   Church  constitutes  only  a  small 
minority   of  the    population,   but    has   been   re- 
organized and  supported  by   the  State   govern- 
ments.  In  Austria  proper,  the  Reformed  popula- 
tion amounts  to  I  L2,000  (0.51  percent);  in  Hun- 
gary, to  2,143,000  (13  per  cent);  in  France, to 
467,000  (1.29  percent);  and,  in  Russia,  to  about 
250.000  (0.3  per  cent).    The  school  laws  of  these 
countries  provide  for  some  kind  of  co-operation 
by  the  clergy  of  the  recognized  religions  in  all 
schools  supported  by  the  state  :  and  the  theolog- 
ical schools  are,  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in 
Switzerland,  under  the  control  of  church  boards. 
The  church  of  Austria  has.  in  common  with  the 
Lutheran  Church,  an  evangelical    theological  fac- 
ulty at  Vienna;  Hungary  has  Reformed  colleges 
at  Pesth,  Saros-Patak,    Kecskemet,    Debreczin, 
and  Nagy-Enyed ;   Prance  has  a  Reformed  fac- 
ulty of  theology  at  Montauban. 

II.  Reformed  Churches  in  the  TUTew  World — 
There  are  two  branches  of  the  Reformed  <  'hurch 
in  the  United  States.  After  the  nationality  of 
the  colonies  in  which  they  originated,  they   were 

formerly  called  the  I  hitch  Reformed  Church  and 
the  German  Reformed  Church;  but,  of  late, 
both  have  changed  their  official  names,  ami  the 
former  now  calls  its,. If  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America;  the  latter,  the  Reformed  *  'hurch  in  the 
United  states.  The  former,  in  L876,  consisted  of 
506  churches.  5  Hi  ministers,  and  about  75,000 
communicants,  and  represented  a  population  of 

about  a  quarter  Of  a  million.  The  latter  had  li.")(l 
ministers,    1.350  congregations,  and  a  member-  | 


ship  of  150,000,  representing  a  population  of 
about  250.000  souls.  In  the  former,  the  Dutch 
language  has.  in  all  the  old  congregations,  given 
way  to  the  English;  in  the  latter,  the  same  is  the 
case. in  a  majority  of  the  congregations,  in  respect 
to  the  German;  though,  owing  to  the  extensive 
immigration  of  Germans,  the  number  of  Ger- 
man-speaking congregations  is  still  on  the  in- 
crease, and  2  of  the  6  synods  into  which  the 
church  is  divided.  4  of  the  16  periodicals,  and  2  of 
the  literary  institutions,  are  exclusively  German. 
(1)  The  Reformed  Church  in  America,  for- 
merry  known  as  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church,  is 
the  oldest  body  of  the  Presbyterian  form  of  gov- 
ernment and  doctrine  in  the  United  States,  'i  his 
denomination  consisted  originally  of  the  Dutch 
and  Walloon  colonies,  planted  by  the  West  India 
Company  on  the  Hudson  and  Delaware  rivers, 
and  on  Long  Island.  The  West  India  Company 
repeatedly  promised  to  provide  and  support  min- 
isters and  school-masters  in  New  Netherlands, 
though  these  promises  were  often  forgotten.  The 
people,  at  such  times,  though  poor,  taxed  them- 
selves. School-masters  were  obliged  to  undergo 
an  examination  before  the  classes;  and  the  office 
could  not  be  assumed  voluntarily.  The  yet  un- 
published voluminous  correspondence  between 
the  Dutch  churches  in  America  and  the  parent 
church  in  Holland,  has  frequent  references  to  the 
subject  of  schools.  While  parochial  schools  in  con- 
nection with  the  Dutch  Church  have  not  become 
general  in  America,  nevertheless  the  church  of 
New  York  has  maintained  such  a  school  from 
1633  to  the  present  time.  (See  Dunshee,  Hi8~ 
ton/  of  the  School  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
<f  New  York.)  A  Latin  or  high  school  was 
also  founded  as  early  as  I  659.—  The  English  gov- 
ernors were  naturally  opposed  to  the  Dutch 
schools,  and  sought  to  anglicize  the  whole  popula- 
tion. It  became  increasingly  difficult,  to  secure 
ministers  from  Holland.  This  fact  forced  the 
subject  of  American  institutions  and  the  need  of 
an  American  trained  ministry  upon  the  attention 
of  the  people.  Those  who  had  been  trained  in 
the  universities  of  Europe,  thought  that  no  ade- 
quate education  could  be  provided  in  America; 

but  the  churches  must  nevertheless  be   Supplied 

with  ministers.  The  debate  grew  very  Mann. and 
divided  the  church  into  parties  for  17  years.  In 
the  mean  time,  about  a  dozen  American  youths 
were  sent  to  Holland  for  education:  and  about 
as  many  were  trained  by  pastors  in  this  country 
before  1771.  when  the  denomination  became  ec- 
clesiastically independent  of  Holland.  An  effort 
was  made  |  L755)  to  found  a  theological  chair  for 
the  Dutch  in  King's  (Columbia)  College,  by  an 
amendment  to  the  charter  of  that  institution: 
hut  the  plan  was  not  acceptable  to  the  people. 
A  charter  was  secured,  in  1  7(ili.  for  a  distinctive- 
ly Dutch  institution  in  New  Jersey,  but  this  was 
thought  to  be  un-American.  A  charter  upon 
the  most  liberal  principles,  and  capable  of  in- 
definite expansion,  was  finally  secured  (in  1771 1 
for  Queen's  (Rutgers)  College,  situated  at  New 
Brunswick.  Union  College,  at  Schenectady,  was 
also  organized,  largely  under  Dutch  patronage. 


REFORMED   CHURCHES 


7lM> 


as  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  it  lias  given 
more  than  1 00  ministers  to  the  Reformed  ( I  hitch) 
Church-    Hope   College  was  organized  in  1st;,!, 
in  Holland.  Michigan,  to  meet  the  necessities  of 
the  mon-  recent  emigrants  from  Holland.  There 
is  a  theological  department  in  connection  with 
the  college.  —  Efforts  were   made   immediately 
after  ecclesiastical  independence  (1771 ),  to  found 
a  theological  seminary.    The  Revolution  delayed 
the  work:  but,  in  1784,  the  Rev.  John  H.  Living- 
ston, a  graduate  of  the  University  of   Utrecht, 
and  the  last  of   the  American  youths  who  had 
gone   to  Holland  for  education,  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology ;  and  Dr.  H.  Meyer  was 
appointed,  at  the  same  time,  professor  of  the 
sacred  languages.  In  1810,  this  seminary  was  lo- 
cated permanently  at  New  Brunswick,  and  was 
united  with  Rutgers  College  until  1804.    It  has 
sent  forth   (1784 — 1876)   657  ministers.     If  to 
these  be  added  27  American  youths,  educated 
here  or  elsewhere  before  1784,  and  about  50  in 
Hope  College,  we  have  a  total  of  734  persons  edu- 
cated directly  by  this  church  for  her  own  min- 
istry, besides  those  educated  for  other  professions. 
The  Theological  Seminary  now  has  property  at 
New  Brunswick,  X.  J.,   amounting   to   almost 
3350,000,  and  four  well-endowed  professorships. 
Hertzog  Hall  is  a  spacious  residence  for  students ; 
Suydam  Hall  contains  lecture  rooms  and  a  fully 
equipped  gymnasium  ;  and  Sage  Hall  contains  a 
library  of  about  27,000  volumes,  and  is  receiving 
constant  additions.     A  board  of  education  (or- 
ganized in  1828)  affords  aid  to  needy  students. 
Its  own   and   other    educational    funds    under 
the   control   of    the    denomination,   amount   to 
3160,000,  with  direct  yearly  contributions,  from 
the  churches,  of  from  310,000  to  315,000  more. 
(2)  The  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States, 
originally  called  the  German  Reformed  Church, 
was  founded  by  emigrants  from  Switzerland,  Hol- 
land, and  the  Palatinate,  in  Germany,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  last  century.     As  the  fathers  of  the 
Reformed  Church  were  accustomed  to  parochial 
schools  in   Germany,    when  they  emigrated  to 
this  country,  they  sought,  at  an  early  day,  to  es- 
tablish such  schools  in  connection  with  their  con- 
gregations.  The  school  and  the  church  belonged 
together;  and  the  teacher,  accustomed  to  play  the 
organ  and  to  conduct  the  singing  in  the  sanctuary, 
was  next  in  rank  to  the  minister  in  public  esti- 
mation. The  schools,  of  course,  were  all  religious 
and  Christian,  and  in  them  the  New  Testament, 
the  psalter,  and  the  Heidelberg  catechism  were 
used  as  text-books.  This  was  generally  the  case  in 
both  branches  of  the  German  Church,  Reformed 
and  Lutheran ;  but.  as  the  country  was  new  and 
many  of  the  people  poor  and  scattered,  they  were 
often  unable  to  secure  even  the    services  of  the 
ministers  of  the  gospel,  much  less  school-masters 
to  instruct  their  children.     There  was,  therefore, 
a  sad  decline,  for  a  time,  both  in  religious  and 
educational  interests.  But  in  1746,  Rev.  Michael 
Schlatter  came  to  Pennsylvania  as  a  missionary 
under  the  direction  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
Holland,  and   proceeded   not   only  to  organize 
churches,  but  also  to  establish  schools.     He  was 


shocked  at  the  ignorance  prevailing  among  the 
young  people,  and  did  much  to  improve  their 
condition.  I  le  collected  money  in  Germany,  Hol- 
land, and  England  for  the  establishment  of 
schools  and  the  support  of  teachers,  in  which 

good  work  he  was  assisted  by  the  authorities  of 
the  province  and  many  patriotic  citizens.  In  many 
places  he  slices  led  in  building  up  schools  which 
continued  to  flourish  for  a  long  time,  and  hence 
may  be  regarded  as  the  first  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  in  the  state.  In  1787.  the 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania  granted  a  charter  for 
the  establishment  of  Franklin  College,  at  Lan- 
caster, Pa.,  and,  in  addition,  made  a  grant  of 
10,000  acres  for  this  object  from  the  public 
domain;  which  grant,  although  at  first  more  ex- 
pensive than  profitable,  became  in  the  course  of 
time  valuable.  The  project  originated  with  a  num- 
ber of  reputable  citizens  of  German  extraction; 
and,  as  it  was  intended  more  particularly  for  the 
benefit  of  the  German  population,  "through  whose 
industry  and  patriotic  services  the  state  had 
arisen  to  such  a  high  degree  of  prosperity," it  was 
in  effect  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  people.  It  excited  considerable  in- 
terest at  the  time  and  enlisted  the  warmest 
sympathies  of  such  patriots  as  Hush  and  Frank- 
lin, of  Philadelphia.  It  received  its  name  from 
the  latter,  who  was  president  of  the  state.  In- 
tended from  the  tirst  to  be  an  institution  of  a 
high  order,  something  like  a  German  university, 
it  nevertheless  continued  to  be,  for  many  years, 
only  a  respectable  high  school,  and  did  not  attain 
to  the  dignity  of  a  college  until  the  year  1853. — 
The  German  population  looked  with  suspicion  on 
the  free-school  system  when  it  was  first  broached 
in  Pennsylvania,  because  it  did  not  make  ad- 
equate provision  for  the  religious  education  of 
youth,  seeming  to  eliminate  the  religious  ele- 
ment altogether.  They  were,  from  the  beginning, 
supporters  of  parochial  schools,  and  were  then, 
as  they  are  still,  wedded  to  the  idea  that  educa- 
tion and  religion  ought  to  go  together.  They 
yielded  at  last  in  their  opposition,  because  com- 
mon schools  seemed  to  be  the  best  that  could  be 
had  under  the  circumstances.  Their  German  gov- 
ernors, Wolf  and  Eitner,  the  one  of  Lutheran  and 
the  other  of  Reformed  persuasion,  under  whose 
administration,  and  by  whose  support,  the  pres- 
ent free-school  system  was  introduced  into  the 
state,  had  much  to  do  in  reconciling  them  to  the 
new  order  of  things.  With  the  consolidation  of 
this  system,  the  old  parochial  schools,  in  a  great 
measure,  passed  away.  As  far  as  the  Reformed 
Church  is  concerned,  however,  it  may  be  said, 
that  while  it  supports  public  schools  as  a  ne- 
cessity and  a  great  public  benefit,  it  would  gener- 
ally prefer  a  system  of  parochial  schools,  if  they 
could  be  maintained  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
It  may  also  be  said,  judging  from  some  of  the 
recent  ecclesiastical  utterances,  that  it  is  probable 
the  church  will  yet  revive  these  schools  in  some 
degree,  not  in  opposition  to  the  public  schools, 
but  to  serve  as  their  proper  supplement,  and  as 
a  vindication  of  the  theory  of  Christian  edu- 
cation. 


•730 


REFORMED   CHURCHES 


REGENTS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 


In  the  year  1825,  the  Synod  of  the  German 
Reformed  Church,  in  order  to  increase  and  im- 
prove the  character  of  its  ministry,  established 
a  theological  seminary  at  Carlisle,  Fa.,  under  the 
charge  of  Dr.  Lewis  Mayer,  in  close  connection 
with  Dickinson  College;  but,  as  the  seminary 
was  removed  to  York,  Fa.,  in  L829,  it  soon  be- 
came evident,  that,  in  order  to  give  it  the  neces- 
sary efficiency,  a  classical  school  was  needed.  Such 
a  school  was.  therefore,  established  in  connec- 
tion with  the  seminary  ;  and,  under  the  care  of 
Dr.  Frederick  Augustus  Ranch,  a  ripe  scholar 
from  the  father-land,  who  took  charge  of  it  in 
L832,  and  Prof.  Samuel  W.  Budd,  a  graduate  of 
Princeton  I  'ollege,  it  flourished,  and  accomplished. 
for  the  time  being,  the  work  of  a  college  for  the 
Church.  In  the  fall  of  1835,  it  was  removed  to 
Mercersburg,  1  'a.,  where,  having  received  a  charter 
from  the  legislature,  it  was  converted  into  a  reg- 
ular college,  under  the  name  and  title  of  Mar- 
shall College.  Dr.  Rauch  was  its  first  president; 
and  to  him  it  owes  its  German- American  charac- 
ter, that  of  an  American  institution  pervaded  with 
the  spirit  of  German  science  and  literature.  In 
the  year  1841,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-five,  he 
died,  in  the  midst  of  his  rising  fame,  deeply  la- 
mented by  all  who  knew  him.  Dr.  Rauch's  place 
in  the  college  was  ably  filled  by  the  Rev.  John 
Williamson  Kevin,  from  the  year  1841  to  1853, 
who  during  the  same  time  served  as  the  regular 
professor  of  theology  in  the  seminary,  which  had 
been  removed  to  Mercersburg  soon  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  high  school.  Dr.  Xevin  labored  to 
promote  the  interests  of  the  college  with  much 
energy  and  self-sacrifice,  and  gave  it  a  national 
reputation;  but,  whilst  it  flourished  internally, 
and  performed  important  service  in  the  cause 
of  education,  letters,  and  sound  learning,  it  suf- 
fered from  the  want  of  an  adequate  endow- 
ment, which  at  times  made  even  its  permanence  as 
an  institution  problematical.  Accordingly,  when 
the  trustees  of  old  Franklin  ( 'ollege,  at  Lancaster, 
which  had  an  endowment  of  over  $50,000,  but 
was  without  college  classes  or  college  arrange- 
ments, proposed  to  unite  the  two  institutions,  the 
proposition  was  favorably  received;  and  they 
were  consolidated  by  an  act  of  the  legislature, 
under  the  name  of  Franklin  and  Marshall  Col- 
lege. This  arrangement  went  into  operation  in 
1853,  since  which  time  the  college  has  pursued 
a  Successful  career  in  the  midst  of  a  large  ( iertnan- 
American  population,  upon  whom  it  lias  acted  as 

an  e  lucational  stimulant  with  greater  influence, 
perhaps,  than  any  purely  American  institution 
could  have  exerted.   The  German  language  is  a. 

regular  branch  of  study,  as  much  so  as  Latin  and 
Greek.  In  its  philosophical  course.the  college  seeks, 
in  accordance  with  the  idea  of  its  first  president. 

Dr.  Rauch,   to   unite  the   practical   spirit  of  this 

country  and  Blngland  with  the  speculative  and 
idealistic  tendencies  <>f  the  father-land.    At  the 

same   time,    much   stress    is    laid  on  the  religious 

ining  of  the  students.   To  accomplish  this  ob- 

.  the  student  sand  the  families  of  the  professors, 

be  seminary  and  college,  are  organized  into  a 
reculan  it  ion  under  the  direction  of  classes. 


The  students  serve  as  deacons  and  elders;  and  the 
professors — such   as  are  clergymen,  as  pastors. 
Collections  are  taken  up  for  benevolent  purposes 
every  Sabbath,  and  students  are  prepared  for 
confirmation  yearly  by  a  course  of  catechetical 
lectures.    The  college  has,  thus  far,  performed  a 
very  important  service  for  the  cause  of  education 
among  a  huge  and  intelligent  class  of  people.  Pre- 
vious  to  its  organization,  in  1835,  comparatively 
few  young  men  of  German  extraction  went  to 
college  at  all;  and  but  few  of  the  German-Amer- 
icans,  even  in  the  ministry,  had  enjoyed  the  ben- 
efit of  a  classical  training.  Now  college  graduates 
from  this  source,  filling  important  positions  in 
society,  are  counted  by  scores  or  hundreds.  Many 
of  them,  in  turn,  have  been  active  in  founding 
other  colleges  and  classical  schools  in  different 
]  iarts  of  the  country.  The  Reformed  Synod  of  ( )hio 
has  a  flourishing  literary  (Heidelberg  <  'ollege,  q.v.) 
and  theological  institution  at  Tiffin,  Ohio.    Mer- 
cersburg ( 'ollege.  which  grew  out  of  a  high  school 
that  was  established  after  the  removal  of  Mar- 
shall College  to  Lancaster,  is  a  young  and  vigor- 
ous institution.  It  is  the  child  of  the  Mercersburg 
Chassis.  Catawba  College,  at  Newton.  N.  C, under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  North  Carolina  Classis, 
although  it  suffered  much  in  the  loss  of   its  en- 
dowment during  the  war.  has  been  revived,  and 

shows  signs  of  returning  prosperity.  Palatinate 
College,  at  Myerstown,  Fa.,  carries  its  students 
as  far  as  the  junior  class.  It  is  located  in  a 
populous  German  section  of  the  state,  and  is  per- 
forming a  good  work.  It  is  also  a  church  insti- 
tution, and  is  owned  by  the  Lebanon  Classis. 
[Jrsinus  College  (q.v.).  at  Collegeville.  Mont- 
gomery Co..  Fa.,  Avas  opened  a  few  years  ago,  by 
the  Rev.  J.  H.  A.  Fomberger,  and  others  who 
sympathized  with  him  in  his  theological  tenden- 
cies. It  has  manifested  considerable  energy,  but 
is  not  under  any  direct  ecclesiastical  control. 
Clarion  Collegiate  Institute,  at  Rimersburg,  Fa„ 
and  Flairstown  Academy.  Blairstown,  Iowa,  are 
classical  high  schools,  established  by  the  classes 
within  whose  bounds  they  are  located.  The  for- 
eign German  population  of  the  Church  have  two 
institutions  under  their  care :  Calvin  Institute, 
at  Cleveland.  Ohio:  and  the  Mission  House,  at 
Howard's  (.'rove.  Wis.  The  one  is  a  classical 
school  ;  and  the  other,  a  theological  seminary. — 
While  the  growth  of  institutions  for  the  educa- 
tion of  young  men  has  been  encouraged,  female 
education  has  not  been  overlooked  in  the  Re- 
formed Church.  The  1'ast  Pennsylvania  '  lassie 
has  established  the  Allentown  Female  Seminary, 
at  Allentown.  Fa.,  under  the  presidency  of 
Rev.  W.  R.  HotVord.  A.  M.  In  the  Maryland 
Classis,  Rev.  Ceo.  L.  Staley  has  a  seminary  of 
a  high  order,  for  females,  at  Knoxville,  Md. ; 
Rev.  J.  Bassler,  A.  M.,  has  another  at  Mercers- 
burg. Da.:  and  Rev.  I.ucian  Colt.  A.  M..  has  also 
the  management  of  one  at  Greensburg,  Da.  These 
institutions  are.  at  present,  in  a  thriving  condition 
and  give  promise  of  being  well  patronized  by  (he 

people  of    the    Deformed  (  'llUl'eh. 

REGENTS      OF    THE    UNIVERSITY. 

See    \i:w    Youk. 


RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 


REUCHLIN 


731 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  is  that  which 
has  for  its  special  object  the  cultivation  of  that 
faculty  of  the  human  soul  by  means  of  which  it 
is  enabled  to  realize  the  existence  and  constant 
presence  of  the  Deity,  to  know  Him,  and  to  com- 
mune with  Him  in  worship  and  prayer.     Some 
have  designated  this  the  religious  sentiment ;  but 
strong  exception  has  been  taken  to  that  term,  as 
belittling  the  basis  of  religion  in  the  human  soul. 
An  experience  of  human  nature,  in  its  various 
degrees  of  culture,  shows  that  there  are  what 
may  be  called  religious  intuitions,  common  to  all 
minds  of  whatever  grade  of  development;  but 
that  while  these  may  prompt  to  worship,  yet, 
without  religious  instruction,  they  can  lead  only 
to  superstitious  and  debasing  practices.    The  re- 
ligious or  spiritual  instinct  does  not  necessarily 
involve  any  act  of  the  intellect ;  for  those  whose 
intellectual  education  and  endowments  are  quite 
inferior,  often  show  a  surprising  degree  of  spirit- 
ual insight  and  religious  fervor.     This  fact,  how- 
ever,  does  not  supersede  the  necessity  of  appeal- 
ing to  the  understanding  in  imparting  a  knowl- 
edge of  those  religious  truths  which  have  been 
communicated  by  divine  revelation  ;  but,  in  re- 
ceiving these  truths,  the  intellect  assumes  the 
attitude  of  faith  rather  than  of  inquiry  ;  that  is 
to  say,  having  become  satisfied  of  the  authentici- 
ty, or  the  authority,  of  the  source  whence  these 
truths,  or  dogmatic  teachings  emanate,  it  does 
not  exercise  its  powers  to  establish  their  validity, 
but  only  to  conceive  them  in  their  true  import 
and  relations.    Hence,  the  intellect  is  not  to  be 
cultivated  by  means  of  religious  instruction  ;  al- 
though its  exercise  cannot  wholly  be  dispensed 
with.     The  specific  office  of  religious  education 
is  thus  twofold :  (1)  to  cultivate  the  religious 
instincts;  and  (2)  to  impart  religious  truth.  The 
one  is  accomplished  by  means  of  devotional  exer- 
cises ;  the  other,  by  dogmatic  teachings. — In  the 
first  stages  of  religious  education,  appropriate 
exercises    constitute    almost    the    only   agency 
needed,  nothing  but  the  simplest  religious  truths 
being  requisite  (such  as  are  usually  contained  in 
the  catechism);  but,  in  the  more  advanced  period 
of  culture,  the  importance  of  dogmatic  instruction 
increases.    Simple  prayers  and  hymns,  with  just 
enough  teaching  to  enable  the  child  to  realize 
their   full  significance,  are   the   usual   and    the 
most  effective  means  of  exercising  the  religious 
faculty.     It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind, 
that  the  mere  saying  of  a  prayer,  or  the  singing 
of  a  hymn,  will  not  necessarily  give  this  exercise, 
any  more  than  merely  committing  to  memory  a 
definition  or  a  rule  will  exercise  the  intellect.  The 
mechanical   repetition   of   prayers,   in   religious 
education,  is  just  as  useless  as  rote-teaching  in 
intellectual  education.    By  an  inattention  to  this 
principle  on  the  part  of  parents  and  religious 
teachers,  no  doubt,  many  children  become  dis- 
gusted  with    religious    devotion,    while    others 
imbibe  the  notion  that  religion  is  only  a  matter 
of  forms  and   ceremonies,  or  the  repeating  of 
the  catechism.     In  either  case,  the  religious  in- 
stinct becomes   dormant   for   the  want  of  due 
exercise. 


The  relation  of  moral  and  religious  education 
should  be  carefully  studied.  In  brief,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  former  deals  with  the  relations 
which  mankind  sustain  to  each  other;  and  the 
latter,  with  those  which  man  as  a  spiritual  being 
sustains  to  the  Infinite  Spirit,  the  Creator  and 
I 'rescrver  of  all  things.  In  the  one.  the  principle 
addressed  is  that  of  conscience  (q.  v.),  the  sense 
of  right;  in  the  other,  it  is  I  he  religious  principle, 
the  spiritual  instinct,  by  which  man  is  brought 
into  communion  with  his  Maker.  (See  Moral 
Education.)  In  a  certain  sense,  these  two  de- 
partments of  education  are  independent;  for 
conscience  operates  independently  of  religion; 
but  a  religious  sanction  is  the  strongest  founda- 
tion for  moral  precepts.  For  this,  the  Christian 
revelation  affords  the  fullest  authority,  the  "first 
and  great  commandment"  being  to  love  God; 
and  the  second,  "to  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself." 
The  several  departments  of  education  are  not  to 
be  divorced  from  one  another,  but  all  are  to  be 
carried  on  together,  so  as  to  produce  a  harmonious 
development  of  character.  (See  Harmony  of  De- 
velopment.)— In  imparting  religious  instruction, 
the  same  principles  are  to  be  applied  as  in  intel- 
lectual education,  as  far  as  language  is  the  vehicle 
of  the  instruction.  Very  much  of  the  religious 
teaching  given  in  the  Sunday-school  is  of  no 
value,  because  of  the  neglect  to  observe  these  prin- 
ciples. Committing  to  memory  formulated  dog- 
mas, verses  from  the  Bible,  doctrinal  lessons,  etc., 
without  any  proper  appreciation  of  their  signifi- 
cance, can  be  of  little  service ;  and  in  some  cases 
may  do  positive  harm.  Oral  instruction  jilays  a 
most  important  part  in  this  kind  of  teaching ; 
and  Bible  expositions,  when  clear,  definite,  and 
illustrative,  always  prove  the  most  effective  as 
well  as  the  most  attractive  means  of  instruction. 
— The  questions  as  to  the  relation  of  religious  and 
secular  instruction  are  considered  in  the  article 
on  Denominational  Schools. — (See  also  Bible, 
and  Sunday-Schools.) 

REUCHLIN,  John,  one  of  the  foremost 
representatives  and  promoters  of  classical  studies 
in  the  1 5th  and  1 6th  centuries,  was  born  at  Pforz- 
heim, in  1455,  and  died  at  Stuttgart,  June  30., 
1522.  His  lectures  on  (heck  authors,  delivered 
at  the  university  of  Basel,  are  regarded  as 
the  first  of  the  kind.  He  disagreed  with  Eras- 
mus in  regard  to  the  true  pronunciation  of 
Greek,  and  those  who  adopted  his  views,  were 
called  Reuchlinists.  (See  Greek  Language.)  The 
Hebrew  grammar,  published  by  him  in  1506, 
under  the  title  Rudimenta  Ekbraicce  Linguae, 
was  largely  instrumental  in  introducing  the 
study  of  this  language  into  the  sphere  of  ordi- 
nary studies.  In  consequence  of  his  appreciation 
of  Jewish  learning,  he  was  violently  attacked  by 
the  Dominicans.  The  emperor,  having  been  pe- 
titioned to  order  all  the  books  of  the  Jews  de- 
stroyed except  the  Old  Testament,  Reuchlin  was 
directed  by  the  Elector  of  Mavence  to  declare 
what  should  be  done  in  the  matter.  He  decided 
thai  only  those  books  that  directly  attacked 
Christianity  should  be  destroyed.  He  was  now 
subjected  to  active  persecutions.    His  enemies 


732 


I  IK  WARDS 


RHETORIC 


declared  him  to  be  a  heretic,  and  accused  him  of 
being  secretly  inclined  to  Judaism.  He  was  tried 
by  Hoogstraaten.  at  Mayence,  and  his  writings 
were  condemned  to  the  dames.  I  le  appealed  to 
the  Pope;  and  the  ease  was  referred  to  the  Bishop 
of  Spire,  who  decided  in  Reuehlin's  favor.  An 
appeal  from  this  decision  was  taken  to  Rome, 
but  was  never  directly  acted  upon.  A  league  of 
Reuchlinists  (so  called)  was  formed  to  take  the 
part  of  Reuchlin.  It  assumed  the  champion- 
ship of  the  cause  of  classical  learning,  as  opposed 
to  the  scholasticism  which  had  prevailed,  and  en- 
listed the  co-operation  of  many  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished men  of  Germany.  In  1510.  Franz 
von  Sickingen  ordered  the  Dominicans  to  make 
good  to  Reuchlin  all  the  costs  of  court  which 
he  had  incurred  in  consequence  of  their  pro- 
ceedings against  him,  and  to  give  security 
against  his  further  prosecution ;  and  they  did 
so.  In  1520,  Reuchlin  read  lectures  at  Ingol- 
stadt,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia, on  Hebrew  grammar  and  the  Pluius  of 
Aristophanes,  to  more  than  three  hundred  hear- 
ers. A  lew  months  before  his  death,  he  was 
invited  to  teach  Hebrew  and  the  Greek  gram- 
mar in  the  university  of  Tubingen. 

REWARDS,  as  an  instrument  of  family  or 
school  discipline,  are  benefits  or  privileges  con- 
ferred to  incite  children  to  well-doing.  Primarily, 
the  offer  of  a  reward,  as  an  incitement  to  effort 
on  the  pari  of  the  pupil,  appeals  to  hope,  as  pun- 
ishment does  to/ear  (q.  v.):  but  there  are  other 
elements  of  individual  character  also  addressed. 
depending  on  (1)  the  nature  of  the  reward  of- 
fend, and  (2)  tin'  individuality  of  the  pupil. 
Thus,  the  pupil  who  is  particularly  fond  of  praise, 
if  offered  a  valuable  gift  as  an  inducement  to  do 
right,  would  strive  to  obtain  it  as  a  striking 
token  of  his  teacher's  approval;  while  one  who 
was  naturally  acquisitive,  or  eager  for  gain, 
would  regard  only  the  intrinsic  value  of  the 
reward.  Hence,  in  one  case,  the  pupil's  approba- 
tiveness  would  be  stimulated;  and,  m  the  other, 
his  acquisitiveness;  but  in  neither  would  tin- 
sense  of  duty  be  cultivated.  The  necessity  of  ex- 
ercising great  care  in  offering  rewards  will, 
therefore,  be  obvious.  While  an  appeal  to  hope 
as  an  incentive  to  do  right,  is  in  most  cases,  if 

not  always,  preferable  to  an  appeal  to    fear;   yet. 

it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  rewards  as  well  as 
punishments  constitute  only  a  temporary  expe- 
dient in  the  discipline  of  children,  and  should,  as 

soon  as  possible,  give  place  to  a  direct  appeal  to 
conscience,  or  the  sense  of  right.  (See  Con- 
Science.)  When  rewards  are  offered  to  a  number 
of  pupils,  to  be  conferred  upon  those  who  excel 

all  the  others,  they  become  prizes,  and  are  liable 

to  all  the  objections  which  have  been  urged 
against  the  prize  Bystem :  bul  when  rewards 
[premiums),  whether  gifts  of  money,  hooks,  picl 

urcs.  or  other  articles  of  value,  or    merely  tickets 

or  certificates  of  merit,  are  offered  to  all  who 
reach  a  certain  specified  standard  of  merit,  either 

in  study  or  behavior,  these  objections  are  ob- 
viated: as.  although  the  mercenary  spirit  may 
still  be  addressed,  there  is  no1  the  same  liability 


I  to  injustice,  or  the  same  cause  of  envy  and 
>  jealousy.  Rewards  may,  however,  consist  merely 
of  special  privileges  conferred  upon  meritorious 
pupils;  such  as  dismissal  before  the  usual  time 
for  closing  school,  permission  to  occupy  some  post 
of  honor  or  authority  in  connection  with  the 
management  of  the  school  or  class,  or  to  engage 
in  some  special  sport  or  recreation  planned  by  the 
teacher,  as  a  means  of  encouraging  well-doing. 
All  these,  doubtless,  have  their  place  in  a  proper 
scheme  of  school  discipline:  and.  when  used 
with  discrimination,  are  beneficial. — A  system  of 
rewards  has  been  objected  to  as  appealing  to  the 
lower,  rather  than  to  the  higher,  motives:  but  an 
educator  must  not  be  led  astray  by  any  tran- 
scendental view  of  human  nature.  He  must  r»  <•- 
ognize  the  moral  imperfections  of  his  pupil,  and 
strive  to  lift  him  gradually  to  a  higher  plane  of 
thought  and  action.  In  this  connection,  it  has 
been  properly  remarked,  "whatever  may  be  pi  >- 
sible  in  the  mature  man.  in  the  line  of  that  sub- 
lime abstraction,  virtue  is  its  own  reward,  the 
child  is  neither  equal  to  such  abstractions,  nor 
are  they  demanded  of  him.  They  may.  it  is  true. 
be  graduallv  wrought  bv  instruction  into  the 
bodv  of  his  thought,  for  the  sake  of  their  ulti- 
mate  effect  on  his  principles  as  a  man:  but.  em- 
braced, as  he  is.  in  a  world  of  perceived  realities, 
and  only  capable  of  attaining  the  subtler  ideals 
by  passing  to  them  through  the  fine  gradations 
of  a  progressively  reduced  and  sublimated  reality. 
it  is  absurd  and  tyrannous  to  rob  him  of  the 
stimulus,  guidance,  and  aid  of  proper  rewards  as 
outward  realities  foreshadowing  the  ideal  of 
absolute  virtue,  and  rendering  possible  both  its 
conception  and  attainment.'"  —  See  JEWELL, 
School  Government  (New  York.  1866);  Mor- 
rison, Mm  mil  of  Hchool  Management,  s.  v. 
Discipline  (5th  ed.,  Glasgow,  1*74). 

RHETORIC  (Gr.  faropiidt,  art  of  oratory) 
was  originally  applied  to  that  branch  of  study  in 
which  students  were  trained  for  public  speak- 
big.  In  Greece  and  Home,  the  orator  was  di- 
rectly the  most  powerful  exponent  of  truth  and 

opinion.     As  a  teacher,  as  well  as  a  persuader, 

his  influence  was.  to  a  great  extent,  confined  to 
his  hearers:   and  eloquence  was.  therefore,  in  the 

greatest  request.     But.  even  in  the  writings  of 

the  three  greatest  of   the  ancient  rhetoricians. — 

Aristotle.  Cicero,  Quintilian,  there  is  evidence 
that  rhetoric  embraced  compositions  not  intended 

for  delivery  in  public.  In  modern  times,  rhet- 
oric as  an  art  treats  of  all  coinposit ion.  whether 
spoken  or  written.  It  has  been  well  defined  as 
tlie  mi  of  discourse,  and  discourse  itself  as  ••the 
capacity  in  man  of  communicating  his  mental 
-tales  to  other  minds  by  means  of  language."  It 
embraces  poetry  as  well  as  prose  "because," as 
Campbell  says,   ••the  same  medium,  language, 

is  made  use  df  :  the  same  general  rules  ot  com- 
position, in  narration,  description,  and  argumen- 
tation, are   observed:   and    the   same    tropes  and 

figures,  cither  for  beautifying  or    invigorating 

the  diction,  arc  employed  by  both.  The  versifi- 
cation is  to  be  considered  as  an  appendage  rather 

than    a    constituent    of    poetry."      In    the    it 


RHETORIC 


733 


recent  treatises  on  rhetoric,  elocution,  or  the  art 
of  delivery,  has  been  omitted.  Day  very  justly 
says,  "  that  this  mode  of  communication  is  not 
essential.  The  thought  may  be  conveyed  by  the 
pen  or  by  the  voice.  Elocution,  or  the  vocal  ex- 
pression of  thought,  is  not,  accordingly,  a  neces- 
sary part  of  rhetoric."  In  Whately's  treatise 
[Elements  of  Rhetoric),  however,  a  work  con- 
siderably used  by  students,  a  large  part  is  de- 
voted to  elocution. — It  has  often  been  observed 
that  there  must  have  been  orators  before  there 
were  rules  in  oratory  ;  and  this  is  often  used  as 
an  argument  for  undervaluing  the  study  of  rhet- 
oric, just  as  kindred  arguments  are  advanced 
against  the  study  of  logic  and  grammar.  But 
there  can  be  no  question  that  immense  progress 
has  been  made  through  the  critical  study  of 
writers  of  standard  reputation,  by  comparing, 
discriminating,  and  deciding  on,  their  faults  and 
graces,  thus  teaching  us  what  to  avoid, and  what 
to  emulate.  In  its  best  sense,  rhetoric  presup- 
poses an  acquaintance  with  logic — the  science 
and  art  of  reasoning;  because  conviction  and 
persuasion  are  two  of  the  great- objects  present 
in  the  minds  of  speakers  and  writers.  It  also  re- 
quires an  acquaintance  with  grammar,  as  teach- 
ing the  proper  arrangement  of  words  and  sen- 
tences. Rhetoric  may  be  regarded  from  two  points 
of  view :  (1)  as  a  purely  critical  study ;  and 
('!)  as  the  constant  practice  of  an  art.  To  the 
extent  that  either  of  these  views  becomes  more 
prominent  in  the  teacher's  mind,  will  the 
character  of  his  instruction  be  affected.  It  is 
quite  possible  to  prepare  students  to  recite  well 
in  the  statement  of  principles  and  definitions ; 
and  yet  the  same  students  may  be  veiy  deficient 
in  the  development  or  expression  of  spoken  or 
written  thought.  The  condition  of  such  stu- 
dents may  lead  us  to  say  with  Butler  : 

"  For  all  a  rhetorician's  rules 

Teach  nothing  but  to  name  his  tools." 

In  the  celebrated  treatise  of  Blair,  Lectures  on 
Rhetoric  and  Belles-Lettres,  taste  and  style  are 
so  treated  as  to  occupy  a  very  large  part  of 
the  subject.  It  is  largely  so  with  Campbell's 
Philosophy  of  Rhetoric.  Whately  drew  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  subject  of  invention  ; 
but  he  follows  style  with  a  chapter  on  elocution. 
The  practice,  at  present,  which  seems  to  be  in- 
creasing in  favor  with  teachers,  is  to  omit  elocu- 
tion, or  the  training  in  mere  delivery,  and  to  ex- 
tend the  importance  of  invention  even  beyond 
that  assigned  to  it  by  AVhately.  The  two  great 
divisions  of  rhetoric  are  thus  invention  and 
style.  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  im- 
portance of  invention  in  rhetoric.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  thoughts  according  to  their  logical 
dependence  must  be  the  foundation  of  the 
art  of  discourse.  Good  thinking  must  always 
precede  good  writing.  The  office  of  invention 
is  to  train  the  pupil  to  habits  of  correct  think- 
ing. It  does  more  than  this ;  it  seeks  to  sup- 
ply the  thought.  Thus,  invention  is  naturally 
divided  into  two  parts, — the  supplying  of  the 
thought,   and  its  proper  arrangement  ;    and  of 


these  two  divisions,  the  second  is  dependent  on 
the  first.  In  a  cyclopaedia,  where  the  space  is 
necessarily  limited,  it  will  not  he  expected  that 
any  systematic  development  of  the  steps  and 
processes  used  in  invention  can  be  given.  The 
reader  is  referred,  on  this  and  on  other  points, 
to  the  works  enumerated  at  the  end  of  this 
article.  While,  however,  there  is  no  dispute  as 
to  the  place  of  invention  in  rhetoric  as  an  art,  it 
may  reasonably  he  doubted,  whether  it  can  be 
properly  studied  at  the  early  age  when  pupils 
are  usually  required  to  study  rhetoric.  In  many 
of  its  steps,  it  is  essentially  logical,  and  presup- 
poses an  acquaintance  with  that  subject, — and 
this  again  demands  some  considerable  maturity 
of  mind.  The  preparation  of  arguments,  or  the 
art  of  influencing  the  will  by  discourse,  is  a 
power  the  development  of  which  goes  on  past 
middle  age;  but  it  is  a  power  that  cannot  be 
successfully  trained  in  very  early  years.  The 
chief  danger  in  teaching  this  particular  division 
of  rhetoric,  is  that  it  may  be  made  too  scientific. 
There  are  few  young  minds  so  trained, or  of  such 
native,  vigor,  as  to  be  capable  of  dwelling  long, 
and  with  benefit,  upon  even  well  enunciated 
truths  and  definitions;  but,  even  where  it  is 
insisted  on  and  continued,  the  results  are  not 
always  beneficial. 

The  second  grand  division  of  rhetoric— style 
deals  more  particularly  with  the  form  of  the 
thought.  Perhaps  no  word  has  given  more  dif- 
ficulty to  define.  Without  speech,  "  thought  is 
not  possible  in  reality."  Though  so  endlessly 
variable  in  its  form,  so  subtle  as  almost  to  defy 
minute  analysis,  so  subject  to  the  moods  of 
thought,  and  yet  so  plastic  as  to  conform  to  its 
most  sinuous  and  involved  movements,  we  soon 
reabze  by  a  little  study,  how  completely  it  is  a 
part  of  the  thinking.  The  thought  and  the 
style  are  thus  seen  to  be  one  living  body.  As  a 
subject  of  study,  it  is  that  part  of  rhetoric  which 
has  always  created  and  maintained  the  greatest 
interest  in  the  minds  of  young  students.  Treat- 
ing of  the  form  of  the  sentence,  and  also  of  its 
component  words,  it  depends,  to  some  extent,  on 
grammar,  and  may  be  said  to  follow  it,  in  a  nat- 
ural order  of  study.  It  is,  therefore,  to  young 
minds  more  suitable  than  the  other  division — 
invention.  The  practice  which  it  requires  in 
the  substitution  of  words,  the  inversion  of  sen- 
tences from  grammatical  to  rhetorical  forms, 
the  use  of  rhetorical  figures,  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  language,  furnishes  a  constant 
stimulus  to  mental  exertion.  Such  exercises  in 
style  show  the  student  how  powerfully  the  thought 
is  influenced  by  the  vehicle  of  thought,  how  it 
may  he  modified  by  the  substitution  of  a  clearer 
word,  or  remarkably  affected  by  a  different 
position  of  the  same  words. 

The  advantage  of  sentential  analysis  in  the 
careful  study  of  style  can  scarcely  be  overrated. 
The  arrangement  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses, 
peculiar  to  the  great  English  writers,  affect  most 
powerfully  the  turn  of  the  thought, and  are  open 
to  investigation  through  this  analysis.  The 
kind  of  sentences  they  use,  and  the  variety  in 


734 


RHETORIC 


RHODE   ISLAXD 


which  they  indulge,  give  that  harmony  of  move- 
ment so  indescribably  pleasing.  We,  thus,  see 
from  what  arise  the  clearness  and  greatness  of 
Hume,  the  energy  and  brilliancy  of  -Macaulay, 
the  grace  of  Irving,  the  manly  vigor  of  Sydney 
Smith,  the  philosophic  calmness  of  Helps,  the 
incomparable  plasticity  and  fire  of  Byron's  prose. 
Perhaps  no  part  of  rhetoric  offers  a  finer  field 
for  both  teacher  and  student  than  the  application 
of  sentential  analysis  to  an  investigation  of  the 
striking  peculiarities  in  the  style  of  great  writers. 
— In  no  branch  of  stir  I  v,  is  there  greater  necessity 
for  abundance  of  practice  on  the  part  of  the 
student.  In  none  is  there  greater  necessity  that 
the  student,  and  not  the  teacher,  should  do  the 
chief  part  of  the  work.  The  value  of  rhetoric, 
as  a  branch  of  study,  is  to  be  tested  by  its  prac- 
tical utility,  by  what  it  contributes  towards  de- 
veloping cleanups,  force,  and  beauty  of  expression 
in  language.  Any  thing  else,  however  scientific, 
in  this  branch  must  prove  to  the  young  student 
a  comparatively  barren  and  irksome  task.  In 
this  light,  the  constant  application  of  a  few 
simple  principles  to  the  criticism  of  great  writers 
is  an  admirable  part  of  the  training.  In  Blair's 
Lectures  on  Rhetoric,  there  is  a  seri  ss  of  papers 
from  Addison  illustrating  this  view;  and  it  is  to 
be  doubted  whether  mo  Lern  treatises  on  rhetoric, 
aiming  at  a  more  philosophic  treatment  of  the 
subject,  while  they  have  gained  in  scientific  ar- 
rangement, may  not  have  lost  some  of  this  crit- 
ical training.  Accuracy,  as  well  as  force  of  ex- 
pression, purity,  propriety,  grace,  are.  to  most 
students,  the  result  01  constant,  careful  practice, 
combined  with  criticisms  on  distinguished  writ- 
ers. Franklin,  in  his  autobiography,  gives  a 
most  interesting  account  of  what  can  be  accom- 
plished under  limited  opportunities,  without  a 
teacher,  by  careful  criticism  and  revision.  The 
various  steps,  related  in  his  remarkably  simple 
English,  are  worthy  of  the  notice  of  those  en- 
din  the  instruction  of  youth. — In  the  two 
leading  American  colleges,  Harvard  and  Yale, 
the  time  allotted  to  the  Btudy  of  rhetoric  is.  in 
the  former,  a  part  of  the  sophomore  and  junior 
years;  in  the  latter,  the  senior  year,  although 
lectures  on  rhetoric  are  delivered  to  the  sopho- 
more class.  Supposing  the  average  age  of  stu- 
dents, at  the  time  of  admission,  to  be  17 — and 
this  is,  probably,  below  the  true  average — it 
may  be  said  thai  rhetoric,  as  a  distinct  branch  of 
study,  is  pursued  by  the  students  in  their  twen- 
tieth year.  This  age  gives  some  degree  of  ma- 
turity. By  a  thorough  course  in  the  classical  or 
modern  languages,  students  are,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, prepared  to  enter  upon  the  study  of  inven- 
tion,ml  the  criticism  of  style.  See  K  wir.s,  Ele- 
ments of  i  hriticism;  Addison,  Essays  on  Paradise 
Los/,  in  the  Spectator;  BuLiR,Lectures on  Rhetoric 
and  Belles-Lettres ;  Campbell,  Philosophy  of 
Rhetoric,  Whately,  Elements  of  Rhetoric;  De 
Qoincey,  Rhetorical  and  Critical  Essays,  art. 
Style;  Berbert  Spencer,  Essays,  Moral,  Polit- 
ical,  and  /Esthetic,  art.  Style;  II.  N.  I>.w,  The 
Art  of  Discourse'  (N.  Y.,  L869).  (See  also 
Belles-Lettres.) 


RHODE  ISLAND,  one  of  the  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  and  the  smallest 
of  all  now  composing  it.  having  an  area  of  1,30G 
sq.  in.,  and  a  population,  according  to  the  cen- 
sus of  L870,of  217,358. 

Edua  tfion  <  tl  History. — It  is  claimed  by  Rhode- 
Islanders  that  the  first  school  established  by 
public  vote  in  New  England,  was  at  Newport, 
Ft.  I.,  in  1(1 10.  The  early  town  records  are  very 
defective;  but  it  appears,  from  Calender's  His- 
torical Discourse  (1738),  that,  in  1640,  Mr. 
Robert  Leuthal  was.  by  vote,  "  called  to  keep  a 
public  school  for  the  learning  of  youth."  and. 
further,  that  an  appropriation  of  one  hundred 
acres  of  land  was  made  for  the  permanent  sup- 
port of  a  school.  •■  for  encouragement  of  the 
poorer  sort,  to  train  up  their  youth  in  learning." 
This  school  tract  of  100  acres  was  allotted  in 
what  is  now  the  town  of  Middletown;  but.  in 
L661,  was  exchanged  for  a  tract  afterwards 
known  as  Newtown,  or  School-land.  In 
1  663,  this  tract  was  ordered  to  be  divided  into 
lots  ;  and  the  income  arising  from  the  sale  or 
lease  of  them  was  to  constitute  a  fund  for  the 
•schooling  and  educating  of  poor  children." — 
The  first  public  act  in  behalf'  of  education  in 
Providence  was  in  May.  1663,  when  the  pro- 
prietors voted  that  100  acres  of  upland  and 
6  acres  of  meadow  should  be  laid  out  as  school 
lands,  and  -  reserved  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
school  in  this  town."  The  earliest  allusion  to  a 
chool-house  is  made  in  1  7->li  :  audit  is  probable 
that  the  town  simply  allowed  the  school-master 
the  use  of  the  building,  at  a  fixed  rent,  the  pu- 
pils paying  him  for  his  sendees.  At  a  town 
meeting  held  Dec.  2..  1767,  the  citizens  voted  to 
build  "three  school  houses  for  small  children 
and  one  Eor  youth,  to  provide  instructions,  and 
pay  the  exp  use  i'mm  the  treasury,  and  these 
schools  to  he  under  the  SU]  ■ervi.-ioii  of  the  school 
committee."  A  plan  for  the  organization  of 
the    schools     was    reported    by    the    Committee, 

through  Governor  Jabez  Bowen,  and  may  be 

found  in  the  pages  of  StapleSB  Annals  of  Proih 
idence.  It  is  an  admirable  report, and  is  based 
upon  this  wide  provision:  "Thai  every  inhabi- 
tant of  this  town,  whether  they  be  free  of  the 
town  or  not.  shall  have  anil  enjoy  an  equal  right 
and  privilege  of  sending  their  own  children,  and 
the  children  of  others  that  may  be  under  their 
care,  for  instruction  and  bringing  up.  to  any  oi 
all  of  said  schools."     This  beneficent  plan  was, 

however,    defeated  .  on   grounds    thus    stated   by 

Moses  Brown,  another  member  of  the  com- 
mittee : 

"  ITt'.s.  i.aid  before  the  town  by  the  committee, 
luit  a  number  of  the  inhabitants  (and  what  i-  most 
surprising  ami  remarkable  the  plan  of  a  free  Sellout, 
supported  by  a  tax.  was  rejected  by  the  Poobi  r  sort 
of  the  people,)  being  Btrangely  led  away  not  to 
their  own  as  well  a-  the  public  interest  therein,  (bj  a 
leu  objectors  at  tirst.)  either  because  they  were  not 
the  projectors,  or  had  not  public  spirit  to  execute  bo 
laudable  a  design,  and  which  was  lirst  voted  by  the 
tew  ii  with  great  freedom.     M.  B." 

The  town,  at  last,  built  a  school-house,  con- 
jointly with  private  proprietors,  the  town  owning 

only  the  lower  story,  but  having  the  supervisit f 


RITODK    ISLAM) 


735 


both  private  and  public  schools,  through  a  school 
committee. 

In  Bristol,  the  original  proprietors,  in  1680, 
granted  land  "for  the  common  improvement, for 
the  encouragement  and  use  of  an  able  orthodox 
minister,  and  for  the  use  and  encouragement  of 
an  able  schoolmaster  in  the  town."  The  first 
recorded  act  of  the  citizens  of  Bristol  in  regard 
to  schools  is  dated  in  September,  1682,  when 
it  was  voted  : 

"That  each  person  that  hath  children  in  town  ready 
to  go  to  school,  shall  pay  three  pence  the  week  for 
each  child's  schooling  to  the  schoolmaster,  and  the 
town  by  rate  according  to  each  ratable  estate  shall 
make  the  wages  to  amount  to  £24  the  year.  The 
selectmen!  to  look  out  a  grammar  schoolmaster  and 
use  their  endeavor  to  obtain  £5  of  the  cape  mon 
granted  for  such  an  end.*'  " September,  1684,  voted 
£24  the  year  for  Mr.  Cobbitt,  he  officiating  in  the 
place  of  a  schoolmaster  in  this  town." 

These  seem  to  have  been  the  main  attempts 
at  popular  education  in  this  state,  before 
the  Revolution.  There  were,  also,  some  local 
efforts  for  the  instruction  of  the  Indians, 
beginning  with  a  gift  of  land  made  by  Judge 
Sewall,  of  Massachusetts,  for  that  purpose.  In 
regard  to  the  colored  popidation,  then  quite 
numerous  in  Rhode  Island,  the  Xewport  Mer- 
cury, of  March  29.,  1773,  had  the  following  : 

'•Whereas  a  school  was  established,  several  years 
past,  in  the  town  of  Xewport,  by  a  society  of  benev- 
olent clergymen  of  the  church  of  England,  in  Lon- 
don, with  a  handsome  fund  for  a  mistress  to  instruct 
thirty  negro  children  in  reading,  sewing,  etc.  And 
whereas  it  has  hitherto  been  found  difficult  to  supply 
'  the  said  school  with  the  number  of  children  required"; 
notice  is  hereby  given,  that  the  said  school  is  now 
kept  by  Mrs.  Mary  Brett,  in  High  Street,  nearly  op- 
posite to  Judge  Johnston's,  and  is  open  to  all  societies 
in  the  town,  to  send  their  young  blacks,  to  the  num- 
ber of  thirty ;  And,  provided,  that  the  number  can- 
not be  nearly  kept  up  for  the  future,  the  gentlemen  to 
whose  care  and  direction  the  said  school  has  been  en- 
trusted will  be  obliged  to  give  it  up  entirely  at  the  ex- 
piration of  six  months." 

There  were  many  reasons  why  popular  edu- 
cation met  with  less  general  support  in  Rhode 
Island  than  in  Massachusetts.  The  population 
was  far  more  scanty — not  exceeding  7,000,  in 
1680,  and  being  only  17,935  in  1730.  Over 
much  of  the  territory,  there  was  no  settled  gov- 
ernment, there  being  boundary  disputes  in  sev- 
eral directions.  Rhode  Island  was  a  peculiar 
sufferer  by  the  Indian  wrars,  and  the  continued 
existence  of  slavery  was  a  fatal  obstacle  to  pub- 
lic schools.  Finally,  there  was  no  such  power- 
ful body  of  clergymen  as  existed  in  Massachu- 
setts, sustaining  by  potent  influence  the  whole 
system  of  schools.  There  was,  on  the  contrary, 
a  strong  reaction  against  this  clerical  influence, 
and  against  the  traditional  institutions  of  Mas- 
sachusetts and  Connecticut.  It  was  due  to  all 
these  reasons  that  public  schools,  though  planted 
so  early  in  Rhode  Island,  flourished  less  than  in 
these  other  states.  The  reminiscences  of  Samuel 
Thurber,  an  aged  citizen  of  Providence,  record 
the  general  condition  of  education,  before  the 
Revolution : 

"As  respects  schools,  previous  to  about  the  year 
1770,  they  were  but  little  thought  of;  there  were  in 
my  neighborhood  three  small  schools  perhaps  about 


a  dozen  scholars  in  each.  Their  books  were  the  Bible, 

spelling-book,    and  primer.     I was  kept  by  John 

foster,  Esq.,  in  his  office,  one  by  Dr.  Benjamin  West 
Their  ices  were  seven  shillings  and  Bixpence  per  quar- 
ter. One  was  kept  by  George  Taylor.  Esq.,  for  the 
church  scholars.  Be,  it  was  said,  received  a  small 
compensation  from  England.  Besides  these,  there 
were  two  or  three  women  schools.  When  one  had 
learned  to  read,  write,  and  do  a  sum  in  the  rule  of 
three,  he  vi  as  lit  for  business.  *  *  *  The  Rev.  James 
Manning  did  great  things:  in  the  way  of  enlightening 
and  informing  the  people.  Schools  revived  by  means 
of  his  advice  and  assistance.  Previous  to  hii'u  it  was 
not  uncommon  to  meet  with  those  who  could  not 
write  their  names." 

This  testimony  links  Brown  University  with 
the  history  of  common-school  education  in  Rhode 
Island.  i>r.  .Manning  was  president  of  what  was 
then  Rhode  Island  College,  when  it  was  removed 
to  Providence,  in  1770  ;  and  the  impetus  given 
by  him  would,  doubtless,  have  borne  more  im- 
mediate fruit,  but  for  the  absorbing  excitement 
of  the  Revolution.  A  colony  which  saw  one  of 
its  chief  towns  long  held  by  the  enemy,  could 
not  give  much  attention  to  schools.  The  con- 
flict left  the  young  state  terribly  depleted  and 
impoverished.  It  had  hardly  recovered  itself, 
when  it  was  urged  on  to  the  adoption  of  a  pub- 
lic-school system,  through  the  far-seeing  energy 
of  one  man.  The  real  founder  of  public  schools 
in  Rhode  Island  was  John  Howland,  who  was 
born  in  Xewport,  in  1753,  and  w*as  sent  to  Prov- 
idence at  thirteen,  to  be  a  barber's  apprentice. 
He  was  afterwards  a  soldier  of  the  Revolution, 
and  was  then  for  many  years  a  barber  in  Prov- 
idence. He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Me- 
chanics'Association,  founded  in  1789.  Mr.  How- 
land  has  left  fully  on  record  the  successive  stejis 
in  the  agitation  which  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  public  schools;  and  it  is  a  curious  fact 
that,  by  his  showing,  it  met  with  no  opposition 
from  the  wealthy,  but  only  from  the  very  class 
it  was  especially  designed  to  benefit.  It  was 
warmly  approved  in  Providence,  and  was  en- 
dorsed iu  Newport,  but  was  regarded  with  in- 
difference in  the  country  towns.  In  these,  in- 
deed, it  had  been  but  little  agitated,  a  fact  to 
which  the  early  repeal  of  the  measure  was  mainly 
due.  The  bill  establishing  public  schools  was 
enacted  in  the  February  session,  1800.  Its  vital 
provisions  were  as  follows  : 

"  Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assem- 
bly, and  the  authorities  thereof,  and  it  is  hereby  en- 
acted;— That  each  and  every  town  in  the  State  shall 
annually  cause  to  be  established  and  kept,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  such  town,  one  or  more  free  schools,  for  the 
instruction  of  all  the  white  inhabitants  of  said  town, 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty  years,  in  reading, 
writing,  and  common  arithmetic,  who  may  stand  in 
need  of  such  instruction,  and  apply  therefor." 

"Sec.  2.  And  belt  further  enacted,  That  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  Town  Council  of  every  town,  to  divide 
said  town  into  so  many  school-districts  as  they  shall 
judge  necessary  and  convenient." 

It  was  further  provided  that  each  town  might 
retain,  for  school  purposes,  twenty  per  cent  of 
its  state  taxes,  so  long  as  the  sum  thus  retained 
did  not  exceed $6,000.  In  case  any  town  failed 
to  establish  the  schools  required,  this  allowance 
was  to  be  forfeited  ;  but  there  was  no  other 
penalty  imposed,  nor  was  action  made  obliga- 


736 


RHODE   ISLAND 


tory.  As  a  result,  the  law  was  an  absolute  fail- 
ure, except  as  regarded  the  city  of  Providence. 
No  other  community  carried  it  into  effect,  and 
the  law  itself  was  repealed  in  1803. 

In  organizing  the  schools  of  Providence,  John 
Rowland  was  made  one  of  the  committee  ;  and 
go  thoroughly  was  his  work  done  in  his  own 
city,  that  the  school  system  was  there  sustained 
after  the  repeal  of  the  general  law,  and  the 
schools  of  Providence  remained,  until  within  a 
few  years,  far  in  advance  of  all  the  rest  of  the 
state. — For  twenty-five  years  after  the  repeal  of 
John  Howland's  law,  there  was  iu  Rhode  Island 
no  state  system  of  schools,  even  on  paper; 
though  the  local  schools  of  Providence  were  well 
sustained  at  the  public  expense,  and  there  were, 
at  Newport  and  elsewhere,  some  endowed  schools, 
most  of  them  established  by  lottery.  In  182  7,  there 
were  petitions  for  a  school  system  ;  and,  in  1828, 
a  law  was  passed,  authorizing  towns  to  appoint 
school  committees,  and  to  tax  themselves  for 
schools ;  and  providing  that  sums  paid  into  the 
general  treasury  by  lottery  dealers  and  auction- 
eers should  be  appropriated  to  the  support  of 
public  schools,  to  an  amount  not  exceeding 
§10,000.  This  act  was  the  foundation  of  the 
present  school  system  of  the  state ;  and  though 
its  provisions  seemed  in  some  respects  unsatis- 
factory, it  was  yet  a  great  step  forward.  During 
the  next  fifteen  years,  the  system  underwent 
some  important  modifications,  especially  as  to 
the  plan  of  distribution  of  the  school  money, 
which  was  at  first  allotted  to  each  town  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  inhabitants  below  the 
age  of  sixteen ;   but,  after  wan  Is,    according  to 

(1)  the  number  of  white  persons  under  sixteen, 

(2)  the  number  of  colored  persons  under  ten, 

(3)  five-fourteenths  of  the  colored  persons  be- 
tween ten  and  twenty-four.  This  complicated 
method  remained  in  force  from  1832  to  1845. — 
The  first  document  answering  to  a  general  school 
report  was  prepared  by  Oliver  Angell.a  veteran 
teacher,  in  behalf  of  a  committee  appointed  at  a 
public  meeting  in  Providence.  It  was  printed  in 
pamphlet  form,  and  dated  May  17.,  1832.  The 
most  important  statistical  facts  contained  in 
this  report  were  the  following : 

Whole  number  of  public  schools  in  the  state.. .        323 

Whole  number  of  scholars  taught  in  them 17,0:;  I 

Number  of  male  teachers  employed 31S 

Number  of  female  teachers  employed 147 

Number  of  schools  continued  through  the  year  20 

Average  time  of  the  others 3  months. 

Whole  amount  appropriated  by  the  towns  for 

the  support  of  schools $11 . 490 

Amount  drawn  from  school  fond $10,000 

Whole  amount  expended  for  support  of  public 

schools $21,490 

Number  of  private  schools  continued  through 

the  year,  under  male  teachers 30 

Number  of  private  schools  continued  through 

the  year,  under  female  teachers 88 

(In  nearly  all  the  country  towns,  the  private  schools 
may  be  considered  as  tin-  public  school-;  continued  by 
individual  subscription,  from  three  to  six  months.) 
Whole  number  of  scholars  taught  in  them  (ex- 
clusive   of   the    Friend's    Hoarding- School, 

Providence) 3,403 

Total  estimated  expense  of  private  schools, $81,375 

Expended  for  support  of  schools  for  one  year.  $102,805 


Some  strange  facts  may  be  gathered  from 
these  statistics.  It  appears  that,  in  1832,  Prov- 
idence had  five  times  as  many  public  schools  as 
private;  Newport. sixteen  times  as  many;  and  the 
amount  expended  on  private  schools  throughout 
the  state  was  four  times  that  spent  on  public 
schools.  Only  twenty  public  schools  were  con- 
tinued through  the  year,  the  average  time  of  the 
others  being  but  three  months;  and  men  out- 
numbered women,  as  teachers,  almost  two  to  one. 
In  1843,  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  Rhode 
Island  assembly,  by  Wilkins  Updike,  of  .South 
Kingstown,  to  authorize  the  governor  of  the  stata 
"to  employ  some  suitable  person  as  agent;"  and, 
in  advocating  its  passage,  he  boldly  declared  the 
school  system,  as  it  then  existed,  to  be  "not  a 
blessing,  except  in  the  city  of  Providence,  and 
possibly,  a  few  other  towns."  He  asserted  that 
Rhode  Island  was  behind  the  other  New  England 
states,  and  that  the  remedy  for  this  was  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  commissioner  to  revise  the  whole 
system,  to  codify  the  laws,  and  to  visit  and  ex- 
amine the  schools  throughout  the  state.  The 
bill  was  passed,  and  Henry  Barnard  was  ap- 
pointed the  school  agent  in  December,  1843.  In 
May,  the  following  year,  he  made  his  report  of  a 
school  law,  which  was  passed  June  27.,  1845. 
This  law  created  the  office  of  commissioner  of 
public  schools,  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor, 
made  provision  for  the  financial  support  of  the 
schools,  defined  the  powers  and  duties  of  towns 
in  regard  to  public  education,  provided  for  school- 
districts,  and  trustees  of  schools  therein,  and  also 
for  the  examination  and  legal  certification  of 
teachers.  Mr.  Barnard's  labors  and  services  were 
very  great ;  and  he  must  stand  second  only  to 
Horace  Mann  among  the  school  reformers  of  New 
England.  In  his  very  first  report,  for  1845,  he 
made  a  searching  review  of  the  school  buildings 
and  school  methods  prevailing  in  the  state.  Like 
Horace  Mann,  he  strongly  urged  the  employment 
of  women  as  teachers,  and  spoke  with  satisfaction 
of  the  fact  that  he  had  caused  the  employment 
of  more  than  fifty  additional  female  teachers 
during  the  past  year.  He  had  also,  he  reported, 
seen  more  than  fifty  new  school-houses  built, 
mostly  on  plans  furnished  by  himself.  It  was 
declared  by  the  teachers  of  the  state, on  his  retire- 
ment from  office  in  1849,  that  he  had  effected  a 
"revolution"  in  school  architecture;  and  the 
amount  of  printed  matter  circulated  by  him,  was 
very  great.  More  than  16,000  educational  pam- 
phlets were  distributed  by  him  gratuitously,  ex- 
clusive of  the  official  documents  of  the  state,  and 
the  Journal  of  the  Institute  of  Education.  Dur- 
ing our  year,  not  an  almanac  was  published  in 
Rhode  Island  without  at  least  sixteen  pages  of 
educational  matter,  added  to  it.  During  his  five 
years  of  administration,  more  than  eleven  hundred 
educational  meetings  were  held,  at  which  more 
than  fifteen  hundred  addresses  were  made.  Thi 
facts  arc  stated  by  Rev.  Edwin  M,  Stone  in  his 
history  of  the  Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion, an  organization  which  was  formed  in  Jan- 
uary. 1845,  and  rendered  the  most  important  aid 
to  the  labors  of  the  commissioner.     Mr.  Barnard 


RHODE   ISLAND 


737 


retired  in  1840,  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  was 
succeeded  byElisha  R.  Potter,  now  Judge  Potter. 
This  gentleman's  legal  experience  was  of  the 
greatest  benefit  to  the  school  legislation  of  the 
state.  He  secured  the  gradual  abolition  of  the 
rate-bill  system,  which  in  many  towns  assessed 
part  of  the  school  expenses  upon  the  pupils. 
He  also  established  the  principle  of  entire  relig- 
ious freedom  in  the  public  schools,  taking  the 
position  that,  under  the  Rhode  Island  constitu- 
tion, the  school  committees  had  no  right  "to  pre- 
scribe religious  exercises  for  a  school".  The  matter 
was  to  be  settled  by  general  consent:  but  nochild 
could  be  compelled  to  take  part  in  any  religious 
exercise,  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  his  par- 
ents. Accordingly,  in  the  local  school  laws  of 
this  state,  the  school  committees  usually  "recom- 
mend" that  the  schools  be  opened  with  the  read- 
ing of  the  Bible,  but  do  not  require  it.  Other  im- 
portant services  rendered  by  Mr.  Potter  were  the 
recommendation  (in  1850)  of  a  state  board  of 
education,  and  the  persistent  advocacy  of  a  nor- 
mal school.  Through  his  efforts,  a  normal  depart- 
ment was  first  established  (1850)  in  Brown  Uni- 
versity, and  was  placed  under  the  charge  of  Prof. 
B.  S.  Greene,  then  superintendent  of  the  Provi- 
dence schools,  but  whose  title  in  the  university 
was  Professor  of  Didactics.  To  this  arrangement, 
su  reeded  (in  1852)  a  private  normal  school,  in 
Providence,  taught  by  Messrs.  Greene,  Russell, 
Colburn.and  Guyot;  and  finally  (in  1854),  a  state 
normal  school,  under  Dana  P.  Colburn.  This 
school  was  afterward  removed  to  Bristol,  and, 
after  Mr.  Colburn  s  death,  was  placed  under 
Joshua  Kendall's  charge.  It  was,  however,  abol- 
ished in  1865,  but  was  re-established  at  Provi- 
dence in  1871,  under  the  care  of  J.  C.  Green- 
ough,  who  still  remains  its  principal.  The  suc- 
cessors of  Mr.  Potter  in  the  office  of  school  com- 
missioner have  been  Robert  Allyn  (1854 — 7), 
John  Kingsbury  (1857 — 9),  Joshua  B.  Chapiu 
(1859—61,  and  again  1863—9),  Henry  Rous- 
maniere  (1861—3),  T.  W.  BickneU  (1869—75), 
and  Thomas  B.  Stockwell,  the  present  incumbent , 
elected  in  1875. 

A  state  board  of  education  was  created  in 
1870;  and  there  have  been  various  improvements 
hi  organization  since  that  time,  including  the 
extension  of  the  term  of  school  committees  from 
one  to  three  years,  and  the  authorization  of  a 
school  superintendent  in  eveiy  town.  Women 
have  also  been  occasionally  elected  members  of 
school  committees,  and  have  performed  their 
duties  with  marked  success.  Evening  schools 
have  also  received  particular  attention,  being 
especially  important  in  a  manufacturing  state 
like  Rhode  Island. 

School  System. — -The  constitution  of  the  state 
provides   (1)  that  "it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
general  assembly  to  promote  public  schools,  and 
to  adopt  all  means  which  they  may  deem  neces-  j 
sary  and  proper  to  secure   to   the   people   the 
advantages    and    opportunities    of    education"; 
('-)   that  "the  money  appropriated    by  law  for 
the  establishment  of  a  permanent  fund  for  the  j 
support  of  public  schools  shall  be  securely  in-  I 
47 


vested  and  remain  a  perpetual  fund  for  that 
purpose";  (3)  that  -all  donations  for  the  support 
of  public  schools  or  other  educational  purposes 
shall  be  applied  according  to  the  terms  prcscril>ed 
by  the  donors."  The  officers  ©f  the  system  con- 
sist of  (1)  a  state  board  of  education,  (2)  a  com- 
missioner of  public  schools,  (."{)  trustees  of  the 
state  normal  school,  I  I)  town  school  committees, 
(5)  town  superintendents,  (6)  district  trustees, 
and  (7 1  district  clerks,  treasurers,  and  collectors. — 
The  state  board  of  education  is  composed  of  eight 

members,  the    governor  and    the    lieutenant-gov- 
ernor being  members,  m  itjjiri,,.  and  each   of  the 
five  counties  of  the  state  "being  entitled   to  one 
member,  except   Providence,  which  is  entitled  to 
two.     The  members  are  elected   by  the  general 
assembly  for  three  years.     This  board   has  the 
general   supervision   and   control  of   the   public 
schools,  its  particular  duties  being  to  hold  quar- 
terly meetings,  to  prescribe  and  enforce  general 
regulations,  and  to  make  an  annual  report  to  the 
general  assembly.     The  governor  of  the  state  is 
the  president  of  the  board,  and  the  commissioner, 
secretary. — The  commissioner  of  public  Schools 
is  elected  annually  by  the  board  of  education, 
and  is  the  chief  executive  officer  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  system.  His  duties  are  to  advise 
with  school  officers  and  teachers  in  all  matters 
pertaining  to  education;  to  visit  and   inspect  the 
schools;  to  deliver  addresses  in  the  several  towns 
on  subjects  pertaining   to   the   progress   of  the 
schools;  to  arrange  for  and  conduct  teachers'  in- 
stitutes; to  secure,  as  far  as  is  desirable,  a  uni- 
formity of  text-books;  to  assist  in  the  establish- 
ment of  school  libraries;  to  draw  orders  on  the 
treasurer  for  the  school  moneys  to  which  the 
towns  are  entitled;  and  to  make  an  annual  report 
to  the  board  of  education  on  the  last  Monday  in 
December  of  each  year.    He  also  decides  disputes 
and  controversies  arising  in  the  administration 
of  the  school  laws:  but,  if  requested,  he  must  lay 
a  statement  of  the  facts  of  the  case  before  one 
of  the  justices  of  the  supreme  court,  whose  de- 
cision is  final. — The  trustees  of  the  normal  school 
consist  of  the  members  of  the  board  of  education 
and  the  commissioner  of  the  public  schools,  and 
have  the  control,  management,  and  general  super- 
vision of  the  normal  school.     They  also  examine 
candidates  for  teachers'  licenses,  and  give  certifi- 
cates to  such  as  are  found  qualified. — School  com- 
mittees, each  composed  of  not  less  than  three 
members,  are  elected  in  the  towns  for  the  term 
of  three  years,  one  retiring  annually.  Their  duties 
are  to  meet  for  consultation  at  least  four  times  a 
year,  to  fix  the  boundaries  of  school-districts,  to 
locate  school-houses,  to  examine  and  license  ap- 
plicants to  teach,  and  to  revoke  licenses   when 
necessary;  to  visit,  by  one  or  more  of  their  num- 
ber, every  public  school  in  the   town  at  least 
twice  during  each  term,  to  make  rules  for  the 
management  and  instruction  of  the  schools,  and 
to  draw  all  orders  for  the  payment  of  the  school 
moneys.     They  are  at  all  times  subject  to  the 
supervision  of  the  commissioner.  In  towns  under 
the  district  system,  the  trustees  have  the  care  of 
the  district-school  property,  and  make  contracts 


733 


RHODE   ISLAND 


with  teachers;  while  the  school  committee  exer- 
cises all  other  authority  over  the  schools.  School 
superintendents,  elected  by  the  voters  of  the 
towns,  or,  upon  their  failure  to  do  so,  by  the 
school  committees,  perform  such  duties  and  ex- 
ercise such  powers  as  may  be  assigned  to  them 
by  the  school  committees.  District  trustees,  one 
or  three  for  each  district,  as  the  latter  may  de- 
cide,  are  annually  elected  by  the  voters  of  the 
districts,  but  receive  no  compensation  unless  the 
district  vote  to  levy  a  special  tax  for  that  pur- 
pose. They  have  the  custody  of  the  school  prop- 
erty, and  employ  the  teachers;  and  they  are  re- 
quired to  visit  the  schools  twice  each  term,  and 
to  report  to  the  school  committee. — District 
clerks,  one  for  each  district,  are  elected  by  the 
voters  of  the  district  to  keep  the  records  of  all 
meetings  in  the  district,  and  of  the  boundaries  of 
the  school-districts. — District  treasurers  keep 
the  school  moneys,  pay  it  out  on  proper  orders, 
etc.;  and  district  collectors  are  appointed  to  col- 
lect the  taxes  levied  in  the  district  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools. — The  permanent  school  /tout  of 
the  state,  in  L875,  amounted  to  $265,142.51, 
only  the  income  of  which  may  be  appropriated 
to  public  schools.  The  mm  mil  fund  for  distri- 
bution among  the  schools,  arising  from  state  and 
local  taxation,  interest  on  permanent  fund,  and 
other  sources,  amounted  to  $761,796.92.  The 
state  appropriates  annually  $90,000  for  the  sup- 
port of  public  schools — §63,000  to  the  several 
towns  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children 
under  the  age  of  15;  and  $27,000  according  to 
the  number  of  school-districts  in  each  town.  The 
money  thus  appropriated — called  teachers'  money 
— can  be  used  only  for  the  payment  of  teachers' 
salaries.  No  town  can  receive  any  part  of  such 
state  appropriation,  unless  it  raise  bytax,  for  the 
support  of  schools,  an  amount  equal  to  what  it  is 
entitled  to  receive  from  the  state.  There  is  also  a 
special  state  appropriation  tor  evening  schools  — 
Every  district  is  required  to  maintain  a  school; 
and.  if  it  neglect  for  seven  months  to  open  one. 
the  town  committee  may  establish  a  school,  and 

employ  a  teacher.  Two  or  more  districts  may 
unite  to  maintain  a  school  for  older  children. — 
No  minor  under  L5  years  of  age  may  be  employed, 
under  a  penally  of  $20,  in  any  manufacturing 
establishment,  unless  he  lias  attended  school  at 
leasi  three  months  during  the  preceding  year. 
nor  may  any  such  minor  be  employed  for  more 
than  nine  months  in  any  year.  Towns  may 
enact   truant  laws. 

Educational  Condition. — The  number  of  pub- 
lic day  schools  in  the  state,  in  L875,  was  7,'iT  (grad- 
ed, 436;  ungraded,  301 );  <>f  evening  schools,  39; 
ami  the  number  of  school-houses,  426,  the  esti- 
mated value  of  which  was  $2,360,017.  The  receipts 
for  the  support  of  the  schools  were  as  follows: 
Prom  state  appropriation  for 

■  lav  schools $110,000.00 

I i  Btate  appropriation  for 

evening  schools 2,495.00 

From  town  appropriations.  666,766.14 

"      district  taxes 47,626.43 

"      other  sources 54.010.35 

Total. J761.796.92 


The  expenditures  for  the  same  year  were  as- 
follows  : 

Forteach.ers'salarie6,dayschools  $383,284.14 
"        "  "    evening    "  .0.50 

"    Bites,  bnildingB,  and  furniture  274,320.41 

"    school  supervision 11,081.02 

"    other  purposes 80,001.07 


Total $764,643.74 

The  school  statistics,  for  the  year  ending  April 
30.,  1875,  are  the  following: 

No.  of  children  of  school  age  (4—10) 53,:;ii; 

"     "  different  pupils  enrolled  in  day  schools.     38,5    I 

Average  number  belonging ." 30,102 

Average  daily  attendance 26,163 

Number  enrolled  in  evening  schools 4,600 

Average  attendance       "  "  2,256 

Number  of  teachers  employed,  males. . . .  196 
"       "  "  "       females ..  .861 

Total 1,056 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers,  males $85.1* 

"             "              "           females. .   $46.17 
Average  length  of  school  term 0.38  mo. 

In  the  following  cities  and  towns,  the  town 
system  of  school  management  has  been  adopted 
wholly  or  in  part:  Providence.  Bristol,  fcasl 
Providence,  Newport,  Warren,  Woonsocket, 
Pawtucket,  Barrington,  and  North  Providence. 
— The  commissioner's  annual  report  for  1875 
gives  the  following  brief  summary  of  what  is 
now  attempted  in  the  public  elementary  schools: 
■An  examination  of  our  schools  shows  that  read- 
ing, spelling,  penmanship,  arithmetic  (mental  and 
written),  and  geography  are  taught  in  all  the 
Bchoole  of  the  state  of  an  intermediate  and  gram- 
mar grade.  United  States  history  and  Knglish 
grammar  are  taught  in  most  of  our  grammar 
schools.  Vocal  music  is  practiced  in  many  of  our 
schools,  and  taught  in  a  few, particularly  in  those  i 
of  all  grades  in  Providence  and  Newport.  Draw- 
ing is  taught  in  the  intermediate  and  gran, mar 
grades  of  Providence  and  Newport.  Sewing  is 
taught  in  a  few  of  the  schools  in  Providence." 

Normal  Instruction. — The  Rhode  Island  State 
Normal  School,  at  Providence,  from  its  opening, 
September  1871,  to  January,  1876.  gave  instruc- 
tion to  "'-I  pupils,  of  whom  I>1  graduated  from 
the  institution.  While  fitting  teachers  for  schools 
of  a  higher  grade,  it  especially  aims  to  prepare 
for  teaching  elementary  schools—  primary,  inter- 
mediate, and  grammar.  The  whole  number  of 
pupils  taught,  during  the  year  1875,  was  159. 
Three  teachers'  institutes  were  held  under  the 
direction  of  the  state  commissioner. 

Secondary  Instruction-  There  are  13  cities 
and  towns  which  have  separate  high  schools,  or 

scl Is  «>f  that  grade,  either  public  or  private,  as 

follows:     Providence,     Newport.    \Y isocket, 

Pawtucket,  Bopkinton,  Bristol,  Warren,  Wi 
erly.  Lincoln.  East  Greenwich,  Barrington,  Scit- 
uate,  and  Easl  Providence.  In  his  report  for 
L  875,  the  commissioner  remarks:  '-In  the  high 
schools,  we  find  the  pupils  pursuing  the  studies 
of  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  astronomy, 
botany,    algebra,    trigonometry,     book-keeping, 

general   history,    mental    and    moral   philosophy, 

English  Literature,  and  Latin  and  Greek."  'Mine 

private  academies  and  seminaries   reported  to  the 

U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  in  1875,  a  total  of 


RHODE   ISLAND 


RICHTER 


739 


269  students,  of  whom  130  were  pursuing  a  clas- 
sical course;  4b\  a  course  in  modern  languages; 
and  32  were  preparing  for  college.  The  whole 
number  of  teachers  employed  in  these  schools 
was  18.  The  University  Grammar  School,  at 
Providence,  is  the  oldest  institution  of  learning 
in  the  state,  its  foundation  dating  back  to  1764. 
It  was  the  germ  of  Brown  University,  under 
whose  control  it  still  is,  and  for  which  it  has 
prepared  nearly  300  students.  The  East  Green- 
wich Academy  is  connected  with  Boston  Uni- 
versity. The  Friends'  Academy,  Mowry  and 
Goff's  English  and  classical  school,  and  Dr.  Stock- 
bridge's  school  for  young  ladies,  all  in  Providence, 
are  schools  of  high  repute  for  efficiency.  It 
should  also  be  mentioned  that  the  Rogers  High 
School,  in  Newport,  partakes,  in  some  respects, 
of  the  nature  of  an  academy,  having  been  based, 
in  its  present  form,  upon  the  bequest  of  $100,0(10 
to  the  city  of  Newport,  to  be  used,  under  certain 
conditions,  for  the  establishment  of  a  high  school. 
Four  schools  in  the  state  for  the  preparation  of 
students  for  college,  in  1875,  reported  33  teach- 
ers and  465  pupils.  Two  business  colleges  reported 
to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  19  teachers  and  605  pupils 
— 405  day  scholars  and  200  evening  scholars. 

Superior  Instruction. — This  grade  of  education 
is  represented  by  Brown  University  (q.  v.) ,  first 
established  at  Warren,  but,  in  1770,  removed  to 
Providence.  This  institution  contains  an  agricult- 
ural and  scientific  department. 

Special  Instruction. — -The  only  institution  of 
this  character  in  the  state  is  the  Reform  School, 
at  Providence,  in  which  both  boys  and  girls  are 
well  cared  for,  being  provided  with  the  means 
for  acquiring  a  common-school  education,  and 
trained  in  habits  of  neatness,  order,  and  industry. 
In  1875,  the  whole  number  of  inmates  was  197, 
— boys,  162;  girls,  35. 

Teachers'  Associations. — The  Rhode  Island 
Institute  of  Instruction  held  its  thirtieth  annual 
session  at  Providence,  in  January,  1875.  This 
association,  during  its  long  career,  has  numbered 
among  its  members  the  most  distinguished  edu- 
cators of  the  state,  and  has  exerted  a  most  im- 
portant influence  upon  the  progress  of  every  de- 
partment of  education. 

Educational  Journals. — The  first  educational 
journal  published  in  the  state  was  the  Journal 
of  the  Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruction. 
which  was  continued  about  three  years,  till  1849. 
Under  the  administration  of  commissioner  Pot- 
ter, the  Rhode  Island  Educational  Magazine 
was  commenced,  and  continued  for  two  years.  In 
1855,  the  Rhode  Island  Schoolmaster  was  first  is- 
sued, and  continued  to  be  published  for  twenty 
years,  being  merged,  in  1875,  in  the  New  England 
Journal  of  Education,  now  published  in  Boston, 
under  the  editorship  of  T.  W.  Bicknell. 

For  fuller  information  in  regard  to  the  educa- 
tional history  of  this  state,  see  the  Centennial 
Volume,  A  History  of  Public  Education  in 
Rhode  Island  from  1636  to  1876,  compiled  by 
authority  of  the  Board  of  Education,  and  edited 
by  Thomas  B.  Stockwell.  Commissioner  of  Public 
Schools  (Providence,  1876).  This  volume  includes 


j  A  History  of  the  Public  School  System  of  Rhode 
Island,  by  Thomas  Wentworth  niuginson. 

RICHARDSON,  Charles,  an  English  lexi- 
cographer, born  in  July.  17,."'  :  died  at  l'Vliham, 
Middlesex,  Oct.  6..  1865.  Little  is  recorded  of 
his  early  life  or  education.  After  some  Btudy  of 
the  literature  of  the  law.  he  turned  his  attention 
to  philology,  which  was  always  afterwards  the 
business  of  his  life.  His  principal  works  are: 
Illustrations  of  English  Philology  (London, 
L815);  New  Dictionary  of  the  English  Langm 
1 1  837);  and  On  the  Study  of  Language  s  1 1  35 1 1. 
It  is  on  his  dictionary  that  his  fame  principally 
rests.  Its  publication  was  begun  in  1835,  and 
finished  in  1K!7;  but  its  preparation  was  the 
labor  of  20  years.  Though  now  superseded  in 
great  measure  by  the  larger  works  of  AVorces- 
ter  and  Webster,  its  reception  at  the  time  of 
its  publication  was  remarkably  cordial ;  and  crit- 
ical notices,  almost  without  exception,  mentioned 
it  with  praise.     (See  Dictionary.) 

RICHMOND  COLLEGE,  at  Richmond, 
Va.,  under  Baptist  control,  was  founded  in 
1844.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  the 
income  of  an  endowment  of  $100,000.  The  value 
of  its  buildings  and  grounds  is  8150,000.  Its 
libraries  contain  about  6,000  volumes.  The  col- 
lege is  composed  of  eight  independent  schools  ; 
namely,  of  Latin,  Greek,  modern  languages.  En- 
glish, mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  and  philos- 
ophy. The  students  are  free  to  choose  any  of 
these  schools,  but  everyone  is  required  to  attend 
at  least  three.  The  following  degrees  are  con- 
ferred,  according  to  the  number  and  character  of 
the  schools  attended  :  B.  L.,  B.  S.,  A.  B.,  and 
A.  M.  The  tuition  fee  varies  from  $50  per  an- 
num upward,  according  to  the  number  of  schools 
attended.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  7  instructors 
and  150  students.  The  presidents  have  been  as 
follows:  the  Rev.  R.  Ryland,  D.  D.,  1844—66; 
the  Rev.  Tiberius  G.  Jones,  D.  D.,  1866—9  ; 
and  B.  Puryear,  A.  M.  (chairman  of  the  faculty), 
from  1869  to  the  present  time  (1876). 

RICHTER,  Johann  Paul  Friedrich,  an 
illustrious  German  author,  popularly  known  as 
Jean  Paul,  born  in  Wunsiedel,  Bavaria.  March 
21.,  1763;  died  in  Baireuth,  November  1-1.,  1825. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Leipsic, 
and,  after  leaving  it,  passed  ten  years  of  his 
life  as  a  private  tutor,  his  condition,  during 
much  of  that  time,  being  one  of  extreme 
poverty.  While  occupied  as  a  teacher,  he 
wrote  several  works:  but,  lor  a  long  time, 
was  unsuccessful  in  finding  a  publisher,  and  was 
still  longer  in  finding  readers,  the  extravagance 
and  oddity  of  his  thought  and  style  baffling 
popular  comprehension,  and  depriving  his  genius 

I  of  that  recognition  which  it  afterwards  secured. 
The  turning-point  in  his  fortunes  came  at  last, 
however  :  and.  from  1793  to  1  798,  he  published 
several  of  his  best  works,  which  rapidly  raised 
him  to  a  position  among  the  most  celebrated 
authors  of  his  day.  I  lis  views  on  education  are 
embodied  chiefly  in  his  Levana,  oder  Erzieh- 
lehre,  published  in  Brunswick,  in  1807,  and  in 
Stuttgart,  in   1861 ;  an    English  translation  of 


740 


EITMiK VILLK    COLLEGE 


ROM  AX  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


which  was  issued  in  Boston,  in  1863.  Jt  is 
characterized  by  just  and  profound  views  ex- 
pressed in  striking  language;  and  many  of  its 
aphoristic  sayings  have  long  since  passed  un- 
questioned into  the  literature  of  education. 

RIDGEVILLE  COLLEGE,  in  Ridgeville, 
Lid.,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Freewill  Bap- 
tist denomination,  was  founded  in  1867,  for  the 
education  of  both  sexes.  It  is  supported  by  the 
income  of  a  small  endowment  and  by  tuition 
fees,  varying  from  §1H  to  $30  a  year.  It  pro- 
vides the  following  courses:  classical,  scientific, 
practical  (of  .'!  years,  intended  to  be  equivalent  to 
an  ordinary  high-school  course),  classical  prepar- 
atory, and  a  general  preparatory  course.  In 
L875 — 6,  there  were  5  instructors  and  112  stu- 
dents: classical,  1;  scientific,  11:  practical  course, 
5;  classical  preparatory.  1  ;  general  preparatory, 
85;  in  instrumental  music,  6.  The  Rev.  Samuel 
J>.  Bates,  A.  .M.,  is  (i876)  the  president. 

RIPON  COLLEGE,  at  Ripon,  Wis.,  was 
founded  in  1851,  and  organized  as  a  college  in 
!  363.  It  is  non-sectarian.  It  has  an  endowment  of 
about  $50,000,  a  library  of  over  3,800  volumes, a 
cabinet  of  minerals,  and  chemical  and  physical 
apparatus.  The  regular  tuition  fees  vary  from 
■r J 1  to  $24  a  year.  There  is  a  collegiate  de- 
partment (with  a  classical  as  itific  course), 
a  preparatory,  and  a  musical  department.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  13 
instructors,  and  358  students  (165  male  and  193 
female),  of  whom  (i!)  were  of  collegiate  grade. 
211  preparatory,  and  -15  were  studying  music 
only.  The  Rev.  William  B.  .Merriman.  D.  !>..  wai 
president  of  the  college  from  18G3  to  1876, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Edward  II. 
Merrell,  A.  M. 

ROANOKE  COLLEGE,  at  Salem,  Ya.. 
founded  in  1852,  is  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  though  not  by  its  charter  de- 
nominational. It  derives  its  support  from  the 
Ices  of  students  ($50  a  year).  The  college 
has  a  library  of  1.4,000  volumes,  extensive  chem- 
ical and  philosophical  apparatus,  a  mineral 
cabinet  containing  over  1 1 ,000  specimens,  and  a 
museum  of  curiosities.  There  is  a  collegiate, a 
normal,  and  a  preparatory  department, besides  a 
select  course  designed  to  afford  a  good  business 
education.  In  1ST.") — (J,  there  were  7  instructors 
aud  171  students  (93  collegiate, 3]  select,  and  47 
preparatory).  The  Bev.  D.  F.  Little.  I>.  I>..  ha, 
been  the  president  from  the  opening  of  the 
college. 

ROCHESTER,  University  of,  at  Roches 
ter,  N.  V.,  under  Baptisi  control,  was  founded 
in  1850.      It   is  supported    by  tuition    fees  and 

the  income  of  an  endowment  of  $212,000.    Its 
unproductive  property  (land,  buildings,  etc 
valued  at  $378,662.    It  bas  extensive  collections 
in  geology  and  mineralogy,  and  a  library  of 

L2,500  volumes.    The  cost  of  tuition  is  $75  a 
year;  but  then;  are  fifty  scholarships  affording 

tree  tuition.      The  university  has  a   classical  and 
a  BCientific  course,   each    of   four  years,  leading 

respectively  to  the  degrees  of  A.  B. and  L.  s. 

Eclectic  courses   are   provided  for  those  not  can- 


didates for  a  degree.  In  1876 — 7,  there  were  8 
professors  and  163  students.  Martin  Brewer 
Anderson,  LL.  !>.,  elected  in  1853,  lias  been  the 
only  president. 

ROCK  HILL  COLLEGE,  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic institution  at  Ellicott  City,  Md.,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Christian  brothers,  was  organ- 
ized in  1857,  and  chartered  in  18G5.  It  has  a 
geological  and  mineralogies]  cabinet,  containing 
about  1,000  specimens;  a  herbarium,  containing 
about  -,5oii  specimens  ;  and  a  library  of  6,500 
volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is  $200 
a  year;  of  tuition  alone,  §80.  The  college 
comprises  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, the  latter  having  a  commercial  course 
(2  years),  a  scientific  course  (4  years),  and  a 
(dassieal  course  (4  years).  In  1875 — 6,  there  were 
'_".'  professors  and  other  instructors  and  165  stu- 
dents (137  preparatory  and  28  collegiate).  The 
presidents  have  been  as  follows:  Bro.  Aphraau  b, 
Bro.  Tobias,  Bro.  Lucian,  and  Bro.  Bettelin  (for 
the  last  1  2  years). 

ROD.     See  Corporai,  Punishment. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  is  the 
name  popularly  given  to  the  body  of  Christians 
who  are  in  communion  with  the  bishopof  Rome 
and  recognize  him  as  their  spiritual  head.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  is  by  far  the  n 
numerous  division  of  Christendom.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  an  estimate  of  the  proportion,  at 
present  (1877),  of  Roman  Catholics  to  the  Prot- 
estants and  to  the  total  population  of  the  world: 


Total 
population 

Roman 
Catholioa 

Protestants 

86,520,900    47,200,000 

909,180, 147,300, i 

826,560,000       1,700,000 

199,'.>20,000       1.1  in 

30.000.000 

Tl.sOO.OOO 

Asia 

1,800, 

1.200,000 

Australia  aud  Poly- 

4,750,000 

000,000 

2,000,000 

Total 

1,423,920,000 

•Jt  iii.  '.100,000 

100,800,000 

It  will  lie  si  •en.  from  this  table,  that  the  Roman 

Catholic  Church  embraces  a  majority  of  the  total 
population  of  America,  and  nearly  one  half  of 
that  of  Europe;  and  that  it  exceeds  the  Prot- 
estanl  population  in  Asia,  but  is  exceeded  by 
it  in  Africa,  and  in  Australia  and  Polynesia. 
France,  Italy,  Spain.  Portugal.  Belgium,  the 
larger  portion  of  Austria  and  Ireland. the  Polish 
districts  of  Germany  and  Russia,  a  number  of 
Swiss  cantons,  all  the  states  of  South  and  Cen- 
tral America  and  Mexico,  arc  almost  wholly  in- 
habited by  Roman  Catholics.--  From  the  down- 
fall of  the  Western  Roman  empire  toward  the 
close  of   the   Mh  century,  down  to   the  16th,  the 

progress  of  education  in  all  the  western  states 
of  Europe  was  chiefly  controlled  by  the  Catholic 

I  lunch,  for  a  I  Dg  time,  the  schools  of  the  IVnc- 
dictines,  the  convent,  and  the  cathedral  and  eol- 
itc  schools,  all  of  which  were  not  only  found- 
ed, hut  exclusively  conducted,  bj  priests,  were 
the  only  institutions  to  which  the  rising  genera- 
tion of  the  new  European  states  were  indebted 
for  their  education.  Charlemagne  was  the  first 
monarch  who  conceived  the  idea  of  organizing 
a  system  of  popular  education;  but    be   WSJ 


ROMAN   CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


i4] 


far  from  anticipating  any  conflict  of  jurisdiction 
between  state  and  church  that  he  spent  his  ener- 
gies chiefly  in  urging  the  ecclesiastical  author- 
ities to  establish  a  larger  number  of  schools,  all 
of  which  remained  under  the  exclusive  man- 
agement of  the  church.  The  establishment  of 
town  and  burgher  schools,  which  assumed  large 
dimensions  after  the  12th  century,  and.  later, 
the  rise  of  the  universities,  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  organization  of  schools  which,  though  they 
had  to  conform  their  teaching  strictly  to  the 
creed  of  the  church,  were  partly  or  wholly  man- 
aged by  boards  not  exclusively  consisting  of 
church  functionaries.  The  separation  of  a  large 
portion  of  Europe  from  the  Catholic  Church,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  led,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  the  establishment  of  Lutheran  and 
Reformed,  and  later  of  Congregational,  Baptist, 
and  other  denominational  schools,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  caused  even  the  government  in  Cath- 
olic countries,  to  take  a  more  direct  part  in  edu- 
cational matters.  The  Jesuits  hoped,  by  means 
of  superior  schools,  to  preserve  the  Catholic 
Church  from  further  losses  and  to  recover  the 
lost  ground;  and  the  extraordinary  efforts  made 
by  them  in  this  direction,  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  numerous  colleges  which  excited  the 
admiration  of  many  patrons  of  education,  even 
among  Protestants,  and  which  occupy  a  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  annals  of  education.  The 
laurels  won  by  the  Jesuits  as  educators,  proved 
a  spur  for  the  other  religious  orders  of  this 
Church;  and  not  only  did  the  Benedictines,  Pia- 
rists,  and  other  orders,  vie  with  the  Jesuits  in 
the  establishment  of  learned  institutions,  but  a 
large  number  of  orders  and  congregations  spe- 
cially devoted  to  teaching  arose,  which,  from  that 
time  until  the  present  day,  have  constituted  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  instructors  of  Cath- 
olic schools  of  all  grades. — In  the  course  of  the 
1 8th  century,  the  government  in  many  countries 
began  to  look  upon  the  general  introduction  and 
organization  of  popular  education,  as  a  state 
affair  of  the  highest  importance.  Special  state 
boards  were  intrusted  with  the  care  of  schools  ; 
seminaries  for  the  training  of  teachers  were  estab- 
lished; and,  from  a  thorough  conviction  of  the 
necessity  of  elementary  education,  many  of  the 
European  states  adopted  the  policy  of  making 
the  instruction  of  all  the  children  in  the  state 
obligatory.  As  religion  formed  an  essential 
part  of  the  course  of  instruction  in  every  coun- 
try, the  government  generally  endeavored  to 
sjcure  the  co-operation  of  the  church  author- 
ities in  the  management  of  the  elementary 
schools.  In  some  cases,  severe  conflicts  arose, 
S3  in  Austria  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
•Joseph  II..  against  whose  educational  reforms 
the  Catholic  Church  entered  an  earnest  protest : 
but,  as  a  general  rule,  the  co-operation  of  the 
church  authorities  in  the  instruction  and  man- 
agement of  the  state  schools  was  secured.  During 
the  19th  century,  the  government  of  nearly 
every  European  country  has  endeavored,  more 
and  more,  to  centralize  in  its  own  hands  the 
direction  of  schools  of  every  kind  ;  and  though, 


in    most    states,    Protestant    as   well    as  Catholic, 

the  authorities  of  the  Catholic  Church  have 
been  invited  to  co-operate  in  the  governmenl 
and  inspection  of  the  elementary  schools,  the 

state   governments   have    reserved  to  themselves 

the  supreme   righl   of  legislation.     The  prog 
ress  of  tin's  legislation  has  led  to  numerous  con- 
flicts between  the  governments  and  the  Cath- 
olic Church.     The  articles   iii  this  work  on  th( 
important  countries  of  Europe  furnish  numeroui 
details  of   these    conflicts,  as  well  as  of   the  com- 
promises by  which  many  of   them    have    been 
ended.     The   general    tendency   in   Europe  ap- 
pears, however,  at  this  time  (1876)  to  he  rather 
toward  a  widening  than  a  narrowing  of  the  con- 
flict ;   since  the  legislatures  in  most  states.  (  ath- 
olic  as  well  as  Protestant,  arc  unwilling  to  con- 
cede to  the  Church  that  extensive  control  over 
the  schools  supported  by  the  state,  which  she 
claims  as  belonging  to  her  by  divine  right.     No- 
where has  the  conflict  between  the  state  and  the. 
Catholic  Church  assumed  such  proportions  as  in 
Germany,  and  especially  in  Prussia.    (See  Pale, 
and  Germany.)     In  but  few  states,  in  recent 
times,  has  so  full  an  understanding  between  the 
two  powers  been  arrived  at  as  in  Austria,  which, 
by  its  concordat  of  1855,  conceded  the  most  im- 
portant demands  of  the  Church.     The  majority 
of  the   Reichsrath,  however,  viewed  the  conces- 
sions thus  made  as  derogatory  to  the  rights  of 
the  state  :  and,  in  1869,  a  new  school   law   was 
passed  which  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of 
the  Catholic  bishops. — In  the  Syllabus  of  ///<■ 
Principal  Errors  of  our   Time,  which    I 'ope 
Pius  IX.,  in  his  Encyclical  Letter  of  Dec.  8., 
1867,  communicated  to  all  the  Catholic  bishops 
of  the  world,  the  following  theories  are  stigma- 
tized as  contrary  to  the  teaching  of  the  Catholic 
Church:  "(45)  The   entire   direction  of   public 
schools,  in   which   the   youth  of  the  ( 'hristian 
states  are  educated,  except  (to  a  certain  extent  i 
in   the  case  of  episcopal  seminaries,   may  and 
must  appertain  to  the  civil  power,  and  belong 
to  it  so  far,  that  no  other  authority  whatever 
shall  be  recognized  as  having  any  right  to  inter- 
fere in  the  discipline  of  the  schools,  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  studies,  the  taking  of  degrees,  or 
the  choice  or  approval  of  the  teachers.   (46)  Mu(  li 
more,  even  in  clerical  seminaries,  is  the  course 
of  study  to  be  adopted   subject  to   the   civil 
authority.     (47)   The  best  theory  of  civil  society 
requires,  that    public   schools,  open  to  the  chil- 
dren of   all    classes,  and.  generally,  all  public  in- 
stitutions intended  for  instruction  in  letters  and 
philosophy,  and  for  conducting  the  education  of 
the  young,  should    be  freed  from    all  ecclesias- 
tical authority,  government,  or  interference,  and 
should  be  fully  subject  to  the  civil  and  political 
power,  in  conformity  with  the  will  of  the  rulers 
and  the  prevalent  opinions  of  the  age.  (48)  This 
system  of  instructing  youth,  which  consists  in 
separating    them    from    the    Catholic    faith,   and 
from  the  power  of   the  church,  and  teaching  ex- 
clusively, or  at  least  primarily,  the  knowledge  of 
natural  things  and  the  earthly  ends  of  social  life. 
alone  may  be  approved  by  Catholics." 


742 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


En  opposition  to  the  theories  stigmatized  in  the 
papal  syllabus  as  the  fundamental  errors  of  our 
time,  the  Catholic  bishops  in  all  countries  ad- 
here to  the  following  principles.  Catholic  youth, 
in  schools  of  all  grades,  from  the  primary 
school  to  the  university,  should  be  brought  up  in 
conformity  with  the  teaching  of  the  <  'atholic 
Church.  The  Church  should  not  be  hindered 
in  establishing  free  schools  of  all  gi'ades.  When 
a  state  government  organizes  a  system  of  public 
instruction,  separate  schools  for  Catholic  youth 
should  be  established;  and,  in  the  Catholic 
schools,  the  Catholic  Church  should  concur  in 
the  management  and  superintendence,  in  order 
to  exclude  or  keep  off  all  influences  not  in  full 
accordance  with  the  Catholic  religion;  and  the 
religious  instruction  and  education  of  the  pupils 
sh  add  be  placed  under  her  control.  As  the 
school  regulations  relate  chiefly  to  the  primary 
schools,  the  negotiations  between  state  govern- 
ments and  the  <  'atholic  ( Ihurch  aiming  to  bring 
about  an  amicable  cooperation  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools,  concern  chiefly  schools  of 
that  grade.  In  many  countries,  a  co-operation  of 
this  kind  exists;  although,  in  but  few  countries 
lias  a  perfect  and  lasting  understanding,  as  in 
Belgium,  been  attained.  (For  information  on 
this  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles 
on  the  several  large  countries.)  Where  the  <  Ihurch 
has  found  it  impossible  to  secure  the  establish- 
ment by  the  state  of  separate  schools  for  Catholic 
children,  it  has  endeavored  to  supply  the  want 
by  opening  five  parochial  schools.  (See  Denomina- 
tional Schools.) 

As  the  establishment,  of  colleges,  gymnasia, 
academies,  and  other  institutions  of  tikis  grade 
by  the  state  is  far  from  being  so  general  as  that  of 
primary  schools,  the  attention  of  the  Church,  in 
this  field,  has  been  less  directed  to  a  co-opera- 
tion with  the  state  authorities  than  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  secondary  schools.  Among  the 
Catholic  schools  of  this  class,  the  colleges  of 
the  Jesuits  occupy  the  first  rank.  (See  JESUITS.) 
Numerous  colleges  and  academies  are  also  con- 
ducted by  other  religious  orders:  and  the  higher 
c  lucation,  especially  of  (  atholic  girls,  i  in  many 
countries,  to  a  great  extent,  carried  on  in  con- 
vent schools,  many  of  which  have  also  a  con- 
si  lerable  number  of  Protestant  pupils. 
Catholic  Directory  of  England  for  L877,  men- 
tions 22   Roman  Catholic  colleges  in   England, 

ami  1   in  Scotland    which  prepare  their  students 

for  (lie   universities  and   public  examinations. 
So of  them  are   affiliated  to    the    London 

Universities.      There    are    (i     English    or    Scotch 

Catholic  colleges  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

In  Ireland,  the  bishops  made  a  vigorous  opposi- 
tion to  the  establishment  by  the  government  of 
undenominational  queen's  colleges.  There  were. 
in  l^Tti.  five  Catholic  colleges,  affiliated  with 
the  Catholic  university  of  Dublin,  at  Clonliffe, 
Tuam.  Clane,  Armagh,  Carlow,  Athlone,  Tulhv 
nioiv.  Thurles,  Castleknock,  Kilkenny.  Fermoy, 
Longford,  and  Ennis.  In  the  United  Sta 
there  were,  in  L 875,  according  to  the  Report  of 
the  Commissioner  of   Education,  52  chartered 


( 'atholic  colleges  or  universities,  situated  in  the 
following  states  and  territories:  Alabama,  1; 
California."):  Illinois.  4;  Indiana,  3;  Kansas,  1; 
Kentucky,  2:  Louisiana,  2:  Maryland,  3;  Mas- 
sachusetts. 2:  Minnesota.  1 :  Mississippi,  1;  Mis- 
souri, 1:  New  Jersey,  1;  New  York.  7;  Ohio.  2: 
Pennsylvania,  ~<:  Tennessee.];  Texas.  2;  Wis- 
consin, 2;  District  of  Columbia,  2;  Washington 
Territory.  1. 

The  Church  lias  now  but  little  influence  upon 
the  great  universities  of  Europe,  which,  in  the 
middle  ages,  were  almost  entnely  under  her 
control.  '1  he  faculties  of  <  'atholic  theology,  have, 
however,  remained  so  far  under  her  direction  that 
the  bishops  may  forbid  the  attendance  of  the 
students  at  any  lectures  which  appear  unsound 
in  faith.  The  total  abolition  of  the  theological 
faculties  in  Italy  and  Spain,  which  may  ere  long 
be  imitated  in  other  countries,  indicated  a  tend- 
ency to  disconnect  still  more  the  university  from 
the  Church.  In  order  to  afford  to  Catholic  stu- 
dents, in  high  schools  purely  Catholic  the  same 
facilities  for  study  which  are  afforded  by  the 
state  universities,  the  <  'atholic  ( Ihurch,  in  several 
of  the  countries  of  Europe,  has  begun  to  estab- 
lish free  Catholic  universities.  The  lead  in  this 
movement  was  taken  by  the  bishops  of  Belgium, 
who  founded,  in  L 835, the  university  of  I.ouvaim. 
Following  their  example,  the  Irish  bishops 
founded,  in  L854,  the  *  'atholic  University  of 
Dublin;  ami  the  English  bishops,  in  1875,  the 
Catholic  University  College,  at  Kensington.  A 
grand  movement  of  this  kind  has  taken  place  in 
Prance,  where,  up  to  the  close  of  hs~<i,  three 
Catholic  universities  had  been  organized.  The 
I  lominion  of  <  'anada  possesses  a  similar  institu- 
tion in  the  University  of  Laval,  at  Quebec. 

In  addition  to  the  theological  faculties  of  the 
universities,  there  are  schools  of  theology  con- 
nected with  most  of  the  episcopal  sees.  More- 
over, every  male  religious  order  supports  schools 
of  theology  for  its  own  members.  (For  a  fuller 
account  of  these  institutions,  see  Theological 
Schools.)  The  Council  of  Trent  enjoined  upon 
all  bishops  to  establish  special  preparatory 
schools  lor  such  boys  as  intended  to  devote 
themselves  to  the  study  of  theology.  In  many 
countries,  these  seminaria  puerorum  (boys' 
seminaries)  are  in  successful  operation,  and 
educate  almost  the  entire  clergy;  in  others. 
are  almost  unknown.  In  addition  to  (he 
priests'  and  boys'  seminaries,  the  ('atholic 
Church  possesses  a  number  of  missionary  schools, 
for  educating  Catholic  missionaries  for  pagan 
and  non-Catholic  countries.  The  most  famous 
of  these  is  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  [Col- 
legium de  propaganda  fide),  in  Rome.  During 
the  present  century,  a  number  of  other  missionary 
colleges  have  been  founded,  as  All   1 1  allows,  near 

Dublin,  and  St.  Joseph's  College,  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  for  Foreign  Missions,  in  England.    'I  he 

missionaries,  in  their  turn,  have  established,  in 
connection  with  their  missions,  a  large  number 
of  colleges  and  schools,  in  pagan  and  uncivilized 
countries,  many  of  which  nave  gained,  to  a  high 
degree,  the   confidence   of    the  native  population 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CIU'RCII 


ROMANIC  LANGUAGES        743 


and  the  admiration  of  tourists. — In  England, 
tin-  United  States,  and  Belgium,  tin  Catholic 
Church  has  established  a  number  <>t'  teachers' 
seminaries,  independent  of  all  state  control; 
while,  in  other  countries,  as  in  Germany,  the 
state  concedes  to  the  Catholic  Church  some  de- 
gree of  co-operation  in  the  control  of  Catholic 
institutions  of  this  class.  In  the  schools  which 
ai>!  under  the  absolute  control  of  the  Church,  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  teachers  are  mem- 
bers of  religious  orders.  The  educational  efforts 
of  the  Benedictines,  Hieronymians,  Jesuits,  and 
Piarists  have  already  been  referred  to.  When 
the  organization  of  elementary  schools,  in  all  the 
ci  immunities  of  civilized  countries,  assumed  larger 
dimensions,  La  Salle  (1679)  founded  the  first 
organization  of  school  brothers,  called  the 
Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools.  (See  La 
Salle.)  None  of  this  order  are  allowed  to  en- 
ter the  priesthood,  or  to  hold  any  ecclesiastical 
•office  ;  but  they  bind  themselves  by  a  vow  to 
devote  themselves  wholly  to  instruction,  which 
is  to  be  gratuitous,  and  conducted  according  to 
the  method  prescribed  by  the  authorities  of  tin' 
congregation.  How  rapidly  this  congregation 
has  grown,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that, 
while,  at  the  death  of  the  founder  (1719),  the 
congregation  had  27  houses,  274  brethren,  122 
classes,  and  9.885  pupils,  in  1869,  it  had  1,117 
houses,  9,930  brethren,  7,435  classes,  and  395,458 
pupils.  In  the  United  States,  323  brethren  gave 
instruction  to  about  15,000  pupils.  The  congre- 
gation of  La  Salle  was  followed  by  a  number  of 
similar  congregations,  most  of  which  have  houses 
in  the  United  States.  The  majority  of  these  con- 
gregations arose  like  the  Brethren  of  the  Chris- 
tian Schools  in  France.  As  the  school  regula- 
tions drawn  up  by  La  Salle  provide  that  at  least 
two  brethren  must  be  sent  to  any  locality  in 
which  there  is  a  desire  to  intrust  to  them  the 
-elementary  schools,  many  small  places  were  un- 
able to  obtain  their  services.  For  the  purpose  of 
providing  schools  for  such  places,  Abbe  Jean  de 
la  Mennais  founded,  in  1820.  in  Brittany,  a  con- 
gregation which,  in  1822,  was  sanctioned  by  the 
French  government  under  the  name  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  Christian  Instruction.  The  Supreme 
Council  of  Instruction  authorizes  every  member 
who  holds  a  certificate  from  the  Superior  <  feneral 
of  the  congregation,  to  give  instruction.  The 
congregation, in  1875,  had  150  houses,  with  about 
800  members.  The  chief  seat  of  the  congrega- 
tion is  at  Ploermel,  in  Brittany. — In  Belgium,  the 
congregation  of  Xaverian  Brothers  was  founded 
at  Bruges,  in  1839,  by  Theodore  Sacques  Ryken, 
with  the  special  view  to  establish  ami  conduct 
schools  in  the  United  States.  They  had,  in  1875, 
several  houses  in  Kentucky  and  .Maryland. — In 
Ireland,  the  Rev.  K.  Rice,  of  Waterford,  founded 
the  order  of  the  School  Brothers  of  Ireland,  which 
•closely  resembles  the  Brethren  of  the  <  'hristian 
Schools,  and  which  has  spread  from  Ireland  to 
England,  as  well  as  to  several  of  the  English 
colonies.  The  female  congregations  which  devote 
themselves  to  instruction  are  even  more  numer- 
ous than  those  of   the  School  Brothers.     The 


earliest,  and  still  one  of  the  largest,  is  that  of  the 
Ursulines,  which  was  founded,  in  the  Kith  cent- 
ury, by  Angela  Merici,  of  Brescia  (died  L540, 
canonized  L 807),  and  the  members  of  which,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  L 7th  century,  assumed,  in 

addition  to  the  three  usual  monastic  vows,  n 
fourth  vow  to  instruct  young  girls  gratuitously. 
The  Ursulines  spread  from  France  into  many 
countries  of  Europe  and  America,  and.  in  L875, 
had.  in  the  United  States,  houses  iii  New  York. 
Ohio,  Illinois.  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Ken- 
tucky, and  .Missouri.  The  order  of  the  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame,  or  the  School  Sisters  of  the  Blessed 
Pierre  Fourier,  was  founded  in  France  by  Pierre 
Fourier  (q.  v.),  at  the  close  of  the  L 6th  century. 
The  largest  number  of  their  houses  is  still  found 
in  France,  but  they  have  also  spread  to  many 
other  countries,  and  were,  in  L875,  represented 
in  nine  states  of  the  American  Union. — The 
Ladies  of  the  Sacred  1  leart.  an  order  founded  in 
France  inl800,are  chiefly  devoted  to  the  educa- 
tion of  young  ladies.  The  growth  of  this  order 
has  been  very  rapid,  the  number  of  its  establish- 
ments, in  France,  amounting,  in  1875,  to  42,  and 
in  the  United  States,  to  21. — In  Canada,  the 
Cray  Nuns,  or  Sisters  of  Charity,  of  Montreal, 
an  order  founded  in  1745,  in  1875  had  21  houses 
in  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  the  United 
States ;  and  in  these  countries  several  other  j 
numerous  congregations  have  been  founded. 

ROMANIC  LANGUAGES,  or  Romance 
Languages,  the  collective  name  of  those  mod- 
ern languages  which,  after  the  downfall  of  the 
Western  Roman  Empire,  were  gradually  devel- 
oped from  the  lingua  Romana  rustica,  or  vul- 
gar Latin,  by  the  admixture  of  German,  Celtic, 
and  other  idioms.  The  independent  Romanic 
languages  are  the  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
Provencal,  French,  and  Roumanian  (also  called 
Wallachian  or  Daco-Roumanian).  In  the  five 
former,  the  language  of  the  Germanic  conquerors 
of  south-western  Europe  has  left  marked  traces  ; 
while  the  Roumanian  language  has  been  con- 
siderably influenced  by  Slavic  tongues.  The  lan- 
guage, called  Roman  sch,  which  is  spoken  in  some 
districts  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  Orisons  and 
the  Tyrol,  is  not  regarded  by  Diez  as  an  in- 
dependent Romanic  language.  The  most  im- 
portant among  the  Romanic  languages  are  the 
French,  the  Spanish,  and  the  Italian,  the  his- 
tory and  study  of  which  are  treated  in  special 
articles  of  this  work.  The  Comparative  Gram- 
mar, and  the  Etymological  Dictionary,  of  the 
Romanic  languages,  by  Friedrich  Diez.  are  not 
only  universally  recognized  as  standard  works 
on  the  subject,  but  are  esteemed  by  all  linguists 
as  belonging  to  the  classic  productions  of  com- 
parative philology.  The  derivation  of  the  Ro- 
manic languages  from  the  Latin  has  been  fully 
treated  by  Fuchs  [Die  Romanischen  Spracken 
in  ihrem  VerhcO.tn.iss  zum  Lateinischen,  Halle, 
L845),  and  by  Pott,  in  ETofer's  Zeitschrift  fix 
Wissenschaft  der  Spracke,  in  Aufrecht's  and 
Kuhn's  Zeitschrift  fvx  vergleichende  Sprach- 
forschung,  and  in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  die  AHer- 
ihums-wissenscha/t. 


744 


ROME 


HOME,  the  capital  of  the  ancient  world,  was 
founded,  in  753  B.  C,  by  the  Latins,  and  was  in- 
tended a-s  a  border  fortress  of  Latium,  on  the 
Kiruscan  march.  But  that  border  fortress  grew, 
step  by  step,  to  be  the  head  of  Latium,  the  head 
of  Italy,  the  head  of  the  whole  Mediterranean  re- 
gion, the  mistress  of  the  world.  "It  is  in  Rome", 
says  Freeman  (Comparative  Politics),  "that  all 
the  states  of  the  earlier  European  world  lose 
themselves  ;  it  is  out  of  Rome  that  all  the  states 
of  the  later  European  world  take  their  being." 
Rome  gathered  unto  itself  the  traditions  of  all 
that  had  ever  been  great  and  illustrious  in  the 
human  race. — Assyrian,  Egyptian,  Persian,  He- 
brew, Phoenician,  Greek,  Etruscan;  and  extended 
its  sway  over  the  multitudinous  western  tribes 
— Italian,  Gallic,  Iberian,  and  Teutonic,  the  latter 
as  yet  only  known  as  warriors.  The  civilization, 
the  arts  and  sciences,  the  laws  and  institutions, 
the  poetry  and  philosophy,  the  accumulated  liter- 
ary treasures  of  all  past  generations,  were  grad- 
ually merged  in  Rome.  Its  history,  then,  is  that 
of  the  whole  civilized  world,  down  to  the  modern 
period.  And  yet,  the  history  of  Roman  educa- 
tion is  neither  as  interesting  nor  as  valuable  as 
that  of  Greece.  In  the  latter  country,  a  love  for 
the  esthetic  predominated,  the  Greek  taking  a 
peculiar  delight  in  the  beautiful ;  but,  with  the 
Roman,  the  practical  prevailed,  and  the  beautiful 
was  simply  an  esthetic  amusement,  lie  was 
harder,  coarser,  delighting  more  in  power  and 
less  in  beauty,  more  in  facts  and  less  in  specula- 
tion, more  in  the  real  and  less  in  the  ideal. 
Rome's  chief  object  was  conquest,  extension  of 
power  :  and,  hence,  the  education  of  her  youth 
aimed  to  fit  them  for  citizenship  and  for  war. — 
Among  the  Latins  and  the  Etruscans,  though 
they  had  teachers,  as  we  learn  from  Livy,  literary 
training  cannot  have  prevailed,  as  they  were  too 
much  animated  by  warlike  zeal.  The  priests  culti- 
vated religious  science,  and  the  principal  subject 
of  instruction  was  probably  divination.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  Republic,  education  was  en- 
tirely domestic ;  and  the  amount  of  intellectual 
culture  was  very  scanty.  Plutarch  regarded  it 
as  a  deficiency  in  the  Roman  laws  that  they  did 
not,  like  those  of  the  Spartans,  prescribe  a  cer- 
tain system  of  regulations  for  the  education  of 
youth;   but,   in  fact,  the   manners   and  customs 

of  the  people  replaced  that  want.  For, first, edu- 
cation was  not  regarded,  as  in  Athens  ami  Sparta, 

as  a  duty  of  the  state  ;    and.   secondly,    woman 

had  a  much   higher    place    than    in    the  Greek 

tines.    Lome  honored  her  vestal  virgins,  and  the 

vil '■•  was  not.  as  in    Greece,  the  servant,  hut  the 

companion  of  her  husband,  and  was  revered  by 

him  as  the  mother  of  his  children.  Maternal 
duties  were  considered  sacred  :  and  the  care- 
ful nursing  of  infants,  the  needful  occupations 
in  the  household,  and  the  imparting  of  the  rudi- 
ments of  education,  were  regarded  as  the  most 
prominent  points  of  womanly  merit.  Tin'  so- 
called  patria  potestas  gave  to  each  head  of  a  fami- 
ly an  unlimited  authority  over  all  its  members. 

Otlt  that  tremendous  power — which  was  felt 
iuid  acknowledged  to  lie  a  natural  right — was 


never  abused.  The  father  was  regarded  with 
reverence  and  respect,  though,  probably,  not  al- 
ways with  very  strong  affection:  for  the  Latin 
word  pii'hts.  which  expressed  the  feeling  of  the 
dutiful  child  toward  his  parent,  hardly  implies 
much  of  love.  After  boys  had  attained  the 
age  when  their  mothers  considered  another 
instructor  desirable,  tiny  were  placed  under  the 
care  of  the  pcedagogus.  Frequently,  these  p(eda- 
gogi  were  liberated  slaves.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  father  would  himself  assume  this  task.  as.  & 
<•/..  ( 'icero  and  <  ato  ( 'ensorinus.  who  taught  their 
children  to  read  and  write.  Cato  also  trained 
his  sons  in  gymnastics,  the  use  of  weapons, 
boxing,  horseback  riding,  and  even  swimming, 
but  never  bathed  with  them,  in  order  not  to 
offend  their  modesty.  The  boys  were  also  taught 
songs  commemorating  the  courageous  and  heroic 
deeds  of  their  ancestry,  ami  were  obliged  to  com- 
mit to  memory  the  laws  of  the  12  tallies.  These 
were  the  usual  subjects  of  instruction.  The  boys 
of  wealthy  parents  had  sometimes  several  poeda- 
gogi. — The  first  schools  in  Rome  were  private, 
and  were  located  in  public  booths  or  shops; 
hence,  the  name  trivium.  They  were  also  char- 
acteristically called  //"//'.because  their  work  was, 
in  distinction  from  other  practice,  regarded 
simply  as  a  recreation,  or  play.  The  first  teach- 
ers were  not  paid  any  fees,  which  were  not 
introduced  until  201  15.  < '.  The  boys  were  con- 
ducted to  these  schools,  which  existed  as  carin- 
as 449  L.  < '.,  by  capsarii,  i.  e.,  slaves  who  car- 
ried the  books,  writing  materials,  etc.  Vacations 
occurred  only  during  harvest  time.  The  first 
teacher  was  called  tin'  literator.  He  taught 
reading  and  writing,  proverbs,  and  arithmetic, 
the  latter  being,  on  account  of  its  usefulness, 
more  esteemed  by  the  Romans  than  by  the 
( i  reeks.  A  second  course  devolved  on  the  gram- 
matista,  who  taught  language, grammar,  and  com- 
position. This  work  was  completed  by  the  rhetor 
in  a  more  skillful  manner.  It  was  necessary,  in 
order  to  be  a  well-educated  Roman,  to  be  a  fin- 
ished orator;  and,  therefore,  very  great  stress  was 
laid  on  correctness  and  pureness  of  expression. 
Mock-trials  were  of  common  occurrence,  and  at- 
tendance at  the  Forum  was  regarded  as  an  ob- 
ligation. The  most  distinguished  teachers  were 
either  natives  of  the  colonies  or  provinces, 
or  freedmen  of  (deck  extraction.  Resides  re- 
ceiving instruction  at  home,  the  youth  not  un- 
frequently  went  to  Athens,  Rhodes,  or  Alex- 
andria to  complete  their  education.  The  first 
favor  bestowed  by  the  government  upon  the 
teachers  was  under  Julius  Caesar,  who  gave  them 
the  right  of  citizenship;  and  Augustus  added 
exemption  from  all  public  duties  and  occupa- 
tions. Luring  his  administration,  several  new 
schools  of  high  repute  were  established  in  the 
provinces;  among  them,  those  of   Mityleiie.  Ma-- 

silia  (Marseilles),  and  Oorduba,  to  all  of  which 
students  Hocked  in  great  numbers.    To  keep  the 

young  men  at  Lome.  Augustus  gave  FlacCUS 
Catiline's  house,  and  paid  him  a  salary  of 
100,000  sesterces  ($3,600),  and,  besides,  gave 
prizes  to  diligent  scholars.  Vespasian  recognized 


ROTE-TEACHING 


uorssK.u' 


U5 


the  entire  system  of  educational  institutions  as 
an  integral  element  in  the  organism  of  the  state. 

Existing  schools,  both   elementary  and   higher, 
were  strengthened  as  far  as  seemed  necessary, 
and  new  facilities  for  instruction   were   added 
to    those  already  in   use.     The   lirst  school   re- 
sembling a  college,  called  the  Athenceum,  was 
founded,  professors  of  Greek  literature  were  ap- 
pointed, and  the  course  of  study  was  extended, 
after  the    Alexandrian  model,   to  embrace  the 
circle  of  theories  liberates — grammar,  dialectics. 
rhetoric,  geometry,   arithmetic,  astronomy,  mu- 
sic— and  drawing.    Vespasian's  successors,  Had- 
rian, the  two  Antonines,  Marcus  Aurelius.  and 
Alexander  Severus — in  a  word,  all  the  most  vir- 
tuous, and  not  a  few  of  the  most  sanguinary  anil 
atrocious,  among  the  Caesars,  showed  great  zeal 
in  the  promotion  of  learning,  in  all  its  various 
forms,  throughout  the  empire.    The  age  of  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  is  especially  distinguished  for  the 
complete    endowment    of    what    may   well   be 
called  the  University  of  Athens.    This  munifi- 
cent liberality  of    the  Roman  Caesars   was  not 
without  many  happy  effects  upon  literature  and 
learning  in   the  declining  ages  of    the  empire. 
Thus  Athens,  e.  g.,  became  again   the  focus  of 
learned  activity  in  an  age  which,  marred  as  it  was 
by  an  increasing  tendency  to  pedantry  and  affec- 
tation, still  succeeded  in  reviving  some  reminis- 
cences of  the  nobler  past,  and  exhibited  what  has 
not  inappropriately  been   described  as  the  after 
summer  of  Greek  genius. — Among  Roman  edu- 
cational theorists  are   M.  Terentius  Varro,  "the 
most  learned  man  in  Rome"   (110 — 27   B.  C), 
and  author  of  Capi/s.  aid  de  liberis  educandis  ; 
Cicero,  who  treats  of  education   incidentally  in 
his  De  Officii*;  Tacitus,  in  De  Oratoribus,  com- 
monly attributed  to  him  ;  and  Quintilian  (40 — 
118  A.  D.),  in  the  first  book  of  his  Institutio  Ora- 
torio,.—  See  Bernhardt,   Grundriss  der  romi- 
schen  Literatur;  Champ  agny,  Les  Cesors,  and 
Les  Ank»iines    (Paris,  1871)  ;     Friedl.ender, 
iSiltengeschichte  Boms,  vol.  in.    (4th  ed.,  Leips., 
1874),    Teiffel.    Hist,    of    Roman  Literature 
(Lond.,  1873)  ;    Pfeiffer.  Erziehung   bei   den 
Griechen  und  Romern  (Wien,  1857);  History 
of  Education  (N.  Y.,1874). 

ROTE-TEACHING,  or  Teaching  by- 
Rote  (Fr.  route,  road,  whence  routine),  a  method 
of  giving  instruction  by  means  of  constant  repe- 
tition, particularly  of  certain  forms  of  speech, 
with  little  or  no  attention  to  their  meaning. 
Hence,  such  teaching  is  often  described  as 
mechanical,  that  is,  impressing  the  memory 
through  the  ear  and  the  eye,  but  not  exercising 
the  understanding.  Rote-teaching  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  abuse  of  the  principle  of  repetition. 
[See  Association,  and  Concert  Teaching.) 

ROUMANIA,  a  dependency  of  Turkey. 
having  an  area  of  46,710  sq.  m.,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  4,500,000,  mostly  Roumans,  but  com- 
prising also  150,000  Jews  and  200.000  gypsies. 
About  90  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to 
the  Greek  Church.  Roumania  was  formed,  in 
1859,  by  the  union  of  the  two  principalities  of 
Moldavia  and  AVallachia. — Education   in  Rou- 


mania is  in  a  depressed  state.  Although  the 
school  law  of  L864  makes  attendance  compulsory, 
die  schools  have,  nevertheless,  very  few  pupils. 
The  higher  classes  of  society  have  their  children 
instructed  by  private  teachers  ;  and.  in  some  cases, 
scud  them  to  Paris  to  finish  their  education.  The 
lower  classes,  on  the  other  hand,  do  not  generally 
smmI  their  children  to  school:  and,  in  many 
places,  no  schools  have  been  established.  In  L875, 
Moldavia  was  reported  to  have  only  15  public 
elementary  schools,  besides  a  i'cw  well-organized 
private  institutions,  established  by  Armenians; 
but,  in  \\  allachia.  almost  every  community  has 
its  elementary  school.  The  total  number  of  pu- 
pils in  Roumania,  in  1875,  was  about  55,000; 
while  the  number  of  teachers  of  all  grades  was 
about  4,000.  There  are  8  seminaries  for  the 
education  of  primary  teachers.  -Secondary  in- 
struction is  afforded  in  gymnasia  (of  four  classes), 
of  which  one  must  be  supported  in  every  district 
capital,  in  lyceums  (of  seven  classes),  and  in  real 
schools.  In  1872,  there  were  7  lyceums.  14  gym- 
nasia, and  1  real  school,  with  an  aggregate  of 
0,002  pupils.  There  are  2  universities —  in 
Bucharest  and  Jassy.  each  having  four  faculties: 
philosophy  and  literature,  law,  medicine,  and 
mathematics  and  natural  science.  Jassy,  in  1872, 
had  155  students  and  51  professors;  Bucharest, 
416  students  and  46  professors.  The  institutions 
for  scientific  and  professional  instruction  are  3 
|  agricultural  schools,  7  industrial  schools,  7  com- 
mercial schools,  8  seminaries  for  Greek  theology. 
a  Roman  Catholic  seminary  for  priests,  in  Jassy, 
a  school  for  engineering,  a  military  school,  in 
Bucharest,  two  art  schools,  in  Jassy  and  Bucha- 
rest; and  the  central  school  of  agriculture  and 
forestry,  in  Ferestren.  Besides  these  schools, 
there  are  several  French  and  German  private 
colleges. —  See  Ghronik  des  Volksschidwesens, 
(1875);  Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation for  J  S74. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacques,  a  celebrated 
French  author,  born  in  Geneva,  June  28.,  1712; 
died  at  Ermenonville,  near  Paris,  July  2.,  1778. 
He  calls  for  notice  here  chiefly  from  an  educational 
point  of  view.  His  father  was  a  watch-maker,  and 
was  of  French  origin,  though  his  family  had  been 
long  settled  in  the  city  of  Geneva.  The  boy  was 
of  a  visionary,  restless  disposition;  and  his  sickly 
habit  soon  led  to  his  separation  from  other  children 
of  his  age,  and  developed  in  him  a  fondness  for 
works  of  fiction.  After  several  years  of  wander- 
ing and  of  desultory  work,  the  latter  consisting 
of  apprenticeships  from  which  he  invariably  ran 
away,  a  priest  at  Confignon,  in  Savoy,  intro- 
duced him  to  Mme.  de  AVarens.  at  Annecy,  who 
sent  him  to  a  charity-school  in  Turin.  From  this 
place,  also,  he  ran  away,  and  again  became  a 
wanderer.  After  another  interval  of  adventure,  he 
returned  for  shelter,  in  1729,  to  the  roof  of  Mme. 
de  Warens,  Avho  sent  him  to  a  theological  semi- 
nary at  Annecy,  from  which  he  was  dismissed  as 
unfitted  for  the  priesthood.  Subsequently,  he 
accepted  a  position  as  tutor  in  a  private  family 
in  Lyons,  where  he  remained  two  or  three  years, 
and,  in  1741,  went  to  Paris.     Here   he   became 


740 


ROUSSKAU 


intimate  with  Diderot,  Grimm,  D'Holbach,  and 
Mme.  d'fipinay,  the  last  of  whom,  in  1756,  pro- 
vided a  retreat  for  him  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris, 
called  the  Hermitage.  He  maintained  now  for 
many  years,  by  musical  and  literary  labor,  a  doubt- 
ful struggle  with  adversity.  In  1760,  he  published 
Julie,  ou  La  Nbuvelle  HeldCse,  which,  by  its 
idealization  of  .Mine,  dlloudctot.  offended  his 
patroness  .Mme.  d'Epinay.  and  led  to  his  retire- 
ment from  the  Hermitage.  The  duke  and  duchess 
of  Luxembourg  now  received  him,  and  induced 
him  to  take  up  his  residence  at  Montmorency,  in 
one  of  their  chateaux.  While  there,  he  wrote 
Emile,  and  the  Control  Social.  The  former  was 
condemned  by  the  parliament,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  country  to  escape  arrest.  He  went 
to  Geneva,  then  to  Bern,  and  finally  to  Xeuf- 
chatel,  where  he  was  befriended  by  the  governor. 
Lord  Keith.  In  L767,  he  returned  to  France; 
and, after  living  in  several  places,  settled  again  in 
Paris,  in  L770.  The  hostility  of  the  philosophers 
and  literary  men  of  Paris,  which  he  had  incurred, 
the  persecution  to  which  he  had  been  subjected, 
and  the  privations  he  had  endured,  had  preyed 
upon  his  health,  which  was  now  utterly  broken. 
In  1  ITS,  he  accepted  the  invitation  of  M.  de  Girar- 
din  to  visit  him  at  his  country-seat  at  Ermenon- 
ville.  where  he  died.  His  fame,  however,  suffered 
no  diminution  by  his  death,  but  steadily  in- 
creased. In  1  79  1.  his  remains  were  remove  1  to  the 

Pantheon  at  Paris,  where  a  statue  of  him  had 
been  erected;  and.  in  1815,  the  allied  sovereigns 
exempted  Ermenonville    from  the   payment  of 

war  taxes,  in  honor  of  his  memory. — The  character 
of  Rousseau  has  been  a  puzzle  to  moralists.  In 
him,  the  affectionate,  sensitive  nature  of  the  girl, 
the  subversive  spirit  of  the  communist,  and  the 
shamelessness  of  the  libertine,  were  united.  His 
writings  have  been  the  fruitful  source  of  contro- 
versy, the  bitternessof  which  has  been  aggravated 
by  the  errors  of  his  life.  The  subtle  beauty  of 
his  style,  which  has  always  commanded  for  him 
a  place  among  the  most  illustrious  of  French 
prose  writers,  has  served  to  place  in  stronger 
relief  the  radical  and  dangerous  theories  which  it 
served  to  introduce.  The  virulence  with  which 
his  writings  were  assailed  during  his  life-Lime  has 
not  yet  ceased,  after  the  lapse  01  more  than,  a 
hundred  years. 

iluiii''.  ou  de  V Education    was  published  in 

1762,  and  was  the  last  product  of  the  twelve 
years  of  his  literary  activity,  nothing  of  the  first 

importance  being  afterwards  written  by  him,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Confessions.  It  appeared 
at  the  time  of  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in 
Prance,  when  education,  therefore,  was  a  general 
theme;  and  nothing  was  more  natural    than  that 

Rousseau,  from  his  own  point  of  view,  should  join 
in  the  discussion,  and  show  how  man.  who  in  the 
stateof  nature  was  entirely  good,  might  by  educa- 
tion be  preserved  from  the  prevailing  degenera- 
tion. We  can  give  but  the  barest  outline  of  the 
work.  The  parent  is  warned  that  nothing  can 
compensate  for  the  lack  of  his  own  time  and  at- 
tention in  his  children's  education,  and  is  assured 
that,  should  these  be  wanting,  he  will  certainly 


repent  of  this  neglect  in  the  bitterness  of  sorrow, 
and  never  be  comforted.  Rut.  in  case  a  wealthy 
parent  should  not  have  .sufficient  time,  he  is 
directed  in  the  choice  of  a  governor  or  tutor,  to 
one  who  should  be  the  guide,  philosopher,  and 
friend  of  young  Emile  from  his  tenderest  years 
to  "the  time  of  his  marriage.  Why  this  shadowy, 
unreal  personage  should  be  set  forth,  as  Emile 's 
only  source  of  instruction  rather  than  his  pari 
ents — why  the  exceptional  case,  rather  than  the 
general  one.  should  be  so  fully  worked  out,  can 
he  explained  only  by  the  fact  that  Rousseau  neg- 
lected so  notably  his  own  parental  responsibil- 
ities.—  From  his  second  to  his  twelfth  year,  Emile 
is  to  live  a  life  of  healthy  objectivity.  There 
are  to  be  no  books,  no  moral  discussions.  He  is 
not  to  be  lectured  or  reasoned  into  submission. 
but  must  learn  to  bow  to  a  law  of  necessity:  his 
tutor  must  be  firm  with  him.  Punishment,  also, 
that  it  may  not  seem  arbitrary,  is  to  be  such 
only  as  naturally  springs  from  his  actions  them- 
;  elves.  This  period,  therefore,  is  to  be  one  of 
physical  development  mainly,  only  such  moral 
notions  being  communicated  as  relate  to  the 
pupil's  actual  state.  If  we  wish  to  see  Emile  in 
an  English  dress,  we  have  but  to  turn  to  Harry 
Clinton,  in  Henry  Brooke's  Fool  of  Quality 
(1st  ed..  17G6;  last  edition  by  Charles  Kings- 
ley),  or  to  Harry  Sandford,  in  Sandford  and 
Merton  |  1st  ed..  L783). 

From  the  age  of  12  to  that  of  15,  the  notion 
of  utility  plays  an  important  part  in  Emile's 
education.  He  is  happy  who  keeps  a  due  pro- 
portion between  his  desires  ami  his  powers. 
I  >esires  may  be  for  things  necessary  or  unneces- 
sary. Emile  must,  therefore,  be  accustomed  to 
limit  his  desires  to  real  needs;  and  his  education 
must  be  such  as  will  fit  him.  out  of  his  own  re- 
sources, to  satisfy  these  needs.  He  must  now  learn 
geography,  physics,  and  chemistry,  but  only  so 
far  as  he  can  be  brought  to  see  their  utility,  and, 
therefore,  to  feel  an  interest  in  what  he  is  doing. 
He  is  to  read  Robinson  Crusoe,  that  he  may 
learn  to  prefer  the  useful  to  the  ornamental.  He 
must  even  learn  a  trade,  such  a  one  as  Crusoe 
found  of  most  service  on  his  desert  island  (namely, 
that  of  a  carpenter). — In  the  fourth  book.  Emile 
learns  to  know  his  fellows,  from  whose  contami- 
nating influence  he  has  hitherto  been  most  care- 
fully Ei  jit.  As  a  preparative  to  entering  into 
society,  he  reads  Plutarch's  Lives,  and  studies 
history.  Now.  also,  when  he  is  between  15  and 
20  years  of  age,  does  he,  for  the  first  time,  hear  of 
God,  and  receive  religious  instruction.  It  is  here 
that  the  well-known  profession  of  faith  of  the 
Savoyard  vicar  is  inserted.  In  connection  with 
Kmile's  marriage,  in  the  fifth  book.  Rousseau  deals 
with  the  education  of  woman.  His  view  is  briefly 
this:  that  as  woman  exists  only  for  man,  her 
education  must  be  entirely  relative  to  him. — 
The  groundwork  of  Emile  is  to  be  found  in 
Locke;  hut  Rousseau  treated  the  subject  with 
such  interest  as  to  provide  a  powerful  stimulus 
for  the  educational  workers  of  his  time.  J I  is  in- 
fluence is  distinctly  seen  in  Basedow,  Pestalozzi, 
am!  Etichter,  in  Germany;  and  in  Richard  Edge- 


RUSSIA 


747 


worth  and  Thomas  Day,  in  England. — Mr.  Morley 
writes  forcibly  of  two  great  deficiencies  in  Emile 's 
education:  Rousseau,  who  was  himself  not  strong 
on  the  intellectual  side,  as  compared  with  the 
emotional,  has  not  in  his  scheme  made  any  ade- 
quate provision  for  thorough  intellectual  disci- 
pline; and,  by  keeping  Emile  in  seclusion  until 
he  is  on  the  verge  of  manhood,  he  has  made  it 
impossible  for  "a  passion  for  justice''  to  develop 
itself.  The  merit  ol  Entile,  indeed,  does  not  lie 
in  its  being  a  body  of  incontestable  doctrine  on 
education,  but  rather  in  its  method,  and  in  its 
sympathetic  observation  of  children's  ways  from 
their  earliest  years.  Any  one  who,  like  Thomas 
Day,  should  follow  the  directions  in  Emile,  could 
not  but  be  involved  in  ludicrous  results  (as  may  be 
seen  very  notably  by  referring  to  the  life  of  Day's 
friend,  Eilgeworth);  whilst  William  Cobbett,  an- 
other reader  of  Rousseau,  but  one  who  mixed  some 
common  sense  with  what  he  read,  has  left  us,  in 
his  Advice,  a  picture  of  family  life  and  home  edu- 
cation which  is  truly  charming.  "Not  Rousseau's 
individual  rules",  says  Eichter,  in  the  preface  to 
his  Levana,  "many  of  which  may  be  erroneous 
without  injury  to  the  whole,  but  the  spirit  of 
education  which  fills  and  animates  the  work,  has 
shaken  to  their  foundations  and  purified  all  the 
school  rooms,  and  even  the  nurseries  in  Europe. 
In  no  previous  work  on  education,  was  the  ideal 
so  richly  and  beautifully  combined  with  actual 
observation  as  in  his." — M.  Alphonse  Esquiros 
in  his  half-story,  half-essay,  entitled  L 'Emile  du 
dix-neuvieme  Steele  (Paris,  1870),  has  followed 
in  Rousseau's  track,  and  considered  from  a  pres- 
ent-day point  of  view  the  various  problems  in 
education  from  infancy  onwards. — See  Rousseau's 
Emile,  particularly  bks.  i.,  n.,ni.;  Morley's  Life 
of  Rousseau,  especially  ch.  xm. ;  Jules  Paroz, 
Histoire  Universelle  de  la  Pedagogie  (Paris, 
1869);  Quick,  Educational  Reformers;  Girardin, 
Rousseau,  sa  Vie  el  ses  Ouvrages  (Paris  1875). 

RUSSIA,  an  empire  in  eastern  P^urope  and 
northern  and  central  Asia,  having  an  area  of 
8,563,421  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  86,486,000. 
The  area  of  the  Russian  empire  is  inferior  only 
to  that  of  the  British  empire ;  while  its  con- 
tinuous territory  is  larger  than  that  of  any  other 
nation  in  the  world.  More  than  two-thirds  of 
its  population  belong  to  the  Greek  Church  ;  but, 
in  the  former  kingdom  of  Poland,  the  Catholic 
religion  prevails  ;  and,  in  Finland  and  the  Baltic 
provinces,  the  Lutheran  Church  is  predominant. 
Mohammedanism  is  still  the  ruling  religion  in 
the  new  possessions  in  central  Asia,  its  adher- 
ents numbering,  in  the  entire  empire,  more  than 
7,000,000.  The  vast  majority  of  the  population 
of  Russia  belong  to  the  Slavic  race,  the  chief 
representatives  of  which  are  the  Russians,  com- 
prising about  52,000,000.  Of  the  other  Slavic 
tribes,  the  Poles,  numbering  about  5,000,000,  are 
the  most  numerous. 

Educational  History.  —  Until  the  beginning 
of  the  1 6th  century,  no  schools  appear  to  have 
existed  in  Russia,  except  in  a  few  convents. 
Ivan  III.  called  foreign  artists  and  scientists  into 
the    country ;    but   no   progress  of   importance 


could  be  made  in  education,  because  of  the  con- 
tinual wars  both  foreign  and  intestine.  Ivau  IV. 
established  schools  in  the  cities,  and,  in  1564, 
founded  the  iirst  Russian  printing-office  in  Mos- 
cow. In  L588,  the  patriarch  .Jeremiah  established 
a  school  in  Kief,  for  instruction  in  reading  and 
in  the  service  of  the  church,  which  was  gradually 
enlarged  into  the  iirst  theological  academy. 
With  the  accession  of  Peter  the  Great,  a  new 
era  began  for  education.  He  forbade  any  noble- 
man to  marry  who  did  not  possess  a  knowledge 
of  the  elements  of  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic, and  established,  in  all  the  cities,  arith- 
metic schools,  which  imparted  instruction  in 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  elements  of 
geometry.  Their  original  object  was  to  prepare 
young  men  for  the  service  of  the  state ;  and 
hence  they  were  almost  exclusively  attended  by 
children  of  government  officers,  who,  upon  leav- 
ing, were  required  to  give  the  teacher  one  ruble. 
In  1719,  arithmetic  schools  for  children  of  all 
classes  were  opened,  and  also  schools  for  the 
army,  the  navy,  and  the  priesthood.  Peter  the 
Great  also  founded  an  academy  of  sciences,  in 
connection  with  a  gymnasium  and  a  university. 
Under  his  successor,  Catharine  I.,  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  was  opened  in  Moscow,  in  1755.  The 
empress  Anna  allowed  no  private  soldier  or  non- 
commissioned officer  to  be  promoted  who  could 
not  read,  and  the  empress  Elizabeth  imposed  fines 
on  parents  who  allowed  their  children  to  grow  up 
without  any  education.  Catharine  II.  proposed 
to  organize  educational  institutions  throughout 
the  country,  according  to  a  uniform  plan  ; 
but,  after  experimenting  for  twenty  years,  she 
found  that  nothing  of  importance  had  been  ac- 
complished. She  then  determined  to  establish 
schools  like  the  Austrian  model  schools ;  and, 
at  her  request,  the  Austrian  government  sent 
Von  Jankowicz,  the  director  of  the  Illyrian 
normal  schools,  to  Russia.  A  commission  of 
three  was  appointed  to  govern  the  schools  estab- 
lished, which  were  to  be  of  three  kinds  :  higher 
schools,  in  the  capitals  of  governments ;  inter- 
mediate schools,  in  the  capitals  of  circles ;  and 
elementary  schools,  in  small  towns  and  villages. 
In  every  government,  a  school  board  was  to  be 
appointed,  while  the  schools  of  the  circles  were 
to  be  governed  by  a  director.  A  teachers'  semi- 
nary was  established  in  St.  Petersburg  ;  and,  in 
the  university  of  Moscow  and  the  three  theolog- 
ical academies,  a  three  years'  course  was  pre- 
scribed to  prepare  pupils  for  the  seminary.  The 
emperor  Paul  took  an  interest  only  in  the  prog- 
ress of  the  higher  schools.  Alexander  II.,  in 
1862,  established  the  ministry  of  "  popular  en- 
lightenment." In  1874,  a  new  school  law  was  pro- 
mulgated, which  is  in  force  at  the  present  time. 
The  necessity  for  a  compulsory  attendance  law 
has,  in  recent  years,  been  considerably  discussed. 
In  order  to  make  a  beginning,  it  was  resolved, 
in  1875,  to  establish  in  St.  Petersburg  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  schools,  at  the  expense  of  the 
city,  and  to  carry  into  effect  the  compulsory  edu- 
cation of  all  children  between  the  ages  of  8  and 
12  years.  According  to  the  calculation  of  the  min- 


748 


RUSSIA 


i8try.it  will  be  necessary,  to  this  end,  to  estab- 
lish L57  primary  schools,  in  addition  to  those 
existing  at  present.  These  schools  will  be  gov- 
erned by  a  school  board  of  six  members,  besides 
the  chief  officer  of  the  city  government,  who  is 
to  preside.  For  the  absence  of  children,  unless 
excused,  parents  are  to  be  fined  ;  and,  when  the 
offense  is  repeated,  are  to  be  imprisoned.  <  >ne  of 
the  principal  troubles  under  which  the  Russian 
schools  are  laboring  at  present,  is  the  absence  of 
unity  in  their  government,  every  ministry  having 
a  number  of  special  schools  under  its  control. 

Primary  Instruction. — According  to  the  new 
school  law  of  1874,  the  elementary  schools  com- 
prise (1)  the  primary  schools,  under  the  direction 
of  the  clergy;  (2)  the  primary  schools,  under 
the  ministry  of  public  instruction,  both  public 
and  private;  (3)  the  elementary  schools,  under 
other  ministries,  which  are  supported  by  the 
communes;  and  (4)  Sunday-schools.  The  course 
of  instruction  comprises  reading,  writing,  the 
four  fundamental  rules  of  arithmetic,  the  cate- 
chism, Bible  history,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
singing.  The  language  used  in  giving  instruc- 
tion must  be  the  Russian.  Religious  instruction 
is  confided  to  the  clergy;  while,  otherwise,  the 
superintendence  is  given  into  the  hands  of  the 
nobility.  The  ecclesiastical  schools  consist  of 
four  annual  courses,  imparting  free  elementary 
instruction  to  the  children  of  priests,  but  are  open 
to  other  children  for  a  small  fee.  The  subjects 
of  instruction  are  religion,  the  Russian  and  old 
Slavic  languages,  Latin  and  Creek,  geography, 
arithmetic,  spelling,  and  church  history.  Private 
schools  may  he  established,  with  the  consent  of 
the  director  of  the  circle,  either  as  day  schools  or 
boarding  schools.  This  class  of  schools  also  com- 
prises the  schools  of  all  other  denominations.  All 
private  schools  are  divide  1  into  three  kinds,  hav- 
ing respectively  the  rank  of  a  gymnasium,  of  a 
district  school,  and  of  elementary  schools.  The 
numerous  Jewish  population  of  the  western  and 
southern  governments,  for  a  long  time,  possessed 
a  complete  system  of  private  and  public  institu- 
tions, which  were,  up  to  1864,  left  strictly  to 
themselves.  In  that  year,  they  were  placed  un- 
der the  general  school  council,  and  were  divide  I 
into  three  classes:  elcm-ntary  schools,  intermedi- 
ate schools,  and  schools  for  rabbis.  In  Bpite, 
however,  of  the  exertions  of  the  government, 
these  schools  are  decidedly  unpopular  with  the 
dews.  Quite  recently  a  desire  for  the  estab- 
li  shment  of  industrial  schools  has  been  e\  inced  by 
the  middle  and  lower  classes  of  the  people.  These 
schools  are  rapi  lly  increasing,  and  now  comprise 
independent  industrial  schools,  industrial  schools 
in  connection  with  district  and  communal  schools, 
and  industrial  schools  in  connection  with  char- 
itable institutions.  In  the  Polish  provinces,  the 
Sunday-schools  are  also  industrial  schools.  The 
firBt  Sunday-schools  were  opened  in  Kief,  in  1859, 
by  students  who  desired  to  instruct  the  laborers 
on  Sundays  and  holidays.  Shortly  after  this, 
similar  BchoolB  were  opened  in  St.  Petersburg, 
and  spread  rapidly;  so  that,  in  1862,  there  were 
already  300  schools,  with  about  211.0:10  pupils. 


Unfortunately,  they  did  not  exist  long;  for.  in  con- 
sequence of  disturbances  in  two  of  these  schools 
in  St.  Petersburg,  the  government  ordered  that 
all  should  be  closed,  with  the  exception  of  those 
in  the  school-district  of  Dorpat. — The  schools  in 
the  circles  must  be  regarded  as  an  intermediate 
link  between  the  elementary  schools  and  the 
gymnasia.  The  law  of  1828  provided  that  a  dis- 
trict school  should  be  established  in  the  capital 
of  every  circle  for  the  children  of  the  merchants. 
the  trades-people,  and  other  inhabitants  of  the 
cities.  The  course  of  study  comprises  three  an- 
nual classes:  and  the  .-indies  taught  are  religion, 
the  Russian  language,  arithmetic,  geometry. 
geography,  and  Russian  and  general  history.  Jn 
some  of  these  schools.  Latin,  and  in  others 
French,  is  taught.  These  schools  have  consider* 
ably  decreased  in  number,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  some  have  been  changed  into  progymnasia, 
and  others  into  city  schools.  The  education  of 
teachers  for  primary  schools  is  provided  for  in 
various  ways.  Special  teachers  seminaries  and 
teachers'  institutes,  have  recently  been  estab- 
lished. The  oldest  seminary  is  that  of  Dorpat, 
founded  in  1828.  Since  then,  a  number  of  sem- 
inaries have  been  established,  partly  by  the  gov- 
ernment, partly  by  provinces  and  private  endow- 
ments. Teachers'  institutes  have  been  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  the  city  schools,  the 
students  in  the  highest  classes  being  trained  to 
instruct,  under  the  supervision  of  their  teachers. 
The  normal  number  of  pupils  in  each  of  these 
institutes  is  75,  of  whom  60  are  completely  sup- 
ported at  the  expense  of  the  ministry  of  public 
worship;  and  the  remaining  L5,  by  funds  from 
private  persons  the  government,  the  city, or  other 
sources.    The  students,  in   return,  are  obliged 

to  serve  six  years  in  a  city  school,  wherever 
the  government  may  send  them.  Besides,  special 
courses  of  instruction  for  the  training  of  school- 
teachers have  been  established  in  connection 
with  a  number  of  circle  schools,  gymnasia,  and 
other  institutions.  For  the  education  of  teach- 
ers for  the  Mohammedan  schools  in  the  Fast,  and 
in  the  <  'rimea.  there  are  special  schools  in  Kasan 
and  Simpheropol.  In  1874,  there  were 421  district 
schools,  with  30,616  scholars,  and  22,653 popular 
schools,  with  933,900  scholars  i  7  18,866  boys  and 
1.85,034  girls).  Included  in  this  number  are  the 
church  schools,  the  village  schools  of  the  Baltic 

provinces,  and  the  industrial  scl Is.  i.e.,  all  the 

schools  under  the  minister  of  public  instruction. 

There  were.  also,  in  that  year, 54  teachers'  semi- 
naries and  institutes  with  25,552  students.  The 
number  of  private  schools,  of  all  three  grades,  not 
belonging  to  any  church,  iii  1869,  was  886,  with 
31,500  children;  and  the  number  of  denomina- 
tional primary  and  district  schools  not  belong- 
ing to  the  Creek  Church,  was  121,  with  24,291 
pupils.  The  number  of  ecclesiastical  schools  for 
the  children  of  the  clergy,  in  L868,was  187,  with 
25,000  pupils.  The  number  of  ecclesiastical 
elementary  schools,  in  1868,  was  16,287,  with 
390,049  pupils,  of  whom  335,130  were  boys,  and 
54,919  girls.  The  statistics  of  the  Jewish  schools 

for  dan..  I.,  1869, show  the  following:  There  are 


RUSSIA 


749 


2  schools  for  rabbis  and  Jewish  school-teachers  in 
Wilna  and  Schitomir,  5  schools  of  the  second 
class,  similar  to  the  district  schools,  with  220 
pupils;  96  schools  of  the  first  class,  in  which  the, 
Jewish  religion,  Russian  and  Hebrew,  and  arith- 
metic and  penmanship,  are  taught;  51  reading  and 
writing  schools,  in  the  school-districts  of  Wilna 
and  Warsaw,  with  1.9s2  pupils;  2  female  schools, 
with  260  pupils,  and  a  number  of  female  read- 
ing and  writing  schools.  Besides  these  schools, 
under  the  control  of  the  government,  there  are 
a  number  of  private  schools,  with  about  26,500 
pupils.  In  1870,  there  were  about  •"><>  industrial 
schools,  with  about  3.000  pupils,  ami.  in  1874, 
115  Sunday-schools,  with  8,565  male  pupils  and 
22  female  pupils.  The  following  table  gives  the 
ratio  of  the  number  of  schools,  and  of  the  num- 
ber of  pupils,  to  the  total  population,  in  each  of 
the  nine  school-districts  into  which  Russia  is 
divided : 


School-districts 

Ratio  of 

schools  to  total 
population 

Rntio  of 

pupils  to  total 

population 

1  :       039 
1  :  2,248 
1  :  2,330 
1  :  3,814 
1  :  3,109 
1  :  4,3(34 
1  :  4,076 
1  :  3,708 
1  :  5,845 

1   :     18 

Warsaw 

1  :     34 

St.  Petersburg 

1  :     72 

1  :     81 

Wilna 

1  :     85 

Kharkof 

1  :     90 

Kasan.   .                      

1  :  100 

Kief 

1  :  144 

1  :  173 

Secondary  Instruction. — In  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  there  were,  in  the  whole 
empire,  with  the  exception  of  the  Raltie  and 
Polish  provinces,  only  3  gymnasia.  Catharine  II., 
in  1776,  established  in  the  capitalsof  the  govern- 
ments people's  high  schools,  and  in  the  other 
cities  lower  people's  schools,  the  former  to  con- 
sist of  four  the  latter  of  two  classes.  In  1804, 
Alexander  I.  ordered  that  every  capital  of  a 
government  should  have  at  least  one  gymnasium. 
The  change  of  the  people's  high  schools  into 
gymnasia  extended  over  twenty  years;  and  fi- 
nally, in  1825,  56  gymnasia,  with  9,682  pupils, 
were  established,  making  an  average  of  132 
pupils  to  each  gymnasium.  The  highest  average, 
44S,  was  in  the  Wilna  school-district ;  and  the 
lowest,  69,  in  Kasan.  In  1828,  a  reform  was  in- 
troduced. The  gymnasia  comprised  seven  an- 
nual classes,  which  had  for  their  basis  the  study 
of  the  ancient  languages.  Latin  was  taught  in 
all  gymnasia,  and  in  all  classes;  while  ( J  reek, 
which  was  not  obligatory,  was  gradually  intro- 
duced. In  1849,  a  new  change  was  introduced, 
With  the  object  of  bringing  the  instruction  in 
closer  connection  with  practical  life.  Instruction 
was  either  general,  in  three  lower  classes,  or 
special,  in  the  other  classes.  In  consequence  of 
these  changes,  the  gymnasia  were  divided  into 
three  groups:  36  gymnasia,  in  which  natural 
sciences  and  law  were  taught;  29,  in  which  law 
only  was  taught;  and  12,  in  which  Greek  was  re- 
tained. In  18G4,  an  imperial  decree  classed  all 
gymnasia  as  classical  or  real  gymnasia.  In  the 
former,  the   classical  languages,    in  the   latter, 


mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences,  were  the 
principal  studies.  In  1872,  the  real  gymnasia  were 
changed  into  real  schools,  of  from  two  to  six 
classes,  in  which  the  ancient  languages  were 
entirely  abolished.  The  progymnasia,  of  four 
classes,  correspond  to  the  four  lower  classes  of 
the  gymnasium. — Very  little  was  done  for  female 
education  in  Russia  previous  to  the  middle  of 
the  last  century.  In  1764,  the  first  institute  for 
young  ladies  of  the  nobility  was  opened  in  St. 
Petersburg.  Since  that  time,  the  number  of  these 
institutes,  which  are  open  only  for  the  nobility, 
has  considerably  increased.  The  empress  Maria 
Feodorowna  took  particular  interest  in  these 
schools.  As  they  pursued  a  particular  object,  how- 
ever, and  as  they  thus  became  separated  from 
the  general  school  system,  they  have  always  been 
under  the  particular  charge  of  the  reigning  em- 
press, and  are  known  as  the  schools  of  the  em- 
press Maria.  But  not  until  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Alexander  II.,  did  the  ministry  of  public 
instruction  establish  female  schools  for  secondary 
instruction.  These  schools  were  of  two  grades, — 
schools  of  the  first  grade,  corresponding  to  the 
gymnasia:  and  those  of  the  second  grade,  cor- 
responding to  the  district  schools.  By  a  law  of 
1870,  the  schools  of  the  first  grade  were  changed 
into  gymnasia,  and  those  of  the  second  grade  in- 
to progymnasia.  In  some  of  the  former,  a  special 
course,  of  one  year,  was  instituted  for  those  pupils 
who  wished  to  become  governesses  or  teachers. 
The  course  of  study  compiises  religion,  the  Rus- 
sian language  and  literature,  French  or  German, 
history,  geography,  natural  history,  arithmetic, 
geometry,  the  elements  of  pedagogy,  drawing,  and 
penmanship.  English  is  taught  for  an  extra  fee 
of  5  rubles  per  year.  This  law,  however,  is  only 
for  the  purely  Russian  provinces.  In  the  Porpat 
school-district,  there  are  female  schools  with  a 
higher  and  lower  course,  in  which  instruction  is 
given  by  means  of  the  German  language.  An  ex- 
ception to  this  rule  is  the  female  gymnasium  in 
Riga.  During  the  last  decade,  female  gymnasia 
have  also  been  established,  in  which  girls  of  all 
ranks  are  admitted.  In  1874,  the  number  of 
gymnasia  was  123,  with  36,268  pupils;  of  pro- 
gymnasia, 44,  with  5,454  pupils;  and  of  real 
schools,  30,  with  4,275  pupils.  In  1874,  there 
were  195  female  gymnasia  and  progymnasia, 
with  23,854  pupils,  and  28  female  institutes  with 
5,4.33  pupils.  The  number  of  gymnasia  belong- 
j  ing  to  the  schools  of  the  empress,  in  1870,  was 
'  57,  with  about  10,000  pupils.  There  were,  also, 
in  1869,  six  gymnasia,  with  1,617  male  and  844 
female  pupils,  belonging  to  other  churches  than 
the  Greek  church. 

Superior  Instruct  inn. — The  first  effort  to 
provide  superior  instruction  in  Russia  was 
made  by  Peter  the  Great,  who,  in  1723,  decreed 
the  establishment  of  an  academy  of  sciences  and 
a  university,  at  St.  Petersburg.  The  academy 
was  not  opened  until  1726,  the  year  after  the 
!  emperor's  death;  while  the  university  only  ex- 
isted in  name,  as  there  were  no  students  for  it. 
Indeed,  it  was  not  until  1 755  that  the  first  Rus- 
sian university  was  established  at  Moscow,  by 


750 


RUSSIA 


the  empress  Elizabeth.  It  consisted  of  three 
faculties,  and  was  entirely  modeled  after  the 
German  universities.  Under  I  latharine  II.,  after 
the  division  of  Poland,  the  Wilna  Academy  was 
added  to  the  higher  institutions  of  learning;  and. 
in  1803,  it  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  university. 
In  1802,  the  Dorpat  University,  founded  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632,  was  entirely  re- 
organized;  and,  in  L804,  the  universities  of 
Kharkof  and  KLasan  were  founded.  On  account 
of  the  poor  condition  of  die  schools  for  secondary 
instruction  at  thai  time,  the  number  of  students 
and  of  good  professors,  was  at  first  very  small: 
and  mme  than  one  half  of  the  latter  were  for- 
eigners. The  native  prof essors  were  educated  in 
the  principal  pedagogical  institute,  which  was 
founded  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  L804.  This  insti- 
tute did  not  have  a  long  existence;  for.  in  1819, 
it  was  changed  into  the  University  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. In  L832,  on  account  of  political  disturb- 
ances, the  Wilna  University  was  closed,  with 
the  exception  of  the  medical  faculty,  which  con- 
tinued to  exist  as  the  Medico-Surgical  Academy. 
In  its  place,  the  St.  Vladimir  University  of  Kief 
was  formed  from  the  lyceuin,  which  shortly  be- 
fore had  been  transferred  to  that  place  from 
Krenieiieis.  In  1  s.'i.'i.  a  new  university  law  was 
passed,  which  withdrew  from  the  universities  the 
superintendence  of  the  other  schools,  and  gave  to 
a  particular  inspector  the  discipline  of  the  stu- 
dents. A  decree  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  in  1849, 
limited  the  number  of  students  in  each  univer- 
sity to  300;  but  this  decree  was  revoked  in  L856. 

In  L863, a  new  general  law  for  the  imperial  uni- 
versities was  published,  intended  for  all  excepl 
that  of  Dorpat,  which  continued  to  be  governed 

by  its  special  charter  of  ls-jt).  In  accordance 
with  this  law.  iii  L865,  the  Russian  university  of 
Odessa,  previously  a  lyceum,  was  established: 
ami.  in  L869,  Warsaw  University,  previously  a 
high  school.  According  to  the  new  law,  every 
university  must  be  composed  of  at  least  four 
faculties:  of  history  and  philology,  of  natural 
philosophy  and  mathematics,  of  law,  and  of 
medicine.  From  this  order,  however,  there  are 
many  deviations.     Thus  the    University  of    St. 

Petersburg  has  no  medical  faculty:  but,  instead 
thereof,  a  faculty  of  oriental  languages.  In  the 
Universityoi  Odessa, the  medical  faculty  has  not 
yet) n  opened;  in  that  of  Dorpat,  there  is,  in 

addition  to  I  he  four  nient ioned  above,  a  faculty 
of  Protestant  theology.  A  candidate  for  admis- 
sion to  the  university  musl  be.  ,-it  least.  IT  years 
of  age,  and  must  possess  a  certificate  of  gradu- 
ation from  a  gymnasium.  The  entire  university 
course  comprises  5  years  in  the  medical  faculty, 
and    I   in  all  the  others. 

In  lso  |.  Alexander  I.  ordered  that  the  course 
of  instruct  ion  of  some  of  the  gymnasia  Bhould  be 
extended,  and  that  gymnasia  for  the  higher  sci- 
ences should  be  established,  as  stepping-stones 
from  the  gymnasia  to  the  universities.  In  a  short 
time,  four  such  institutes  were  founded,  chiefly 
at  the  expense  of  private  persons:  (1)  that  of 

Yaroslav.    in   L805,   which    was    changed    into    a 

lyceum  in  L833;  (2)  the  Volhynian  gymnasium, 


founded  at  Kremenets,  in  1805.  changed  into  a 
lyceum  in  1820,  transferred  to  Kief  in  1832, and 
subsequently  changed  into  a  university  :  (3)  the 
Lyceum  Richelieu,  founded  in  1817,  and  after- 
ward changed  into  a  university  ;  and  (4)  the 
Gymnasium  for  Higher  Learning,  founded  in 
Nezheen,  in  L 820,  which  received  the  name  of 
lyceum  in  L832.  The  lyceums  under  the  minister 
of  public  instruction  have  three  classes,  each  for 
one  year:  a  lyceum  belonging  to  the  Schools  of 
the  Empress  .Maria  has  hair  classes,  of  one  and 
one  half  years  each:  while  the  Lyceum  of  the 
(hand-duke  Nikolai,  in  Moscow,  has  an  eight 
years'  course. 

The  following  table  presents  the  statistics  of 
the  universities  for  1875  : 


Universities 

Instructors 

Students 

St.  Petersburg 

8G 
117 
65 
69 
72 
42 
63 
75 

1,196 
1,473 

Moscow 

kharkof 

11^ 

Kief 

522 

s.V.i 

(  >i]rs~;i 

316 

1  lorpal 

794 

Warsaw 

830 

Total. 


569 


6,408 


Of  the  total  number  of  students,  36  per  cent 
study  law:  .'!1  percent,  medicine:  II  percent  at- 
tend the  course  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy; !'  per  cent  are  free  hearers,  but  only  8 
per  cent  attend  the  historical  and  philological 
faculty.  The  remaining  2  per  cent  arc  made  up 
of  the  theological  students  in  Dorpal  and  the 
students  of  oriental  languages  in  St.  Petersburg. 
The  number  of  lyceums,  in  1874,  according  to 
the  Russian  Annals,  was  5,  with  about  600 
students. 

Special  Instruction. — The  special  schools  be- 
long to  different  ministries.  The  following  sta- 
tistics are  for  dan.  L.  1874.  There  are  I  higher 
theological  Bchools,  with  178  professors  and  446 
students:  51  intermediate  theological  schools. 
with  789  professors  and  13,103  students:  and 
187  lower  theological  schools,  with  1,375  profess- 
ors and  26,671  students:  7  higher.  25  interme- 
diate, and  31  lower  military  schools,  with  1,416, 
<;„'i.'!0.  and  6,863  students,  respectively;  7  naval 
schools,  with  L ,109 students;  •'>  higher  and  16 
lower  agricultural   schools,    with    293  and  1,025 

students,  respectively;  6  higher  technical  schools, 
with  2,666  students,  12  lower  technical  schools. 

5  Schools  of  art  and  drawing.  .'»  schools  of  music 
and  the  drama,  I  business  colleges.  I  law  school, 
w  ith  320  students,  and  •'*  schools  of  philology. 
Caucasia.    The  schools  of  Finland  fq.v.)  and 

of  the  <  'aueasus  are  the  only  schools  in  the  whole 

empire  that  are  not  subject  to  the  Russian  govern- 
ment, but  to  their  own  school  authorities.  Cau- 
casia forms  one  school-district,  the  Inspector  of 
which  is  responsible  to  the  governor  only.  In 
L862,  there  were,  in  Caucasia,  I  gymnasia,  — ' ► 
district  schools.  1  progymnasium,  L8  elementary 

Schools, 31  private  schools,  and  13  schools  lx'long- 

ing  to  the  church,  making  a  total  of  s 7  schools, 


RUTGERS   COLLEGE 


SAINT  CHARLES'S  COLLEGE     751 


with  7,362  pupils. —  Sec  Schmid,  P&dagogiscke 
Wncyclopddie ;  Rolfus  and  Pfister,  RealrEn- 
cydopaidie  des  Wrziehungs-  und  Unterrichtswe- 
sens  ;  Lengenfeldt,  Russland  im  neunzehnten 
Jahrhunderi  ]  Report  of  the  U.S.  Commissioner 
of  Education,  L874 ;  Chronik  des  Volksschulr 
wesens,  1st"). 

RUTGERS  COLLEGE,  at  New  Brunswick, 
N..L,  under  the  control  of  the  Reformed  ( thurch 
in  America,  was  founded  in  1  770.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  an  endowment  of  about 
0  100,000;  the  value  of  its  buildings,  grounds,  and 
apparatus  amounts  to  about  the  same  sum.  Its 
cabinets  and  apparatus  are  extensive  ;  the  libra- 
ries contain  about  9,500  volumes.  There  are 
two  departments :  the  classical  or  college  proper, 
and  the  scientific  (state  college  of  agriculture 
and  the  mechanic  arts,  endowed  with  the  con- 
gressional land  grant).  The  latter  department  has 
three  courses :  civil  emdneerinoi  and  mechanics, 
chemistry  and  agriculture,  and  a  special  course  in 
chemistry.  There  is  an  extensive  model  farm. 
The  tuition  fee  in  both  departments  is  $7;')  per 
annum.  There  are  a  number  of  beneficiary  funds 
for  the  aid  of  students  intended  for  the  ministry;  j 
and  40  students,  resident  in  the  state,  are  ad-  ' 
mitted  to  the  scientific  department  without 
charge.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  13  professors 
and  188  students  (131  classical  and  57  scientific). 
The  Rev.  Wm.  Henry  Campbell,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
is  (1876)  the  president. 

RUTHERFORD  COLLEGE,  at  Happy 
Home,  Burke  Co.,  N.  G,  was  commenced  by 
its  present  and  only  president,  the  Rev.  R.  L. 
Abernethy,  A.  M.,  in  1854,  and  was  chartered  as 
Rutherford  Academy  in  1858.  In  1861,  under 
the  title  of  the  Rutherford  Seminary,  it  was  given 


the  righl  to  confer  degrees;  and.  in  1870,  it  was 
made  a  college,  it  is  a  college  for  young  men, 
with  a  ladies'  department,  Each  sex  has  its  own 
curriculum  ;  but  the  females  recite  with  the  males 
in  all  those  classes  in  which  the  courses  of  study 
are  the  same.  The  college  is  composed  of  six 
regular  schools  :  Latin.  Greek,  mathematics,  En- 
glish literature  and  rhetoric,  natural  science,  and 
mental  and  moral  philosophy.  '1  he  libraries  con- 
tain about  3,500  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition 
ranges  from  $1  to  $5  a  month.  The  children 
of  ministers  of  all  denominations  of  Christians, 
as  well  as  all  indigent  orphans,  are  instructed 
iri  ■  of  tuition  charges.  In  1n7-1 — 5,  there  were 
19  instructors  and  319  students  (229  males  and 
90  females),  mostly  of  the  preparatory  grade. 

RYERSON,  Adolphus  Egerton,  a  noted 
Canadian  clergyman  and  educator,  born  at 
Charlotteville,  near  Victoria,  in  the  province  of 
Ontario,  March  24.,  1803.  He  at  first  taught 
school,  but  in  1825  entered  the  Wesleyan  min- 
istry, and,  in  1829,  assumed  the  editorship  of  the 
Christian  Guardian,  a  Methodist  journal,  estab- 
lished by  himself.  In  1842,  he  was  appointed 
principal  of  Victoria  College,  Cobourg,  C.  W., 
and  two  years  afterward,  chief  superintendent 
of  education  for  Upper  Canada,  now  Ontario, 
which  position  he  still  occupies.  Mr.  Ryerson's 
services  as  a  superintendent  have  been  quite  dis- 
tinguished. The  public-school  system  which  is 
under  his  supervision  was  organized  upon  a  plan 
arranged  by  him,  in  1849;  and  his  school  reports 
have  uniformly  presented  very  valuable  material. 
He  has  also  published  a  history  of  Canada,  and 
has  written  a  history  of  the  British  Un  itet  I  Empire 
Loyalists,  who  emigrated  from  the  United  States 
to  British  America  in  1783. 


SAINT  AUGUSTINE,  Missionary  Col- 
lege of,  at  Benicia,  Cal.,  an  Episcopal  institu- 
tion, was  founded  in  1867,  and  incorporated 
iu  1868.  The  course  of  study  is  arranged  for 
eight  forms  or  classes,  in  three  departments ; 
namely,  primary,  grammar  school,  and  collegiate 
(in  which  ancient  and  modern  languages  are 
optional).  The  students  are  under  military  dis- 
cipline, and  instruction  is  given  in  infantry,  caval- 
ry, and  artillery  tactics.  The  regular  charge  for 
board,  tuition,  etc.,  is  from  $350  to  $370  per 
annum.  In  1875,  there  were  12  instructors,  and 
89  students.  The  Rt,  Rev.  J.  H.  D.  Wingfield, 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  is  (1876)  the  rector. 

SAINT  BENEDICT'S  COLLEGE,  at 
Atchison,  Kan.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution 
"under  the  superintendence  of  the  Benedictine 
Fathers,  was  founded  in  1859,  and  chartered  in 
1868.  It  has  a  preparatory,  a  commercial,  and  a 
classical  department.  The  regular  charge  for  tui- 
tion, board,  etc.,  is  890  per  session  of  five  months; 
for  tuition  alone,  825.  The  library  contains  2,000 
volumes.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  6  instructors 
and  79  students.  The  Very  Rev.  Oswald  Moos- 
mueller,  O.  S.  B.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 


SAINT  CHARLES  COLLEGE,  at  Grand 
Coteau,  La.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  under 
the  direction  of  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
was  founded  in  1836,  and  incorporated  in  1852. 
The  course  of  instruction  embraces  Latin.  Greek, 
English,  French,  poetry,  rhetoric,  history,  geog- 
raphy, mathematics,  natural  and  mental  philos- 
ophy, with  the  addition  of  the  usual  commercial 
branches.  It  had  the  highest  number  of  stu- 
dents in  1861,  just  before  the  breaking  out  of 
the  civil  war.  Recently  the  numbers  have  de- 
clined, owing  to  the  impoverished  state  of  the 
country.  The  libraries  contain  5,500  volumes. 
The  regular  charge  for  board,  tuition,  etc.,  is 
$250  a  year.  In  1876,  the  number  of  students 
was  35.  The  Rev.  R.  Ollivier,  S.  J.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

SAINT  CHARLES'S  COLLEGE,  near 
Ellicott  City,  Md.,  under  Roman  Catholic  control, 
was  chartered  in  1830,  and  organized  in  1848.  It 
was  founded  by  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton, 
and  forms  the  petit  seminaire  and  classical  de- 
partment of  St.  Mary's  University  and  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Baltimore.  The 
course  of  instruction  is  a  full  classical  one,  re- 


752     ST.  FRANCIS  X  A  V IKR  COLLEGE 


SAINT  JOHNS  COLLEGE 


quiring  a  period  of  6  years  for  those  who 
complete  it,  and  embracing  all  the  branches 
preparatory  to  the  higher  ecclesiastical  studies; 
such  as  Latin,  Knglish.  Greek,  French,  German. 
belles-lettres,  mathematics,  sacred  and  profane 
history,  Christian  doctrine,  plain  chant,  and 
church  ceremonies.  The  libraries  contain  4,500 
volumes.  The  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is 
$90  per  half  session  of  five  months.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  12  instructors  and  1  75  students.  The 
Rev.  S.  Ferte,  1>.  1>..  is  (1876)  the  president. 

SAINT  FRANCIS  XAVIER,  College  of, 
in  New  York  City,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution 
conducted  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  was  founded  in  L847,  and  chartered  in 
1861.  It  is  supported  by  a  tuition  fee  of  $60 
per  annum  from  each  student.  Its  library  con- 
tains 16,000  volumes.  It  has  a  post-graduate 
course  of  one  year,  leading  to  the  degree  of  A. 
M..;  an  undergraduate  course  of  four  years,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  A.  !>.:  a  grammar  course  of 
three  years,  preparatory  to  the  preceding:  a  com- 
mercial course  of  three  years;  and  a  preparatory 
or  elementary  course,  for  beginners.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  26  instructors  and  456  students.  The 
following  have  been  the  presidents  of  the  college: 
the  Rev.  John  Larkin.  the  Rev.John  Ryan,  the 
Rev.  Michael  Priscol,  the  Rev.  Joseph  Durthaller, 
the  Rev.  Joseph  Loyzance,  and  the  Rev.  Eenry 
Eudon,  the  present  incumbent  (1876). 

SAINT  IGNATIUS  COLLEGE,  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  was  opened  in  1855,  and  char- 
tered in  L859.  It  isa  Roman  Catholic  institution, 
conducted  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
The  course  of  studies  embraces  the  Greek,  Latin, 
and  English  languages,  poetry,  rhetoric,  elocu- 
tion, history,  geography,  arithmetic,  book-keeping, 
penmanship,  mathematics,  chemistry,  and  mental, 
moral,  and  natural  philosophy.  The  study  of  the 
French  and  Spanish  languages  is  optional.  There 
is  also,  a  preparatory  department.  The  regular 
tuition  fee  ranges  from  $3  to  $8  a  month.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  22  instructors  and  7! 58  stu- 
dents. The  Rev.  A.  .Masnata,  S.  .1..  is  1 187G)  the 
president. 

SAINT  IGNATIUS  COLLEGE,  in  Chi- 
cago. 111., a  Roman  ( 'atholic  institution  conducted 
bj  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, was  founded 
in  1870.  It  possesses  a  library  of  L0.000  volumes; 
and  a  museum  containing  a  rare  and  valuable 
collection  of  minerals.  It  comprises  a  classical 
course  of  six  years,  corresponding  to  the  prepar- 
atory and  collegiate  departments  of  most  col- 
leges,  a  commercial  course  of  tour  years,  embra- 
cing all  the  branches  of  a  good  bullish  education; 
and  a  preparatory  or  elementary  course.  The 
cost  of  tuition  is  s<'><>  a  year.    In  1*74 — 5, there 

were  II  instructors  and  214  students.  The  pres- 
idents have  been  as  follows :  the  Rev.  A.  Damen, 
>..L,  1870—72;  the  Rev.  F.  Coosemans,  S.  J., 
L872  -I;  and  the  Rev.  J.  De  Blieck,  S.  J.,  since 
1874. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  at  Fordham, 
New  Fork  City,  was  founded  by  the-  Rev.  John 
I  [ughea,  first  Roman  <  'atholic  archbishop  of  New 

York,  and  was  opened  in  L841.    It  was  chartered 


in  184G,  and  the  same  year  was  transferred  to  the 
Jesuits,  by  whom  it  has  since  been  conducted. 
It  is  supported  by  the  students'  fees  for  board 
and  tuition,  amounting  ordinarily  to  §300  per 
annum;  the  charge  to  day  scholars  is  $60  per 
annum.  The  college  library  contains  20.000  vol- 
umes, besides  which  the  students  have  the  use  of 
a  circulating  library  of  over  5,000  volumes.  There 
are  valuable  chemical  and  philosophical  ap- 
paratus, and  a  geological  and  mineralogical  cabi- 
net, with  about  2,500  specimens.  The  college 
combines  the  ordinary  features  of  preparatory, 
grammar,  and  commercial  schools  with  those  of 
a  university.  There  are  also  several  supplement- 
ary classes.  Students  are  received  at  any  age. 
In  1875 — (>.  there  were  21  instructors  and  178 
students.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows: 
the  Rev.  John  Mc(  loskev.  now  Cardinal  Arch- 
bishop of  New  York;  the  Bev.  Ambrose  Manahan. 
D.D,;  the  Rev.  Roosevelt  Bayley.now  Archbisliop 
of  Baltimore;  the  Rev.  .lames  Early,  A.M.:  the 
lev.  Aug.  d.  Thebaud,  i^.-h;  the  Rev.  John 
Larkin.  S.  J. ;  the  Rev.  RemigiusJ.  Tellier, S. .1.: 
the  Rev.  Edward  Doucet.  S.  J.;  the  Rev. William 
Movlan,  S..I.  ;  the  Rev.  Joseph  Shea.  S.  d.:  and 
the  Rev.  William  Cockeln,  S.  J.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent ( 1 876). 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE  Brooklyn, 
N.  V.,  a  Roman  ('atholic  institution,  conducted 
by  the  Priests  of  the  Congregation  of  the  .Mis- 
sion, was  founded  in  1  870.  It  has  a  full  classical, 
an  English,  and  a  commercial  course,  including 
French  and  ( lerman.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  SI  5  pel 
quarter,  in  L875 — 6,  there  were  (J  instructors, 
and  L45  students.  The  Rev.  1*.  M.  O'Regan, 
C  M.,  is  (  L876)  the  president. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  at  Annapolis, 
Mil.,  was  chartered  in  1784, and  opened  in  1789. 
From  L861  to  L866,  it  was  dosed  in  consequence 
of  the  civil  war.  It  is  supported  chiefly  by  state 
appropriations,  at  present  amounting  to  $25,000 
a  year,  in  return  for  which  L 50 Students  (<j  from 
each  senatorial  district)  arc  entitled  toroom  rent 
and  tuition  free;  and  50  of  these  (2  from  each 
senatorial   district)    are   entitled,  in  addition,  to 

gratuitous  board.    These  latter  are  required  to 

leach  school  within  the  state  for  not  less  than 
two  years  after  having  college.  For  those  not 
holders  of  scholarships,  the  annual  charge  for 
tuition,  board,  etc..  is  $275;  for  t  tut  ion  alone  $60 

in  the  preparatory,  and  $90  in  the  collegiate 
department.  The  library  contains 5,000  volumes. 
The  collegiate  department  embraces  an  under- 
graduate course  of  four  years,  leading  to  thi 
degree  of  A.  B.;  a  post-graduate  course  of  two 
years,  leading  to  the  degree  of  A.  M.:  and  select 
courses.  In  L875 — 6,  there  were  11  instructors. 
including  those  in  music  and  gymnastics,  .and 
121  students  (69  collegiate  and  52  prepar- 
atory), of  whom,  including  the  50  who  receive 
gratuitous  board,  about  two-thirds  were  in- 
structed free.  The  number  of  aliemni  was  481. 
The  principals  of  the  College  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: John  McDowell,  LL.  1>.  (appointed  in 
L790);the  Rev.  Bethel  Judd,  D.  D.  (1807);  the 
Rev.  Henry  byon  Davis,  D.  D.  (1820);  the  Rev. 


SAINT  JOHNS  COLLEGE 


ST.  LOUIS 


753 


William  Rafferty,  D.  D.  (1824);  the  Rev.  Hector 
Humphreys,  D.D.  (1831);  the  Rev.  Cleland  K. 
Nelson,  O.  D.  (1857);  Henry  Barnard,  LL.  D. 
(1866);  James  0.  Welling,  LL.  D.  (1867);  and 
James  M.  Garnett,  M.  A.,  LL.  1).  (1870). 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  4  miles  from 
St.  Joseph,  Stearns  Co.,  Minn.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
institution,  conducted  by  the  Benedictine  Fathers, 
was  founded  in  1857,  and  chartered  the  same 
year,  under  the  name  of  St.  John's  Seminary, 
but  it  is  better  known  as  St.  John's  College.  By 
an  act  of  the  legislature,  approved  March  5.,  1869, 
it  is  "authorized  to  confer  such  degrees  and  grant 
such  diplomas  as  are  usual  in  colleges  and  uni- 
versities." It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  students, 
the  regular  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  being 
$90  per  session  of  five  months.  The  institution 
comprises  an  ecclesiastical,  a  classical,  a  scientific, 
a  commercial,  and  an  elementary  course.  The 
libraries  contain  about  2,000  volumes.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  15  instructors  and  168  students  (30 
ecclesiastical,  and  138  classical  and  commercial). 
The  Rt.  Rev.  Alexius  Edelbrock,  O.  S.B.,  D.D., 
is  (1876)  the  president. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE  OF  AR- 
KANSAS, at  Little  Rock,  was  chartered  in 
1 850,  and  opened  in  1 859.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Masonic  Fraternity  of  Arkansas,  and  has  been 
sustained  by  the  Grand  Lodge  since  its  opening.  It 
was  suspended  from  May,  1861,  to  October,  1867, 
during  the  greater  part  of  which  time  the  build- 
ing was  used  as  a  hospital  either  by  the  Confed- 
erate or  by  the  Federal  troops.  The  value  of  the 
college  property  is  $72,600.  The  cost  of  tuition 
is  $50  per  annum,  except  to  sons  of  Masons  with- 
in the  jurisdiction  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Ar- 
kansas, who  are  instructed  without  charge.  The 
college  has  a  preparatory  course  of  three  years, 
a  course  for  A.  B.  (4  years),  a  course  for  Sc.  B. 
(3  years),  and  a  course  for  Ph.  B.  (2  years).  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  3  instructors  and  55  stu- 
dents. R.  H.  Parham,  Jr.,  A.  M.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

SAINT  JOSEPH'S  COLLEGE,  atTeutop- 
olis,  HI.,  was  founded  in  1861,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Rt.  Rev.  H.  I).  Yunker,  D.  D.,  Roman 
Catholic  bishop  of  Alton,  and  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Franciscan  Fathers.  The  course  of 
studies  embraces  the  Greek,  Latin,  English, 
French,  and  German  languages  ;  rhetoric,  poetry, 
composition,  history,  geography,  book-keeping, 
arithmetic,  mathematics,  natural  philosophy, 
natural  history,  drawing,  penmanship,  and  in- 
strumental and  vocal  music.  The  study  of  Ger- 
man (for  English  students) ,  French,  book-keep- 
ing, drawing,  and  music,  is  optional.  It  is  an 
ecclesiastical  seminary  (designed  to  prepare  can- 
didates for  the  priesthood  for  the  study  of  phi- 
losophy and  theology) .  and  admits  only  Catholic 
pupils ;  but  the  course  also  furnishes  a  qualifica- 
tion for  secular  pursuits.  There  are  two  prepar- 
atory and  four  collegiate  classes.  The  charge  for 
tuition,  board,  etc..  is  $75  per  session  of  five 
months  to  those  studying  for  the  priesthood,  and 
$90  to  others.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  10  in- 
structors and  112  students.    The  Very  Rev.  P. 

48 


Mauritius  Klostermann,  0.  S.  F.,  is  (1876)   the 
rector  of  the  College. 

SAINT  JOSEPH'S  COLLEGE,  in  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution  conducted 
by  the  Christian  Brothers,  was  founded  in  1861. 
It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  students,  the  reg- 
ular charge  for  board  and  tuition  being  $200  a 
year;  for  tuition  alone,  from  $16  to  $50  a  year. 
The  institution  comprises  three  departments: 
primary,  2  years;  preparatory  collegiate,  4  years; 
and  collegiate,  4  years.  There  is  a  commercial 
course,  and  facilities  are  afforded  for  instruction 
in  music  and  drawing.  The  library  contains  2,500 
volumes.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  11  instructors 
and  318  students.  The  Rev.  Bro.  Joachim  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

ST.  LAWRENCE  UNIVERSITY,  The, 
at  Canton,  N.  Y.,  chartered  and  organized  in 
1856,  is  under  Universalist  control.  Jt  comprises 
a  college  of  letters  and  science,  and  a  theological 
school,  independent  of  each  other  in  their  faculties, 
and  in  the  instruction  and  government  of  their 
students.  Its  productive  funds  amount  to 
SI  65,000,  and  its  libraries  contain  7,366  volumes. 
Both  sexes  are  admitted  to  each  of  the  depart- 
ments. The  college  has  a  classical  and  a  scientific 
course,  each  of  four  years.  In  1875 — 6,  it  had  8 
instructors  and  54  students  (28  males  and  16  fe- 
males); the  theological  school  had  3  professors 
and  28  students.  The  Rev.  A.  G.  Gaines,  I).  I>.. 
is  (1876)  the  president  of  the  college,  and  the 
Rev.  E.  Fisher,  D.  1).,  is  the  president  of  the 
theological  school. 

ST."  LOUIS,  the  chief  city  of  Missouri  and 
of  the  Mississippi  valley,  having  a  population, 
in  1870,  of  310,864,  and  an  estimated  popula- 
tion, in  1875,  of  450,000. 

Educational  Hisiorij. — On  the  13th  of  June, 
1812,  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  passed 
an  act  to  set  apart  certain  lands  in  St.  Louis 
and  other  towns  in  Missouri,  "for  the  support  of 
schools  in  the  respective  towns  or  villages  afore- 
said." In  1817,  an  act  was  approved  by  which 
a  board  of  trustees  for  the  schools  of  St.  Louis 
was  incorporated.  The  first  business  of  the 
board  was  to  define  and  take  possession  of  the 
school  lands  previously  given.  This  was  a  mat- 
ter of  some  difficulty,  as  the  original  act  convey- 
ing the  land  contained  a  proviso  to  the  effect 
that  the  rights  of  claimants  should  not  be  vio- 
lated ;  and  such  claimants,  by  action  in  the 
courts,  prevented  the  using  of  the  land  for 
school  purposes,  till  two  supplementary  acts  of 
Congress,  in  1824  and  1831,  compelled  them  to 
prove  their  titles.  The  tract  of  land  thus  con- 
veyed to  the  city  comprised  a  little  less  than  50 
acres,  and  is  the  land  now  reported  annually  by 
the  board  of  public  schools,  as  "real  estate  held 
for  revenue."  A  new  school  board  was  created 
in  1 833  by  the  legislature,  styled  the  "  Board  of 
President  and  Directors  of  the  St.  Louis  Public 
Schools."  An  election  took  place,  the  same  year, 
which  resulted  in  the  choice  of  six  school  direct- 
ors, Edward  Bates  being  of  the  number. 
The  first  money  from  the  rent  of  the  school 
lands  was  received  in  1834 ;   and,  the  following 


754 


ST.  LOUIS 


year,  the  money  was  loaned,  by  permission  of 
the  legislature,  the  time  for  establishing  schools 
not  yet  having  arrived.  In  lS.'S",  two  school- 
houses  were  built — the  south  and  the  north 
school-house — the  former  of  which  is  still  stand- 
ing on  the  corner  of  Fourth  and  Spruce  streets. 
The  latter  was  abandoned  in  1842,  and  was 
afterwards  burnt.  In  April,  1838,  the  first 
school  was  opened  ;  and,  shortly  after,  the  sec- 
ond. In  1841,  the  third  school-house  was  built 
at  a  cost  of  $10,925,  an  expense  which  the 
board  was  very  much  embarrassed  to  meet 
In  1845,  two  more  school-houses  were  built,  and, 
the  following  year,  occupied.  Other  schools 
followed.  In  Ls4!t,  two  evening  schools  were 
opened.  The  first  high  school  was  established 
in  L853,  with  an  attendance  of  over  TO  pupils. 
On  the  first  .Monday  in  June,  1849,  the  question 
of  supporting  the  public  schools  by  taxation  was 
voted  upon  by  the  people,  the  legislature  having 
so  directed,  in  answer  to  a  petition  from  a  com- 
mittee of  the  school  board.  The  anxiety  felt  by 
the  friends  of  popular  education  in  regard  to 
this  election  proved  to  be  unnecessary,  as  the  law 
was  endorsed  by  a  large  majority;  and  the  first 
tax  under  it,  amounting  to  818,000,  was  col- 
lected the  following  year.  At  the  session  of 
ls.">;{ — 4,  the  legislature  repealed  the  law  by 
which  St.  Louis  was  prevented  from  participation 
in  the  state  school  fund.  This  law  had  been 
passed  on  the  erroneous  supposition  that  the 
special  grant  of  land  made  to  the  city  by  Con- 
gress, in  1812,  would  be  ample  for  school  pur- 
poses. On  the  establishment  of  the  high  school, 
tin' same  opposition  to  it  was  encountered  that 
lias  been  observed  in  other  cities  during  the  first 
half  of  the  century.  This  opposition  arose  from 
a  conception,  common  at  that  time,  that  it  was 
unjust  to  tax  the  people  generally  for  any  thing 
beyond  elementary  instruction.  In  the  school 
board,  fortunately,  were  several  men  of  sufficient 
foresight  and  firmness  to  disregard  the  clamor 
of  the  hour,  and  to  provide  for  the  new  Bchool 
in  the  most  efficient  manner.  The  wisdom  of 
their  action  is  proved  by  the  fact  that,  in  the 
words  of  the  present  superintendent,  " no  other 

measure  ever  adopted  by  the  Hoard  has  had  so 
powerful  an  influence  as  this  in  popularizing  and 
strengthening  the  public  schools."  In  L 855,  the 
school  buildings  were  found  insufficient  to  ac- 
commodate the  children  of  the  city, and  primary 
schools  were  established  in  leased  houses.  The 
success  of  the  schools  of  St.  Louis  now  attracted 

attention    throughout    the   state,   and  a  law   was 

passed  by  the  legislature,  appropriating  '-■">  per 
cent  of  the  state  revenue  to  the  support  of  free 
schools.  By  this  apportionment,  St.  Louis  re- 
ceived $27«456.51,  in  L854.  The  schools  had 
now  been  in  operation  about  20  years,  and  the 
increase  in  the  Dumber  of  pupils  caused   the 

want   which   always   attends   this   inereas( — that 

of  trained  teachers-  -to  !»■  severely  felt.  Iu  1857, 

accordingly,   the    first    normal   school   was  estali- 

1  i.died.  and  Ira  Divoll  became  superintendent  of 

schools.  The  city  had  now  gone  so  far  in  the 
Completion  of  its  school  system,  that  the  remain- 


ing steps  were  easy.  The  Franklin  school-house 
was  begun  in  1857,  but  was  not  finished  till  the 
following  year.  It  was  built  on  the  Lancasteriau 
plan,  then  extensively  used  in  nearly  all  of  the 
large  cities  of  the  Union,  and  was  the  last  house 
bo  built  by  the  city,  the  era  of  graded  schools, 
which  required  a  different  plan,  having  begun. 
In  the  summer  of  L857,  the  new  superintendent 
went  upon  a  tour  of  observation  through  the 
principal  eastern  cities,  and  on  his  return,  drew 
up  a  comprehensive  plan  for  the  re-organization 
of  the  school  system,  in  every  thing  that  related 
to  the  construction  and  size  of  school-houses, 
the  style  of  furniture  and  appointments, 
the  mode  of  organization  and  classification, 
methods  of  instruction,  etc.:  and  the  principles 
then  discussed  and  agreed  upon  were  made 
the  basis  upon  which  an  entire  reconstruction 
of  the  system  was  begun.  It  was  ordered  that 
the  school-houses  should  be  built  thereafter 
according  to  the  plan  for  graded  schools,  that 
they  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  of  uni- 
form size,  and  that  they  should  be  the  property 
of  the  city;  that  pupils  should  be  classified 
according  to  attainment ;  and  that  there  should 
be  but  one  organization  and  one  principal  teacher 
for  each  building.  The  city,  at  that  time,  con- 
tained 135,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  25,000 
were  children  of  school  age:  yet  the  schools 
could  accommodate  only  5,361.  This  insuffi- 
ciency of  the  school  accommodations  was  forci- 
bly presented  to  the  hoard  by  .Mr.  Divoll  in  his 
report  for  l8."»s,  and  the  erection  of  several  new 
buildings  was  urgently  recommended.  Eight 
new  school-houses  were,  accordingly,  begun,  and 
shortly  after,  four  of  the  old  buildings  were  re- 
constructed,  and  made  to  conform  to  the  new 
plan.  The  changes  went  steadily  on  till  all 
the  old  school-houses  were  adapted  to  the  graded 
system.  The  German  language  was  introduced 
into  five  of  the  public  schools  of  the  city,  in 
L864,  as  an  optional  study  tor  pupils  who  had 
advanced  in  English  as  far  as  the  "Second 
Reader  and  Primary  Geography."  A  serious 
difficulty  immediately  presented  itself— that  of 
finding  teachers  properly  qualified  to  give  such 
instruction.  Several  were  obtained,  however, 
from  the  German-American  schools  of  Cincin- 
nati: and  the  first  year,  450  German  children 
ived   instruction  in   their  native  language. 

■ 

The  following  year,  this  study  was  introduced 
into  two  more  schonls.  and  the  office  of  German 
Assistant  Superintendent  w as  created.    In  L866, 

the  organization  of  German  classes  was  author- 
ized in  any  school  containing  LOO  German-speak- 
ing  pupils  who  requested  it.  and  its  introduction 

in  the  Study  of  Object  lessons  only,  was  directed 
in  all  schools  of  the  lowest  grade.  This  action 
met  with  considerable   opposition  on  the  ground 

that  the  homogeneity  of  feelings  and  interests  be- 
tween German  residents  and  natives  required 

that  the  children  of  the  former  should  have  the 

whole  time  during  the  firsl  year  in  school  to  he- 
come  familiar  with  English.  It  was  pointed 
out.  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  absence  of  the 
study   of   German    was    having    the    effect    of 


ST.  LOUIS 


755 


keeping  German  children  out  of  the  schools. 
Whatever  the  cogency  of  these  opposite  views 
may  have  been,  the  study  of  German  spread 
rapidly  till,  in  1870,  the  number  of  pupils  re- 
ceiving instruction  in  it  was  more  than  6,000. 
About  this  time,  also,  the  study  of  German  and 
geography  was  made  optional  with  the  pupil  in 
the  highest  grade  of  the  district  school,  and 
American  pupils  were  permitted  to  com- 
mence the  study  of  German  in  any  grade.  This 
led  to  an  increase  in  the  number  of  Amer- 
ican pupils  studying  German,  the  number, 
in  1872,  being,  1,356.  The  German  language  is 
now  taught  in  every  school  in  the  city  except 
the  colored  schools.  Difficulties  have,  from  time  to 
time,  arisen  from  the  introduction  of  this  study, 
the  first  being  in  regard  to  the  comparative 
grades  of  German  and  English  classes  ;  but  this 
was  met  by  a  rule  of  the  board  which  required 
that  pupils  studying  German  should  belong,  in 
this  branch  of  instruction,  to  the  same  grade  as 
in  their  English  studies.  The  system  of  parallel 
grading  thus  adopted,  supplemented  by  improve- 
ments looking  steadily  towards  a  practical  rather 
than  a  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  language,  has 
produced  an  increased  interest  in  the  study, 
till,  in  1875,  this  department  contained  over 
17,000  pupils,  one-third  of  whom  were  Amer- 
icans, taught  by  73  teachers.  —  Another  im- 
provement, due  to  the  foresight  and  energy  of 
Mr.  Divoll,  is  the  Public  School  Library,  which 
was  founded  in  1865.  Beginning  at  that  time 
with  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  453  volumes, 
it  numbered  36,507  volumes,  in  1874,  with  an 
annual  membership  of  5,477.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  kindergarten  in  connection  with  the 
public  schools,  was  decided  upon  between  the 
years  1872  and  1873.  The  experiment  was 
made  at  the  Des  Peres  School,  and  proving  suc- 
cessful, was  soon  repeated  in  two  others.  Two 
difficulties  were  at  once  encountered  :  the  apathy 
towards  the  schools  of  the  poorer  classes,  for 
whose  benefit  they  were  established,  and  the 
comparative  costliness  of  this  kind  of  school.  The 
first  difficulty  was  soon  overcome ;  the  second 
remains,  as  it  always  will,  a  stumbling-block  to 
those  who  consider  the  mere  question  of  expense 
in  dollars  and  cents,  and  take  no  account  of  the 
kind  of  instruction  imparted,  as  compared  with 
that  furnished  at  a  cheaper  rate.  The  advantages 
derived  from  the  kindergarten,  as  stated  in  the 
published  reports,  are  a  readier  submission  to 
school  discipline,  an  increase  of  average  intel- 
ligence, and  a  special  aptitude  for  arithmetic, 
drawing,  natural  science,  and  language — the  last 
shown  in  a  quicker  comprehension  and  greater 
ability  to  express  ideas. — The  first  superintendent 
of  schools  was  John  W.  Tice  (1854 — 7);  the  next 
was  Ira  Divoll  (1857 — 68)  ;  his  successor  was 
William  T.  1  larris.  the  present  incumbent,  who 
was  appointed  in  1868. 

School  System. —  The  entire  control  and  man- 
agement of  the  public  schools  is  committed  to 
The  Board  of  President  and  Directors  of  the 
St.  Louis  Public  Schools.  This  board  consists 
of  26  members — two  from  each  ward — who  are 


elected  for  3  years,  one-third  going  out  of  office 
each  year.  A  superintendent  of  public  schools 
is  elected  annually  by  the  board,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  exercise  a  general  supervision  over  the  public 
schools  of  the  city,  visiting  and  examining  them 
for  this  purpose,  and  reporting  upon  their  con- 
dition quarterly,  or  whenever  required  by  the 
board.  He  appoints  two  assistant  superintend- 
ents, one  of  whom  must  be  able  to  speak  Ger- 
man. The  school  revenue  is  derived  from  a 
state  school  fund,  rent  of  lands  given  by  the 
general  government,  a  four  or  five  mill  tax  (the 
amount  varying  from  year  to  year)  on  each 
dollar  of  the  city  property,  and  fines  in  criminal 
cases.  The  two  sexes  are  educated  together. 
All  religious  or  sectarian  instruction  is  prohib- 
ited. The  length  of  the  school  year  is  40  weeks ; 
the  school  age  is  from  6  to  16  years.  The  school 
system  comprises  three  grades  of  schools — the 
district,  the  normal,  and  the  high  school,  the 
former  composed  of  a  primary,  an  intermediate, 
and  a  grammar  department,  all  in  the  same 
building.  Owing  to  the  overcrowding  of  the 
schools,  in  1866  and  subsequently,  a  system  of 
half-time  sessions  was  begun  in  the  first  year  of 
the  primary  school  in  some  districts,  and  is  still 
on  trial.  By  this  arrangement,  in  crowded  dis- 
tricts, a  slight  addition  to  the  teaching  force  is 
all  that  is  needed  to  supply  the  necessary  in- 
struction, one  set  of  pupils  coming  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  another  in  the  afternoon.  As  its  action 
is  to  diminish  the  school  hours  of  the  smallest 
children  only,  it  is  thought  to  be  beneficial.  The 
course  of  stud)/  in  the  district  school  comprises 
reading,  spelling,  writing,  drawing,  vocal  music, 
descriptive  and  physical  geography,  mental  and 
written  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  history 
and  constitution  of  the  United  States,  conq^osi- 
tion,  and  outlines  of  physics  and  natural  history. 
In  the  high  school,  the  course  of  study  is  a  gen- 
eral and  classical  one  of  4  years  ;  in  the  normal 
school  the  course  covers  a  period  of  2  years,  the 
branches  pursued  being  principally  advanced  stages 
of  the  district-school  studies,  with  the  addition  of 
Latin,  elocution,  human  anatomy  and  physiology, 
algebra,  general  history,  geometry,  mental  philos- 
ophy, English  literature,  practical  instruction  in 
the  teaching  of  all  of  these,  and  general  instruction 
in  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching.  In  the  even- 
ing schools,  and  the  O 'Fallon  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute, which  serves  as  a  high  school  for  them, 
the  course  of  study  inclines  toward  elementary 
English  branches  and  technological  instruction. 
The  session  of  the  evening  schools  is  4  months. 
The  rapid  growth  of  these  schools — the  increase 
being  from  1,149,  in  1861,  to  5,751,  in  1875 — is 
attributed  to  their  intimate  relation  to  the 
Public  School  Library,  a  years  membership  in 
which  is  granted  to  each  student  who  attends 
an  evening  school  punctually  60  evenings  of  the 
course,  and  maintains  a  satisfactory  standing 
therein.  The  certificate  of  such  membership  is 
equivalent  to  one-third  payment  of  the  cost  of 
life  membership.  Certificates  of  the  former  kind 
are  thus  obtained  annually  by  more  than  1,000 
students. 


756      SAINT  LOUIS  UNIVERSITY 

The  number  of  schools  in  the  city  is  as  fol- 
lows :  district  schools,  44  ;  high  schools  and 
branches,  0 ;  normal  school,  1;  evening  schools, 
24;  colored  schools,  6;  kindergartens,  12;  total, 
93.  The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for 
1875  are  as  follows  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 95,539 

"      "        "        enrolled 41,692 

Average  daily  attendance 24,438 

Number  of  teachers,  males GO 

females 594 

Total 654 

Receipts  (187.')) $849,513.24 

Expenditures  (1875) $81.">,4i:i.s:» 

Total  value  of  school  property $2,386,620.44 

There  are  about  70  denominational  schools  in 
St.  Louis  under  the  control  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic and  o1  her  churches,  and  a  number  of  private 
schools  ;iik1  academies.  In  addition  to  the  in- 
stitutions fur  special  and  higher  instruction  men- 
tioned under  the  head  of  Missouri  (q.  v.),  there 
is  the  Concordia  College  and  Theological  Semi- 
nary, founded  in  L839,  and  controlled  by  the 
German  Evangelical  Lutherans;  the  Academy 
of  Science,  established  in  lsf>0,  and  now  pos- 
sessed of  a  library  of  3,000  volumes  and  a  large 
museum;  the  Missouri  Historical  Society, found- 
ed in  1865;  and  three  public  libraries,  special 
and  general,  with  an  aggregate  of  nearly  80,000 
volumes. 

SAINT  LOUIS  UNIVERSITY,  in  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  con- 
ducted by  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  was 
founded  in  L829,  and  chartered  in  1832.  It  is 
supported  by  the  fees  of  students,  the  charge  for 
tuition',  board,  etc.,  being  $280  a  year,  and  for 
tuition  alone,  from  Si"  to $60.  It  has  a  classical 
course  of  6  years,  corresponding  to  the  prepara- 
tory am'  collegiate  departments  of  most  colleges. 
and  a  commercial  course  of  4  years,  embracing 
all  the  branches  of  a  good  English  education. 
There  is  also  a  preparatory  or  elementary  class. 
'i  lie  library  belonging  to  the  institution  numbers 
over  16,500  volumes.  The  seleci  libraries,  open 
to  the  students,  form  a  separate  collection 
over  8,000  volumes.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  22 
instructors  and  353  students.  The  presidents  of 
the  university  have  been  as  follows :  the  Rev.  P. 
J.  Verhaegen,  S.J  ,  L829  -36;  the  Rev.  J.  A. 
Elet,  S.J.,  1836 — in;  the  Rev.  J.  Vandevelde, 
S.  J.,1840-  13;  the  Rev.  G.  A.  Carrell,  S.  J., 

13— 7;  the  Rev.  J.B.I)ruvts.S..T.,1847— 54  ; 

be  Rev.  J.  S.  Verdin,  S.  .1  ,  9;  the  Rev. 

Ooosemans,  S.  J.,  1859—02;  the    Rev.  T. 

O'Neil,  S.  J.,  1802— 8;  the  Rev.  P.  II.  Stunt. - 

beck,  S.  J.,  1868— 71;  the  Rev.  J.  Zealand,  S.  J., 

j  871 — i;  the  Rev.  I,.  Bushart,  S.  J.,  since  l 

SAINT  MARY'S  COLLEGE,  a  Roman 
<  'atholie  inst  itut  [on  in  San  Francisco,  <  !aL,  con- 
ducted by  the  Christian  Brothers,  was  founded 
in  L863.  Ii  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  students, 
be  regular  charge  for  hoard,  tuition,  etc.,  per 
term  of  five  months  being $125.  It  bas  a  pre- 
paratory, a  commercial,  and  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, the  la  t  with  a  classical  and  a  scientific 
course.  The  library  contains  3,000  volumes.  The 


SAIXT  VINCENT'S  COLLEGE 

number  of  students,  iii  1876,  was  320.  Bro.  Justin 
is  I  1876)  the  president. 

ST.  MARY'S  COLLEGE,  at  St.  Marys, 
Marion  Co.,  Ky..  a  Roman  Catholic  institu- 
tion, conducted  by  ecclesiastics  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord,  was 
founded  in  1821.  It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of 
pupils.  The  regular  charge  for  hoard,  tuition. 
etc.,  is  $200  a  year ;  for  tuition  alone  $40.  It 
has  a  preparatory,  a  commercial,  and  a  collegiate 
course.  In  Ls7f> — 0.  there  were  8  instructors 
and  103  students.  The  Rev.  1>.  Fennessy,  C.  R.. 
is  (1870)  the  president. 

SAINT  MEINRAD'S  COLLEGE,  at 
St.  Meinrad,  Spencer  Co.,  Ind.,  founded  in  1854, 
is  connected  with  St.  Meinrad's  Abbey,  and  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Benedictine  lathers  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  is  supported 
by  the  i''rs  of  students,  amounting  to  $90  per 
session  of  live  months  for  hoard  and  tuition.  It 
is  the  seminary  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Diocese 
of  Vincennes,  in  which  the  priests  of  that  dio- 
cese are  educated,  and  offers  a  full  course  of  En- 
glish, commercial,  classical,  and  theological  stud- 
ies.     The    library  contains   6,000  volumes.     The 

number  of  students,  in  I876,was80.  The  ab- 
bot, or  superior.of  the  monastery  is  the  principal 
of  the  college;  he  appoints  #ne  of  the  Fathers 
to  act  as  president,  or  prefect  of  studies  and 
morals.  The  present  prefect  (1876)  is  the  Rev. 
'<.  Isidore  Bobi,  0.  S.  B.,  appointed  in  1871. 

SAINT  STEPHEN'S  COLLEGE,  at  An- 
andale,  1  hitchess  <  !o.,  N.Y.,  was  founded  in  1 860. 
It  is  an  academic  body  composed  of  religious  men 

—  trustees,  professors,  and  students  —  who  are 
communicants  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
( 'hurch.  The  religious  culture  of  the  students  is 
a  prominent  object.  Its  special  design  is  the 
i  lassical  education  of  candidates  for  the  ministry 
of  the  Church.  It  is  chiefly  supported  by  the 
contributions  of  friends.  '1  he  only  charge  to 
student-;    is   $225    per  year  for  hoard,  etc.     The 

college  bas  valuable  philosophical  apparatus,  and 
a  library  of  2,000  volumes.    In   18/5 — 6,  there 

were  8  inst  ruetors  and  71  students  (45  collegiate 

and  29  preparatory).  The  presidents  bave  been 
as  follows:  the  Rev.  Geo.  F.Seymour,  I'.  1'., 
1860— 61;  the  Rev. Thos.  Eichey,  D.D.,1861— 3; 
and  (1876)  the  Rev.  Robert  15.  Fairbairn,  1>. !».. 

LL.  D.,  since  1863. 

SAINT  VINCENT'S  COLLEGE,  at  Cape 
Girardeau,  Mo.,  a  Woman  Catholic  institution 
conducted  by  the  Priests  of  the  Congregation  of 

the  .Mission,  was  chartered  in  1843.  It  has  a 
theological  and  a  collegiate  department.  The 
curriculum  of  studies  in  the  collegiate  depart- 
meiit  covers  five  years,  and  embraces  a  complete 
course  of  English  and  classical  literature.  Ger- 
man, French,  Italian.  Spanish,  and  instrumental 
music  are  optional.  *  hristian  doctrine  is  taught 
throughout  the  course.  The  library  contains 
5,500  volumes.  The  regular  charge  for  tuition, 
board,  etc.,  is  S'J.">u  a  year;  for  tuition  alone.  $40. 
in  1875—6,  there  were  12  instructors,  and  125 
students  ill)  theological).  The  Rev.  J.  W.  Hickey, 
• '.  M.,  is  1 1 876)  the  president. 


SAINT  VINCENT'S  COLLEGE 


SAN   FRANCISCO 


(07 


SAINT  VINCENT'S  COLLEGE,  .it  Beat- 
ty,  Westmoreland  ( 'o.,  Pa.,  2  miles  from  Latrobe, 
is  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  founded  in  L846 
by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Boniface  Wimmer,  0.  S.  B.,  of 
St.  Vincent's  Abbey,  and  incorporated  in  L870. 
It  is  conducted  by  the  Benedictine  Fathers, 
under  the  immediate  supervision  of  its  founder. 
There  are  four  distinct  courses  of  study:  the 
theological,  the  philosophical,  the  classical,  and 
the  commercial,  besides  an  elementary  school  for 
beginners.  In  all  these,  special  attention  is  paid 
to  religious  instruction.  The  German,  French, 
Italian,  and  Spanish  languages  are  optional. 
Tlie  regular  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is 
$90  per  session  of  five  months.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  37  instructors  and  306  students  (ec- 
clesiastical course,  38;  philosophical,  30;  classical, 
152;  commercial,  64;  elementary,  22).  The  Rev. 
Hilary  Pfrrengle,  O.  S.  B.,  is  (1876)  the  director 
of  the  college. 

SAINT  XAVIER  COLLEGE,  in  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio,  was  established  in  1831,  by  the  Rt.  Rev. 
E.  D.  Fenwick,  D.  D.,  the  first  Roman  Cath- 
olic Bishop  of  Cincinnati,  under  the  name  of  The 
Athenaeum.  In  1840,  it  was  transferred  to  the 
Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  who  have  con- 
ducted it  ever  since  under  its  present  title.  It 
was  incorporated  in  1842.  The  college  library 
numbers  about  12,000  volumes.  There  are,  also, 
select  libraries  for  the  use  of  the  students.  The 
course  of  instruction  embraces  four  departments: 
the  collegiate,  academic,  commercial,  and  prepar- 
atory. The  regular  tuition  fee  is  $60  a  year. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  14  instructors  and  262 
students  (54  collegiate,  101  academic,  90  com- 
mercial, and  17  preparatory).  The  presidents, 
since  1840,  have  been  as  follows:  John  Elet, 
7  years;  Jno.  De  Blieck,  3;  Isidore  Boudreaux,  3; 
John  Blox,  1  ;  George  A.  Carrel,  2  ;  Maurice 
Oakley,  5  ;  Jno.  Schultz,  4  ;  Walter  II.  Hill,  3  ; 
Thos.  O'Neil,  2;  Leopold  Bushart,  3  ;  and  the 
Rev.  Edward  A.  Higgins,  S.  J.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent (1876),  since  1«74. 

SALADO  COLLEGE,  at  Salado,  Bell  Co., 
Tex'.,  was  founded  in  1859  by  a  joint  stock 
association.  It  is  not  denominational.  It  is 
supported  by  tuition  fees,  which  range  from  $10 
to  $25  per  session  of  five  months  for  the  regular 
branches.  It  admits  both  sexes,  and  has  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  department.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  5  instructors  and  204  students  (112 
males  and  92  females).  The  presidents  of  the 
college  have  been  as  follows:  James  L.  Smith,  to 
1874 ;  Samuel  D.  Sanders,  1874—6  ;  and  O.  H. 
^IcDmber,  A.  M.,  since  June  1876. 

SALZMANN,  Christian  Gotthilf,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  educators  of  Germany, 
'was  born  June  1.,  1744.  at  Sommerda,  and  died 
Oct.  31.,  1811.  Having  studied  theology,  he 
became  pastor,  in  1768,  of  a  Lutheran  church  at 
Rohrborn,  near  Erfurt;  and,  in  1772,  of  one  of 
the  churches  in  the  city  of  Erfurt.  The  writings 
of  Rousseau  and  Basedow  made  a  strong  impres- 
sion on  his  mind;  and,  in  1781,  he  resigned  his 
pastorate,  in  order  to  connect  himself  with  the 
Philanthropin   (q.  v.).     In  consequence  of  the 


dissensions  and  confusion  which  arose  in  the 
Philanthropin,  he  left  it  in  1  784,  and  established, 
at  a,  villa  purchased  by  him  at  Schnepfenthal, 
near  Gotha,  a  new  educational  institution,  for 
the  sons  of  persons  belonging  to  the  higher 
classes  of  society.  The  literary  reputation  which 
Salzmann  had  already  acquired  by  the  publica- 
tion of  several  pedagogical  works,  the  efficient 
co-operation  of  an  excellent  wife  and  of  several 
eminent  educators,  as  Gutsmuths  (q.  v.),  Lenz, 
Weissenborn,  and  the  three  brothers  Ausfeld, 
soon  made  this  institution  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous in  all  Germany,  and  attracted  pupils  from 
all  parts  of  Europe.  In  course  of  time,  his  son, 
Karl  Salzmann,  and  several  of  his  daughters  and 
sons-in-law  took  an  active  part  in  the  management 
of  the  institution,  which  thus,  to  a  degree  rarely 
equaled  in  the  history  of  education,  possessed 
the  character  of  an  enlarged  family  circle.  After 
Salzmann 's  death,  his  son  Karl  assumed  the 
direction  of  the  school;  and,  in  1848,  he  was 
succeeded  by  Wilhelm  Ausfeld,  a  grandson  of 
the  founder.  A  collection  of  the  educational  and 
juvenile  works  of  Salzmann,  which  are  highly 
esteemed,  has  been  published  at  Stuttgart,  in  12 
vols.  (1845 — 6).  Salzmann  was  by  far  the  most 
successful  among  the  Philanthropinists,  being 
especially  distinguished  for  common  sense,  mod- 
eration, and  perseverance.  The  school  established 
by  him,  is  the  only  one  among  the  original  Phil- 
anthropinic  institutions  which  has  survived  to 
the  present  day.  His  first  pupil  at  Schnepfen- 
thal was  Karl  Bitter, the  founder  of  comparative 
geography,  who  always  gratefully  remembered 
the  indelible  impressions  which  he  had  received 
from  Gutsmuths,  his  teacher  in  geography. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS.  See  Hawaiian 
Islands. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  the  metropolis  of  the 
state  of  California,  and  the  largest  city  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  having  a  population,  in  1870,  of 
149,473,  estimated,  in  1875,  at  234,000. 

Educational  History. — The  first  systematic 
instruction  given  in  San  Francisco  was  that  at 
the  mission  Dolores,  which  was  founded  by  the 
Franciscan  Brothers,  in  Oct.,  1776.  This  instruc- 
tion, however,  was  chiefly  religious,  and  was 
given  to  a  favored  few.  The  first  English  school 
in  the  city  was  opened  in  April,  1847,  in  a 
small  shanty  erected  on  the  Plaza.  It  was  a 
private  institution,  and  was  supported  by  tuition 
fees  and  voluntary  contributions.  Nearly  all 
the  children  in  the  city  (2(1  or  30  in  number) 
received  instruction  there.  This  school  was  con- 
tinued but  a  few  months,  however  ;  and,  in  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year,  the  citizens  organized 
a  public  school.  This  was  opened  in  a  small, 
one-story  building,  which  \vas  used  for  various 
purposes  till  1848,  when  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
the  state  caused  its  abandonment  as  a  school-house; 
and  in  1850,  it  was  demolished.  On  the  23d 
of  April,  1849,  Rev.  Albert  Williams  opened  a 
small  select  school  in  his  church,  which  he 
taught  for  a  few  months.  This  was  followed  by 
the  school  of  J.  O.  Pelton,  who  conducted  it  as 
a  private  enterprise  from  October,  1849,  to  April, 


158 


SAN   FRANCISCO 


1850,  -when  it  was  made  a  public  school  by  an 
act  of  the  common  council.  This  school  opened 
with  only  3  pupils,  but  the  number  increased 
rapidly  till  1850,  when  the  disastrous  fires  of  that 
and  the  following  year  broke  up  the  school.  The 
Happy  Valley  school,  situated  near  the  corner 
of  Second  and  .Minna  streets,  was  opened  in 
July,  1850.  This  soon  became  a  flourishing 
school  of  about  100  pupils,  but  the  great  fires  of 
1851  caused  its  suspension.  It  was  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  voluntary  contributions;  but, 
as  it  received  a  small  appropriation  from  the 
common  council,  the  children  of  the  poor  re- 
ceived free  instruction  there.  Another  school  of 
the  same  kind,  i.  e.,  partly  private  and  partly 
public,  was  established  in  Spring  Valley, in  1851. 
This  is  now  the  Spring  Valley  Primary  School. 
A  few  other  small  schools  were  taught  during 
1850  and  1851,  and  several  large  Catholic 
parochial  schools  were  also  established.  —  The 
first  extended  provision  for  a  system  of  free' 
schools  was  made  September  25.,  1851,  when 
the  common  council  passed  an  ordinance  author- 
izing the  organization,  support,  and  regulation 
of  common  schools.  Under  this  ordinance, 
Thomas  J.  Nevins  was  appointed  superintend- 
ent, and  James  Denman  the  first  teacher.  The 
first  board  of  education  was  elected  in  October 
following  ;  and,  at  the  end  of  the  school  year  in 
November,  is. VJ,  seven  schools  had  been  estab- 
lished, with  an  attendance  of  791  pupils.  At 
that  time,  the  number  of  children  in  the 
city  between  the  ages  of  1  and  1  s,  was  2,050; 
and  the  average  number  attending  the  schools 
was  115.  In  L853,  the  amount  expended  for 
tlu  support  of  the  schools  was  #35,040,  the  aver- 
age number  of  pupils  being  1,182.  The  first 
high  school  was  opened  August  1G.,  1856,  with 
80  pupils — 35  boys  and  45  girls.  The  usual  op- 
position to  this  school,  on  the  ground  that  the 
people's  money  should  be  spent  for  elementary 
instruction  only,  Avas  at  once  encountered,  but 
rapidly  passed  away  upon  an  exhibition  of  the 
substantial  benefits  conferred  by  the  school.  In 
June,  1864,  this  school  was  divided  into  a  boys' 
and  a  girls'  school,  in  separate  buildings.  During 
lh  ■  same  year,  the  city  was  divided  into  7  grani- 
mar-schoo]  districts;  and  the  classes  in  each  were 
placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  grammar 
master,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  greater  uni- 
formity and  efficiency  in  classification  and  in- 
struction. In  L867,  a  normal  training  class  for 
teachers  was  organized  ;  but,  for  want  of  ap- 
preciation by  the  board  of  education,  it  was  dis- 
continued. In  lsiis,  graded  evening  schools 
were  established.  In  1ST'-' — 3,  instruction  in 
French  and  German  was  introduced  into  oearlj 
all  the  public  schools,  the  study  of  one  or  the 
Other  language,  in  some  cases,  and  in  others,  of 
both,  being  compulsory  ;  but,  in  February,  L87  L, 
ih  ■  study  of  any  language  but  English  was  pro- 
hibited, except   in  the  Girls'  and  the  Boys'  High 

tool.      In.liiK   of  the   latter  year,  the  study  of 

French  and  German  was  again  introduced  into 

four   primary   and   four  grammar  schools.     A 


grammar 


<  hinese  bc! 1  was  organized  in  L859,  bm  was 


never  popular  with  the  class  it  was  intended  to 
benefit.  In  I860,  it  was  converted  into  an  even- 
inn  school,  and  as  such  was  continued  till  1871, 
when  it  was  suspended.  Two  colored  schools 
were  established — one  in  1854,  the  other  in  1871; 
but,  in  1875,  all  colored  schools  were  abolished, 
and  their  pupils  were  transferred  to  the  other 
schools  of  the  city.  Evening  schools,  on  the 
contrary,  have  steadily  grown  in  public  favor, 
till  tiny  are  now  regarded  as  "the  most  useful 
and  prosperous  schools  in  the  city."  The  city 
superintendents  have  been  as  follows:  T.  J. 
Nevins,  L852— 4;  W.  II.  O'Crady,  1854— C ; 
E.  A.Theller,  185G— 7;  J.  C.  Pelton,  1857—8; 
II.  B.  Janes,  1858— CO  ;  J.  Denman,  I860— 62; 
G.  Tait,  L862— 6;  J.  C.  Pelton,  1866—8;  J. 
Denman,  1868—70;  J.  H.  Widber,  1870—7:!; 
J.  Denman,  1873 — 5  ;  and  H.  N.  Bolander,  the 
present  incumbent,  who  was  elected  in  J  875. 

School  System.—  '1  he  city  constitutes  but  one 
school-district,  parents  being  permitted  to  send 
their  children  to  any  school  they  may  choose. 
The  management  of  the  schools  is  intrusted  to  a 
board  of  education  composed  of  12  members, 
elected,  at  large,  biennially,  by  direct  vote  of  the 
people.  This  board  has  all  the  powers  usual !y 
conferred  upon  such  bodies.  The  superintendent 
of  common  schools  is,  also,  elected  biennially  by 
the  people,  and  may  appoint  an  assistant.  The 
support  of  the  schools  is  derived  from  state  and 
city  taxes,  the  latter  being  fixed  bylaw  at  an 
amount  equal  to  $7  for  each  actual  attendant. 
The  school  age  is  from  5  to  17  years.  There  are 
33  primary,  L3  grammar,  and  2  high  schools,  and 
one  evening  school.  The  system  contemplates  a 
course  of  1  years  in  the  primary  schools,  -1  in  the 
grammar,  and  3  in  the  high  schools,  pupils  con- 
tinuing one  year  in  each  grade.  The  course  of 
study  in  the  high  schools  is  such  as  to  prepare 
students  for  the  state  university.  In  the  gram- 
mar and  the  primary  schools,  it  docs  not  differ 
materially  from  that  of  other  large  cities  ;  and  in- 
cludes industrial  drawing,  vocal  music,  French, 
and  German.  To  the  two  latter,  where  taught, 
1$  hours  a  day  for  each  class  are  given,  30  spe- 
cial teachers  being  employed  for  the  purpose. 

The  principal  items  of  school  statistics,  for 
1875,  are  as  follows  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 37,583 

"       "       "      enrolled  is  public  schools.  .31,128 

A\ erage  daily  attendance 21,014 

Number  of  teachers,    males 63 

females 1 17 

Total :...       510 

Receipts $757,849.75 

Expenditures $707,4  i 

The  number  of   private   schools  and  colleges,  in 

1875,  was  about  LOO,  aboul  one-fifth  of  which 
are  managed  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  a 
considerable  part   of  the  remainder,  by  other 

denominations.  In  si/.e  and  character,  they  range 
from  the  small  family  school  of  a  few  pupils,  tO 

the  flourishing  college  which  numbers  its  students 
by  hundreds.  The  number  of  pupils  attend- 
ing such  institutions,  in  L875,  was  reported  at  a 
little    over    6000.      Among    the     agencies    for 


SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE 


SCHMIDT 


759 


higher  education,  the  city  contains  an  academy 
of  sciences.  For  an  enumeration  of  the  institu- 
tions for  superior  and  special  instruction,  sec 
California. 

SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE,  at 
Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  was  incorporated  in  1869. 
It  is  not  denominational.  Both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted. It  contains  six  departments  :  (1)  math- 
ematics, (2)  languages,  (3)  literature  and  history, 
(4)  natural  science  and  physics,  (5)  art,  (6)  mu- 
sic. There  are  three  courses  of  study:  juvenile. 
preparatory,  and  academic  ;  a  collegiate  course 
is  also  to  be  established.  The  regular  charge  for 
tuition,  board,  etc.  ranges  from  $150  to  $17") 
per  term  of  five  months  ;  for  tuition  alone,  from 
$5  to  $10  a  month.  In  1874—5,  there  were 
8  instructors  and  120  students.  Ellwood  Cooper 
is  (1876)  the  principal. 

SANTA  CLARA  COLLEGE,  at  Santa 
Clara.  <  !al.,  a  Roman  ( atholic  institution  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  .Jesus,  was  founded  in  1851,  and  chartered 
in  1 855.  It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  students, 
the  regular  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  being 
$350  a  year  ;  for  tuition  alone,  from  84  to  $5  a 
month.  The  library  contains  over  10.000  vol- 
umes. The  plan  of  instruction  embraces  two 
distinct  courses,  the  classical  and  the  scientific. 
There  is,  besides,  a  preparatory  department.  In 
l87.*> — 6,  there  were  26  instructors  and  257 
students.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows : 
Rev.  John  Xobili,  1851 — 6  ;  Rev.  Nicholas 
Congiato.  1 856 — 8  ;  Rev.  Felix  Cicaterri,  1858 — 
61  ;  Rev.  Burchard  Yilliger,  1861 — 5;  Rev.  Aloy- 
sius Masnata,  1865 — 8  ;  Rev.  Aloysius  Tarsi, 
1868 — 76;  Rev.  Aloysius  Brunengo,  since  1876. 

SANTO  DOMINGO  (sometimes  called  San 
Domingo,  or  the  Dam/in  lean  Rep  ublic) ,  a  republic 
in  the  West  Indies,  occupying  the  eastern  and 
larger  portion  of  the  island  of  Hayti  (q. v.).  It 
has  an  area  of  20,600  sq.  m.;  and  a  population  of 
about  1  75,000.  The  greater  part  of  the  popula- 
tion are  a  mixed  race  of  Spaniards,  Indians,  and 
negroes.  They  speak  the  Spanish  language,  and 
belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. — Public 
instruction  can  scarcely  be  said  to  exist.  Spain,  to 
which  Santo  Domingo  formerly  belonged,  never 
cared  for  the  education  of  the  natives;  and  nearly 
all  the  priests,  physicians,  officers,  and  teachers 
came  from  the  mother  country.  At  present, 
there  is  freedom  of  instruction  ;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  private  schools  in  the  cities, 
which  charge  exorbitant  fees,  there  are  no  ele- 
mentary schools,  and,  consequently,  the  wealthy 
classes  still  continue  to  send  their  children  to 
Europe  to  be  educated.  In  1860.  there  was  but 
one  public  primary  school  in  the  entire  northern 
and  eastern  part  of  the  republic  ;  and  but  little, 
if  any,  improvement  has  been  made  since  that 
time.  Special  branches  of  study,  like  law,  medi- 
cine, pharmacy,  and  architecture,  are  taught  ex- 
Iclusively  by  private  teachers. 
SARMIENTO,  Domingo  Faustino,  a 
South-American  statesman,  born  February  15., 
1811 .  in  San  .Tuan  de  la  Frontera,  now  a  western 



came  director  of  a  school  in  the  province  of  San 
Luis  as  early  as    L826,  but  removed    to  ('liili  in 

1831.     In    L836,  he  left  Chili,  and  opened   a, 

female  school  in  San  Juan,  but  returned  to 
Chili  a  few  years  after,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  cause  of  education,  by  establishing 
schools  and  colleges,  publishing  school  books, 
and  editing  educational  journals.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  normal  school  at  Santiago  was  one 
of  the  results  of  his  labors  at  this  time.  In  1845, 
at  the  request  of  the  Chilian  government,  he 
visited  Europe  and  the  United  States  for  the 
purpose  of  observing  the  primary-school  systems 
of  those  countries.  Subsequently,  he  again  took 
up  his  residence  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  and 
was  made,  successively,  minister  of  the  interior, 
colonel  in  the  Argentine  army,  governor  of  San 
Juan,  and  minister  of  public  instruction  of  the 
republic.  From  1864  to  1868,  he  was  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States  from  that 
country;  and,  in  October  of  the  latter  year,  was 
inaugurated  president  of  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, which  office  he  continued  to  hold  six  years, 
in  this  position,  his  efforts,  always  directed  to- 
wards the  development  of  the  resources  of  his 
country,  and  the  improvement  of  her  people, 
were  remarkably  successful.  The  introduction 
and  extension  of  railroad  and  telegraph  facilities, 
the  encouragement  of  immigration  and  foreign 
commerce,  and  the  establishment  of  schools  and 
colleges,  were  the  principal  events  of  his  adminis- 
tration. The  foundation  of  the  national  observ- 
atory at  Cordoba,  under  the  supervision  of 
Prof.  B.  A.  Gould,  an  institution  which  has 
already  rendered  important  service,  is  chiefly 
due  to  President  Sarmiento.  His  principal  edu- 
cational works  are  the  following  :  De  la  Educa- 
tion popular,  and  Las  escuelas,  the  latter  pub- 
lished in  New  York. 

SAXONY.     See  Germany. 

SCHMIDT,  Karl,  a  German  educator,  was 
born  July  7.,  1819,  and  died  Nov.  8.,  1864.  After 
studying  theology  and  philosophy  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Halle  and  Berlin,  he  was  appointed,  in 
1846,  teacher  at  the  gymnasium  of  Kothen.  In 
1863,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  teachers' 
seminary  and  school  councilor  at  Gotha,  and  hi 
the  latter  position  was  called  upon  to  re-organize 
the  school  system  of  the  duchy.  Fie  wrote  a  large 
number  of  educational  works,  some  of  which  are 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  best  part  of  German 
literature.  The  most  important  of  his  works  is 
a  general  history  of  pedagogics  (Geschiclite  der 
Padagogih,  1862,  4  vols.;  3d  ed.,  revised  by 
Wichard  Lange,  1872 — 5,  4  vols.).  Among  his 
other  works  are  :  Geschiclite  der  Erziehung  und 
des  Unterrichts  (1860);  Das  Buck  der  Erziehung 
(1854)  ;  Gymnasialpadagogik  (1857) ;  Zur  Re- 
form der  Lehrersemtnare  und  der  Volkssehule 
(1863);  Zur  Erziehung  und  Religion  (1865)  j 
Anthropologic  (1865).  Schmidt  regarded  the 
whole  of  anthropology,  not  psychology  alone,  as 
the  only  safe  and  adequate  foundation  of  peda- 
gogy. He  accepted  the  theories  of  Call  (q.  v.) 
and  his  successors,  and  himself  made  notable  con- 
tributions to  the  development  of  phrenology. 


760 


SCHOLASTICISM 


SCHOOL   BOARD 


SCHOLASTICISM,  a  name  generally  ap- 
plied to  the  Christian  philosophy  of  the  middle 
ages,  though  there  is  no  agreement  among  schol- 
ars as  to  its  exact  definition.  In  its  first  period, 
which  extends  from  the  !*th  tfl  the  1  lth  century, 
philosophical  speculations  were  limited  to  theo- 
logical problems.  Among  the  greatest  represent- 
atives of  scholasticism  are  Scotus  Erigeua,  <!er- 
bert  (Pope  Sylvester  II.),  and  Anselm  of  Can- 
terbury. About  the  middle  of  the  12th  century, 
the  controversy  between  the  Realists  and  Nomi- 
nalists led  to  the  full  development  of  scholasti- 
cism, which  denied  to  philosophy  any  right  to 
extend  its  speculations  beyond  the  tenets  of  the 
Church,  but  assigned  to  it  the  task  of  systema- 
tizing the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  of  defend- 
ing them  (philosophia  theologies  ancilla).  Thus, 
the  scholastics  were  led  to  cultivate  chiefly  logic 
and  dialectics.  Among  the  greatest  scholastics, 
during  the  classic  period  of  the  system,  were 
Alexander  de  Hales,  Albertns  Magnus,  Thomas 
Aquinas,  and  Dims  Scotus.  In  the  15th  century, 
scholasticism  began  to  decline:  and.  though  sub- 
sequently the  Jesuits  tried  to  revive  it,  and 
have  partly  retained  its  method  of  teaching  to 
l  lie  present  day, it  has  never  been  able  to  recover 
anywhere  its  mediaeval  supremacy.  Its  impor- 
tance in  the  history  of  education  depends  chiefly 
on  the  influence  which  it  exerted,  during  the 
middle  ages,  upon  all  schools,  but  more  especially 
upon  the  cathedral  ami  eon  vent  schools.  Among 
the  best  works  on  the  history  of  scholasticism, 
are  HaurKjau,  De  In  philosophie  scolastique 
1 1!  vols.,  L850) ;  Eaulich,  Geschichte  der  scho- 
htsiiiiclir.il  Philosophic,  (1853);  Stceck,  Geschickie 
'lerPhilosophiei/'s  Mitt-h  titers  (.'5  vols..  1  86  I — 6); 
I  \t, i. am.  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe. 

SCHOOL  (Lat.  schola,  from  Gr.  oxoM,  lei- 
sure, especially  for  literary  studies,  and  hence 
applied  to  the  place  where  such  studies  were  pur- 
sued,— a  school),  a  term  now  applied  to  an  educa- 
tional establishment,  particularly  of  the  primary 
or  secondary  grade;  as  a  primary  school,  a  gram- 
mar school,  a  high  school,  a  classical  school,  etc. 
Schools  of  the  secondary  grade  are.  however,  of- 
ten designated  academies,  seminaries,  etc.  The 
term  school  is  not  applied  to  an  institution  of 
learning  of  the  superior  grade,  but  institutions  for 
scientific  or  professional  instruction  are  usually 
called  schools;  as  theological  schools,  medical 
schools,  law  schools,  polytechnic  schools,  art 
schools,  etc.  For  information  in  regard  to  each 
kind  of  schools,  see  under  the  respective  titles. 

SCHOOL  AGE,  or  Scholastic  Age.  the 
age  fixed  by  law.  during  which  pupils  may  at- 
tend the  public  schools.  This  varies  consider- 
ably in  different  countries,  both  as  to  its  com- 
mencement and  termination.  Thus,  in  Prussia, 
i he  school  age  is  from  5  to  l  I  years;  in  France, 

from  T  to  L3;  in  Switzerland,  from  6  to  1 .'!  ;   and 

in  England,  from  .':  to  L8.     In  the  latter  coun- 
try, the  rule  is  as  follows:  "Attendances  may 

not  be  reckoned  for  any  scholar  aliove  L8,  OT  in 

a  day  school,  under  3,  or.  in  an  evening  school. 

Under  12  yean  of  age.''     The   legislation  on  this 


subject  in  the  different  states  of  the  American 
Union,  also  presents  considerable  diversity,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  table  : 


State 

School 
age 

State 

School 
age 

Alabama 

7-21 
6-21 
5—17 
5—21 
4— lfi 
5—21 
6—21 
6— is 
6—21 
6—21 
5-21 
5—21 
6—20 
6—21 
4—21 
5—20 
5—15 
5—20 
5—21 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

5—21 

5    21 

Arkansas 

Nebraska 

5—21 
6—18 
5—15 
5—18 
6     21 

Colorado 

N'evada 

New  Hampshire. . . 

New  York 

North  Carolina.  . . . 
Ohio 

Connecticut 

Florida 

Georgia 

6     ''1 

Illinois 

Indiana 

6     21 

Oregon. . 

4 20 

Iowa 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina  . .  . 
Tennessee 

6     21 

Kansas 

4     16 

Kentucky  

Louisiana 

6—16 
6     18 

Maine 

.Massachusetts. . . . 
.Micliigan 

6—18 
5    20 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

5—21 
6—21 
4—20 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  school  age  begins 
at  4  years  in  five  states :  at  5  years,  in  seventeen 
states ;  at  (J  years,  in  fifteen  states  ;  and  at  7 
years,  in  only  one  state ;  also,  that  the  school 
age  ends  at  21  in  twenty-two  states ;  at  20  in 
six  states:  at  1  s,  in  five  states:  at  IT.  in  one 
state:  at  Hi.  in  three  states:  and  at  15,  in  two 
states- -Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire. 

The  statistics  showing  the  age  of  the  children 
who  actually  attend  school,  is  very  meager,  but 
tew  of  the  state  school  reports  giving  any  infor- 
mation on  the  subject.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  vast  majority  of  children  leave  school 
before  the  age  of  1  5  years.  The  average  age  of 
pupils  in  the  evening  schools  must,  however,  be 
much  higher.  In  the  rural  districts,  the  average 
ageof  pupils  in  the  public  schools  must  be  higher 
than  in  the  large  cities,  especially  in  the  winter 
term.  After  a  comparison  of  all  available  sta- 
tistics, Francis  Adams,  in  Free  School  System 
of  the  United  States,  remarks,  "There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  that,  as  a  general  rule,  children 
remain  at  school  much  later  in  America  [United 
States]  than  in  England."  It  is  also  stated  by 
the  same  writer  that.  "  in  England  and  Wales. 
the  percentage  of  children  over  1  1.  in  schools  re- 
ceiving grants,  in  L874,  was  0.99."  The  age 
fixed  by  most  compulsory  attendance  laws,  is 
from  8  to  11  years. 

SCHOOL  '  BOARD,  the  name  generally 
given  to  the  body  of  school  commissioners,  di- 
rectors, trustees,  etc.  constituted  by  law  to  have 
the  care  and  regulation  of'  schools  in  states,  cities, 
towns,    district.-,   etc.      Such    a    board    is    often 

called  the  Board  of  Education,  or  Board  of 
Public  Instruction.  In  most  of  the  New  Eng- 
land states,  the  school  board  is  called  the  School 

Committee.  Formerly,  in  New  England,  the 
usual  term  was   Prudential  Committee,  which 

title  is  still  retained  in  some  places.  State  boards 
of  education  usually  have  a  paramount  authority 
in  all  educational  matters  in  the  state.  In  Eng- 
land, School  Board  is  the  name  given  by  the 
"  Elementary  Education  Act"  of  1870,  to  the 


SCHOOL    liROTIIKRS 


SCHOOL  (KNSI'S 


761 


constituted  school  authority  in  each  district,  sub- 
ject to  the  Education  I  lepartinent  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

SCHOOL  BROTHERS.  See  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church. 

SCHOOL  CENSUS,  in  its  wider  sense,  is 
an  official  census  relating  to  school  affairs,  and 
embraces  tlie  number  of  schools,  teachers  and 
pupils,  children  of  school  age,  school  libraries, 
etc.  The  great  progress  of  statistical  science, 
in  late  years,  has  led,  in  different  countries,  to 
much  more  minute  inquiries  into  school  affairs. 
and  is  preparing  the  way  for  a  much  fuller  and 
more  comprehensive  school  census  than  has  been 
accessible  in  the  past.  Heretofore,  a  school  census 
has  commonly  been  understood  in  a  narrower 
sense  to  denote  an  enumeration  of  all  the  chil- 
dren of  school  age  residing  in  any  country,  state, 
city,  etc.  This  enumeration  has  always  formed  a 
part  of  the  general  decennial  census  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  state  enumerations.  In  some 
states,  an  enumeration  of  the  children  of  school 
age  is  taken  annually,  as  the  appropriation  of 
state  aid  for  public  schools  is  based  upon  it.  Such 
a  census  is  of  great  importance,  as  showing  the 
number  of  children  to  be  educated,  in  comparison 
with  the  sehool  attendance.  The  following  table 
shows  the  number  of  white  and  colored  children 
between  the  ages  of  5  and  19  in  each  of  the  states 
of  the  Union,  according  to  the  census  of  1870  : 

School  Census  of  the  United.  States. 


School  Census  of  the  United  States. 

<   <  >I  A  >E  ED  >.) 


' 


(WHITES.) 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California .... 
Connecticut . . 
Delaware  .... 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  

Louisiana  .... 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota. . . . 
Mississippi.. . . 

Missouri 

Nebraska  .... 

Nevada 

N.  Hampshire 
New  Jersey  . . 
New  York". .  . 
North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania . 
Rhode  Island. 
South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia. 
Wisconsin .... 

Total 


5  to  9      10  to  14      15  to  17      18  to  19 


60,16b 
44,915 
60,189 
52,130 
12,7.50 
12,005 
79,078 

336.43S 

220,340 

I04,72!i 
44,042 

152,087 
45,010 
65,185 
74,714 

138,700 

143,849 
03,021 
47,190 

222,593 

15,143 

2,510 

28,171 

102,500 

478,073 
n.'v,:;i 

Mi's,  m  2 
12,348 

425,529 
19,920 
34,715 

123,409 
74,482 
34,309 
83,701 
58,591 

145,522 


4,105,742 


70,301 
52,514 
49,523 
54,133 
12,954 
13,493 
91,489 

318,948 

220,420 

154,436 
39,404 

147,302 
48,276 
69,874 
73,904 

147,149 

138,428 
55,018 
53,040 

210,179 

13,049 

1,850 

31,808 

100,344 

478,639 
92,349 

326,740 
11,352 

415,580 
22,114 
39,223 

128,075 
81,552 
34,854 
93,060 
57,432 

139,010 


4,095,388 


39,25b 
28,430 
21,074 
30,350 
6,083 
6,718 
47,192 

155,422 

112,041 
73,919 
18,880 
75,779 
24,932 
39,972 
39,010 
82,810 
70,800 
24,236 
28,439 

102,470 

0,110 

817 

18,640 

51,310 

201,050 
47,757 

170,870 
5,358 

217.070 
12,581 
20,226 
00,29s 
40,009 
20,385 
48,826 
28,999 
67,948 


2,114,025 


25,149 
17,203 
12,902 
19,963 

4,203 

4,401 
29,800 
102,530 
72,179 
48,092 
12,817 
40,306 
15,003 
20,536 
25,435 
57,826 
46,636 
15,158 
lb.osf, 
64,780 

4,216 

704 

12,839 

33,960 

107,502 

30,084 

110,012 

2,947 
143.501 

8,727 
13,247 
41,151 
24,538 
13,202 
30,207 
17,758 
42,214 


1,303,289 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut . . . 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts  . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Nevada  

New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey. . . . 
New  York. . . . 
North  Carolina. 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  . . 
Rhode  Island. ., 
South  Carolina. 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia.  . 
Wisconsin 


07,547 

63,388 

30,221 

15,645 

15,702 

8,193 

383 

385 

ISO 

Too 

945 

575 

2,900 

2,918 

1,536 

13,442 

12,010 

"5,538 

79,091 

74,493 

35,502 

3,044 

3,187 

1,722 

3,017 

3,000 

1,049 

625 

014 

353 

2,137 

2,237 

1,120 

31,180 

31,975 

15,565 

44,K70 

42,329 

20,493 

115 

160 

129 

22,274 

22,574 

11,371 

1,075 

1,201 

782 

1,579 

1,485 

70S 

02 

00 

39 

62,152 

59,099 

28,308 

10,700 

17,133 

8,328 

65 

81 

47 

18 

15 

5 

34 

57 

46 

3,217 

3,458 

1,952 

4,556 

4,984 

2,972 

54,775 

54,4S!i 

26,581 

7,548 

7,038 

4,222 

33 

34 

12 

6,271 

6,960 

4,020 

364 

433 

309 

57,792 

55,324 

26,508 

43,637 

45, Oss 

22,462 

38,345 

34,239 

10,054 

07 

92 

02 

07,908 

69,352 

33,894 

2,277 

2,389 

1,155 

211 

2  (is 
640,408 

142 

655,854 

152,318 

19,490 

5,205 

112 

474 

1,031 

3,945 

22,700 

1,294 

1,120 

305 

090 

9,738 

13,769 

106 

7,432 

079 

530 

57 

18,203 

5,448 

47 

9 

50 

1,378 

2,300 

17,087 

3,053 

12 

3,092 

217 

17,229 

13,756 

9,830 

74 

20,728 

826 

112 


Total 655,854     640,408     152,318     202,72s 

The  school  age,  in  some  of  the  states,  extends 
to  21  years ;  but,  practically,  the  above  table 
includes  all  the  children  who  attend  school. 

In  the  countries  of  Europe,  the  school  age  (q. 
v.)  generally  extends  only  to  the  14th,  13th,  or 
12th  year  of  age.  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  number  of  schools  and  pupils,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  the  latter  to  the  entire  population,  in 
the  several  countries  of  Europe  : 


Countries 

Year 

Number 

of 

public 

schools 

Number 

of 
pupils 

Number 
of   pupils 
to  every 

1,000 
inhabit. 

Switzerland  (Prima 

German  Empire  (es- 
timated,   without 
Alsace    and    Lor- 

1871-2 

1872 
1874 
1873 
1875 
1873 
1867 
1872 
1872 
1870-72 

1871-4 
1873 

1873-4 
1874 
1873 
1870 
1873 
1874 
1873 

5,088 

56,000 
644 
6,502 
8,123 
2,790 
3.064 

70.179 
5,078 

31,069 

22,578 

27,760 

42,920 

1,227 

1,382 

3,500 

2,221 

517 

23,183 

412,789 

6,000.000 

28,437 

243.969 

606,876 

;,(in.  o.v.i 

220.079 
4,7'2().IIU(I 

618,937 
3,285,485 

2,848,295 

1,381,972 

1,827,381 

81,449 

76,477 

140,000 

82,145 

23.278 

1,009,037 

155 
153 

Luxemburg 

142 
138 

138 

136 
135 

131 

123 

Austria-Hungary 
Great    Britain    and 

91 

88 

82 

Italy 

70 

50 

42 

32, 

17 

17 

14 

T62 


SCHOOL-DISTRICT 


SCHOOL  FESTIVALS 


SCHOOL-DISTRICT,  a  district  formed  by 
the  division  of  a  town,  or  township,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  establishing,  managing,  and  supervising 

schools.  It  is  usually  the  smallest  territorial  sub- 
division of  a  state  The  oldest  law,  in  the  United 

States,  establishing  school-districts  and  the  dis- 
trict system,waa  that  passed  in  Massachusetts, in 

1789.  In  most"  of  the  states, at  the  present  time, 
the  district  system  has  been  wholly  or  partly 
superseded  by  the  township  system,  which  has 
been  found  to  have  many  advantages  over  it.  In 
Massachusetts,  the  district  system  was,  in  the 
main,  abolished  in  1809  ;  and  the  change  is 
strongly  commended.  The  system  still  exists  to 
some  extent  in  the  western  part  of  the  state, elic- 
iti i li*:  the  following  comment  from  one  of  the 
.state  agents,  in  his  report  of  December,  1875  : 
'•With  little  or  nothing  of  consideration  in  its 
favor,  with  a  troop  of  evils  attendant  upon  it, 
with  many  peculiarly  incident  to  its  existence, 
it  would  seem  that  it  should  be  abolished  at 
once,  and  forever,  by  legislative  enactment."'  In 
some  of  the  other  New  England  states,  permis- 
sory  laws  have  been  passed, allowing  the  inhabit- 
ants to  accept  the  township  system  instead  of  the 
district  system. —  Each  school-district  has  a 
trustee,  or  a  board  of  trustees,  or,  as  styled  in  New 
England,  a  school  committee,  elected  by  the  in- 
habitants, and  authorized  to  have  the  safe-keep- 
ing of  the  school-house  and  other  school  property, 
to  hire  and  pay  the  teacher,  or  teachers,  and  to 
make  all  necessary  regulations  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  school.  The  mode  of  forming  school- 
districts,  and  of  changing  their  boundaries,  varies 
in  the  different  states. — The  objections  to  the 
district  system  seem  to  lie  based  upon  the  small- 
ness  of  its  area  and  its  consequent  inadequate 
resources  to  support  suitable  schools.  "Little 
money,  poor  school-houses,  short  schools,''  said  the 
state  superintendent  of  Maine,  in  1872,  "an1  the 
necessary  attendants  of  this  system."  This  cir- 
cumstance has  led,  in  New  York,  to  the  establish- 
ment of  Union  free-school  districts,  formed  by 
uniting  two  adjoining  districts  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  and  supporting  a  better  school 
than  the  resources  of  either  by  itself  would  per- 
mit. In  the  English  Education  Act.  the  parish 
is  constituted  the  school-district,  in  relation  to 
which  I''.  Adams  remarks,  in  The  Free  School 
System  of  the  United  States,  "it  has  been  sug- 
gested that  in  selecting  the  parish  as  the  school- 
district,  we  have  selected  too  small  a  division. 
We  have,  however,  happily  steered  clear  of  the 
system  which,  in  the  United  States,  has  been 
very  prejudicial  to  harmonious  and  efficient 
action." — For  information  in  regard  to  school- 
districts  in  the  several  states,  see  under  the  re- 
spective titles. 

SCHOOL  ECONOMY,  a  general  term  ap- 
plied t<>  the  collective  body  of  principles  and 
rules  by  which  the  keeping  of  schools  is  regU- 
lated.      In  its  widest   sense,  it    embraces   all   that 

pertains  to  the  construction  and  furnishing  of 
(he  school-house,  the  proper  apparatus  to  be  em- 
ployed in  carrying  on  the  processes  of  instruc- 
tion, the  various   modes  of   school   organization 


and  administration,  including  a  consideration  of 
the  length  and  arrangement  of  school  sessions 
and  terms,  the  proper  records  to  be  kept,  the 
course  of  study,  programme  of  daily  exercises, 
ami  the  modes  of  discipline,  management, and 
instruction.  The  treatment  of  all  these  various 
matters  will  be  found  in  this  work  under  the  re- 
spective titles. 

SCHOOL  FESTIVALS,  like  the  vacation 
and  holidays,  are  an  interruption  of  the  regular 
school  work  :  but  while  the  latter  only  aim  at  a 
cessation  from  work  in  order  to  give  to  teachers 
and  pupils  time  for  rest  and  recreation,  school 
festivals  are  intended  to  substitute  enjoyment 
for  mental  labor.  Ancient  Home  had  at  the  be- 
ginning of  March,  a  school  festival,  called  the 
quinquatria,  at  which  the  teachers  collected 
presents.  In  order  to  give  to  this  festival  a 
Christian  character.  Fope  Gregory  IV.  (827 — 
•Mi  appointed  the  12th  of  March  (the  day  on 
which  the  Church  commemorated  the  death  of 
I 'ope  Gregory  I.)  as  a  special  festival  for  the 
schools  of  Rome.  The  Gregorian  festival  spread 
throughout  Italy.  France,  and  Germany,  and  to 
other  countries  :  and,  in  some  places,  has  main- 
tained itself  to  the  present  day. —  Next  to  the 
day  of  St.  Gregory,  the  festivals  of  the  Apostle 
Andrew,  of  the  Innocent  Children, of  St.  Nicho- 
las, and  others,  came  early  into  general  use. 
Among  these,  the  riri/ahun-f/ehat  may  be  men- 
tioned. (See  Germany.)  Processions  and  masquer- 
ades were  a  common  feature  of  all  these  fes- 
tivals*— In  Germany, as  well  as  in  the  Scandina- 
vian countries,  there  were  also  May  festivals, 
to  celebrate  the  departure  of  winter  and  the 
advent  of  spring.  The  pupils  of  the  schools,  in 
solemn  procession,  marched  around  the  field, 
and,  in  the  evening,  were  treated  to  a  common 
banquet.  This  festival  is  still  in  common  use  in 
Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg.  The  most  celebrated 
among  the  school  festivals  in  Germany,  are  the 
Kirschenfest,  at  Naumburg,  and  the  Ruihenfest, 
at  Ravensburg.  The  celebration  of  these  usually 
draws  a  large  concourse  of  people.  Where  the 
public  schools  have  a  denominational  character, 
great  church  holidays  arc  frequently  the  occa- 
sion for  special  school  festivals.  Thus,  in  many 
Protestant  schools  of  Europe,  it  is  common 
to  celebrate  annually  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformation.  Monarchical  governments  have 
made  the  celebration  of  the  birthday  of  the 
sovereign  obligatory  in  all  the  schools  of  the 
country,  in  order  to  implant  sentiments  of  loyal- 
ty and  Bubmissiveness  in  the  minds  of  the  rising 
generation.   Some  of  the  German  educators  who 

are   favorable   to  school    festivals,  have1,  by  way 

of  experiment,  organized  them  on  the  grandest 

scale.  Thus  Froebel  spent,  in  1850,  several 
months  in  preparing  a  school  children's  and 
people's  festival,  which  was  held  in  a  castle  of 
the  duke  of  Saxe-Meiningen.  It  is  quite  com- 
mon  for  the  elementary  schools  in  Germany  to 

spend  at  least  one  day  of  the  year  in  an  excur- 
sion, d urine,-  which  the  children  amuse  themselves 

with    the    national   games.      To  close    the  school 

year  with  appropriate  festivals,  is  quite  common 


SCHOOL  FUND 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE 


7G3 


in  civilized  countries.  The  best  known  among 
the  school  festivals  of  the  United  States  are  those 
connected  with  the  college  commencement.  (See 
Commencement.)  Among  schools  of  all  grades, 
school  exhibitions  and  receptions  have  become 
very  popular,  and  rarely  fail  to  be  numerously  at- 
tended by  the  relatives  and  friends  of  the  pupils. 
School  picnics  are  more  frequently  held  during  the 
summer  vacation  than  in  the  midst  of  the  school 
year;  but.  without  regard  to  the  season,  are  sure 
to  delight  the  scholars. — Educators  are  generally 
agreed  that  school  festivals,  if  well  arranged  and 
superintended,  exert  a  beneficial  influence. 

SCHOOL  FUND,  property  or  money  set 
apart  by  legislative  enactment  for  the  support  of 
schools.  In  the  United  States,  the  school  fund 
in  each  state  has  been  chiefly  derived  from  na- 
tional and  state  appropriations,  particularly  of 
lands.  Of  the  latter,  the  16th  section  grant  is 
an  example.  The  U.  S.  Deposit  Fund,  some- 
times called  the  Surplus  Revenue  Fund,  was 
also  a  national  grant.  (See  United  States.) 
The  mode  of  apportionment  varies  in  the  dif- 
ferent states ;  it  is,  however,  wholly  or  partly 
based  upon  the  number  of  pupils,  in  each  town 
or  district,  of  the  legal  school  age.  For  an  ac- 
count of  the  amount  of  the  school  fund  in  each 
state,  see  under  the  respective  titles. 

SCHOOL  FURNITURE.  Under  this  head 
will  be  considered  (1)  desks  and  seats;  (2)  plat- 
form ;  (3)  blackboard ;  and  (4)  miscellaneous  fur- 
niture and  apparatus. 

Desks  and  Seats. — In  the  matter  of  health, 
these  are,  perhaps,  the  articles  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  school  room.  Notwithstanding 
their  importance,  however,  as  deciding  the  pu- 
pil's position  for  several  hours  of  the  day,  and 
thus  determining,  in  a  great  measure,  his  future 
health  and  bearing,  school  authorities  are  not  yet 
entirely  agreed  as  to  their  style,  dimensions,  or  ar- 
rangement ;  each  civilized  country  using  its  own, 
on  account  of  some  peculiar  advantage,  the  rela- 
tive value  of  which  is  determined  by  observation 
from  its  own  stand-point.  The  first  consideration , 
in  the  construction  or  arrangement  of  desks  and 
seats,  should  have  regard  to  their  influence  upon 
the  health  of  the  pupils;  the  second,  to  the  con- 
venience of  the  teacher  and  pupils,  in  the  ad- 
justability of  the  desk  and  seat  for  different 
exercises,  or  for  purposes  of  school  government, 
which  last  would  be  determined  principally  by 
the  arrangement,  and  the  means  afforded  for 
facilitating  the  entrance  or  exit  of  the  pupils. 
Of  the  comparative  advantages  of  different 
styles  of  desks  or  seats,  it  is  not  necessary 
here  to  speak,  the  subject  being  treated  exhaust- 
ively in  the  works  referred  to  at  the  end  of  this 
article.  The  books  that  have  been  written  on 
this  subject  in  different  countries  form  almost  a 
library  of  themselves.  Perhaps  the  best  form 
yet  devised  is  that  described  in  the  report  of  M. 
Buisson,  French  commissioner  to  the  Exposition 
at  Vienna  in  1873,  which  was  selected  for  special 
commendation,  after  an  examination  of  all  the 
styles  there  presented.  It  is  known  as  the  Bapte- 
rosses  desk  and  seat,  from  the  name  of  the  in- 


ventor, who  designed  it  for  use  in  his  factory  at 
Briare.  It  has  recently  been  introduced  into  the 
normal  school  at  Auteuil.  The  chair  is  single, 
the  seat  being  of  wood,  round  or  square  in  shape, 
and  supported  by  an  iron  leg  which  slides  up  or 
down  in  a  sheath,  or  hollow  cylinder,  the  base  of 
which  is  firmly  screwed  to  the  floor.  The  leg  and 
sheath  together  form  the  support  of  the  seat, 
which  is  checked  at  any  height,  in  its  upward  or 
downward  motion,  by  a  thumb-screw.  The  back 
of  the  chair  is  of  the  ordinary  pattern,  and  is 
slightly  inclined.  The  desk  is  stationary,  and  is 
supported  by  a  cast-iron  upright.  Its  upper  sur- 
face is  divided  into  two  parts  in  the  usual  man- 
ner—  a  narrow  horizontal  part  at  the  back,  and 
a  sloping  part,  much  larger,  and  nearer  the  pupil. 
It  is  provided  either  with  a  lid  which  converts 
the  desk  into  an  ordinary  box,  or,  if  the  top  is 
not  movable,  with  compartments  which  open 
laterally.  A  small  leaden  pipe,  extending  the 
whole  length  of  the  desk,  under  the  horizontal 
part  of  the  upper  surface,  serves  as  an  inkstand. 
It  is  provided  with  a  vent  at  each  end,  secured 
by  a  copper  cap.  and,  opposite  the  pupil,  is  pierced 
to  receive  a  small  copper  funnel  of  sufficient  size 
to  allow  only  the  point  of  the  pen  to  enter.  By 
this  arrangement,  the  pupil  can  neither  dip  his 
pen  too  deeply,  so  as  to  get  too  much  ink,  nor 
upset  his  inkstand.  Near  the  foot  of  the  leg  of 
the  desk  is  a  foot-rest,  which  may  be  raised  or 
lowered  by  the  same  device  of  slide  and  thumb- 
screw that  is  used  for  the  seat.  The  thumb- 
screws used  on  the  chair  and  desk  are  so  arranged 
that  they  cannot  be  turned  except  by  a  key, 
which  is  kept  by  the  teacher.  The  principal  ad- 
vantage of  this  desk  is,  that  it  can  be  adapted 
to  pupils  of  different  heights ;  its  other  recom- 
mendations are  obvious.  An  improvement,  per- 
haps, might  be  made  by  providing  the  desk  with 
two  supports  instead  of  one,  thus  securing  a  firm- 
ness which  desks  supported  by  one  central  pfllar 
do  not  usually  have.  The  single  desk  should  be 
2  feet  long,  from  25  in.  to  29  in.  high,  and  18 
in.  wide  ;  the  double  desk  should  be  4  feet  long, 
the  other  dimensions  being  the  same  as  those  of 
the  single  desk.  The  seats  should  be  from  12  in. 
to  16  in.  high.  Recitation  seats  as  well  as  desk 
seats  should  be  provided  with  backs.  It  should 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  no  arrangement 
of  desk  or  seat,  however  ingeniously  adapted  to 
the  pupil's  comfort,  can  take  the  place  of  that 
frequent  change  of  position  which  is  a  necessity 
of  his  being.  Of  the  dimensions  of  desks  and 
seats,  Robson  says,  after  a  careful  comparison  of 
the  works  of  Zwey,  Falk,  Frey,  Cohn,  Kleiber, 
and  Tirchow,  "The  weight  of  opinion  is  to  the 
effect  that  the  height  of  the  seat  should  corre- 
spond to  the  length  of  the  scholar's  leg,  from 
the  knee  to  the  sole  of  the  foot.  There  must  be 
no  stretching  of  muscles  ;  therefore,  the  sole  of 
the  foot  must  rest  on  the  floor  or  upon  some  flat 
surface.  If  the  seat  be  too  high,  the  swinging  of 
the  foot  in  the  air  causes  a  compression  of  the 
blood-vessels  and  nerves  of  the  hinder  part  of 
the  leg  and  knee  ;  if  it  be  too  low,  the  thighs  of 
the  scholar  are  pressed  against  his  stomach  to  the 


764 


SCHOOL  FURMTl'RK 


disadvantage  of  health.  *  *  *  In  order  to  prevent 
the  scholar's  slipping  forward,  the  seat  should  be 
slightly  declined  backward.  The  height  of  the 
desks  should  be  so  arranged,  that  the  under  part 
of  the  arm  may  rest  comfortably  on  the  desk-top, 
and  that  the  powers  of  vision  may  not  be  strained, 
or,  in  other  words, that  the  normal  distance  of  vi- 
sion may  be  preserved.  Desks  which  are  too  low 
cause,  by  the  bending  of  the  scholar,  a  pressing 
on  the  chest  and  lower  part  of  the  body  :  while 
those  which  are  too  high  cause  the  right  shoulder 
to  be  so  lifted,  as  to  remove  the  upper  part  of 
the  arm  so  far  from  the  body,  that  the  lowerarm 
cannot  be  laid  flat  on  the  table,  thereby  causing 
the  arm  to  be  unsteady  and  easily  tired."  Much 
ingenuity  has  been  exercised  in  devising  seats 
capable  of  transformation  into  a  variety  of  forms. 
The  tendency  in  this  respect  is  frequently  to- 
wards a  mechanism  so  complicated  that  it  de- 
feats its  own  object  by  becoming  easily  disar- 
ranged: and.  even  if  this  were  not  the  case,  many 
of  the  transformations  will  usually  be  found  to 
be  useless.  The  really  desirable  changes  of  form 
are  very  few.  Says  an  eminent  educator:  "If 
seats  could  be  so  contrived  as  to  remain  firm 
when  placed  horizontally,  to  allow  the  pupil  to 
lean  forward  easily  to  write  upon  his  desk,  and 
then  could  be  made  to  have  an  inclination  back- 
ward when  the  pupil  desires  to  read  or  study. 
it  would  add  much  to  his  comfort  in  sitting.and 
something,  perhaps,  to  the  comeliness  of  his 
figure."  Concerningthe  distance  of  the  seat  from 
the  desk,  a  considerable  difference  of  opinion  ex- 
ists, some  teachers  considering  only  one  inch  nec- 
essary, others  as  much  as  three.  On  this  point 
Dr.  Wiese  says  :  "It  is,  therefore,  desirable,  that 
the  inner  edge  of  the  desk  should  be  distant  from 
the  front  of  the  seat  only  about  one  inch."  Rob- 
son  says  :  "  The  scholar  who  sits  too  far  from  the 
desk,  either  bends  too  much,  and  thereby  hurts 
his  chest  and  eyes,  or  he  glides  too  far  forward  on 
his  seat,  and  so  gets  an  unsteady  position.  *  *  ": 
It  is  recommended  that  the  vertical  distance  from 
the  desk  to  the  seat-top  should  be  the  length 
of  the  fore-arm,  or  one-sixth  the  size  [height]  of 
the  body  of  the  scholar.  Too  great  a  distance 
encourages  crooked  growth:  for  the  scholar,  while 
writing,  has  his  body  weighing  on  one  arm.  in- 
stead of  having  the  arm  naturally  resting  on  his 
body.  If  the  difference  in  height  between  desk 
and  seat  be  too  slight,  then  the  chest  sinks,  and 
the  back  is  bent  out  so  as  to  encourage  stooping." 
Of  the  arrangement  of  desks,  many  methods 
have  been  advocated,  and  different  ones  prevail 
in  different  countries;  but  the  weight  of  author- 
ity seems  to  be  in  favor  of  Beating  the  pupils  in 
pairs,  this  method  being  economical  as  to  space, 
and  more  advantageous  for  both  teacher  and 
pupil  in  the  efficient  carrying  out  of  the  daily 
exercises,    Its  superiority,  also,  in  the  matter  of 

[ngreSS  and  egress  of  the  pupils  is  manifest.    The 

arrangement  of  desks  in  regard  to  space  and  light 
has  Keen    considered    in   the  article    Hygienk, 

SCHOOL.  Many  Other  considerations  present 
themselves  in  this  connection,  the  chief  of  which 
are   the   following:    the   form   and   height  of   the 


back  of  the  seat :  its  attachment  to,  or  inde- 
pendence of.  the  desk  immediately  behind  it :  the 
variation  in  the  height  of  seats  and  desks  as  ar- 
ranged on  the  same  level  for  pupils  of  different 
sizes  ;  the  slope  of  the  floor,  or  its  construction  in 
steps,  for  the  same  purpose  ;  the  movable  desk  or 
seat  as  compared  with  the  stationary;  the  mount- 
ing of  desks  and  seats  on  casters  :  the  varying 
■  slope  of  the  desk-top  for  different  purposes;  the 
space  between  the  desks ;  the  breadth  of  aisles. 
etc.  These  are  all  considered,  however,  in  works 
specially  written  for  the  purpose  :  and  the  merits 
of  each  for  different  purposes  are  fully  set  forth. 

The  Platform. — 1  his  is  now  considered  high- 
ly desirable,  if  not  indispensable,  in  the  school 
room.  On  all  public  occasions,  whether  of  ex- 
amination ore.xhihition.it  is  indispensable:  while 
there  are  many  occasions  in  the  usual  routine 
of  the  school,  when  it  is  exceedingly  useful.  It 
should  be  not  less  than  6  feet  wide,  and  15  inches 
high,  and  should  be  divided  into  two  levels  or 
risers.  In  schools  in  which  all  the  exercises  are 
conducted  in  one  room,  closets  for  the  storing  of 
school  apparatus  are  often  placed  at  each  end  of 
the  platform.  Recitation  looms  are  usually 
fitted  up  without  platform8,  the  teacher's  d.sk 
standing  on  the  floor. 

The  Blackboard. — At  the  back  of  the  plat- 
form, against  the  wall,  and  facing  the  school  or 
class,  is  placed  the  blackboard.  It  should  extend 
the  entire  length  of  the  platform,  should  beat 
least  4  feet  wide,  and  extend  to  within  3  feet  of 
the  floor.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  frame  all 
around,  and  a  trough  at  the  lower  edge  for  the 
chalk,  and  to  catch  dust,  and  should  have  hooks, 
on  which  pointers  may  be  hung.  The  material 
of  blackboards  is  of  three  kinds:  wood,  slate. 
and  a  kind  of  slate-surface  made  to  lay  directly 
on  the  wall.  The  last,  by  combining  in  a  medium 
the  best  qualities  of  the  two  others,  is  the  most 
desirable.      (See  BLACKBOARD.) 

Miscellaneous  Furniture  and  Apparatus. — 
The  principal  consideration  under  this  head  is 
not  so  much  the  comparative  values  of  different 
articles,  but  what  articles  an'  indispensable  or.  at 
least,  highly  necessary.  Among  these,  may  be 
mentioned  a  clock,  a  small  bell  for  the  calling 
and  dismissing  of  classes,  chairs  for  visitors,  clos- 
ets or  wardrobes,  provided  with  wrought-iron 
hooks  and  pegs,  a  thermometer,  sets  of  maps  and 
charts,  a  terrestrial  globe,  an  abacus,  or  numeral 
frame,  and  a  collection  of  miscellaneous  articles 
to  he  used  in  giving  object  lessons.  The  extent 
to   which    the    articles    desirable    for   tin-   school 

room  have  been  added  to.  and  perfected,  both  in 

the  United  States  and  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, is  remarkable;  the  list  given  above,  how- 
ever, furnishes  a  tolerably  complete  outfit  for  a 

primary  school.  One  consideration  remains  to  be 
insisted  on:  namely,  the  exercise  of  good  ta^to  in 
the  selection  of  furniture  and  articles  intended 
to  be  in  constanl  sight  of  the  pupils.  On  this 
subject,  the  architect  of  the  London  School 
Board  remarks:  "The  furniture  of  the  school 
room  should  be  graceful  in  form,  and  good  in 
quality  and  finish.   Children  are  particularly  BUB- 


SCHOOL   GROUNDS 


SrilOOMlolSK 


765 


eeptible  of  surrounding  influences,  and  their  dai- 
ly familiarization  with  beauty  of  form  or  color,  in 
the  simplest  ami  most  ordinary  objects,  cannot 
fail  to  assist  in  fostering  the  seeds  of  taste,  just 
as  daily  discipline  tends  to  promote  habits  of 
order.  Furniture  finished  like  good  cabinet  work 
is  more  likely  to  be  respected,  even  by  the  mis- 
chievous school  boy,  than  that  of  an  unsightly  or 
rough  character."  For  further  information  on 
this  subject  see  Robsox,  School  Architecture  (Lon- 
don, 1874);  Wickersham,  School  Economy 
(Phila..  1868);  Oorrie,  Common-School  Educa- 
tion (Edinburgh,  1857);  Buisson,  Rapjjort  sur 
Vinstruction  primaire  a  fexposition  universelle 
de  Vienne  en  1873  (Paris,  1875). 
SCHOOL  GROUNDS.  See  I  Iygiexe,  School. 
SCHOOL-HOUSE.— Of  the  first  importance 
in  any  system  of  public  instruction,  is  school 
architecture,  including  every  thing  that  relates 
to  the  building  in  which  the  instruction  is  to  be 
imparted.  All  matters  that  concern  the  health 
of  the  school;  namely,  the' situation  of  the  school- 
house,  its  furniture,  the  temperature  of  the 
rooms,  and  the  means  for  warming,  lighting,  and 
ventilating  them,  are  considered  either  in  sepa- 
rate articles  in  this  work,  or  under  the  head  of 
Hygiene,  School.  It  is  designed  here  specially  to 
treat  of  (I)  the  construction  of  the  school- 
house,  and  (II)  its  internal  arrangement. 

I.  Construction  of  the  School-House. — What 
material  should  be  used  in  the  construction 
of  a  school  building  depends  entirely  upon  its 
location  and  the  means  at  command.  Owing  to 
the  improved  modern  methods  of  building,  wood, 
brick,  or  stone  may  be  used  indifferently,  as  far 
as  healthfulness  is  concerned,  economic  consider- 
ations alone  deciding  which  is  to  be  employed.  It 
may  be  said,  in  general,  that  these  considerations 
point  to  the  use  of  stone  or  brick  in  cities  and 
towns,  and  of  wood,  in  the  rural  districts,  except 
in  old  and  thickly-settled  countries  where  wood  is 
scarce.  The  increased  attention  bestowed  upon 
the  appearance  of  the  school-house  at  the  present 
time  is  one  of  the  most  encouraging  proofs  of 
the  general  and  permanent  interest  aroused  in 
the  welfare  of  schools,  since  purely  esthetic  con- 
siderations are  generally  the  last  to  make  them- 
selves felt.  The  rudeness  of  the  district-school 
building  is  proverbial ;  yet,  the  expression  of 
the  cherished  memories  that  cluster  around  it, 
forms  a  part  of  the  choicest  literature  of  every 
civilized  country.  If  the  transfiguring  power  of 
early  association,  therefore,  renders  it  an  object 
of  affection  through  life,  in  spite  of  its  uncouth- 
ness,  how  much  stronger  would  that  affection  be 
if  the  matured  taste  of  later  years  confirmed  the 
preference  of  childhood  !  Not  only  the  testimony 
of  eminent  writers,  but  the  unwritten  experience 
of  every  observing  person,  bears  abundant  wit- 
ness to  the  subtle  and  enduring  influence  of 
early  associations  ;  and  now,  when  the  subject  of 
education  is  receiving  so  large  a  share  of  careful 
thought,  with  a  view  to  discover  all  available 
ways  to  perfect  its  means  and  methods,  it 
would  seem  that  this  powerful  agent  should  not 
be   neglected.      Without   squandering    money, 


therefore,  to  make  the  school-house  pretentious, 
or  a  perfect  specimen  of  one  of  the  conventional 
orders  of  architecture,  pains  should  betaken  that 
it  should  not  be  an  offense  to  the  eye,  or  out  of 
harmony  with  the  landscape.  Since  this  can 
generally  be  done,  also,  without  any,  or  with 
only  slight,  additional  cost,  the  educational 
value,  moral  and  esthetic,  of  the  appearance  of 
the  school-house,  may  properly  be  included  in 
the  plans  of  the  architect.  As  to  the  solidity  of 
the  school  building  in  all  its  parts,  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  no  financial  objections  which 
would  impair  this,  should,  for  a  moment,  be  en- 
tertained. The  contingencies  which  may  hap- 
pen at  any  moment  where  large  numbers  of  chil- 
dren are  gathered  together,  are  so  momentous 
in  their  character,  as  to  render  this  imperative. 
The  size  of  the  school-house  should  be  deter- 
mined, of  course,  by  the  number  of  pupils  it  is 
intended  to  accommodate.  An  eminent  author- 
ity says  that,  a  building  designed  for  an  ungraded 
school  to  be  taught  by  a  single  teacher,  should 
contain,  at  least,  900  sq.  ft.  of  floor-space ;  be- 
ing intended  to  accommodate  from  50  to  80  pu- 
pils. In  regard  to  the  proper  size  of  class  rooms, 
see  Hygiene,  School. 

II.  Internal  Arrangement  of  the  School-House. 
—  Every   district-school   house   should   have  a 
vestibule,  a  main  room,  and  one  or  more  class- 
rooms, unless  the  school  is  taught  by  only  one 
teacher.     The  vestibule  should  be  commodious, 
dry,   well-lighed,   and    properly   supplied    with 
pegs  for  hats  and  outer  garments,  mats,  wash 
basins,    and    all    means  for   ensuring   personal 
cleanliness.     In    mixed    schools,   it    should    be 
divided  into  two  rooms.     The  best  authorities 
are  almost  unanimous  in  the   opinion  that  the 
shape  of  the  school  room  proper  should  be  that 
of  an  oblong  about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  the 
size  being  determined  by  the  probable  attend- 
ance.    The  ceiling  should  be  from  12  to  15  feet 
in  height,  the  controlling  consideration  being  that 
each  pupil  should  have  uot  less  than  108  cubic 
feet  of  air  space.     The  door  and  the  teachers 
desk  should  be  at  opposite  ends  of  the  room, the 
former,   when  practicable,  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity, the   northern  being  without  windows, 
and  provided  with  a  shallow  platform  about  15 
inches    high.      This    arrangement  enables  the 
teacher  to  survey  the  school,  and  is  simple  and 
convenient  for  examination  or  exhibition  pur- 
poses.    Yery  large   school  rooms  are  not  ex- 
pedient, experience  having  shown  that  a  large 
number  of  pupils  may  be  supervised  and  taught 
to  better  advantage  in  two  rooms  of  medium 
size,  the  teacher  having  an  assistant  for  the  pur- 
pose, than  in  one  large  room.     A  separate  class 
room  is  indispensable  in  all  schools,  except  the 
smallest,  the  number  being  increased  according 
to  the  size  of  the  school.     In  its  construction, 
the  class  room  should  conform  proportionally  to 
the  school  room,  and  should,  if  possible,  be  in 
immediate  connection  with  it,  but  separable  from 
it  completely  as  far  as  noise  is  concerned.     The 
teacher's  room,  in  small  schools,  could  be  utilized 
as  the  school  library,  or  as  a  temporary  storing 


766        SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 


SCHOOL  RECORDS 


place  for  such  delicate  apparatus  as  required 
special  care.  Schools  of  other  grades  and  sizes 
will,  of  course,  require  a  different  arrangement 
of  rooms.  Nearly  every  civilized  country,  in 
fact,  has  its  own  plans  for  the  construction  of 
school-houses,  and  the  arrangement  of  school 
and  class  rooms,  determined  by  the  peculiarities 
of  its  school  system,  or  by  national  character- 
istics. Interesting  exhibits  of  these  are  made  at 
every  world's  fair  ;  and  the  comparison  there  in- 
stituted will,  probably,  result  in  a  retention  and 
general  diffusion  of  the  best.  It  is  possible  here 
only  to  refer  to  the  subject,  and  to  cite  a  few 
standard  works  which  open  the  door  to  a  vol- 
uminous literature.  (SeeBoissoN,  Rapport  sur 
T instruction  primaire  a  V  exposition  universette 
ile  Vii'inii'.  en  1873  (Paris,  1875)  ;  Barnard, 
School  Architecture  (N.  Y.,  18(53)  ;  Johonnot, 
Country  School-Houses,  (N.  V..  L858);  and  Our 
School-Houses  (N.  Y..  1873);  Eveleth,  School- 
House  Architecture  (\.  Y..  1874).  (See  also 
the  references  at  the  end  of  the  article  School 
Furniture.) 

SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  is  a  department 
of  the  teacher's  profession  which  includes  (I )  the 
organization  of  the  school,  and  (II)  its  conduct. 
Under  the  former,  must  be  considered  (1)  the 
classification  (see  Class);  (2)  the  distribution, 
as  to  order  and  time,  of  the  branches  to  lie  taught, 
(course  of  instruction  and  programme) ;  and 
3)  the  proper  assignment  of  the  work  of  instruc- 
tion (in  a  graded  school)  to  the  several  teachers, 
either  in  accordance  with  the  class  system  orwith 
the  departmental  system  (q.v.).  The  conduct 
of  the  school  has  reference  (1)  to  instruction, 
and  (2)  to  discipline.  Great  care  should  betaken, 
by  means  of  a  carefully  constructed  programme, 
or  daily  order  of  exercises,  to  secure  to  eat  h  subject 
its  proper  amount  of  time,  according  to  its  place 
in  the  course  of  instruction,  as  well  as  to  insure 
an  equable  advancement  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
in  each  subject  of  the  grade,  as  preliminary  to 
promotion.  The  promotion  of  pupils  is  ;i  matter 
i  if  great  pracl  Leal  importance  in  the  management 
of  a  school.  ( >ne  of  the  most  serious  errors  made 
by  teachers  is  the  too  rapid  advancement  of  their 

pupils.    Promotions  should  always  he  based  upon 

a  careful  examination;  and,  in  a  graded  school, 
care  should  be  taken  that  every  grade  is  passed 

through  in  a  legitimate  manner,  thai  is,  without 

hurry  or  cramming.     When  the  school  is  un- 

ided,  the  advancement  of  individual  pupils  is 

to  be  considered  ;  but  there  is  the  same  need  of 

avoiding  haste,  so  as  to  secure  thorough  proficien- 
cy, as  the  basis  of  promotion.     Government  is, 

i,  an  important  department  of  school  manage- 
ment; since,  without  efficient  government,  all 
attempts  at  effective  school  instruction  must  be 

fruitless.  (See  OOURBE  OF  1 NSTE1  (TIox,  DISCI- 
PLINE, anil  <  io\  ERNMENT.) 

SCHOOL  RECORDS  are  of  great  impor- 
tance, both  in  connection  with  the  management 
of  the  school  itself,  and  for  the  purpose  of  af- 
fording a  means  of  obtaining  accurate  and  train- 
able return-  to  !„■  embodied  in  a  general  system 
boo]  statistics.     These  records  are.  therefore, 


to   be   arranged    from   a   twofold  stand-point  : 

(I)  What  are  needed  as  auxiliary  to  the  keeping 
ami    instruction    of     the    school    itself;     and 

(II)  What  are  required  for  a  proper  administia- 
tion  of  the  school  laws,  as  well  as  to  show  the 
condition  of  the  system  to  which  the  school  be- 
longs, and  the  progress  of  education  in  the 
town.  city,  and  state  in  which  it  is  located,  as 
compared  with  other  places. 

I.  For  the  carrying  out  of  the  first  object, 
there  should  be  an  accurate  registration  of  each 
pupil's  name  and  age,  his  parent's  name,  the 
date  of  his  admission  into  the  school,  of  his  suc- 
cessive  promotion  from  grade  to  grade,  and  of 
his  discharge,  with  the  cause  of  the  same,  thus 
presenting  a  history  in  outline  of  the  pupil's 
whole  career  in  the  school.  The  register  kept 
for  these  items  should  be  in  such  a  form  as  to  be 
easy  of  reference,  either  by  a  numerical  designa- 
tion of  the  pupils  in  the  order  of  their  admis- 
sion, or  by  an  alphabetical  arrangement.  Aux- 
iliary to  the  school  register,  there  may  be  (in 
large  schools,  should  be)  an  admission  book,  and 
a  discharge  book,  the  entries  being  first  made  in 
these  books,  and  transferred  at  stated  times 
i  weekly  or  monthly)  into  the  register.  The  ad- 
mission book  should  contain  a  statement  of  the 
antecedents  of  the  pupil,  and  the  discharge  book, 
the  cause  of  his  leaving  the  school. and  his  desti- 
nation. There  should,  also,  be  books  showing 
the  school  history  of  the  pupil  more  in  detail,  as 
his  daily  attendance,  conduct,  merit  and  de- 
merit marks  for  recitations,  etc.  One  book, 
usually  called  the  roU  book,  may  be  w^a]  for  all 
these  particulars,  there  being, in  a  graded  school, 
one  such  book  for  each  class,  and  kept  by  the 
class  teacher.  En  this  book  may  also  be  entered 
the  place  of  residence  of  each  pupil,  in  order  to 
facilitate  communication  with  the  parents.  The 
sellout  diary  is  auxiliary  to  this,  containing 
transcripts  from  the  roll  book,  with  summaries 
of  marks  and  a  statement  of  class  standing,  the 
pupil  being  required  to  take  this  diary  home  for 
the  inspection  and  signature  of  his  parents. 
Other  records,  besides  those  enumerated,  maybe 
kept  for  special  purposes;  but.  ordinarily,  these 
are  all  that  are  indispensably  requisite  to  cany 
on  the  internal  operations  of  the  school. 

II.  The  records  made  necessary  by  the  pro- 
visions of   law  under   which   the  school  is 
tablished  and   supported,  will    vary,  of    course. 

with  the  nature  of  those  provisions,  and  with 
the    organization   of    the    system     to    which     the 

school  belongs.     Hut  there  are  cert  on  common 

and  indispensable  features,  inasmuch  as  there 
are  f acts  which  all  school  records  for  this  pur- 
pose should  aim   to  show,  among  which  may  be 

mentioned  the  following:   (1)   The  number  of 

pupils  enrolled  during  the  year:  (2)  The  average 

enrollment,  or  "average    number  belonging"; 

I  he  number  in  attendance  at  each  session  of 
the   school;     and    ill    the   number  of   pupils   of 

each  grade,  and  of  certain  specified  ages.— No 

attempt  is  made  in  this  article  to  present  the 
forms  of  these  records,  as  there  is  a  wide  diver- 
sity of  form  in  different  places,  and  as  the  form 


SCHWARZ 


SCIENCE 


7GT 


is  of  secondary  importance  to  the  presenting  of 
the  required  facts. — See  Morrison,  Manual  of 
School  Management,  s.  v.  Registration  (Glasgow 
and  London.  L874)  :  Wickersham,  School  Econ- 
omy (Phila.,  L868)  :  Wells,  21ie  Graded 
School  (New  York,  1862). 

SCHWARZ,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Chris- 
tian, an  eminent  German  educationist,  born  in 
lTTti,  at  (Jicssen;  died  at  I  leidelberg,  in  1837. 
His  chief  work  is  Erziehungslehre  [Doctrine  of 
Education),  of  which  the  first  part  appeared  in 
1802  ;  the  fourth  and  last,  which  was  issued  in 
1813,  contains  the  Gesckichte  der  Erziehung 
(History  of  Education),  a  work  of  permanent 
value.  "Among  teachers,"  says  Dittes  (Schule 
dei-  Padagogik),  "  the  Lehrbuch  der  Padagogik 
und  Didaktik  (1805)  of  Curtmann  is  better 
known  than  the  Erziehungslehre."  He,  how- 
ever, asserts  that,  while  Schwarz  has  not  given  so 
clear  an  exposition  of  the  principles  of  education 
and  instruction  as  Xiemeyer,  his  writings  are 
more  replete  with  practical  observations  and 
suggestions. 

SCIENCE,  The  Teaching  of.  In  this  ar- 
ticle, the  treatment  will  refer  to  the  teaching  of 
science  (I)  as  a  branch  of  elementary  instruction, 
and  (II)  as  a  department  of  higher  education. 

I.  This  subject  is  one  into  which  great  con- 
fusion has  been  introduced  by  the  use  of  the 
words  science  and  scientific  in  two  different 
senses.  In  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  the  scien- 
tific knowledge  of  a  subject  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
laws  which  harmonize  and  explain  its  various 
phenomena.  Science  goes  beyond  mere  appear; 
ances,  and  finds  that,  amidst  endless  variety, 
there  is  unity;  and,  amid  apparent  discord,  there 
is  harmony.  In  this  sense,  it  is  the  highest  out- 
come of  intellectual  effort.  The  human  mind 
deals  first  with  the  concrete.  For  a  long  time  it 
scarcely  rises  above  the  information  of  the  senses. 
It  then  groups  the  impressions  of  the  senses  into 
more  comprehensive  unities,  and  in  this  process 
gains  a  certain  power  of  abstraction.  But  science 
supposes  that  the  mind  has  been  long  practiced 
in  that  power  of  abstraction  and  generalization. 
It  views  in  succession  the  principal  facts  in  any 
department  of  nature  as  a  whole,  and  it  seeks  to 
find  the  invisible  order  which  pervades  them  all. 
In  this  sense  of  the  term,  also,  all  subjects  admit 
of  scientific  treatment ;  as  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  law  pervades  all  phenomena,  there  must  be 
a  science  of  mental  phenomena  as  well  as  of 
physical  phenomena:  and,  therefore,  no  single 
phenomenon  can  exist  which  has  not  its  own 
place  in  the  systsm  of  the  universe.  But,  from 
various  considerations,  the  term  science  has  been 
often  restricted  to  the  explanation  of  the  laws 
which  regulate  matter,  and  this  is  the  sense  in 
which  it  is  used  in  this  article.  Now  it  is  plain 
that,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  children  can- 
not be  taught  science.  If  the  scientific  stage  is 
the  highest  in  the  development  of  the  intellectual 
faculties,  we  cannot  expect  to  find  it  in  the 
school.  It  belongs  to  the  university.  But  we 
may  lay  the  foundation  of  it  at  an  earlier  period. 
Indeed,  we  cannot  help  doing  something  toward 


this  work;  but  we  may  do  it  awkwardly  and  un- 
consciously, or  skillfully  and  consciously.  The 
latter  is  the  function  of  the  educated  teacher. 
We  must,  therefore,  inquire  more  minutely  into 
the  mode  in  which  the  foundations  of  science  are 
laid.  For  this  purpose,  we  shall  quote  the  words 
of  the  late  Professor  Payne,  to  whom  the  prep- 
aration of  this  article  for  the  Gychpcedia  of 
Education  was  first  assigned.  (See  Payne,  J.) 
Science,  he  defined,  as  "organized  knowledge'', 
and,  after  explaining  the  meaning  of  organized 
in  this  definition,  he  proceeds:  "Returning  to  the 
other  factor  of  the  definition,  knowledge,  we  ob- 
serve that  there  are  two  kinds  of  knowledge — 
what  Ave  know  through  our  own  experience,  and 
what  we  know  through  the  experience  of  others. 
Thus,  I  know  by  my  own  knowledge  that  I  have 
an  audience  before  me,  and  I  know  through  the 
knowledge  of  others  that  the  earth  is  25,000  miles 
in  circumference.  This  latter  fact,  however,  I 
know  in  a  sense  different  from  that  in  which  I 
know  the  former.  The  one  is  a  part  of  my  ex- 
perience, of  my  very  being.  The  other  I  can  only 
be  strictly  said  to  know  when  I  have,  by  an 
effort  of  the  mind,  passed  through  the  connected 
chain  of  facts  and  reasonings  on  which  the  dem- 
onstration is  founded.  Thus  only  can  it  become 
my  knowledge  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term. 
Strictly  speaking,  then,  organized  knowledge,  or 
science,  is  originally  based  on  unorganized  know- 
ledge, and  is  the  outcome  of  the  learner's  obser- 
vation of  facts  through  the  exercise  of  his  senses, 
and  his  own  reflection  upon  what  he  has  observed. 
This  knowledge,  ultimately  organized  into  science 
through  the  operation  of  his  mind,  he  may  with 
just  right  call  his  own ;  and,  as  a  learner,  he  can 
properly  call  no  other  knowledge  his  own.  "What 
is  reported  to  us  by  another  is  that  other's,  if 
gained,  at  first-hand,  by  experience;  but  it  stands 
on  a  different  footing  from  that  which  we  have 
gained  by  our  own  experience.  He  merely  hands 
it  over  to  us;  but,  when  we  receive  it,  its  condition 
is  already  changed.  It  wants  the  brightness,  def- 
initeness,  and  certainty  in  our  eyes,  which  it  had 
in  his;  and,  moreover,  it  is  merely  a  loan,  and  not 
our  property.  The  fact,  for  instance,  about  the 
earth's  circumference  was  to  him  a  living  fact ; 
it  sprung  into  being  as  the  outcome  of  exper- 
iments and  reasonings,  with  the  entire  chain  of 
which  it  was  seen  by  him  to  be  intimately — in- 
deed, indissolubly  and  organically — connected.  To 
us  it  is  a  dead  fact,  severed  from  its  connection 
with  the  body  of  truth,  and,  by  our  hypothesis, 
having  no  organic  relation  to  the  living  truths 
we  have  gained  by  our  own  minds.  What  I  in- 
sist on,  then,  is,  that  the  knowledge  from  expe- 
rience— that  which  is  gained  by  bringing  our  own 
minds  into  direct  contact  with  matter — is  the 
only  knowledge  that,  as  novices  in  science,  we 
have  to  do  with.  The  dogmatic  knowledge  im- 
posed on  us  by  authority,  though  originally 
gained  by  the  same  means,  is  really,  not  ours,  but 
another's — is,  as  far  as  we  are  concerned,  unor- 
ganizable,  and,  therefore,  though  science  to  its 
proprietor,  is  not  science  to  us.  To  us  it  is  merely 
information,  or  hap-hazard  knowledge."  —  The 


7<is 


SCIENCE 


account  here  given  contains  the  very  pith  of  the 
matter,  and  cannot  be  too  deeply  pondered  and 
impressed  on  the  mind;  and  we  shall,  therefore, 
put  the  same  thoughts  in  another  shape.  The 
child  first  perceives  individual  objects,  lie  notices 
the  qualities  in  these  objects;  and,  when  he  finds 
the  same  qualities  recur  in  different  individual 
objects,  he  naturally  groups  them  together  under 
the  same  notion  or  name.  This  is  the  child's 
first  effort  at  generalization.  (See  Intellectual 
Education.)  Now,  it  is  plain  that  if  he  had  not 
known  the  individuals,  he  could  never  have  made 
the  generalization  ;  and  that,  if  any  one  were  to 
tell  him  the  generalization  without  his  having 
seen  the  individuals  and  noticed  the  similarity, 
the  generalization  would  be  of  no  real  use 
to  him.  Out  of  this  fact  flow  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal rules  in  regard  to  the  method  of  teaching 
science:  (1)  The  pupil  must  be  brought  face 
to  face  with  nature;  he  must  see  tin-  indi- 
vidual ;  he  must  himself  make  the  experiment. 
(2)  He  must  make  the  generalization,  himself; 
he  must  lie  a  discoverer.  It  is  here,  however,  that 
the  skillful  teacher  can  wisely  interfere.  The 
child,  if  left  to  himself,  might  lie  too  long 
in  making  the  discovery,  for  he  might  not 
stumble  upon  individuals  which  contain  sim- 
ilarities. The  teacher,  therefore,  takes  care  to 
bring  similar  individuals  before  his  pupils  in 
sufficient  number,  lie  sternly  checks  his  own 
wish  to  shorten  the  work  by  telling  the  generali- 
zation; but  be  prepares  the  way  for  the  pupil's 
making  it  by  adducing  instance  after  instance, 
until  the  similarities  cannot  but  become  visible 
to  the  pupil's  mind.  And  this  rule  suggests  an- 
other,— that,  wherever  it  is  possible,  the  pupil 
should  be  led  along  the  road  over  which  mankind 
traveled  in  making  the  discovery  originally.   He 

must. of  course,  commit  many  blunders  before  he 
reaches  the  truth;  yet,  under  a  skillful  teacher, 
such  a  process  is  eminently  educative.  But, 
besides  the  making  of  generalizations,  there  i 
also  the  faculty  of  observation  to  be  carefully 
cultivate  I.  Indeed  the  cultivation  of  the  faculty 
of  observation  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  for- 
mation of  correct  generalizations.  At  first,  the 
child  makes  his  generalizations  unconsciously. 
I  le  sees  a  tree,  and  then  another  tree,  and  then 
another,  and  somehow  they  impress  him  as 
being  like;  but  he  has  no  accurate  conception  in 
regard  to  the  points  in  which  they  are  like. — ■ 
Even    when    he   becomes  conscious  of    the  points 

of  resemblance  in  objects,  he  may  rind  that  the 
resemblances  in  them  are  on  the  surface. and  that 
there  are  greater  differences  separating  the  ob- 
jects from  each  other,  lie  is  now  coining  nearer 
the  stage  in  which  he  can  deal  with  a  subject 
scientifically.  For  observation  has  to  furnish,  as 
the  basis  of  scientific  conceptions,  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  than  that  possessed  by  the  ordinary 

observer.  The  pupil  has  to  notice  qualities  which 

ordinarily  escape  observation.  The  teacher  again 
must  take  the  utmost  care  thai  the  pupil  has 
really  observed  the  peculiarity  before  be  tells  him 

the  special    name   given    to   it.    Else   the    pupil's 

mind  will  be  crammed   vrith  a  number  of  tech- 


nical terms  of  the  meaning  of  which  he  probably 
will  have  no  clear  conception;  and  even  should  he 
have  a  clear  conception  of  their  meaning  when 
he  hears  it  from  his  teacher,  he  will  be  sure  to 
forget  it  very  soon.  In  one  word,  the  pupil  must 
conquer  every  step  in  science  by  personal  obser- 
vation and  experience.  He  must  find  out  every 
thing  himself.  The  teacher  has  simply  to  arrange 
the  order  in  which  the  facts  of  nature  are  to  be 
presented  to  the  pupil,  and  to  lay  before  him 
only  those  phenomena  which  it  is  important  for 
him  to  observe.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  is 
plain  that  the  plan  of  going  through  all  the 
principal  phenomena  of  a  science  is  not  to  be 
adopted  in  schools.  This  is  a  method  appropri- 
ate only  to  the  last  stage  of  scientific  instruction. 
The  teacher  must  select  the  portions  of  science 
which  will  be  most  educative :  and  he  will  treat, 
them  in  such  a  way  as  to  interest  the  pupil,  and 
make  him  take  an  active  part  in  ascertaining  the 
facts  of  nature.  At  the  same  time,  he  will  take 
care  to  make  his  various  lessons  bear  on  each 
other.  Though  he  does  not  disclose  a  law,  but 
leave  it  to  dawn  upon  the  pupil's  mind  from  the 
presentation  of  instances,  he  will  see  to  it  that 
each  lesson  adds  to  the  structure  which  the  pre- 
vious one  has  helped  to  raise.  He  will  have  a  fixed 
plan  in  his  own  mind:  and  lie  will  look  forward 
to  the  intellectual  result  which  he  is  to  produce. 
in  process  of  time,  by  the  examples  and  experi- 
ments which  he  makes  the  pupil  observe  and 
perform.  —  In  all  these  considerations,  we  have 
been  looking  at  science  as  a  subject  worthy  of 
being  studied  for  its  own  sake.  This  is  unques- 
tionably true.  The  intellectual  powers  of  man 
are  an  essential  feature  of  man's  nature,  and  they 
demand  exercise.  This  exercise  is  invariably  ac- 
companied by  an  intense  pleasure.  Now.  the 
scientific  knowledge  of  nature  is  eminently  cal- 
culated to  call  the  intellectual  powers  into  activ- 
ity, and  therefore  it  opens  up  to  man  a  source  of 
pure  and  lasting  enjoyment.  Bui  the  teacher  may 
look  on  the  knowledge  of  science  from  other 
points  of  view.  .Man  is  corporeal,  and  his  physical 
well-being  depends  on  his  coining  into  proper 
relations  with  physical  nature.     It  is  important 

for  him  to  know  these  relations,  and    the  teacher 

of  youth  will  endeavor  to  enlighten  the  mind  of 

his  pupil  in  regard  to  them.  At  the  same  time, 
these  relations  are  most  deeply  impressed  OH  the 
mind,  when  the  facts  of  science  are  taught  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  education.  If  I  inform  a 
boy  that  carbonic  acid  gas  is  deleterious,  the  im- 

pression  is  of  the  faintest  nature,  anil  will  no; 
had.  in  nine  eases  out  of  ten.  to  any  action;  but 
if  I  show  the  boy  how  to  produce  carbonic  add 
gas  by  the  union  of  its  Component  elements,  that 
is.  if  1  lead  him  to  make  experiments  by  which 
the  truth  will  be  forced  upon  his  mind  without 
my  telling  him  that  it  is  injurious  to  life:  and  if. 
in  addition  to  this.  1  make  him  discover  that  he 
is  continually  exhaling  ibis  gas,  he  will  be  deeply 
impressed  with  the  necessity  of  ventilation,  and 

will  make  every  effort  to  procure  it.  Then. 
again,  nature  presents  herself  not  merely  as  the 
embodiment  of  law  but  also  as   the  embodiment 


SCIENCE 


09 


of  beauty  ;  and  the  teacher  should,  therefore,  en- 
deavor to  bring  out  this  feature  occasionally. 
He  will  point,  for  example,  to  the  exquisite 
structure  of  flowers ;  he  will  lead  the  child  to 
feel  the  loveliness  of  landscapes;  he  will  interest 
him  in  the  habits  of  animals ;  in  fact,  he  will  try 
to  make  nature  reveal  herself  to  him  in  her  con- 
crete loveliness  and  variety. 

Among  the  questions  keenly  discussed  in  con- 
nection with  science  teaching  are  (1)  the  order 
in  which  the  sciences  should  be  taught,  and 
(2)  what  sciences  are  suitable  for  schools.  Opin- 
ions on  these  subjects  will  necessarily  differ  until 
agreement  as  to  the  meaning  of  terms  is  reached. 
'i'he  fact  is,  as  we  have  seen,  that  all  the  sciences 
call  for  processes  of  thought  which  can  be  reason- 
ably expected  only  in  mature  minds ;  but  it  is 
true,  at  the  same  time,  that  separate  facts,  in  all 
these  sciences,  tending  towards  a  unity,  may  be 
discovered  by  a  child  of  eleven  or  twelve  years 
of  age.  Faraday  said  that  chemistry  could  be 
taught  to  a  boy  of  eleven;  others  denied  that  it 
could;  and  in  a  certain  sense,  both  were  right, 
from  their  respective  points  of  view.  At  the 
same  time  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  facts  of 
some  sciences,  in  the  average,  are  much  more 
complicated  than  those  of  other  sciences  ;  and, 
therefore,  there  is  wisdom  in  teaching  them  in  a 
certain  order.  Botany,  for  instance,  is  among 
the  simplest  of  the  sciences.  It  calls  into  play 
the  power  of  minute  observation.  The  child  is 
interested  in  examining  the  structure  of  the 
plant  and  the  growth  of  the  various  parts.  An 
appeal  is  also  made  to  his  powers  of  grouping  or, 
in  other  words,  of  classification.  And  the  pupil 
has  a  large  field  in  botany  for  these  two  activities. 
(See  Botany.)  The  same  is  true  of  the  other 
science  of  classification,  zoology;  but  the  processes 
are  a  little  more  complicated.  It  should,  there- 
fore, naturally  follow  botany.  From  these,  the 
pupil  should  proceed  to  some  department  of 
physics,  and  from  that,  advance  to  chemistry. 
The  one  should  go  before  the  other;  because  the 
processes  of  chemical  motion  are  much  more  dif- 
ficult to  observe  accurately  than  those  of  me- 
chanical motion.  And  the  course  of  science  might 
well  end  with  physiology,  in  which  many  of  the 
modes  of  reasoning  employed  are  abstruse,  and 
the  student  is  continually  liable  to  be  misled  by 
appearances  and  analogies. 

II.  One  of  the  most  important  aims  of  the 
educator  is  to  lead  man  to  recognize  how  to 
live  most  successfully  for  himself ;  to  realize  the 
responsibilities  of  his  position,  and,  by  seeking 
to  comply  with  these  responsibilities,  to  attain  to 
the  greatest  possible  happiness.  h\  this  process 
of  education,  the  student  must  be  led  to  recognize 
the  material  and  physical  conditions  of  his  ex- 
istence ;  to  know  himself,  not  as  an  independent 
being,  but  as  one  dependent  upon  the  multifa- 
rious conditions  of  the  vast  scheme  of  nature,  and 
as  one,  who.  alike  in  what  he  is  and  in  that  of 
winch  he  is  capable,  is  strictly  under  the  control 
of  natural  law.  In  other  words,  man  can  only 
know  himself  by  comparison  with  other  objects 
in  nature, — can  only  know  his  powers  by  com- 
49 


parison  with  the  forces  by  which  other  forms  of 
matter  are  controlled.  Again,  as  a  mere  question 
of  material  prosperity,  the  study  of  natural  science 
is  forced  upon  our  consideration.  No  thoughtful 
man  wandering  through  the  aisles  of  a  great  inter- 
national exhibition  can  fail  to  see  that  all  prog- 
resa  in  applied  science  and  the  arts  must  be  based, 
in  the  first  place,  upon  an  exact  knowledge  of 
natural  resources,  material  and  physical.  It  will 
lie  admitted  that  knowledge  of  all  kinds  is  fun- 
damentally based  upon  the  evidence  of  our  senses, 
but  such  evidence  is  apt  to  mislead,  unless  cheeked 
by  experiment;  experiment,  to  be  of  real  utility, 
must  be  exact  and  systematic.  The  reasoning  that 
draws  conclusions  from  such  experiments  must 
be  logical;  and  language,  at  once  ample  and  exact, 
is  required  as  an  implement,  only  of  value  when 
wielded  with  precision,  to  widen  the  fields  of  in- 
quiry with  the  utmost  economy  of  mental  labor. 
We  are  compelled  to  make  these  remarks  because 
the  true  importance  of  a  scientific  study  of  nature 
has  not  been  recognized  by  the  greater  part  of 
those  who  are  engaged  in  education.  A  knowl- 
edge of  the  leading  truths  of  natural  science  is. 
however,  essential  to  education,  (1)  because  of 
their  fundamental  character,  and  (2)  because  of 
the  method  by  which  such  sciences  are  pursued . 
which  method  is  the  same  as  that  which  ought  to 
obtain  m  every  action  of  our  every-day  lives. 
Comparing  the  training  given  by  language  and 
mathematics  with  that  given  by  natural  science. 
we  see  that,  whilst  language  cultivates  the  mem- 
ory, and  mathematics  trains  the  reasoning  facul- 
ties, neither  affords  any  means  for  the  cultivation 
of  observation  and  experiment.  Turning  to  the 
natural  sciences  themselves,  we  find  that  the 
physical  branches  cultivate  observation,  experi- 
ment, and  inductive  reasoning;  while  the  material 
branches,  including  the  natural  history  sciences, 
cultivate  especially  the  faculties  of  observation 
and  systematic  classification.  But,  in  addition 
to  this,  from  the  multitudinous  data  with  which 
the  latter  deal,  and  the  impossibility  of  obtain- 
ing complete  series  of  such  data,  these  studies  in- 
evitably lead  the  inquiring  mind  to  a  constant 
consideration  of  probabilities,  or,  in  other  words, 
to  a  habit,  of  the  utmost  importance  to  us  prac- 
tically, of  justly  weighing  circumstantial  evidence. 
In  view  of  the  vast  mass  of  facts  accumulating 
more  and  more  rapidly  each  day  from  the  various 
fields  of  scientific  investigation,  it  is  impossible 
that  any  human  mind  can  grasp  all  the  details  of 
even  a  single  branch.  The  following  considerations 
are,  however,  important  in  this  view  of  education: 

(1)  that,  by  experience  in  some  two  sciences,  the 
one  physical  and  the  other  relating  to  the  forms 
assumed  by  matter,  the  student  should  learn  the 
principles  on  which  these  natural  sciences  are 
pursued,  and  therefrom  be  able  to  appreciate  the 
value    of    scientific    training    and    knowledge  ; 

(2)  that  he  should  understand  the  general  scope 
of  the  various  sciences  ;  (3)  that  he  should  be 
familiar  with  the  broad  generalizations  of  science; 
(4)  that  he  should  not  be  ignorant  of  such  com- 
mon scientific  details  as  occur  to  us  every  day. 
and  have  an  immediate  and  direct  connection 


TO 


SCIENCE 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS 


with  our  welfare  and  success  in  life;  and  (5)  that 
he  should  be  taught  how  to  obtain  information 
by  reference,  and  how  to  weigh  the  trustworthi- 
ness of  authorities.  In  order  that  the  second 
and  third  of  tliLsc  requirements  may  lie  intelli- 
gently obtained,  they  must  logically  be  preceded 
by  the  first,  and  simultaneously  the  acquisition 
of  the  knowledge  implied  by  the  fifth  may  well 
be  commenced.  In  the  physical  branches  of 
scientific  inquiry,  qualitative  analytical  chemistry 
theoretically  best  meets  the  requirements  of  the 
ease;  in  the  material  sciences,  we  may  select  one 
of  thosc>  which  are  called  natural  history  sciences. 
Under  this  head,  certain  of  the  natural  sciences 
which  treat  of  the  living  forms  of  matter  wire 
formerly  included  ;  but  the  term  is  a  most  indef- 
inite one,  and  must  cease  to  be  used  at  all,  if  con- 
fined to  its  old  signification.  The  sciences  espe- 
cially included  under  it,  botany  and  zoology, have 
been  placed  upon  altogether  new  and  broader 
foundations  as  branches  of  biology,  so  that  they 
now  cover  morphological  and  physiological 
ground  never  contemplated  in  the  old  use  of  the 
term.  There  would  seem  to  be  a  propriety  in 
using  the  term  to  express  that  pursuit  of  nature 
winch  is  essentially  out-of-door  in  its  character. 
—  the  study  of  the  external  relationship  of  beings 
to  each  other  ;  and  in  this  view  we  should  cer- 
tainly need  to  include  geological  investigations. 
At  the  same  time,  it  will  be  apparent  to  every 
naturalist  that  the  scope  of  such  a  term  could 
not  be  rigorously  defined.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  an  out-of-door  study  of  nature  ought 
to  be  an  essential  element  of  education.  It  may 
belong  before  it  is  generally  introduced  into  the 
courseof  school  education,  but  it  should  certainly 
be  enforced  upon  the  community  as  a  dut\  al 
least  in  home  culture.  It  should  be  used  to  cul- 
tivate habits  of  close,  exact,  and  systematic  ob- 
servation, commence  I  in  the  field  and  continued 
in  the  laboratory;  of  judiciously  collecting,  care- 
fully preserving  and  classifying,  some  one  or 
more  series  of  natural  objects;  ami  of  referring 
for  information  not  to  be  obtained  by  personal 
inquiry,  regarding  the  objects  observed  and  col- 
lected, to  trustworthy  sources.  I'.y  well-judged 
training  in  either  botany  or  any  one  of  the 
branches  of  zoology,  the  ends  above  indicated 
may  be  attained  ;  whilst  the  general  spirit  of  ob- 
servation an  inquiry  in  the  wide  field  of  natural 
science  that  will  be  encouraged, 'will  lead  to  a 
breadth  and  liberality  of  mental  tone.  Nor  need 
this  general  and  more  desultory  observation  be 

dreaded,  as  apt  to  lead  to  hasty,  unfounded,  and 

inexact  acquirements,  if  the  mind  is  duly  drained, 
as  had  ben  suggested,  in  rigorous  methods  of 

thought  by  the  exact  pursuit  of  some  special  sub 

jeet  of  Scientific  study.     If  there  be  any  truth  in 

the  suggestions  just  thrown  out,  it  will  be  ap- 
parent that  such  training  in  the  natural  history 
sciences  cannol  be  commenced  too  early  in  life, 
because  the  spirit  of  the  training  is  such  that  ii 
should  imbue  the  entire  mental  cultureof  the  in- 
dividual; and,  furthermore,  if  this  early  training 
has  been  neglected,  the  study  of  science  in  an 
advanced  period  of  education,  will  not  be  so  suc- 


cessful, because  it  will  lack  the  vivid  conceptions 
which  can  only  lie  acquired  by  the  exercise  of 
the  observing  faculties  in  early  life.  It  only 
remains  to  add  that,  as  all  teaching  by  the  very 
nature  of  these  sciences  must  be  objective,  the 
duty  of  the  instructor,  at  every  stage  of  science 
teaching,  is  to  supplement  nature  and  not  to 
take  her  place, — not  to  impart  information  butto 
guide  the  pupil  in  the  self-acquirement  of  knowl- 
edge. Books,  similarly,  are  only  to  lie  permitted 
as  dictionaries  to  explain  such  points  as  the  pupil 
cannot  elucidate  by  his  own  efforts. — See  Payne. 
The  True  Foundation  of  Science-Teaehing 
(London):  Welson,  Essay  on  Teaching  Natural 
Science  in  Schools,  in  Farbab's  Essays  on  a 
Liberal  Education  (London);  Lectures  on  Edu- 
cation— delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution  of 
Great  Britain  (London.  1855) ;  Whewell,  Oh, 
the  Principles  of  English  Education  (lxmdon, 
1838);  Yodmans,  The  Culture  Demanded  by 
Modern  I/ife  (New York,  1867);  BrwacKR,What 
Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth  in  Education:  In- 
tellectual, Moral,  and  Physical  (NewYbrk,1866). 

SCIENCE  OF  GOVERNMENT,  the 
name  given  to  a  branch  of  instruction  in  pri- 
mary or  secondary  schools,  which  is  designed  to 
impart  to  the  pupils  a  know  ledge  of  the  political 
system  under  which  they  live,  and  to  make 
them,  as  far  as  requisite,  familiar  with  the  dif- 
ferent functions  of  government, and  the  mode 
in  which  they  are  performed.  It,  generally,  in- 
cludes a  consideration  of  the  constitution  of  the 
country  or  state,  tin'  qualifications  and  duties  of 
the  principal  officers  of  government,  the  legal 
restrictions  imposed  upon  citizens,  and  an  out- 
line of  civil  ami  municipal  regulations.  Many 
excellent  treatises  have  been  prepared  for  this 
purpose  for  use  in  elementary  schools:  and. 
there  can  be  no  question  of  the  value  of  this  de- 
partment of  instruction  for  all  classes  of  pupils, 
particularly  in  public  schools,  one  of  the  most 
important  objects  of  which  is  to  prepare  for  in- 
telligent and  useful  citizenship. 

SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS  are  higher  insti- 
tutions, in  which  instruction  in  science, practical 
and  theoretical,  is  the  special  object.  They  in- 
clude polytechnic  schools  (those  in  which  va- 
rious branches  of  science  are  taught  ;.  and  special 

schools,  such  as  those  of  mining,  engineering, etc. 
— In  Europe,  they  are  generally  supported  by 
the  state.  The  real  schools  (q.  v.)  in  Germany 
are  essentially  scientific  schools  of  a  lower  grade. 
In  Austria  Hungary, there  are  seven  polytech- 
nic institutes  (having,  in  the  winter  of  1875  6, 
327  instructors  and  4,405  pupils);  namely,  in 
Vienna,  Buda-Pesth,  Prague  (one  German  and 
one  Bohemian),  Gratz,  Lemberg,  and  Briinn. 
The  oldest  are  those  in  Prague,  founded  in  1806. 
That  in  Vienna,  founded  in  1815,  has  five  de- 
partments (one  of  general  Bcience,  and  schools  of 
engineering,  architecture,  mechanical  engineer- 
ing, and  chemistry);  the  others  lack  one  or  more 
of  these  departments.— The  German  Empire 
has  It)  scientific  institutes  (having,  in  the  winter 
of  L875  n.  198  instructors  and  6,644  pupils); 
namely,  the   Academy  of   Architecture   (Bau- 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS 


771 


a&ademie)  in  Berlin;  the  Technological  Academy 
fGewerbe-Akademie)  in  the  same  place,  with  de- 
partments of  mechanics  and  engineering,  of  chem- 
istry and  metallurgy,  and  of  naval  construction: 
and  the  polytechnic  schools  in  Hanover,  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  Munich,  Dresden,  Stuttgart,  Carlsruhe, 
Darmstadt,  and  Brunswick.  The  last,  founded 
in  1745,  is  the  oldest.  The  Berlin  academies 
were  founded  in  1799  and  1820,  respectively. 
The  polytechnic  schools  have  several  depart- 
lents  :  that  in  Munich  includes  one  of  agri- 
culture ;  that  in  Dresden,  one  of  mathematics 
and  physical  science  for  teachers  ;  that  in  ( 'arls- 
■uhe,  one  of  forestry  ;  and  that  in  Brunswick, 
me  of  pharmacy,  and  one  of  forestry.  Common 
most  of  them,  as  branches  of  instruction,  are 
mechanics,  engineering,  architecture,  mathemat- 
ics, physics,  and  chemistry. — In  Fnut.ce,  the 
Polytechnic  School  in  Paris  is  organized  on  a 
military  basis,  and  has  for  its  object  the  prepa- 
ration of  engineers,  and  candidates  for  positions 
in  the  artillery,  the  navy,  the  public  works,  mines, 
the  general  staff,  the  powder  and  saltpeter  facto- 
ries, the  telegraphic  institutions,  and  the  tobacco 
administration.  It  was  founded  in  1795,  and, 
in  1873,  had  426  pupils.  It  is,  properly,  only 
preparatory  to  higher  special  institutions,  mili- 
tary and  civil.  The  latter  include  the  Central 
School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  {Kcolecentrale 
des  (iris  et  manufactures),  designed  for  the  in- 
struction of  civil  engineers  and  directors  of  fac- 
tories and  metallurgical  establishments ;  the 
School  of  Bridge  and  Road  Building  (Ecole  des 
pouts  et  cJ/aussees);  and  the  Conservatory  of 
Arts  and  Trades  [Conservatoire  des  arts  et  me- 
tiers) .  These  are  all  in  Paris.  The  last-named  has 
a  collection  of  machines,  instruments,  products 
of  agriculture  and  industry,  and  a  library.  There 
are  thirteen  scientific  courses  in  technical  sub- 
jects, political  economy,  industrial  legislation, 
and  statistics,  and,  also,  an  inferior  school  of 
drawing  and  descriptive  geometry.  The  Museum 
of  Natural  History  in  Paris  affords  instruction 
to  students. — In  Italy,  there  are  scientific  schools 
in  Milan,  Turin,  Naples,  Rome,  Padua,  and 
Palermo,  the  last  three  being  connected  with 
the  universities  in  those  places. — In  Russia  are 
found  the  Technological  Institute,  the  Engineer- 
ing Institute,  and  the  School  of  Architecture, 
in  St.  Petersburg,  and  polytechnic  schools,  in 
Riga,  Moscow,  Lodz,  and  Helsingfors  (Finland). 
The  last,  in  1872 — 3,  had  118  students;  the 
others,  in  1874,  2,570.  The  institution  in  Riga 
has  seven  departments:  an  agricultural,  a  chem- 
ical, a  surveying,  an  engineering,  a  mechanical 
engineering,  an  architectural,  and  a  commercial 
department. — In  Belgium,  scientific  schools  are 
connected  with  the  universities.- — Switzerland 
has  a  polytechnic  school  in  Zurich,  with  eight 
departments :  an  architectural,  an  engineering, 
a  mechanical,  and  a  chemical  department,  a 
school  of  agriculture  and  forestry,  a  depart- 
ment for  the  education  of  special  teachers  of 
mathematics  and  natural  sciences,  a  general 
philosophical  and  politico-economical  depart- 
ment, and  a  preparatory  mathematical  course. 


This  institution  was  founded  in  1854;  and,  in 
1875 — 6,  had  92  instructors  and  912  students. 
There  is,  besides,  a  scientific  department  in  the 
Academy  of  Lausanne,  and  an  architectural  de- 
partment in  the  Lyceum  of  Lugano.    The  other 

'  continental  nations  also  have  scientific  schools. 

'  —  In  Great  Britain,  there  are  no  polytechnic 
schools.  There  are,  however,  private  associations 
that  offer  instruction  in  science;  and  the  South 
Kensington  Museum  in  London,  which  possesses 
rich  collections  in  art,  natural  history,  and  sci- 

|  ence,  also  maintains  schools.  Lectures  are  also 
given  on  scientific  subjects  in  the  universities 
of  London,  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin. 
The  Royal  College  of  Science,  in  Dublin,  and 
the  Royal  Mining  School,  in  London,  may  also 
be  mentioned. 

In  Europe,  there  are  numerous  special  schools 
of  agriculture  and  forestry.  Austria  has  a  school 
of  vine  culture  and  pomology  at  Klosterneuburg. 
The  principal  mining  institutions  of  the  conti- 
nent are  as  follows  :  in  Austria-Hungary,  the 
mining  academies  at  Leoben,  Pribram,  and 
Schemnitz,  and  eight  mining  schools  ;  in  Ger- 
many, the  mining  academies  in  Berlin,  Claus- 
thal,  and  Freiberg  (opened  in  1766),  and  14 
mining  schools;  in  France, the  National  Mining 
School  in  Paris  (of  a  higher  grade),  and  the 
mining  schools  at  St.  Etienne  and  Alais;  in  Italy, 
the  mining  schools  at  Caltanisetta  and  Agordo, 
and  the  special  school  for  quarrying  and  working 
marble,  at  Carrara  ;  in  Russia,  the  Imperial  In- 
stitute of  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  seven  intermediate  and  lower  mining 
schools  ;  in  Sweden,  the  mining  department  of 
the  Technological  Institute  of  Stockholm  ;  in 
Belgium,  the  special  school  of  mines  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Liege,  and  the  provincial  school  of 
trades,  industry,  and  mining,  at  Mons. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  reports,  in  1875,  74  schools  of  science 
(mining,  engineering,  agricultural,  etc.),  including 
separate  institutions  and  departments  of  colleges 
and  universities,  with  758  instructors  and  7,157 
students.  Of  these,  41  are  endowed  by  the  na- 
tional land  grant  as  agricultural  colleges ;  but 
most  or  all  of  them  have  one  or  more  additional 
courses,  as  of  general  science,  engineering,  etc. 
(For  their  special  features,  see  Agricultural, 
Colleges.)  The  terms  of  admission  to  Amer- 
ican scientific  schools  vary  somewhat  in  the  dif- 
ferent institutions,  but  include  arithmetic,  ele- 
mentary algebra  and  geometry,  geography,  En- 
glish grammar  and  composition,  and  history. 
The  course  generally  covers  four,  sometimes  only 
three  years,  and  leads  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Science,  or  appropriate  special  degrees  (as 
Civil  Engineer, etc.).  The  curriculum  commonly 
embraces  the  higher  mathematics,  English  lan- 
guage and  literature,  history,  French  and  Ger- 
man, chemistry,  drawing,  physics,  natural  his- 
tory, astronomy,  mental  science,  and  political 
economy,  besides  special  branches  appropriate  to 
the  particular  course  pursued.  Of  separate  in- 
stitutions, the  oldest  is  the  Rensselaer  Polytech- 
nic Institute  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  founded  in  1824, 


772 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS 


and  re-organized  in  1840.  It  has  a  course  in 
civil  engineering  (understood  to  include  mechan- 
ical or  dynamical  engineering,  road  engineering. 
bridge  engineering,  hydraulic  engineering,  etc.). 
Other  prominent  institutions  are  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  (opened  in  L861), 
in  Boston,  with  10  courses  (civil  engineering, 
mechanical  engineering,  mining  engineering, 
architecture,  chemistry,  metallurgy,  natural  his- 
tory, physics,  science  and  literature,  philosophy); 
the  Illinois  Industrial  University  (1867),  at  Ur- 
bana,  111.,  with  courses  in  agriculture,  horticult- 
ure, mechanical,  mining,  and  civil  engineering, 
architecture,  chemistry,  natural  history,  English 
and  modern  languages,  ancient  languages,  mili- 
tary  science,  commerce,  and  domestic  science 
and  art  (for  women);  the  Stevens  Institute  of 
Technology  (1871),  in  Iloboken,  N.  J.,  a  school 
of  mechanical  engineering;  Purdue  University 
(L874),at  Lafayette,  End.,  with  a  course  in  gen- 
eral science,  and  courses  in  agriculture,  horti- 
culture, civil  engineering,  industrial  design, 
physics  and  mechanics,  chemistry  and  metal- 
lurgy, and  natural  history  ;  the  State  School  of 
-Mines  (1874),  at  Golden,  Col.;  and  the  New 
Market  Polytechnic  Institute,  at  New  Market, 
\'a.,  with  a  mechanical-engineering,  a  civil-en- 
gineering, a  chemical,  and  a  classical  course. 
Among  scientific  departments  (for  mention  of 
which  see  the  articles  on  the  institutions  to 
which  they  belong),  may  be  instanced  the  Law- 
rence Scientific  School  (Harvard  University), 
the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  (Vale  <  'ollege),  the 
School  of  Mines  of  ( lolumbia  <  'ollege,  the  Chand- 
ler Scientific  I  department  and  the  Thayer  School 
of  Civil  Engineering  (Dartmouth  College),  the 
John  C.  Green  School  of  Science  (('ollege  of 
"New  Jersey),  the  Scientific  School  of  Rutger3 
( 'ollege,  the  Engineering  School  of  Union  Uni- 
versity, the  Pardee  Scientific  Department  of 
Lafayette  College,  and  the  Missouri  School  of 
Mines  ami  Metallurgy  (University  of  Missouri). 
Cornell  University  and  some  other  institutions 
have  various  scientific  courses,  without  a  distinct 
organization.  The  Worcester  County  Free  In- 
stitute of  Industrial  Science,  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  was  opened  inl8(J8.  It  offers  instruction 
in  mechanical  engineering,  civil  engineering, 
drawing,  physics,  chemistry,  English,  French, 
and  German.  The  course  occupies  three  and  a 
half  years  for  those  preparing  to  become  mechan- 
ical engineers,  and  three  years  for  all  others. 
Much  attention  is  given  in  this  institution  to 
practice,  it  being  designed  to  impart  sufficient 
practical  familiarity  with  some  branch  of  ap-  | 
l>liei I  science,  to  secure  to  its  graduates  a  liveli- 
hood. At  the  middle  of  the  firsl  year,  every 
student  (except  the  mechanical  section)  chooses 
home  department,  under  the  advice  <>l"  the  in- 
structors, and  devotes  ten  hours  a  week  and  the 
month  of  duly,  to  practice  in  that  department 
until  his  graduation,  that  is,  for  two  and  a  half 
years.  The  mechanical  section  practice  in  the 
machine  shop  from  the  beginning,  that  is,  for 
three  ami  a  half  years.  Students  who  select 
•  hemistry,  work  in  the  laboratory  ;  the  civil  en- 


S GOTLAND 

gineers,  at  field  work  or  problems  in  construc- 
tion;  and  the  designers,  at  problems  in  design. 
The  shop  is  managed  as  a  manufacturing  estab- 
lishment, in  order  that  the  students  may  always 
work  in  the  wholesome  atmosphere  of  real 
business. 

SCOTLAND,  the  northern  part  of  the  island 
of  Great  Britain,  and  an  important  division  of 
the  United  Kingdom  of  the  same  name.  Its 
area  contains  30,463  sq.  m.;  and  its  population, 
according  to  the  census  of  1ST1 .  was  3,360,018. 

Educational  History. — The  system  of  com- 
mon schools,  under  which  Scotland  became  cel- 
ebrated  for  tin-  general  diffusion  of  education 
among  its  people,  was  founded  in  1  695,  by  the 
law    which    required    that    a   school    should    be 

established  and  "a.  school-master  appointed  i, 
every  parish  by  advice  of  the  presbyteries."  (See 
Prksbyteriajss.)     The  fundamental  principle  of 

tree  schools  was  recognized  in  this  act.  thus  en 
titling  Scotland  to  the  credit  of  having  firsl 
established  schools  for  primary  instruction  to  be 
supported  at  the  public  expense.  Indeed,  as  early 
as  L617,  King  -lames  visited  Scotland  to  oblige 
the  privy  council  to  establish  parish  schools,  in 
L 69 6,  the  system  was  completed  by  an  act  of  par- 
liament. The  minimum  of  salary  to  be  paid  the 
teacher  was  fixed,  and  the  proprietors  were  re- 
quired to  meet,  and  vote  the  requisite  funds,which 
if  they  failed  to  do  ,the  commissioners  of  taxes  wer  • 
required  to  levy  the  school  tax.  It  is  the  effect  of 
this  law.  and  of  the  parish  schools  that  it  created, 
which  has  been  said  tobe.  ••beyond  contradiction, 
one  of  the  most  memorable  examples  of  the 
action  which  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  exerts 
upon  (he  morality  and  well-being  of  nations. " 
In  L803,  the  salary  of  the  school-master  was 
fixed  at  £16  13s.  4d.  as  a  minimum ;  and,  in 
L 828,  it  was  again  raised,  to  £25  13s.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  salary  fixed  by  law.  the  teachers  re- 
ceived a  small  fee  from  each  pupil.  Besides  the 
parish  schools,  many  others  have  been  estab- 
lished by  the  Societv  in  Scotland  for  Propagat- 
ing Christian  Knowledge,  as  well  as  by  the 
Established  Church,  and  other  religious  denomi- 
nations. But,  while  the  parochial  system  was 
most  beneficent  in  its  operation  for  many  gener- 
ations, it  was  found  inadequate  for  the  wants  of 
the  great  modem  towns.  There  was,  however, 
no  difficulty  in  regard  to  religion;  because,  in 
every    class   of    schools,    the    religious    views    of 

parents  were  carefully  respected.  Hence.  Roman 

Catholic  children  often  attended  the  Presbyte- 
rian schools,  which  constituted  the  great  major- 
ity of  all  the  schools  in  the  country.  By  the 
act  of  Aug.  ('>.,  L872,  a  new  system  was  inau- 
gurated, built  on  the  old  parochial  system. 

Primary  Instruction.-    According  to  the  law 
of  1872,   "to  amend  and  extend  the  provisions 

of  the  law  of  Scotland  on  the  subject  of  educa- 
tion."  the    management    of    that    department    ol 

state  affairs  is  intrusted  to  the  Committee  ot 
Council  on  Education.    The  provisions  of  law 

here  referred  to  are  those  of  the  several  laws  of 
L696,  L803,  and  L828,  already  referred  to,  and 
the  laws  of  1837j  L838  (to  facilitate  the  founda 


SCOTLAND 


773 


tion  and  endowment  of  additional  schools),  and 
1861  (the  Parochial  and  Burgh  School-masters 

Act).  A  board  of  education  has  been  temporarily 
established,  consisting  of  five  members,  appointed 
by  the  queen,  but  to  be  responsible  to  the  Scotch 
Education  Department.  The  national  system 
organized  under  the  law  of  1872,  is,  iu  its  main 
features,  similar  to  that  established  in  England 
by  the  law  of  1870.  The  denominational  system, 
however,  is  more  thoroughly  interwoven  with  it ; 
but  parliamentary  grants  cannot  be  made  "for 
or  in  respect  of  religious  instruction."  The  "con- 
science clause"  provides  that  every  public  school 
shall  be  open  to  children  of  all  denominations, 
and  any  child  may  be  withdrawn  by  his  parents 
from  any  religious  observance  in  the  school, 
which  must  be  practiced,  if  at  all,  at  the  be- 
ginning or  at  the  end  of  the  session.  A  school 
board,  consisting  of  not  less  than  5  nor  more 
than  15  members,  is  elected  in  each  parish  and 
burgh  ;  and  the  electors  consist  of  all  persons 
on  the  latest  valuation  roll,  as  owners  or  occu- 
piers of  "  lands  or  heritages  of  the  annual  value 
of  not  less  than  £4,  situated  in  the  parish  or 
burgh.  Every  voter  is  entitled  to  as  many  votes 
as  there  are  members  to  be  elected,  and  may 
distribute  them  among  the  candidates  as  he 
thinks  fit.  These  school  boards  have  the  charge 
of  the  schools,  and  appoint  and  dismiss  the 
teachers  ;  but  they  are  not  required  to  make  any 
restriction  as  to  religious  teaching  beyond  the 
provisions  above  stated.  All  the  teachers  must  be 
certificated,  after  an  examination  by  examiners 
appointed  by  the  school  board  ;  and  such  exam- 
iners must  be  "professors  in  a  Scotch  university, 
or  teachers  of  distinction  iu  a  higher-class  public 
school."  The  revenues  of  the  school  consist  of 
(1)  contributions  payable  from  the  common 
good  of  the  burghs  in  which  they  respectively 
exist ;  (2)  all  endowments  applicable  to  the  gen- 
eral purposes  of  the  respective  schools  ;  (3)  en- 
dowments for  the  promotion  of  instruction  in 
particular  subjects,  or  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  of 
particular  branches  in  the  respective  schools;  and 
(4)  fees  paid  by  scholars.  The  schools  are  not 
free,  except  to  indigent  pupils,  the  fees  for  whose 
instruction  must  be  paid  out  of  the  poor  fund 
of  the  parish  or  burgh,  on  the  order  of  the  school 
board.  The  compulsory  clause  prohibits  any 
person  from  employing  a  child  under  the  age  of 
13,  who  has  not  attended  school  regularly,  for  at 
least  3  years,  between  the  ages  of  5  and  13,  and 
is  unable  to  read  and  write,  unless  he  makes  pro- 
vision for  the  education  of  the  child.  To  exempt 
such  employer  from  prosecution  under  this 
clause,  an  inspector's  certificate  of  the  child's 
ability  to  read  and  write  must  be  shown.  The 
general  provisions  of  the  Scottish  Education  Code 
are  similar  in  character  to  those  of  the  English 
code.  (See  England.) — The  chief  items  of  school 
statistics  for  1875  are  as  follows  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5. — 13) 629,254 

"       "  pupils  enrolled  iuthe  public  schools.  2!t()  874 

Average   daily  attendance 211'. Jim; 

Number  of  schools  under  school  boards 2,803 

"        "  certificated  teachers 3, 35  I 

"       "  pupil-teachers 2, 17") 


In  1874,  the  whole  number  of  pupils  enrolled 
in  the  schools  was  344,628,  of  whom  46,276 
were  under  0  years  of  age;  252,521.  between 
6  and  12  ;  and  45,831,  above  12.  The  aggregate 
average  attendance  was  263,748  ;  and  the  num- 
ber ot  certificated  teachers,  3,165.  Accommoda- 
tion was  afforded  for  372,00(1  pupils  at  8  square 
feet  of  superficial  area  per  child.  In  1876,  the 
annual  grants  schools  showed  an  average  at- 
tendance of  304,000.  rl  lie  average  attendance 
all  over  Scotland  is  about  75  per  cent  of  the 
enrollment.  The  number  of  schools  inspected 
in  1874  was  2,609,  of  which  221  did  not  fulfill 
the  conditions  permitting  annual  grants.  There 
were  102  night  schools,  attended  by  5,555 
scholars  above  12  years  of  age.  There  were  6 
training  colleges,  attended  by  822  students. 
There  were  12  reformatory  schools,  with  791 
boys  and  257  girls;  and  27  industrial  schools, 
with  2,493  boys  and  992  girls.  The  compulsory 
education  system  of  Scotland  is  represented  as 
being  remarkably  efficient  and  satisfactory,  hav- 
ing increased  the  attendance,  from  1872  to  1875, 
to  the  extent  of  42  per  cent.  The  inspec- 
tion is  similar  to  that  of  England,  the  grants 
being  allowed  only  on  results  as  shown  by 
passes  under  the  inspector's  examination.  To 
this  system  much  objection  is  made,  the  teach- 
er's success  and  pay  depending  too  much  on  the 
judgment,  and,  as  is  said,  sometimes  on  the 
caprice,  of   the  inspector. 

Educational  Associations. — There  are  several 
educational  associations  in  Scotland,  especially 
distinguished  among  which  is  the  Educational 
Institute  of  Scotland,  of  comparatively  recent, 
establishment,  which  has  its  branches  in  various 
parts  of  the  country,  its  roll  of  members  now 
numbering  about  2,000.  The  Parochial  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Education,  recently 
organized  at  Eogart,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Duke  of  Sutherland,  aims  at  the  advancement 
of  education  in  the  parishes  by  means  of  an  an- 
nual distribution  of  prizes,  and  the  awarding 
of  bursaries  to  promising  pupils  of  the  element- 
ary schools,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  obtain  a 
higher  education.  The  Edinburgh  Ladies'  Edu- 
cational Association  has  rendered  valuable  ser- 
vice in  improving  the  opportunities  of  their  sex 
for  a  higher  education. 

Secondary  Instruction. — In  many  of  the  large 
country  parishes,  subsidiary  schools  have  been 
established,  which  provide  for  secondary  as  well 
as  primary  instruction.  The  chief  representatives 
of  secondary  instruction  are,  however,  the  high 
schools  and  academies.  Among  them,  the  High 
School  and  the  Academy  of  Edinburgh,  the  High 
School  of  Glasgow,  and  the  academy  of  Perth,  are 
specially  distinguished.  The  High  School  of  Edin- 
burgh is  mentioned,  even  in  1519,  as  the  Cram- 
mar  School  of  the  City.  It  was  re-organized  in 
1598,  and  received  from  King  James  VI.  the 
name  Schokt  Regia  Edinburgensis.  It  prepares 
its  pupils,  who  at  the  time  of  their  admission 
must  be  8  years  of  age,  either  for  the  university 
or  for  business  life,  and,  therefore,  corresponds 
partly  to  the  German  gymnasium,  and  partly  to 


774 


SCOTLAND 


the  real  school.  The  branches  of  study  arc 
partly  compulsory  or  imperative,  as  Latin,  the 
English  language  and  literature,  history  and 
geography,  and  natural  history;  and  partly  op- 
tional, as  Greek,  French,  German,  mathematics, 
book-keeping,  drawing,  and  gymnastics.  The 
Edinburgh  Academy  was  opened,  in  1824,  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  It  consists  of  7  classes,  and 
likewise  comprises  a  classical  and  a  scientific 
course  (Classical  Side  and  Modern  Side),  It  be- 
longs to  a  stock  company,  which  elects  from  its 
own  midst  15  directors,  who  appoint  the  rector 
and  the  other  teachers,  regulate,  conjointly  with 
the  rector,  all  the  affairs  of  the  school,  attend 
the  examination,  and  distribute  the  prizes.  The 
classical  course  prepares  for  the  university;  the 
scientific  course,  for  the  civil  and  military  ser- 
vice, and  for  commercial  life. — The  .Madras  Col- 
I  ige,  at  St.  Andrews,  owes  its  origin  to  the 
liberality  of  l>r.  Andrew  Bell  (q.v.),  who  be- 
queathed the  sum  of  £45,000,  in  three  per  cent 
stock,  for  the  erection  of  a  seminary,  on  a  com- 
prehensive plan,  in  this,  his  native,  city.  'I  be 
seminary  affords  instruction  gratis  to  the  poor, 
and  the  fees  are  very  low  even  for  others.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  attended  schools  of  this  class  in 
Scotland,  having  more  than  1,000  pupils.  The 
grammar  school  of  Perth  was  formerly  the  most 
celebrated  in  Scotland,  and  was  attended  bypu- 

Jiils  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.— The  Jesuits 
iave  a  college  (St. Aloysius') ,  at  Glasgow.  The 
education  of  women  has  long  been  on  a  higher 
level  in  Scotland  than  in  England.  Of  late, 
E  Hue  important    improvements  have  been  made. 

(See  Women,  Higher  Education  of.) 

The  Universities.  Scotland  has  four  univer- 
sities: St.  Andrews,  founded  in  L410,  ami 
confirmed  by  papal  decree  in  1111  ;  Glasgow, 
founded  in  1450 ;  Aberdeen,  founded  in  1494; 
ami  Edinburgh,  founded  in  1552.  The  three 
former  were  established  by  papal  authority;   that 

of  Edinburgh,by  King  .lames  VI.  In  regard  to 
their  organization,  the  Scotch  universities  have 

always  resembled  more  those  of  the  continent  of 
Europe  than   those  of    England.     The   students 

were  divided  into  four  nations,  as  they  still  are 
in  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen.  They  do  not  live  in 
the  college  halls,  like  the  students  of  the  En- 
glish universities,  but  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
university  authorities  over  them  ceases  when 
they  are  beyond  the  walls  of  the  university. 
In  1858,  a  uniform  constitution  was  given  them 
by  the  university  act.  Each  of  the  universities 
has  three  governing  bodies,  -  a  senatus  oca- 
demicus,  a  university  court,  and  a  general  coun- 
cil.    The  senate, which  consists  of  the    principal 

(elected  for  life  by  the  Crown)  and  the  professors. 
takes  charge  of  instruction,  of  discipline,  and  of 
the  finances  of    the  University.       Its  decisions  are 

reviewed  by  the  university  court,  consisting  of 

the  rector,  its  president,  the  principal,  and  as- 
sessors Dominated  respectively  by  the  chancellor, 
the  rector,  the  general  council,  and  the  senate. 
In  Glasgow,  the  dean  of   faculties,  elected  an 

nuallv   by  the  senate,  is  also  a  member  :    and.  in 

Edinburgh,  there  are  two  additional  members, 


the  Lord  Provost  of  the  City,  and  an  assessor, 
elected  by  the  city  corporation.  It  is  also  the 
office  of  the  university  court,  to  fix  the  fees,  to 
superintend  the  professors,  and,  if  necessary,  to 
censure,  suspend,  or  deprive  them  of  office.  The 
general  council,  which  is  composed  of  all  the 
registered  graduates  and  alumni,  and  is  a  merely 
deliberative  body,  discusses  all  questions  con- 
cerning the  interests  of  the  university,  and  sub- 
mit.-; tin  in  to  the  decision  of  the  university 
court.  The  general  council  elects  a  chancellor 
for  life,  who  becomes  its  president,  and.  in  turn. 
appoints  a  vice-chancellor.  The  general  coun- 
cils of  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh,  and  also 
those  of  Aberdeen  and  Glasgow,  conjointly  re- 
turn a  member  of  Parliament.  The  matriculated 
'  students  elect,  for  the  period  of  three  years,  the 
rector,  an  office  which  is  of  a  merely  honorary 
character,  and  usually  conferred  upon  distin- 
guished non-residents.     The   Scotch  universities 

confer  the  degrees  of  .Master  of  Arts.  Bachelor 
of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Divinity.  Bachelor  of 
.Medicine.  .Master  in  Surgery,  Doctor  of  Med- 
icine, and    Doctor  of  Laws.     At    Clasgow,  the 

degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  is  also  conferred: 
at  St.  Andrews  and    Edinburgh,  the  degrees  of 

Bachelor  of  Science  and  Doctor  of  Science;  and. 
at  Glasgow  ami  Edinburgh,  the  degrees  of  Bach- 
elor of  Law  and.  Doctor  of  Law.  Besides  the  uni- 
versity medical  degrees,  licenses  are  issued  in  Scot- 
land by  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  (incor- 
porated in  1681  i.  Edinburgh,  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  (incorporated  in  L505),  Edinburgh; 
and  the  faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of 
»  dasgow  (incorporated  in  I  592). — The  university 
of  St.  Andrews  originally  consisted  of  three  col- 
leges. St.  Salvador's,  St.  Leonard's,  and  St.  Ma- 
rys, the  two  former  of  which  were  united  in 
1747.  when  the  buildings  of  St.  Leonard's  were 
pulled,  down.  The  two  colleges  are  in  different 
parts  of  the  town,  each  having  its  own  principal; 
and  their  professors  and  discipline  are  quite  dis- 
tinct. The  United  College  is  appropriated  to 
the  studj  of  languages,  philosophy,  and  science: 
and  St.  Mary,  to  that  of  theology.  The  United 
College,  in  1876,  had  '.'.and  St.  Mary's.  I.  pro- 
fessors. The  number  of  matriculated  students 
was  L43,  of  graduates.  20;  the  proceeds  available 

for  bursaries,  prizes,  and  scholarships  amount  an- 
nually to  about  £2,000.     Aberdeen  had  formerly 

two  universities,  in  each  of  which  one  college  had 
been  founded.  That  of  (  Hd  Aberdeen  was  founded 

by  Bishop  William  Elphinstone,  in  1494,  under 

a  papal  bull  of  Alexander  VI.;  and  early  re- 
ceived the  name  of  King's  College,  instead  of 
that  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  to  whom  it  was  origin- 
ally dedicated.  The  other  was  established  in 
N.w  Aberdeen,  in  1593,  and  called  Marischal 
College,  from  its  founder  George  Keith.  Earl 
Marischal.  The  two  foundations  were  united 
by  Charles  1.  under  the  name  of  King  Charles's 
University  of  Aberdeen,  but  retained  their 
character' of   distinct    colleges    till     I860,    when 

they  were  finally  incorporated  as  the  University 
of  Aberdeen.  In  1876,  the  university  had  21 
professors, 3  ••Murray  lecturers.''  1  •■  MurtlcL 


SCOTLAND 


SELF-EDUCATION 


115 


urer"'  (on  the  evidences  of   Christianity),  and 

1  ••  Fordyec  lecturer."  The  total  number  of 
matriculated  students  was  845;  of  graduates,  -1 1 ; 
of  members  of  general  council,  2391.    There  is 

an  annual  public  competition  for  bursaries,  and, 
in  L876,  the  sum  of  £4468  was  held  in  bursaries 
by  254  students.  King's  College  now  com 
prises  the  faculties  of  arts  and  divinity,  and  Ma- 
rischal,  those  of  law  and  medicine. — The  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow  was  founded,  in  1450,  by 
Bishop  Turnbull.  In  14l>0,  James  Lord  Ham- 
ilton bequeathed  for  the  use  of  the  college  a 
tenement  in  the  High  Street,  with  four  acres  of 
land  adjoining ;  ami,  in  buildings  on  this  side, 
the  university  classes  met  for  410  years.  In 
1577,  James  VI.  made  provision  for  the  support 
of  a  principal  and  three  regents.  In  1870,  the 
(.•lasses  of  the  university  were  transferred  from 
the  old  buildings  in  the  High  Street  to  a  magnif- 
icent edifice  erected  in  Gilmorebill,  in  the  west  of 
Glasgow,  the  estimated  cost  of  which  was  about 
£350,000.  The  curriculum  is  divided  into  the 
four  faculties  of  arts,  divinity,  medicine,  and 
law.  There  were,  in  1876,  27  professors  and  1 
lecturer ;  the  number  of  matriculated  students 
was  1601;  of  graduates.  178;  of  registered  mem- 
bers of  the  General  Council,  2,835.  The  total 
university  income  amounts  to  £15,756. — The 
University  of  Edinburgh  was  chartered  by 
James  VI.  in  1582  :  and,  in  1583,  the  college 
was  opened  with  1  professor,  or  regent,  and  48 
students.  It  has  since  outgrown  the  older  uni- 
versities ;  and,  in  1876,  counted  36  professors, 
29  assistants,  and  2,065  students.  The  professor- 
ships are  divided  into  the  four  faculties  of  phi- 
losophy, law,  medicine,  and  divinity.  The 
medical  faculty  has  long  been  celebrated  as  one 
of  the  best  medical  schools  in  Europe,  and  still 
continues  to  have  the  largest  number  of  stu- 
dents. Its  library  contains  over  126,000  printed 
volumes,  and  700  volumes  in  manuscript.  Re- 
cently, a  chair  of  the  Theory  of  Teaching  has 
been  established  in  this  university,  like  that  of 
the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Education  in  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews,  in  order  to  afford 
instruction  in  practical  pedagogy. 

Special and Professional  Instruction. — (1)  The 
ministers  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland 
are  required  to  study  at  one  of  the  four  Scotch 
universities,  all  of  which  have  theological  profess- 
orships. After  devoting  four  years  to  a  literary 
and  philosophical  curriculum,  they  are  admitted 
into  the  divinity  hall,  and  spend  four  other  ses- 
sions in  prosecuting  the  study  of  theology.  The 
Free  Church  has  a  large  divinity  school  at  Edin- 
burgh, called  the  New  College  of  the  Free 
Church;  it  has  also  divinity  halls  at  (Glasgow 
and  Aberdeen.  The  United  Presbyterians  have 
a  "divinity  hall." the  Congregationalists  a-  theo- 
logical hall"  (established  in  1811).  in  Edinburgh  ; 
the  Baptists  likewise  have  a  theological  institu- 
tion. The  Roman  Catholic  St.  Mary's  ( !ollege, 
Blairs,  Aberdeen,  was  established  in  1829. — 
(2)  Anderson's  University,  or  Andersonian  In- 
stitution, in  Glasgow,  founded  by  Dr.  John  An- 
derson,  professor   of   natural  philosophy    (died 


in  179(>)  embraces  a  medical  school,  mechanics' 
classes  (the  first  established  in  the  empire),  and 
a  department  of  general  studies  for  youth. 
Mechanics'  institutions,  embracing  classes  in  me- 
chanics, chemistry,  English  literature,  etc.,  have 
been  established  in  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and 
other  cities.  Edinburgh  has,  in  addition  to  the 
medical  faculty  of  the  university,  a  school  of 
medicine. —  (3)  Academies  of  art  have  been  es- 
tablished at  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow;  the  former 
city  has  also  a  naval  and  military  academy.-  See 
Sir  J.  K.  Shhttlewobth,  On  Public  Education 
(3  vols.,  L853) ;  H.Mann,  Education  in  Great 
Britain  (1854);  Blackik.  On  the  Advancement 
of  Learning  in  Scotland  (1855)  ;  Lorimer,  Tlie 
Universities  of  Scotland,  past,  present,  and  pos- 
sible; Voigt,  Mittheilungen  iiberdas  Unierrichts- 
wesen  Englands  und  Sckolllands  (2d  edit.,  1863). 

SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION,  that 
grade  of  instruction  which  is  usually  afforded 
in  high  schools,  academics,  etc.,  or  in  institutions 
above  the  ordinary  grade  of  a  common  or  pri- 
mary school.  This  grade-  of  instruction  is 
intermediate  between  primary  instruction  and 
superior  instruction,  or  that  afforded  in  colleges 
and  universities.  (See  Education,  and  High 
Schools.) 

SELF-EDUCATION,  that  development  of 
the  powers  which  is  carried  on  by  the  individual 
himself,  without  the  aid  of  others.  To  a  certain 
extent,  this  education  is  not  only  unconscious, 
but  inevitable.  The  constant  recurrence  of  like 
conditions  or  actions,  the  knowledge  of  which  is 
conveyed  to  the  individual  by  the  senses,  during 
the  growth  of  mind  and  body,  is  always  attended 
with  an  increased  skill  in  the  use  of  the  powers 
of  both,  which,  of  itself,  constitutes  an  education. 
The  agents  by  which  this  knowledge  is  converted 
into  an  unconscious  education  are  chiefly  habit 
(q.  v.)  and  experience;  the  one  producing  in- 
creased ease  of  action  under  like  circumstances, 
and  thus  rendering  the  individual  more  capable; 
the  other  enabling  him  to  systematize  his  knowl- 
edge, and  to  use  it  as  an  instrument  for  further 
acquisition.  To  determine,  in  all  cases,  just 
where  this  education  ceases,  and  voluntary  self- 
education  begins,  would  probably  be  very  diffi- 
cult; yet,  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
active  intervention  of  the  will  is  the  most  obvious 
feature  by  which  self- education  may  be  distin- 
guished. It  is  usually  regarded  as  that  educa- 
tion which  is  carried  on  intentionally,  outside,  or 
beyond  the  influence,  of  the  school.  Even  here, 
however,  the  definition  is  imperfect ;  for  it  must 
always  be  difficult  to  estimate  at  its  true  compar- 
ative value  the  strength  of  each  of  two  impulses 
which  act  thus  at  the  same  time  and  invisibly;  but. 
probably,  a  truer  conception  of  the  two  powers, 
self-education  and  school  education,  may  be  ac- 
quired by  supposing  the  difference  between  them 
to  be  one  of  function  rather  than  of  degree — 
school  education  serving  rather  as  a  director  or 
systematizer  of  power,  while  self-education  must 
often  be  looked  upon  as  identical  with  innate 
power,  from  our  inability  to  separate  the  one 
from  the  other.     We  know  what  training  the 


776 


SELF-EDU  CATION 


SEMINARY 


school  gives ;  and,  though  we  cannot  analyze  the 
results  it  produces  with  sufficient  accuracy  t 
sign  to  the  school  and    to    the    individual    the 
proper  share  due  to  each,  we   know  from  many 
comparisons  made  between  countries  with  schools 
and  those  without  them,  that  the  advantage  lies 
decidedly  with  the  former.     That  the  school  is 
rather  a  director  of  power  than  a  creator  of  it.  is 
shown  by  contrasting  the  large  number  of  men 
who  have  enjoyed  its  advantages   without  mani- 
festing special  ability  afterward  in  any  walk  of 
life,  with  those  who  have  risen  to  the  highest  po- 
sitions without  this  privilege.     In  every  civilized 
country,  the  number  of   eminent  self-educated 
men  is  huge  enough   to  justify  the  paradoxical 
saying  of  Emerson,  that  one  of  the  chief  values 
of  a  college  education    is  to  teach  its  worthless- 
ness.  Whatever  truth  there  may  be  in  this  remark 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  education  is  of  two  kinds, — 
practical  and  theoretical,  the  first  based  princi- 
pally  upon    facts  and   experience,    and  dealing 
largely  with  human  nature:  the  other,  acquired 
from  books,  and  concerning  itself  in  great  measure 
with  abstractions  ami  theories  which,  though  val- 
uable enough  for  purposes  of  general  culture,  are 
of  little  use  in   practical  life.  and.  if  exclusively 
pursued,  produce  a  positive  disqualification  for  it. 
Of  these  two  kinds  of  education,  it  is  hardly  ton 
much  to  say  that    the  former   is   the  more  avail- 
able, in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life,  in  a  vast  ma- 
jority of  eases.    Hence,  it  should  never  be  forgot- 
ten by  the  educator,  that  the  facilities  for  mental 
acquisition  which  he  offers  the  pupil   by  system- 
atic instruct  ion,  ton  frequently  result  in  vacilla- 
tion, or  feebleness  of  purpose,  and  are  almost  in- 
evitably accompanied  with  a  loss,  on  the  part  of 
the   latter,   of  that  vividness  of    apprehension 
which  experimental  acquaintance  gives.  The  only 
amends,  therefore,  he  can  make  is  to  render  his 
instruction  as  practical,  and  as  far  removed  from 
mere  book-learning,  as  possible.     Knowledge  and 
rote-learning  have  often  a  wonderful  resemblance, 
while,  essentially,  they  may  have  nothing  in  com- 
mon. The  picture  of  a  Lincoln,  hastily  gathering 
book-knowledge  by  the  lighl  of  the  cabin  tire:  or 
of  a  Franklin,  finding  in  the  intervals  of  his  work 
in  a  chandler's   shop  and    a   printing-office,  an 
equivalent  for  the  school,  should   lie  a  sufficient 
admonition  to  every  teacher,  that  the  privileges 
of  the  school  TOOm  are   not  indispensable  to  the 
most  brilliant   success.     It  is   not   necessary   to 
multiply  instances  of  self-taught  men  ;  the  ranks 
of  greatness  have  been  almost  exclusively  tilled 

from  this  class.      Three  most  valuable  attributes 

are  strengthened,  if  not  created,  by  a  course  of 
self-education:  self-confidence,  independence  of 

judgment,  and  perseverance.      He  only  who    has 
always  depended  upon  himself,  knows  accurately 

the  limit  of    his   power.-,  measures  beforehand 

every  difficulty,  and   docs   not    look,  at    the   last 

moment,  for  extraneous  aid:  while  the  habit  of 
self-reliance  thus  cultivated,  lays  the  foundation 

for    a    solidity    of    character    which,    in    critical 

moments,  is  not  swayed  by  fitful  or  transient  in- 
fluences.   The  thini  attribute,  perseverance,   is 

the  neeessar\    result  of  such  an  education.  I  la\  ing 


always  been  accustomed  to  encounter  obstacles, 
and  having  always  overcome  them,  the  joy  of 
conflict  and  the  joy  of  conquest,  become,  to  self- 
taug  t,   synonymous.     The    atmosphere   of 

difficulty  is  as  the  breath  of  life,  and  the  result  is 
never  doubtful  to  those  who  gather  strength  from 
opposition.  These  are  the  most  essential  elements 
of  success,  and.  in  practical  matters,  weigh  more 
than  all  the  advantages  of  the  school.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  commonest  error  of  the  self- 
taught  man  is  a  depreciation  of  all  studies  or 
pursuits  which  have  no  practical  bearing.  (Jeneral 
culture — know  ledge  for  itself  alone,  with  all  the 
pleasures  and  consolations  which  it  brings — is 
underestimated.  Accustomed  always  to  see  his 
thoughts  followed  by  tangible  results,  the  moral 
aspect  of  thought  is  lost  sight  of  :  ami  his  ideal 
standard  never  rises  above  this  utilitarian  level. 
This  narrowness  of  mind  leads  almost  inevitably 
to  a  want  of  sympathy  with  liberal  pursuits,  and 
sometimes  to  a  kind  of  hardness  or  positiveness 
of  character  which  bears  the  appearance  of  ar- 
rogance. Weakness  being  scarcely  understood 
by  'he  successful,  self  taught  man.  want  of  char- 
ity is  a  natural  fruit  of  his  habits  of  thought. 
These  defects,  however,  are  frequently  removed 
by  age:  and.  even  at  their  worst,  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  so  serious  as  those  which  have  been 
cited  as  incident  to  misdirected  education  in  the 
school.  Of  the  two  kinds  of  education — self- 
education  and  school  education  it  may.  there- 
fore, he  said  in  general,  that  the  former  is  of 
greater  value  than  the  latter ;  that  for  all  prac- 
tical action  in  the  familiar  matters  of  daily 
life,  all  great  emergencies,  whether  of  peace 
or  war,  which  require  independence  of  judg- 
ment, promptness  of  decision  or  action,  and 
inflexible  perseverance,  the  self-taught  man  is 
vastly  the  superior;  while,  in  purely  speculative 
pin  suits,  in  researches  or  projects  undertaken 
without  hope  of  immediate  or  material  result, 
the  man  of  the  schools,  whose  (  ducat  ion  has  been 
conducted  with  that  broader  outlook  upon  life 
which  leads  directly  to  cull ure  solely  for  its  own 

sake,  manifests  a  far  greater  zeal  and  activity. 
N either  kind  of  education  is  to  be  commended 
by  itself:  since  the  deficiencies  of  one  need  to 

be  supplied  by  the  advantages  of  the  other. 
Their  relation  is  well  expressed  by  I >e  <  i t rando, 
in  Self-Education:  "If  all  the  means  of  educa- 
tion which  are  scattered  over  the  world,  and  if 
all  the  philosophers  and  teachers  of  ancient  and 
modern  times  were  to  be  collected    together,  and 

made  to  bring  their  combined  efforts  to  bear 
upon  an  individual,  all  tiny  could  do  would  be  to 
afford  the  opportunity  of  improvement" — i.  <-.. 
self-education.  (See  G£rando.) 

SEMINARY  (l.at.  seminarium,  a  place 
where  seed  is  .-own.  from  semen,  seed),  a  term, 
used   in  education   to  denote  an  institution  of 

[earning  of  any  grade,  though  ofteiiei   applied   to 

one  of  secondary  grade.     It   is  also  applied  to 

certain  kinds  of  professional  schools:  as  a  theolog- 
ical seminary,  a  teacher.-'  seminary,  etc.,  the  idea 
intended  to  lie  eomeved  by  the  term  being  that 
of  preparation  for  suli.-cipie  lit  OSefulni 


si;  NEC  A 


SENSES 


77- 


SENECA,  Lucius  Annseus,  the  Last  great 
representative  of  the  Stoic  philosophy,  born  in 
Corduba  (Cordova),  Spain,  about  7  B.C.;  died 
in  Rome  A.  D.65,  lie  was  the  son  of  Manns 
Annieus  Sonera,  a  noted  Roman  rhetorician, 
and  the  author  of  Oratorwm,  et  Rhetorwm  Sen- 
fentice,  etc.,  a  work  containing  the  memorable 
sayings  which  he  had  heard  from  the  orators  and 
rhetoricians  of  his  time.  The  first  studies  of  the 
younger  Seneca  were  eloquence  and  the  affiliated 
sciences;  but.  later,  he  developed  a  taste  for 
philosophy,  in  which  he  enjoyed  the  instructions 
of  Papirius  Fabianus,  Attains,  Demetrius,  and 
Sotion.  1  lis  connection  with  the  imperial  court 
caused  him  much  misery,  and  nave  a  tone  of 
sadness  and  weariness  to  his  whole  philosophy. 
He  was  banished  to  Corsica  by  the  emperor  on 
false  charges,  and  remained  in  exile  eight  years  ; 
at  the  end  of  which  time  he  was  recalled,  through 
the  intercession  of  the  empress  Agrippina,  who 
hoped,  by  this  means,  to  gain  favor  for  her  son 
Nero  with  the  citizens,  who  held  Seneca  in  high 
esteem.  On  the  accession  of  Nero,  Seneca,  who 
had  served  him  as  tutor,  became  his  adviser ; 
but  he  was  unable  to  restrain  the  emperor's 
monstrous  excesses  and  crimes.  lie,  therefore, 
endeavored  to  withdraw  entirely  from  the  Ro- 
man court,  offering  to  the  emperor  to  surrender 
to  him  his  property  ;  but  this  was  refused.  He, 
however,  succeeded  in  keeping  himself  in  seclu- 
sion, but  could  not  escape  the  cruelty  of  Nero, 
by  whom  he  was  condemned,  on  a  false  charge 
of  complicity  in  Piso's  conspiracy,  and  ordered 
to  commit  suicide.  His  death  was  painful  but 
heroic,  and  his  last  words  were,  To  Jove  the  Lib- 
erator !  —  Surrounded  by  the  dissipations  of  a 
corrupt  age,  Seneca,  with  great  earnestness,  ad- 
vocated the  education  of  youth  in  pure  morals, 
self-control,  and  truthfulness.  He  believed,  that 
human  nature,  from  birth,  tended  to  evil,  but 
that  Cod,  who  is  the  soid  of  the  world,  inspires 
every  man  with  thoughts  upright,  just,  and  pure. 
Seneca  recognized,  however,  the  great  variety  of 
infantile  individualities,  rendering  it  necessary 
for  the  educator  to  accommodate  himself  to  par- 
ticular cases.  He  recommended  a  just  medium 
between  severity  and  remissness.  He  insisted 
that  boys  should  learn  what  is  useful  and  prac- 
tical in  life  ;  and.  from  his  complaint  that  the 
youth  of  his  times  were  studying  not  for  life,  but 
for  the  school,  the  well-known  maxim  has  been 
deduced.  Nan  sckolce,  sed  vitce  discendum  est. 
His  remark  that  the  teacher  himself  advances 
in  knowledge  by  imparting  instruction,  has 
given  rise  to  another  maxim:  Docendo discimus. 
— The  recent  literature  in  regard  to  .Seneca  is 
fully  reviewed  in  an  exhaustive  article  in  the 
Methodist  Quarterly  Review  (1876),  by  Hurst. 
An  edition  of  Seneca,  designed  for  schools  and 
colleges,  and  embracing  his  principal  essays,  epi- 
grams, epistles,  alleged  correspondence  with  St. 
Paul,  and  parallels  with  sacred  writers,  by  Hurst 
and  Whiting,  appeared  in  New  York,  in   1877. 

SENSES,  the  Education  of  the.  Edu- 
cation, through  the  senses,  has  received  a  great 
amount  of  attention  in  recent  times,  and  a  spe- 


cial effort  to  systematize  it.  is  made  in  the  kin- 
dergarten (((.  v.);  but  comparatively  little  thought 
has  been  given  to  the  training  of  the  senses 
themselves.  A i id, yet,  there  is  ample  experience 
to  prove  that  much  can  be  done  in  this  direction 
In  eases  where  special  senses  have  been  called 
into  the  most  vigorous  action,  they  have  attained 
capabilities  which  could  scarcely  have  been 
dreamed  of.  It  may  not  be  advisable  to  attempt 
to  cultivate  each  sense  in  every  individual  to 
the  same  degree  of  acuteness  that  has  been 
reached  in  these  extraordinary  instances;  but, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  neglect  to  train  the 
senses,  now  almost  universal,  is  not  justifiable. 
The  special  attributes  which  we  may  assign  to 
the  senses,  are  quickness  in  receiving  impressions, 
strength  in  taking  hold  of  the  impressions,  and 
vivacity  in  noticing  not  merely  the  unity  which 
is  presented  to  the  mind,  but  in  remarking  the 
various  details  which  compose  or  characterize 
this  unity.  These  three  qualities  are  quite  dif- 
ferent from  each  other.  If  an  object  is  held  up 
before  a  number  of  children,  some  will  be  found 
able  to  form  an  impression  of  it  much  more 
quickly  than  others,  while  some  will  be  very 
slow  to  catch  a  notion  of  it.  So.  again,  they 
will  differ  in  the  strength  of  grasp  with  which 
they  seize  hold  of  the  object.  On  some  it  will 
produce  but  a  feeble  impression,  and  that  im- 
pression will,  consequently,  soon  die  away  ;  but 
by  others  the  object  will  be  grasped  firmly,  and, 
consequently,  held  firmly.  Many,  too,  that  may 
be  able  to  take  strong  impressions,  may  be  sur- 
passed by  others  of  less  strength  in  the  capacity 
to  catch  the  multiplicity  of  details  which  are 
presented  to  the  view.  In  fact,  the  strong  sense 
is  generally  absorbed  in  the  unity  ;  but  the  less 
vigorous  notices  the  details  along  with  the  unity. 
Now,  these  qualities  are  inborn  with  the  senses; 
and  it  is  likely  that  the  original  difference,  in 
these  respects,  which  exists  in  different  minds, 
is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  mental  differences 
that  ultimately  appear  among  human  beings. 
Circumstances  will  explain  the  rest  of  the  phe- 
nomena ;  but  these  qualities  are  capable  of  cul- 
tivation, being  intensified  in  proportion  to  the 
healthy  exercise  of  the  senses.  In  attempting 
to  train  the  senses,  the  most  essential  process  is 
isolation.  The  blind  man  becomes  singularly 
expert  in  the  sense  of  touch,  because  he  brings 
it  into  continual  play,  and  trusts  much  to  it. 
He  must  voluntarily  follow  the  course  which 
necessity  compels  him  to  follow.  Science  has 
not  thrown  much  light,  as  yet,  on  the  lower 
senses;  and,  therefore,  little  can  be  done  for 
their  training.  The  vital  sense  is  so  closely  con- 
nected with  processes  which  take  place  in  un- 
consciousness that  little  can  be  made  of  it. 
Somewhat  more  can  be  done  with  the  senses  of 
taste  and  smell.  If  the  child  were  asked  to  shut 
his  eyes,  and  determine,  by  taste,  what  objects 
were  presented  to  him,  the  sense  might  become 
much  more  perfect  and  much  more  useful.  At- 
tention could  be  called  to  the  general  harmony 
that  exists  between  the  taste  and  healthfulness 
of  objects,  and  the  child  might   thus   learn,  in 


778 


SENSES 


SEEYIA 


many  cases,  to  choose  the  good  and  reject  the 
evil.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  sense  of 
smell;  but  a  wider  range  could  be  given  to  its 
activities.  The  child,  for  example,  might  be  re- 
quired to  determine  flowers  bytheir  smells.  But" 
it  is  when  we  come  to  the  higher  senses  that 
much  can  be  done  by  isolating  practice.  In  re- 
gard  to  the  sense  of  touch,  there  arc  three  ex- 
ercises which  may  be  usefully  practiced.  First. 
the  sense  of  touch  over  the  body  may  be  rendered 
much  more  acute;  and,  in  consequence,  what 
are  called  the  sensory  circles,  very  much  nar- 
rowed. Experiment  has  proved  this  fact  most 
conclusively.  Then,  from  touch  we  derive  the 
sense  of  pressure.  Here  the  child  may  find  in- 
teresting exercise  in  trying  to  estimate  the 
weight  of  an  object  from  its  pressure  on  the 
hand,  or  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  This  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  peculiar  exercises  of  object 
teaching  (q.  v.).  Moreover,  touch  gives  the 
notion  of  temperature;  and  here  again  the  child 
might  be  taught  to  come  very  i  lose  to  the  exact 
degree  of  Fahrenheit  by  the  sense  of  heat  which 
he  has  in  his  touch.  The  training  which  may 
be  given  to  the  sense  of  hearing,  is  also  various. 
The  child  might  he  exercised  in  ascertaining 
from  what  direction  sounds  come.  lie  might 
be  taught  to  distinguish  various  sounds,  and,  es- 
pecially, musical  sounds;  and  he  might  learn  to 

analyze  complex  sounds.     Some  think,  thai  the 

last  exercise  Should  always  he  preliminary  to 
learning  to  read.  Thus,  the  instructor  niters  a, 
word,  and  draws  the  chill's  attention  to  the 
fact  that  it  consists  of  several  sounds.  The 
child  is  then  askeil  to  analyze  tin;  sounds;  and 
the  chilil  does  not,  commence  to  learn  to  read 
until  he  is  able  to  analyze  short  words  into  their 
■simplest  sounds.  Spelling,  in  the  sense  of  ana- 
lyzing the  sounds,  according  to  this  method, 
precedes  reading.  According  to  the  phonic 
method,  the  analysis  of  sounds  is  employed  to 
facilitate  the  pronunciation  of  words,  and.  hence. 
as  auxiliary  to  reading.  (See  Phonic  Method.) — 
The  sense  of  sight  is  the  ,,]|(.  through  which  edu- 
tsation  takes  place  most  of  all.  it  is,  therefore. 
brought  into  continual  activity,  and  thus  re- 
ceives greater  training.  In  the  object-teaching 
system,  this  is  accomplish  d  in  various  ways, 
but.  particularly, by  the  use  of  color  (q.v.).  Dis- 

tind  colors  are    first   brought  before  the   child's 

eye.  ami  he  is  gra  Lually practiced  in  distinguish- 
ing them,  so  as,  ultimately,  to  he  able  to  n 

the  minutest  shales  of  difference.  Then,  again, 
the  child  is  taught  to  form  from  sight  an  ac- 
curate idea  of  size  and  distance. — The  space 
here  does  not  admit  of  more  than  a  mere  glance 
at  this  important  subject  ;  and  only  in  connec- 
tion with  the  training  of  children.     But,  while 

there  is  no  doubl  that  the  greatest  good  can  he 
done    in    I  he    earliest    years,    the    training    may 

profitably  he  continued  throughout  the  whole 
period  of  education.  The  organization  of  meth- 
ods for  Such  I  raining  has  still  to  be  discussed  by 

educationists.     Moreover,  physiologists  are  still 

reat  uncertainty  as  to  many  points.     Greal 

■discoveries  have  been  recently  made  l>y  the  re- 


searches of  Weber,  Wundt,  Helmholtz,  and 
others;  but  we  may  expect  still  more  important 
discoveries  from  the  investigations  now  going 
on;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  such  discoveries 
will  throw  light  on  the  proper  method  of  train- 
ing the  .senses. — Sec  <i.  Wit. sox.  The  Five  Gate- 
ways  of  Knowledge  (4th  cd..  London,  1863); 
Wyld,  Physics  and  Philosophy  of  the  Senses 
(London,  1856)  ;  Julius  Bernstein,  The  Five 
Senses  of  Man  (New  York,  1876).  (See  also 
K  u;.  and  Eve.) 

SENTENTIAL  ANALYSIS.  See  Anal- 
ysis, Grammatical. 

SERVIA,  a  dependency  of  Turkey,  having 
an  area  of  16,81  7  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  about  L,338,000.  The  large  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  belong  to  the  Servo-Croatian  branch 
of  the  southern  Slaves,  and  are  members  of  the 
( rreek  Church. 

Educational  Legislation.  —  Fifty  years  ago, 
Servia  had  no  public  primary  schools,  but  owing 
to  the  interest  taken  in  the  cause  of  education 
by  the  ruling  house  of  Obrenovitch,  and  by  the 
Skupshtina,  the  national  assembly,  elementary 
instruction  has.  of  late,  made  considerable  prog- 
ress. The  public-school  system  is  under  the  con- 
trol  of  the  ministry  of  education,  composed  of 
the  minister,  a  chief  of  section.  -I  secretaries  and 
3  actuaries.  The  four  secretaries,  with  the  chief  of 
the  section,  form  a  school  board  which  is  presided 
over  by  the  minister,  and  publishes  all  school 
laws  and  regulations. 

/  rimary  Schools. — The  primary  schools  are 
immediately  subject  to  the  chief  of  the  district. 
The  next  highest  authority  is  the  prefect  of  the 
circle,  the  minister  being  the  highest.  Education 
is  compulsory,  and  is  free  to  all,  in  the  highest  as 
well  as  in  the  lowest  schools.  Every  teacher  who 
has  served  ten  years,  and  has  become  unfit  for 
further  service,  is  entitled  to  a  pension  equal  to 
-10  per  cent  of  his  salary,  and  each  additional 
year  entitles  him  to  an  increase  of  2  percent. 
After  35  years'  service,  he  receives  his  entire  sal- 
ary as  a  ] tension.  The  salaries  of  teachers  are  the 
same  in  huge  and  in  small  communities,  being 
a  I  mi  it  S'250  a  year.  In  1874,  there  were  517 
public  schools,  with  650  teachers  and  23,278 
pupils.  .Most  of  the  schools  have,  thus  far,  had 
three  classes,  but  a  law.  passed  in  bv7e.  provides 
that  in  future  all  schools  shall  have  four  classes. 
The  number  of  private  schools  is  small.  A  nor- 
mal school  was  established,  in  L872,  at  Kraguye- 

vatz,  which,  in   L873,  had  •">!•  pupils. 

Secondary  Instruction. — Secondary  instruction 

is  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  minister 
of  education.  The  secondary  schools  comprise 
gymnasia,  sub-gymnasia,  real  schools,  and  sub- 
real  schools.  The  gymnasia  and  real  schools, 
had.  in  l!s7.">.  live  classes,  the  sub  -gymnasia,  four 
Or  three:  and  the  sub-real  schools,  two.  In  1875, 
the  Skupshtina  passed  a  law,  providing  for  the 
establishment  of  a  real  school  in  the  capital  of 

each  circle.     In   L873,  there  were  '_'  gymnasia  and 

5  Bub-gymnasia,  with  an  aggregate  of  72  teach- 
ers and  L  ,323  pupils,  and  1  real  school  and  8  sub- 
real  sel Is.  with  an  agcrecate  of  ID  teachers  ami 


SETON 


SHURTLEFF    COLLI  Xi E 


779 


436  pupils.  There  is,  also,  for  the  instruction  of 
girls,  one  secondary  school,  with  238  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  high  school  in 
Belgrade,  the  only  institution  for  superior  in- 
struction, is,  like  the  secondary  schools,  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  minister  of  education.  It 
had,  in  1873,  three  faculties, — of  law,  technology, 
and  philosophy,  with  19  teachers  and  207  stu- 
dents. All  the  lectures  are  public,  and  no  fees 
are  charged. 

Special  and  Professional  Schools. — Special 
instruction  is  imparted  in  a  school  of  forestry 
and  agriculture,  a  theological  seminary  of  the 
Greek  Church,  an  artillery  school,  and  a  military 
school. — See  Citron  Ik  ales  Volkssc}iulwesens,\x~i?>, 
187-1,  and  1875. 

SETON,  Camuel  Waddington,  eminent  as 
a  philanthropist  and  educationist,  particularly  in 
connection  with  the  public  schools  of  the  city 
of  New  York,  was  born  in  that  city  Jan.  23., 
1789;  and  died  in  the  same,  Nov.  20.,  1870.  His 
father  was  the  first  president  of  the  Bank  of 
New  York,  then  the  second  banking-house  in 
the  country.  By  the  decease  of  both  his  parents, 
he  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age.  After  re- 
ceiving an  academic  education,  he  entered  upon 
a  commercial  life,  and,  aided  by  John  Jacob 
Astor,  he  made  a  trading  voyage  to  China.  This 
was  unsuccessful ;  and,  on  his  return  to  New 
York,  in  1*07,  he  obtained  an  appointment  in 
the  Bank  of  New  York,  where  he  remained  some 
years.  In  LS23,  he  was  elected  by  the  Public 
School  Society  a  trustee  of  the  schools  ;  and,  in 
1826,  at  considerable  pecuniary  sacrifice,  he  ac- 
cepted the  appointment,  from  the  board  of  trust- 
ees, of  agent  of  the  society,  virtually,  super- 
intendent of  the  schools,  the  duties  of  which 
position  he  discharged  until  the  dissolution  of 
the  society,  in  1853.  In  1854,  he  was  elected  by 
the  Board  of  Education  of  the  city  an  assistant 
superintendent,  in  which  office  he  continued  un- 
til his  death.  He  also  took  great  interest  in 
Sunday-school  instruction,  having  had,  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  the  charge  of  a  Baptist  Sunday- 
school  (though  himself  an  Episcopalian)  for  50 
years  uninterruptedly,  during  which  period,  it  is 
said,  he  was  absent  from  his  self-imposed  duty 
only  twelve  Sundays,  and  this  in  consequence  of 
sickness  or  absence  from  the  city.  Mr.  Seton 
was  peculiarly  qualified  for  his  duties  as  a  super- 
intendent of  schools  —  particularly  primary 
schools,  by  his  gentle,  loving  spirit,  his  sympathy 
with  children,  and  his  ardent  zeal  in  behalf  of 
early  education.  This  subject  he  had  studied 
with  the  deepest  interest ;  and  his  suggestions 
were  eminently  wise  and  practical.  In  this  work, 
he  was  the  active  associate  of  Josiah  Holbrook 
(q.  v.)  and  Joseph  Curtis  (q.  v.),  as  well  as  many 
others,  whose  efforts,  at  that  time,  were  given 
to  improving  the  methods  of  common-school  in- 
struction. His  annual  reports  are  replete  with 
valuable  information  for  teachers  of  young  chil- 
dren. His  philanthropic  zeal  was  not  confined 
to  the  schools,  but  extended  to  all  the  poor  and 
helpless  within  his  reach.  Few  lives  have  been 
so  strongly  marked  by  purity  and  disinterestedness 


of  character  and  active  beneficence  ;  and,  haying 
never  married,  lie  was  able  to  devote  himself 
wholly  to  his  benevolent  efforts  to  improve  the 
condition  of  his  race.  He  was  a  fertile  and  taste- 
ful writer  boili  in  prose  and  verse  —  the  latter 
only  for  children,  many  of  his  poems  still  sur- 
viving as  models  of  the  kind.  He  was  also  sin- 
gularly effective  in  his  addresses  to  the  young, 
mingling  information,  impressed  with  the  quaint- 
est and  most  humorous  of  illustrations,  with  pas- 
sages of  the  most  touching  pathos.  His  dying 
request  breathed  the  spirit  which  had  pervaded 
his  life  of  over  fourscore  years, —  "Bury  me 
a  mongthe  children ! "— and,  accordingly,  his  grave 
was  made  in  the  center  of  the  children's  plot,  in 
( i  reenwood  Cemetery,  over  which  a  monument 
was  erected  by  the  public-school  teachers  of  the 
city,  bearing  the  appropriate  epitaph :  Peace ! 
—  See  Bourne,  History  of  the  Public  School 
Society  (New  York,  1870). 

SETQN  HALL  COLLEGE,  at  South 
Orange,  N.  J.,  under  Roman  CathoUc  control, 
was  founded  at  Madison,  in  1856,  removed  to  its 
present  location  in  1860,  and  incorporated  in 
1861.  It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  students, 
the  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  being  $400 
a  year.  The  library  contains  8,000  volumes. 
There  is  a  commercial,  a  preparatory,  a  col- 
legiate, and  a  theological  department.  In  1875 
— 6,  there  were  15  instructors  and  140  students, 
of  whom  39  were  in  the  theological  department. 
The  presidents  have  been  the  Rt.  Rev.  B.  J. 
McQuaid,  B.  D.,  1856—68,  and  the  Rt.  Rev.  M. 
A.  Corrigan,  D.  D.,  since  1868. 

SEX  IN  EDUCATION.  See  Co-Education. 

SHAW  UNIVERSITY,  at  Holly  Springs, 
Miss.,  founded  in  1870,  is  under  Methodist 
Episcopal  control,  and  is  supported  by  the  Freed- 
men's  Aid  Society  of  that  Church.  It  was  designed 
especially  for  colored  youth,but  is  open  to  all  with- 
out distinction  of  race  or  sex.  It  has  an  English, 
a  normal,  a  preparatory,  a  collegiate,  a  theological, 
and  a  law  department.  Tuition,  except  in  law  and 
music,  is  free.  In  1875—6,  there  were  8  instruct- 
ors and  113  students  (38  of  the  collegiate  grade). 
The  presidents  have  been  the  Rev.  A.  C.  McDon- 
ald, 1870—74,  and  (he  Rev.  W.  W.  Hooper, 
since  18  <  4. 

SHAW  UNIVERSITY,  at  Raleigh,  N.  C, 
founded  in  1865,  and  chartered  in  1875,  is  under 
Baptist  control.  It  id  supported  by  a  small 
charge  upon  the  students,  and  by  contributions 
from  friends  in  the  North.  It  was  especially  de- 
signed for  colored  youth ;  but  none  are  excluded 
on  account  of  race  or  sex.  The  university  has 
an  elementary,  a  normal,  a  collegiate,  and  a  the- 
ological department.  In  1875- — 6,  there  were  8 
instructors  and  236  students.  The  Rev.  H.  M. 
Tupper,  A.  M..  is  (1876)  the  president. 

SHURTLEFF  COLLEGE,  at  Upper  Al- 
ton, 111.,  under  Baptist  control,  was  established 
as  Alton  Seminary,  in  1832.  and  chartered  as 
Alton  College,  in  1835.  Soon  after  its  establish- 
ment, the  Rock  Spring  Literary  and  Theological 
Seminary,  organized  in  1827,  and  likewise  under 
Baptist  control,  was  removed  to  this  place,  and 


780 


SI  CARD 


SINGING-SCHOOLS 


merged  in  this  college.  The  Rev.  Hubbell  Loomis, 
who  was  the  principal  of  the  seminary  from 
L 832  to  L835,  contributed  largely  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  college,  which,  by  virtue  of  its 
origin  in  L827,  is  claimed  to  be  the  oldest  insti- 
tution of  the  kind  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
The  name  was  changed,  in  1836,  in  honor  of 
Benjamin  Shurtleff,  M.  !>..  of  Boston,  who  had 
donated  Si 0.000  to  the  institution.  It  consists 
of  an  academic  and  preparatory  department,  the 
college  proper,  and  a  theological  department. 
Students  of  both  sexes  are  admitted  to  the  col- 
lege, as  well  as  to  the  academic  and  preparatory 
department.  The  college  has  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course  of  four  years  each,  and  a  three 
years'  Latin  course.  It  has  an  endowment  of 
si  25,000,  and  its  libraries  contain  10,000  volumes. 
The  cost  of  tuition  ranges  from  $36  to  $48  a 
year:  but  in  the  theological  department  it  is  free. 
Ministerial  students  are  assisted  by  the  Illinois 
Baptist  Education  Society.  In  L875 — 6,  there 
were  12  instructors  and  L89  students  (deducting 
repetitions),  namely:  theological,  6;  collegiate,  54; 
preparatory  and  academic  L31.  The  presidents 
of  the  college  have  been  as  follows:  the  Rev. 
Washington  Leverett,  A.  M..  1835 — 11;  the  Rev. 
Adiel  Sherwood,  D.  D.,  L841— 5;  the  Rev. 
Washington  Leverett,  A.  M..  again,  1  9  16 — 9;  the 
Rev.  Norman  X.  Wood,  D.D.,  L850— 55;  the 
Rev.  S.  T.  Mc.Masters.  LL.  D.  (proiem.),  I 
—6  :  the  Rev.  Daniel  Read,  LL.D.,  1856  71  ; 
and  the  Rev.  A.  A.  Kendrick,  D.D.,  since  L872. 
SICARD,  RochAmbroiseCucurron,  abbe, 
a  French  philanthropist  and  teacher  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  born  in  Fousseret,  September  20., 
171'.':  died  in  Paris,  May  10..  L822.  lie  was  edu- 
cated for  the  ministry,  at  the  university  of  Tou- 
louse, and  was  made  vicar-general  of  I  londom  and 
canon  of  Bordeaux.  Having  received  instruction 
from  the  abbe  de  I'Epee,  he  opened  a  school  for 
deaf-mutes  in  Bordeaux,  in  1  786;  and,  three  years 
after, succeeded  his  teacher  in  the  management  of 

a  private  school  of  that  kind,  which  the  latter  had 
opened  in  17<i0.  Two  years  after,  he  succeeded 
in  causing  its  adoption  by  the  government.  It  is 
now  known  as  the  Imperial  Institution  of  Paris. 
Owing    to    his  connection   with   the    church,    he 

became  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  revolution- 
ists, in  L792,  and  was  thrown  into  prison,  barely 
escaping  with  his  life.  Be  was  afterwards  ban- 
ished. In  1815,  he  made  a  visit  to  England, 
taking  with  him  his  pupils  Massieii  and    Laurent 

Olerc,  the  latter  of  whom  formed  the  acquaint- 
ance there  of  Dr.  Gallaudet,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  the  United  States  in  L816.  The  dis- 
tinctive work  of  the  abbe  Sicard  was  his  enlarge- 
ment of  the  resources  of  the  deaf-mute  language 
taught  by  De  I'Epee  by  the  addition  of  signs  for 
metaphysical  ideas.  He  constructed  an  elaborate 
analytical  system  of  visible  signs,  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  to  deaf-mutes  the  functions  and  re- 
lations of  words  in  sentences,  and  thus  succeeded 
in  making  them  acquainted  with  the  principles 
of  grammar  an  achievement  which,  from  its 
ingenious  and  imaginative  method-,  secured  for 

him  the  title  of  "the   painter  of  syntax   and    the 


poet  of  grammar."  His  principal  works  are 
Theorie  des   Signes  and    Cours   d' Instruction. 

Deaf-Mutes.) 
SIGNS,    LANGUAGE    OF.     See   Deaf- 
Motes,  and   I'kkt.  II.  I'. 

SIMPSON    CENTENARY    COLLEGE, 

at  Jndianola.  Iowa,  founded  in  18G7,  is  under 
.Methodist  Episcopal  control.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees  ranging  from  $24  to  $30  a  year,  and 
by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of  about  $70,000. 
It  comprises  a  preparatory  department  and  a 
collegiate  department,  with  a  four  years' classical 
course  and  a  three  years'  scientific  course.  Facil- 
ities are  afforded  for  instruction  in  music,  teleg- 
raphy, book-keeping,  penmanship,  phonography, 
and  Hebrew.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  In  1875 
— (J,  there  were  10  instructors  and  259  students 
I  undergraduates.  00:  preparatory  students.  L69; 
pursuing  special  studies.  30).  There  is  also,  at 
Pes  Moines,  a  law  department  (the  Iowa  College 
of  Law),  organized  in  1875;  anda  medical  depart- 
ment is  about  to  lie  organized  there.  The  Rev. 
Alexander  Burns,  l».  D.,  has  been  the  president 
of  the  college  since  its  foundation. 

SIMULTANEOUS  INSTRUCTION.  See 
Com  Kin'  Te  uiiixc 

SINGING-SCHOOLS.  From  the  days  of 
St.  Ambrose  and  Gregory  the  Great  to  the  pres- 
ent age,  singing-schools  and  classes  have  existed. 
for  purposes  of  instruction  in  elementary  vocal 
and  choral  exercises.  Chiefly  through  the  efforts 
eclesiastics  and  choirs  of  an  earlier  period, 
those  substantial  and  permanent  forms  of  church 
music,  the  single  chant,  the  hymn,  and  the 
choral, have  been  preserved  to  warm  and  enliven 

the  sacred  services  of  a  later  time.  There  was. 
undoubtedly,  a  very  strong  and  direct  effect  pro- 
duced through  the  instrumentality  of  men  and 
boys,  uniting  their  voices  within  a  limited  com- 
I  ass,  associating  their  music  with  words  of  solemn 

and  living  import,  and  uttering  their  hymns  of 
praise  under  the  direction  of  a   religious  leader. 

Guido  Aretino  (1020  A.  D.)  must  have  perceived 

the  neet  ssity  of  a  certain  order  in  conducting  the 
musical  exercises  of  his  classes,  since  portions  of 

bis  method  have  lasted  eight  centuries;  the  staff, 

completed    to    nearly   its   present    state,   and   the 

syllables  Ut,  Re,  Mi.  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si,  improve- 
ments of  his  ami  introduced  under  his  immediate 

eye,  being  still  in  full  and  vigorous  use.  The  Ref- 
ormation, with  Martin  Luther  fur  one  of  its 
musical  as  well  as  one  of   its  ei  elesiastical  guides, 

gave  the  choral  and  the  special  hymn  to  all  the 
people.  Subsequently,  not  only  Germany,  but 
Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States  of  America, 
greatly  encouraged  the  cultivation  of  vocal  mu- 
sic, in  its  higher  relations, among  all  classes  of 
people.    It  is  the  opinion  of  some,  however,  that 

the  people  of  the  United  States  ate  a  century 
behind  the  more  powerful  and  influential  of  the 
European  nations  in  a  systematic  fostering  of  the 

science  and  art  of  music  by  the  state:  hut.  through 

the  more  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  by 
means  of  schools,  the  press,  and  other  agencies, 
the  individual  efforts  of  Americans  are  wide- 
spread, toward  imparting  a  more  thorough  un- 


SINGING-SCHOOLS 


781 


derstanding  of  that  which  is,  to  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  people,  an  unknown  language  ;  namely, 
the  secret  of  the  independent  reading  of  vocal 
music  with  facility. 

The  origin  of  the  staff,  and  the  use  of  the  syl- 
lables 11,  Jie,  Jfi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si,  seem  to  have 
been  nearly  contemporary.    These,  together  with 
the  clefs,  notes,  and  chromatic  signs,  constitute 
the  written  language  of  music  as  recognized  by 
every  civilized  country ;    and  it  is  not  possible 
to  change   them  for  the  letters  only,  valuable 
as  these  are  in  certain  relations,  without  disas- 
trously revolutionizing  the  whole  written  system 
of  modern  music,  and  all  its  magnificent  acces- 
sories.    Large  numbers  of  most  valuable  works 
upon  harmony,  counterpoint,  and  orchestral  ef- 
fects  have    been  written,    besides  innumerable 
scores,  with  all  of  these  well  known  musical  signs, 
and  with  the  employment  of  the  syllables  11,  ll>>, 
Mi,  etc.,  as  denoting  absolute  pitch  constantly  in 
view ;  and  to  reduce   them   to  the  dimensions 
of  lettered  signs  simply,  and  require  singers  and 
players  to  translate  them  into  music  agreeable 
to  the  ear,  would  be  an  interminable  and  tedious 
task.     The  modern  Italian  method  of  present- 
ing the  scale  through  the  familiar  syllables  Do, 
Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si,  has  the  merit  of  being 
direct  and  of  appealing  to  the  ear;  and  it  is.  also, 
quite  unique,  since  the  syllables  are  at  once  the 
vehicles  of  variations  of  sound  required  in  render- 
ing the  scale,  and  the  signs  denoting  absolute 
pitch,  like  the  letters  to  the  Germans  and  to  the 
English.    So   that,   by   this   method,   the  pupil 
has  to  remember  only  one  particular  syllable, 
either  in  naming  a  key-note  or  in  singing  it.    To 
the   Italians  and  to  the   French,  and  to  very 
many   others   who   have     been   taught   by  this 
method,  this  association  of  a  certain  syllable  with 
a  certain  key-note,  that  particular  syllable  being 
the  very  vehicle  for  the  production  of  the   tone 
desired,  is  deemed,  in  many  respects,  an  advan- 
tage.   The  fixed  and  immovable  Do  becomes  the 
middle  C  of  the  system.    All  other  tones  of  that 
octave,  diatonic  and  chromatic,  revolve  around  it, 
as  the  planets  around  the  sun.     The  major  scale, 
with  its  intermediate    half-tones,   becomes   the 
nucleus  of  the  entire  tonal  system.    In  exact  pro- 
portion as  the  scholar  acquires  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  scale,  by  regular  degrees,  by  intervals 
small  and  large,  by  chromatic  as  well  as  by  dia- 
tonic progression,  and  by  all  the  varieties  of  me- 
lodic and  harmonic  effect  of  which  it  is  suscep- 
tible,will  his  succeding  study  be  made  satisfactory 
and  available.    Multiply  this  knowledge  of  the 
resources  of  one  scale  within  the  compass  of  one 
octave  by  twelve,  the   number   of   independent 
key-notes  included  within  the  limits  of  the  chro- 
matic scale,  and  thereby  are  obtained  the  changes 
of  progression  possible  in  all  the  twelve  keys, 
in  the  circle  of  harmony,  through  the  transposi- 
tion of  the  key-note.    Now  this  may  seem  com- 
plicated to  the  uninitiated  ;   but  it  is  quite  clear 
to  all  who  have  mastered  the  changes  obtainable 
within  the  compass  of  one  octave,  and  afterward 
have  learned  the  rule  of  transposition  to  the  suc- 
ceeding eleven  keys.  This,  indeed,  is  the  first  di- 


rect business  of  the  faithful  musical  instructor 
and  his  pupils.     There  is  no  escape  from  travel- 
ing  this    well-known   and   well-beaten   road,  if 
accuracy    and  a  full     comprehension     of    the 
groundwork   of    music    be    really   desired.     In 
schools  where  the  very  tender  age  of  the  pupils 
hardly  admits  of    any  extended  course  of  vocal 
musical  instruction,  it   is   now  positively  ascer- 
tained that  the  association  of  the  sounds  of  the 
major  scale  with  the  numerals  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,8, 
is  of  direct  and  permanent  use.    Practicing  frag- 
ments of  the  major  scale,  ascending  and  descend- 
ing, by  regular  degrees  and  in  wider  intervals, 
with  frequent  recurrence  of  the  key-note  1  or  8, 
and  unisonant  passages,  has  the  effect  of  locating 
the  sounds  of  the  scale  in  their  exact  order,  and 
immediately  secures  the  attention  and  the  active 
participation  of  the  pupils,  because  the  order  of 
the  numerals  is  already  familiar   to  them  ;  and, 
in  this  way,  each  sound   of  the   scale  becomes 
gradually  associated  with  its  corresponding  nu- 
meral.    If  to  the  use  of  the  numerals  be  added 
that  of  the  syllables  Do,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si, 
which  are  more  musical  in  themselves  than  the 
numerals,  there  are  obtained  three  indicators  of 
the  different  sounds  of  the  scale ;  namely,  the 
letters,   the  numerals,  and  the  syllables,  all  of 
which  are  useful  for  special  purposes:  the  letters, 
for  denoting  absolute  pitch  and  the  location  of 
the  key-notes,  changeable  only  with  the  clefs  ;  the 
numerals,  for  drilling  in  the  plain  sounds  of  the 
scale,  and  ultimately   for  practical  use  in  the 
study  of  harmony,  one  and  eight'  being  used  as 
key-notes  in  one  or  all  of  the  twelve  keys  ;  and 
the  syllables,  for  sol-faing,    used  according   to 
the  Italian  method,  C  being  always  the  fixed  and 
immovable  Do.      It  is  at   this  point  that  this 
Italian  method,  -which  recognizes  the  syllables  as 
necessary  indicators  of  absolute  pitch,  and  at  the 
same  time  as  necessary  in  sol-faing  for  the  pro- 
duction of  an  equable  and  yet  varied  effect,  dif- 
fers from  three  other  methods  which  are  in  ex- 
tensive use  :  (1)  from  that  of  the  Germans,  wdio, 
with  a  special  name  for  every  plain  sound  of  the 
scale,  and  for  every  augmented  or  depressed  in- 
terval thereof,  rely  chiefly  upon  vocalizing  with 
different  vowels  to  secure  accuracy  in  all  chro- 
matic as  well  as  diatonic  progressions  ;   (2)  from 
that  of  the  United  States,  which  quite  generally, 
but  not  entirely,  employs  a  movable  Do  as  the 
starting-point  or  key-note  of  the  major  scale,  the 
key-note  for  any  relative  minor  becoming  La  ; 
and  (3)  from  that  of  the  Rev.  J.  Curwen,  the 
success  of  whose  method  in  England  has  been 
quite  remarkable, — a  method,  which  is  identical 
with  that  so  extensively  practiced  in  the  United 
States,  in  the  use  of  a  movable  Do,  but  which 
substitutes  the  syllable  Te  for  Si  ;  the  names  of 
Mr.  Curwen's  syllables  being  Dolt,  Ray,  Me,  Fah, 
Si  J/,  La,  Te.     This  method  of  lettered  and  nu- 
/ii'  rid  abbreviations,  as  substitutes  for  the  staff, 
clefs,  chromatic  signs,  bars,  measures,  and  time- 
table of  the  present  musical  sign-language  will 
be  more  minutely  considered  further  on. — To  re- 
turn to  the  two  methods  which  are  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  the  United  States,  it  is,  really,  very 


Ts-2 


SINGING-SCHOOLS 


important  to  the  beginner  that  lie  adhere  to 
one  method  until  it  is  thoroughly  acquired.  It 
is  the  united  testimony  of  experienced  teachers 
of  vocal  music  that  good  readers  are  educated 
I  by  both  of  these  methods,  provided  the  teacher 
begins,  continues,  and  ends  the  work  of  strict 
reading  by  adopting  only  one  method  ai  a  time. 
The  pupil  may  afterward  become  acquainted  with 
all  other  methods,  and  with  advantage;  since 
subsequent  experience  will  enable  him  to  test  the 
merits  of  the  method  which  he  most  thoroughly 
understands,  and  which  he  can  make  mosl  ef- 
fective. To  attempt  to  teach,  or  to  learn,  both 
methods  at  the  same  time,  produces  a  confusion 
of  associations,  and  a  consequent  bewilderment, 
which  should  be  avoided.  It  has  been  the  ex- 
perience of  the  writer  to  be  required  to  teach 
contemporaneously  according  to  both  of  these 
methods;  and  while  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
method  which  retains  the  immovable  Do  has  a 
unity  and  consistency  which  demand  time  for 
their  thorough  appreciation  and  practical  use.  it 
is  easier,  in  the  first  stages  of  instruction,  to 
change  the  Do  with  each  successive  key-note  of 
the  entire  twelve.  By  the  former  method.  lh, 
is  invariably  associated  with  a  certain  letter  and 
a  certain  line  orspace;  by  the  latter,  Do  becomes 
the  key-note,  or  numeral  one  or  eight,  of  every 
one  of  the  major  scales. — One  or  the  other  of 

these  ways  of  using  the  syllables  being  accepted. 
the  natural  and  ordinary  divisions  of  elementary 
vocal  teaching  into  those  of  tune,  time,  and  ex- 
pression present  themselves:  time,  or  melody, 
addressing  itself  more  directly  to  the  soul  than 
time  or  rhythm,  is  certainly  first  in  order  in  the 
musical  education  of  the  young.  By  common 
consent,  the  major  scale,  in  great  variety,  is  now 
practiced  with  numerals  and  with  syllables  in  the 
primary  departments  of  schools,  asa  preparation 
for  the  presentation  of  the  staff,  clefs,  notes. etc.. 

at  a  later  period.  It  is  a  matter  of  no  conse- 
quence whether  the  scale  be  based  upon  one  par- 
ticular line  or  space  in  preference  to  another,  if 
the  movable  Do  be  used  ;  but  if  it  be  die  teach- 
er's design  to  employ  the  Italian  method,  with 
its  Do  immovably  fixed  upon  middle  ('.it  is 
conducive  to  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  sub- 
ject of  the  fnt/isponiHon  of  the  key-note  to  start 

from  this  point.  If  another  letter  be  selected  as 
the  base  of  the  scale  in  the  earlier  lessons,  it  is 
necessary  to  return  to  middle  ('  when  the  sub- 
ject of  transposition  is  introduced,  And  the  ordi- 
nary rules  for  changing  the  place  of  the  key-note 
by  help  of  the  sharps  and  Hats,  are  fully  ex- 
plained. After  some  familiarity  w  ith  the  sounds 
of  the  major  scale  is  acquired,  a  division   of   the 

class  should  he  made,  whereby  singing  in  two 

parts  can  lie  attempted.  'This  phase  of  element- 
ary vocal  instruction  may  he  postponed,  in 
teaching  children,  until  a  considerable  knowledge 

of  the  diatonic  intervals  of  the  major  scale  has 
been  made  familiar  to  them.  With  adults,  how- 
ever, the  natural  division  of  the  class  of  mixed 
voices  arising  from  the  selection  of  the  soprano, 
alto,  tenor,  and  base  voices,  each  to  sing  in  a  com- 
pact body,  and  in  a  separate  location,  is  obvious- 


ly necessary  as  a  measure  of  interest  and  advan- 
tage to  all  fourof  these  parties. after  the  quality 
of  tone  and  compass  of  each  voice  have  been  as- 
certained. Heating  time  should  be  introduced 
and  rigidly  enforced  as  soon  as  the  staff  and  its  di- 
vision into  measures  by  bars  have  been  explained, 
especially  in  the  simpler  forms  of  twofold,  three- 
fold, and  fourfold  measure.  The  department 
oi  expression,  with  its  more  apparent  varieties 
of/",  p,  inf,  legato,  staccato,  and  ^_       -,  • 

may  accompany  the  perforniani  e  of  the  simplest 
exercises,  and  grow  with  the  growth  and 
strengthen  with  the  strength  of  the  pupil  as  be 
advances  toward  the  execution  of  more  elaborate 
examples  in  melody,  rhythm, ajidharmony.They 
who  clog  the  wheels  of  musical  progress  with 
dull  and  incompetent  ears  must  gradually  dis- 
appear.     This  is  a  ride  without  exception. 

Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  success  of  the 
Rev.  J.  Curwens  Tonic-Sol-Fa  system  in  ham- 
land,  of  which  Miss  Sarah  A.  Glover,  with  her 
so-called  tetrachordal method,  was  the  forerunner. 
j  It  is  claimed  that  it  is  better  suited  for  vocal 
practice  than  the  ordinary  signs,  and  many  of 
.Mr.  Curwen's  disciples  consider  it  available  for 
the  presentation  of  every  possible  variety  of 
music,  instrumental  as  well  as  vocal.  The  syllables 
Do,  li'/i/.  Mr,  Wah,  Soh,  /."//.  7''.  are  pro- 
nounced as  they  are  spelt,  Te  being  substituted 
for  Si,  to  avoid  confusion  with  Soh  when  only 
the  initial  letter  is  used,  as  in  the  printed  music 
the  initial  only  is  employed.  To  indicate  the 
higher  or  lower  octaves,  figures  are  placed  by  the 
sides  of  the  letters  which  stand  for  notes,  as 
d1,  </-,  iii'a,  and  So,  M2,d2.  The  tune  America 
is  presented  thus:  |  (/  d  r  tx  d  /•  ///  mfm  r  d  r 
dt1}etc.  Different  key-notes  are  announced  by 
letter  at  the  begjbning,  as  key  G,  key  A.  etc. 
The  key-noteof  the  relative  minor  is  always  Lah. 

Changes  of  key  are  effected  by  what  are  called 
bridge  tones.  The  note,  or  rather  the  letter  indi- 
cating a  certain  sound,  is  placed  side  by  side  with 
the  letter  indicating  the  pitch  of  the  letter  in  the 
key  approached;  and  pupils  are  taught  to  think 
and  sing  the  sound  of  the  first  noteor  letter,  and 
to  call  it  by  the  name  of  the  second.  Thus  d  r  in 
f  st  t  d  would  show  a  modulation  to  the  key  of 
(i.  Tonio-Sol-FaistS  consider  that  this  affords  an 
easier  mode  of  making  modulations  and  transi- 
tions than  the  older  system.  The  chromatic  scale 

is  named  by  adding  the  vowel  <  to  the  initial  of 

sharped  notes,  and  u  (aw)  to  ilatted  notes.  Thus 
de,  re,fe,  se,  are  respectively  </.  r.f.  8  sharp;  and 
ii/'/  (maw)  /".  /<>.  hi.  I.  t  tlat.  The  sharp  or  aug- 
mented sixth  of  the  minor  scale  is  called  bah,  to 
distinguish  it  from/is,  the  sharp  or  augmented 
fourth  of  the  major  scale.  Time  and  accent  are 
indicated  by  measurement  across  the  page, thus: 

I  :  I  :  J    v      :  I 

thespace  between  one  sign  and  Jhe  next  repre- 
senting the  heat :  the  line  showing  the  Stronger 
accent,  and  the  colon  the  weaker.  Short  divisions 
are  indicated, on  halving  the  measure,  by  one  dot 
.      :     and     commas   are   used    to    divide   the 

measure  into  quarters,  and  other  divisions  are 
similarly  shown.      A  stroke,   through   a  beat  or 


SINUIMJ-SCHOOLS 


SOCIAL    KCOXOMY 


783 


pulse,  means  that  a  previous  sound  is  to  be  con- 
tinued. Sol-Fa is Is  esteem  this  mode  of  measur- 
ing time  a  great  advantage  over  the  older  nota- 
tion. The  first  line  of  Pleyel's  hymn  is  thus 
written  :     j  m   :  S  |  r  :  .  w  \  f  :   r  \  m,  etc. 

The  method  cannot  easily  be  understood  with- 
out reference  to  the  Tonic-Sol-Fa  arrangement, 
i.  e.,  the  distinctive  plan  of  teaching  the  musical 
facts  indicated  by  the  lettered  notation.  It  is  the 
result  of  laborious  incpiiry  and  experience  on 
the  part  of  Mr.  Curwen  and  his  fellow  laborers. 
Great  importance  is  attached  to  the  doctrine  of 
what  is  called  mental  effect,  but  which  has  been 
previously  named  more  properly  emotional  effect, 
by  which  is  meant  a  certain  coloring  or  impres- 
sion produced  by  each  sound  of  the  scale  when 
sung  slowly.  Thus  doh  is  considered  firm;  te, 
sharp  and  piercing  ;  lah,  sorrowful  \fah,  gloomy; 
soh,  bright  and  clear,  etc.  Teaching  by  pattern 
is  also  required  ;  the  scale  is  taught  in  tire  follow- 
ing order :  (1)  the  notes  of  the  tonic  common 
chord  d,  m,  s,  or  doli  me  soh,  and  their  replicates; 
(2)  the  notes  of  the  dominant  common  chord 
s,  t,  r,or  soh,  te,  ray;  (3)  the  common  chord  of  the 
subdominant  /,  I,  d,  or  fall,  la  J/,  doh,  —  which 
are  simply  the  fundamental  harmonies  of  the 
scale,  embracing  all  it.:  sounds,  and  giving  birth 
to  the  name  of  the  system,  Tonic-Sol-Fa.  The 
backbone  of  the  system,  however,  is  the  Modu- 
lator, without  a  proper  use  of  which  the  method 
cannot  be  taught. 

f1 


d 

t 


d1 

t 

1 


f 
m 


d 
t, 


m 


ri 


I 


m 


d 

ti 

li 


f 
m 


m. 


m 


d 

h 
si 

fi 
m 


-DOH1- 

TE        — 

ta  la 

-LAH  = 

la  se 

-SOH  - 

ba  fe 

—  FAH 

-ME     - 

ma  re 

RAY     — 

DOH  - 

ti      - 

-  li    '  - 


l, 


m 


d 
t, 


f 
m 


to 


d1 

t 

1 


f 

m 


d 
li 


m, 


m 


d 
ti 

li 


m, 


to 

lo 


t3  — 

This   Modulator  is 


f 

mx  —  L  r:  s2 
a  map  of  the  musical 
sounds  to  be  read  in  an  ascending  order,  showing 
the  scale,  its  minor,  its  chromatics,  and  its  more 
closely  related  keys  or  scales.  By  familiarity  in 
the  use  of  this  chart,  the  upward  and  down- 


wanl  motion  of  the  notes  all  on  one  level,  is 
gradually  Learned  by  the  pupil.  Syllables  are 
used  to  show  the  length  of  the  notes  according  to 
the  French  Cheve  system.  Sotaa  is  the  name 
of  one  beat,  taa-tai  of  a  half-beat,  and  ta-fa-te-fe 
of  quarter  beats.  <  'oiitinuations  of  any  kind  are 
met  by  dropping  the  consonant.  Sol- Foists  con- 
sider that  the  more  intricate  and  refined  of  di- 
vided beats  can  be  sooner  learned  in  this  way  than 
in  any  other.  But  this  Tonic-Sol-Fa-method, 
more  than  any  other,  requires  the  living  teacher 
to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  its  signs  ;  and  it  fob' 
lows,  of  course,  that  the  teacher  of  any  particular 
method  of  imparting  musical  instruction  will 
best  succeed  with  that  which  he  most  thoroughly 
understands. 

SMITHSON  COLLEGE,  at  Logansport, 
Tnd.,  founded  in  1872  for  the  education  of  both 
sexes,  is  under  Universalist  control.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an 
endowment  of  $20,000.  The  regular  tuition  fee 
is  $30  a  year.  The  institution  comprises  a  pre- 
paratory, a  commercial,  a  philosophical,  a  col- 
legiate, and  a  normal  department.  In  lisTti — 7, 
there  were  8  instructors  and  50  students.  The 
presidents  have  been  the  Rev.  Paul  R.  Kendall, 
1872—4,  and  the  Rev.  R.  N.  John,  since  1875. 

SOCIAL  ECONOMY.  The  place  actually 
held  by  the  science  of  social  or  politic  I  economy, 
in  modern  education,  presents  a  strange  contrast 
with  that  which  its  importance  demands.  If  the 
object  of  education  is  to  fit  the  young  to  become 
self-supporting  citizens  in  a  progressive  society, 
conducing  at  once  to  the  happiness  of  all,  while 
securing  their  own,  then  must  the  science  whose 
special  function  is  the  elucidation  of  the  condi- 
tions of  man's  well-being  in  society,  rightfully 
claim  a  foremost  place  in  every  school  cur- 
riculum. It  is,  nevertheless,  to  be  noted  that,  up 
to  the  present  time,  instruction  in  this  science 
has  been  limited  to  the  few  who  attend  colleges 
and  universities,  and  to  the  pupils  of  a  small 
number  of  schools,  of  which  further  mention  will 
be  made  in  the  course  of  this  article.  A  part  of 
the  difficulty  popularly  experienced  in  appreciat- 
ing the  proper  position  of  this  subject  in  the 
course  of  study  appropriate  to  youth,  is  probably 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  name,  or  rather  to  the  dif- 
ferent names  which  have,  from  time  to  time, 
been  given  to  the  science.  The  most  appropriate 
term,  of  the  many  which  have  been  suggested, 
will  be  found,  on  examination,  to  be  that  under 
which  the  subject  is  here  treated, — that  is,  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  manner  in  which  are 
regulated  the  affairs  that  relate  to  man  in 
society,  a  meaning  fully  suggested  by  the  etymol- 
ogy of  the  words.  Nevertheless,  this  term,  as' 
well  as  the  allied  name  political  economy,  is  apt 
to  suggest  to  the  unprepared  mind  a  science  deal- 
ing with  a  very  different  set  of  ideas  from  those 
of  which  it  treats. — The  dissatisfaction  which  has 
thus  arisen  with  the  name  social  economy  has 
led  to  the  attempt  to  adopt  various  other  forms 
of  expression  to  designate  the  science,  of  which 
attempts  the  happiest  perhaps  has  been  the  pro- 
posal to  call  it  the  "science  which  teaches  the 


784 


SOCIAL  ECONOMY 


condition*    o(    human    well-being."     But    this 

title  is  not  wf  hout  objection.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  wanting  in  that  terseness  which  is  a  main 
requirement  in  nomenclature;  and.  secondly,  it 
is  wanting  in  precision.  This  expression  would 
logically  include  many  other  sciences  ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, hygiene,  a  due  regard  to  the  laws  of 
which  is  assuredly  a  condition  of  human  well- 
being.  If  the  science  had  to  do  solely  with  the 
production  and  distribution  of  wealth,  the  term 
originally  employed  by  Adam  Smith,  the  father 
of  the  science,  namely,  the  wealth  of  nations, 
would  be  specially  appropriate  ;  but,  even  this  is 
inadequate;  for,  although  the  laws  of  the  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  wealth  influence 
in  a  material  degree  the  conditions  of  human 
well-being,  the  science  which  we  have  called 
social  economy  includes  also  most  of  the  moral 
elements  that  enter  into  the  economy  of  society. 
The  diversity  of  names  that,  from  tune  to  time, 
have  been  suggested,  has,  not  unnaturally,  given 
rise  to  the  idea  that  there  must  be  something  espe- 
cially abstruse  in  a  science  the  ]  nofessors  of  which 
have  been  unable  to  agree  even  upon  the  name  by 
which  it  should  be  known.  The  difficulty  prob- 
ably arises  from  the  modern  use  of  the  term 
economy,  which  has,  to  some  extent,  lost  its 
original  and  etymological  signification.  Another 
cause  of  the  misapprehension  of  the  proper  place 
of  social  economy  in  education,  arises  from  the 
intimate  relations  into  which  every  person  un- 
avoidably enters  with  the  subjects  it  elucidates, 
at  nearly  every  instant  of  his  industrial  life;  SO 
that  all  persons  are  unavoidably  possessed  of 
some  notions  on  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats. 
Now,  us  there  is  an  infinite  number  of  modes 
of  error  and  only  one  of  truth,  it  is  oidy  by 
starting  rightly,  and  proceeding,  systematically 
or  scientifically,  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known, that  error  can  be  avoided;  hence,  the  no- 
fions  taken  up  in  the  course  of  practical  life 
are,  in  the  absence  of  systematic  study,  gen- 
erally erroneous.  But  it  is  usually  the  most 
ignoranl  who  wrangle  and  dictate  with  the  loud- 
est assumption  of  knowledge  ;  and,  hence,  people 
are  led  to  suppose  that  there  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  on  economic  truths  among  the  students 
Oi  the  science,  and  that,  therefore,  the  subject 
must  be  too  difficult  to  be  understood  by  children. 
It  is,  nevertheless,  true  that,  as  far  as  regards  the 

elements  of  the  science,  there  is   no    more  diffcr- 

■  of  opinion  among  those  who  have  given 

systematic  study  to  it,  than   there    is   among   the 

students  of  mathematics  upon  the  elementary 
principles  of  geometry.  Another  and  more 
serious    obstacle    to     the    introduction  of    social 

economy,  as  a  subject  of  instruction  for  the  young, 
is  the  following.  Owing  to  the  extremely  com- 
plex nature  of  human  society,  it   ifl   impossible  to 

take  all  of  its  factors  into  account  when  inves- 
tigating its  elementary  principles.  But  it  is  also 
true  that  the  geometrician  disregards  the  breadth 
of  the  line,  and  the  mechanician  the  weight  of 
the  mechanical  powers,  when  investigating  the 
laws  of  magnitude  in  space,  or  the  relations  of 
forces;  but  as  soon  as  the  geometrician  or  the 


mathematician  begins  to  apply  the  principles  of 
his  particular  science  to  practical  engineering, 
these  discarded  factors  form  data  in  his  prob- 
lems; and  their  effects  are  estimated  by  means 
of  the  very  laws  which  Avere  established  while 
disregarding  their  existence.  So  with  the  laws 
of  man  in  society.  The  laws  of  the  produc- 
tion and  distribution  of  wealth  were  investigated 
by  rigorously  excluding  the  sympathetic  side  of 
man's  nature  and  looking  upon  him  as  purely  a 
self-seeking  being;  but  the  principles  of  social 
economy  can  only  be  understood  by  regarding 
him  from  both  points  of  view.  This  was  well 
understood  by  Adam  Smith,  whose  Theory  of 
111"  Moral  Senlinn  nts  treats  of  man  as  a  sympa- 
thetic being,  and  is  complementary  to  hm Inquiry 
into  the  Wealth  of  Nations.  Host  of  the  followers 
of  this  great  master,  have,  since  his  time,  lost 
sight  of  the  fact  of  this  artificial  exclusion,  and 
while  pursuing  with  great  zeal  and  intelligence 
their  researches  into  the  one  half  of  the  subject, 
have  forgotten  that,  after  all.  it  was  but  one  half, 
and  that  the  other  half,  which  they  neglected. 
was  of  little  less  moment  toman's  happiness  than 
that  which  tiny  were  investigating.  It  was,  in 
great  part,  owing  to  this  f orgetfulness  on  the  part 
of  the  votaries  of  the  science,  that  it  acquired, 
among  persons  of  large  sympathy  but  small 
knowledge,  the  nickname  of  the  dismal  science; 
and  as  the  investigation  of  the  setf -regarding  half 
of  the  laws  of  human  well-being,  divorced  from 
the  sympathetic,  would  be  apt  to  chill  those 
sentiments  of  generous  sympathy  with  our  kind 
which,  in  youth,  should  be  encouraged  rather 
than  suppressed,  a  not  unnatural  disinclination 
was  felt  to  fortify  the  self-regarding  side  of  our 
nature  by  exhibiting  it  to  the  young  as  the  basis 
of  a  science  on  which  to  build  up  the  structure 
of  human  well-being.  This  well-grounded  ob- 
jection has  been  removed  by  the  correlation  of 
these  two  aspects  of  our  nature  into  one  body 
of  science,  —  a  correlation  first  illustrated  by 
the  teachings  of  William  Ellis,  which  has  been 
more  or  less  successfully  followed  up  by  his  dis- 
ciples: so  that,  to-day,  the  science,  when  prop- 
erly taught,  instead  of  warping  the  minds  of  its 
students  into  a  one-sided  egoism,  develops  a 
largeness  of  views,  a  generosity  of  sentiment,  and 
a  soundness  of  judgment  perhaps  unattainable 
through  any  other  study. — All  educators  have 
ea  that  the  earlier  years  of  youth  must  be 
directed  to  concrete,  before  proceeding  to  abstract, 
studies — to  observation  rather  than  to  causation. 
While,  speaking  generally,  this  rule  is  sound.it  is 
not  to  lie  understood  as  requiring  the  exclusion 
of  the  reasoning  process  from  even  infant  minds: 
but,  because  the  reasoning  faculties  arc  compar- 
atively dormant  in  early  youth,  knowledge  should 
be  obtained  through  observation  (as  for  instance 

in  natural  history  i  :  and  from  the  tacts  thus  ob- 
tained the  child  diou  Id  lie  trained  to  reason  logic- 
ally. Now.  for  this  purpose,  social  economy 
presents  many  advantages,  and  this  hardly  less 
BBS  mental  discipline  than  for  the  know  ledge  it 
imparts.      But  the  teaching  of  science  to  the  vci  \ 

young  should  always  he  in  connection  with  facts 


SOCIAL   ECONOMY 


T85 


or  subjects  presented  to  the  senses.  For  instance, 
suppose  a  lesson  is  to  be  given  upon  bread  to 
children  8  or  '.)  years  of  age.  After  the  children 
have  observed  those  properties  which  are  direct  ly 
•cognizable  by  the  senses,  the  judicious  teacher 
will  proceed  to  the  more  elementary  of  those  facts 
relating  to  it  which  physics,  chemistry,  and 
physiology  have  made  known  to  us,  and  will  not 
shrink  from  gradually  introducing  the  pupils, 
DOthwithstanding  their  youth,  to  the  terms  used 
by  men  of  science  in  speaking  of  those  facts. 
Instruction  of  this  kind  has,  for  a  long  while, 
been  given  by  the  best  teachers,  in  what  are 
termed  object  lessons;  and  they  have  now  only  to 
add  the  facts  relating  to  bread  which  are  made 
known  to  us  by  the  science  of  social  economy  to 
complete  their  course.  They  will  find  it  far 
easier  to  adopt  this  course  with  the  social  bear- 
ings of  objects  than  with  those  which  relate  to 
physics,  chemistry,  or  physiology,  because  many 
of  the  social  facts  will  have  been  spontaneously 
and  unavoidably  noticed  by  the  children  them- 
selves; and  when  once  they  perceive  that  what  goes 
on  around  them  at  home,  in  the  workshop,  and 
in  the  store,  has  a  scientific  value  and  importance, 
and  that  an  observation  of  surrounding  facts  and 
events  can  be  used  in  school  work,  and  have  a 
lit  ting  place  found  for  it,  as  a  help  to  further 
knowledge,  their  observation  will  be  suddenly 
and  wonderfully  awakened,  and  fresh  facts  and 
events  will  be  poured  upon  the  teacher  by  the 
children  themselves.  By  this  method,  long  before 
children  have  passed  out  of  the  primary  grades, 
they  may  have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  not  only 
the  fundamental  laws  of  the  production  of 
wealth,  but  morals  also,  as  well  as  many  of  the 
consequences  of  the  division  of  labor,  and  other 
matters  connected  with  the  interchange  of  com- 
modities. At  an  age  even  earlier  than  that  at 
which  it  is  now  deemed  proper  to  commence 
the  study  of  geometry,  that  is  to  say,  11  or 
12  years,  social  economy  may  be  taught  as  a 
special  subject;  but  the  opportunities  afforded 
by  object  lessons,  of  observing  the  social  aspects 
of  the  objects  under  consideration  should  always 
be  made  available.  In  teaching  social  econ- 
omy, as  a  special  branch,  to  scholars  of  from 
11  to  12  years  of  age,  the  subject  should,  as  far 
as  possible,  be  introduced  in  a  manner  analogous 
to  that  of  object  teaching.  Attention  should  be 
called  to  the  comforts  enjoyed  by  the  children, 
and  by  people  in  general,  in  the  country  in  which 
they  live, — things  to  which  they  have  perhaps 
become  so  accustomed  that  they  have  given  no 
thought  to  the  means  by  which  they  have  been 
provided  at  the  time  and  place  at  which  they 
are  needed  to  be  used  and  enjoyed.  With  chil- 
dren who  have  not  before  received  any  instruction 
in  the  science,  some  simple  object  of  their  daily 
use  should  be  noticed,  and  its  history  examined, 
from  the  first  preparation  for  the  production  of 
the  raw  material  of  which  it  is  mainly  composed, 
down  to  its  distribution  in  the  form  in  which  it  is 
required  to  be  ready  for  their  consumption.  Such 
an  examination  will  bring  vividly  before  the  i 
minds  of  the  pupils  the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  I 

50 


necessaries  and  comforts  of  life  are  produced  by 
labor;  and    then   the    name    wealth,  by    which 
these  products  of  labor  are  to  be  thenceforth  de- 
noted, may  be  given  to  them.     Industry,  econ- 
omy, knowledge,  and  skill  will  next  be  evolved  as 
necessary  to  individual  as  well   as  general  well- 
being  ;  and  the  division  of  labor  will  be  examined, 
with  its  resulting  enormous  increase  in  the  pro- 
ductiveness of   labor.     The  opportunity  should 
then   be  taken  to  exhibit  the  groundlessness  of 
prevailing  prejudices  in  regard  to  the   relative 
honor  to  be  attached  to  one  class  of  labor  over 
another,  and  to  point  out  that  those  by  whom 
household  labors  are  performed  are  as  much  en- 
gaged in  the   business  of  production  as  other 
laborers.     The  pupils  will  now  be  ready  to  ob- 
serve with  understanding  the  simpler  phenomena 
of  interchange  ;  and  then  the  paramount  impor- 
tance of  honesty,  truthfulness,  and  thorough  trust- 
worthiness on  the  part  of  all  will  be  evolved  and 
made  apparent. —  While  carefully  avoiding  all 
appearance  of  dogmatism,  the  teacher  can  hardly 
devote  too  much  time  to  multiplying  illustrations, 
and  reviewing  the  investigations  of  the  pupils, 
upon  this  head.    The  various  forms  of  untrust- 
worthiness,  and  the  consequences  thereof,  should 
be  made  very  clear,  nor  should  the  subject  be 
left  until  the  pupils  have  arrived  at  a  hearty 
detestation,  not  only  of  unsuccessful,  but  still 
more  of  successful,  dishonesty.   The  natural  laws 
regulating  the  relations  of  employer  and  employed 
will  next  be   studied ;  and,  either  now  or  at  a 
later  period,  the  rules  of  trades-unions,  and  the 
effects   of  strikes  and  of  combinations,  should 
be   closely   examined ;   nor  should  the  subject 
of  wages  be  left  until  the  pupils  see  clearly, 
that  the  wages  which  they,  as  sellers  of  their 
labor,  are  destined  to  earn,  will  depend  almost 
exclusively  on  the  productiveness  of  their  labor, 
and   that  all  those  rules  of  trades -unions  etc. 
which  tend  to  diminish  the  productiveness  of 
labor,  of  necessity,  lower  also  the  wages  of  labor. 
The  laws   determining    the  administration  of 
capital  will  next  engage  their  attention;  the  idea 
of  profit  will  be  evolved,  and  its  nature  determined 
with  precision;  the  mischievous  results  of  com- 
binations among  capitalists,  both  to  themselves 
and  to  the  community,  will  be  investigated,  until 
it  becomes    apparent    that    the  profit  of    the 
capitalist  is  the  reward  paid  him  by  society  for 
the  services  he  has  rendered,  of  which  services  it 
forms  also,  in  most  cases,  an  accurate  measure. — 
Property  in  land  will  next  claim  attention,  the 
justification  for  its  adoption,  as  well  as  its  just 
limitations,  being  ascertained,  and  the  principle 
of  rent,  determined. — As  the  next  step  in  the 
course  of  study,  the  idea  of  exchangeableness,  and 
the  name  value,  will  be  evolved.  The  laws  which 
regulate  value  will  then  be  investigated,  and 
the  necessity  of  precision,  alike  in  ideas  and  in 
the  use  of  words,  will  be  again  impressed  upon 
the  minds  of  the  pupils,  and  forcibly  illustrated 
by  as  many  examples  as  possible.     It  will  now 
be  time  to  examine  into   some   of  the  means 
which  have   been   adopted   to   facilitate   inter- 
change, among  which  money  will  be  seen  to  hold 


78.6 


SOCIAL  ECONOMY 


SOCRATES 


a  prominent  place ;  the  reasons  for  selecting  gold 
or  silver  for  money  will  be  examined  ;  the  im- 
possibility of  fixing  the  relative  values  of  the 
two  metals,  and,  consequently,  the  want  of  wis- 
dom shown  in  enacting  laws  making  both  metals 
a  standard  of  value  for  the  same  contract,  will 
be  readily  perceived  ;  nor  will  it  be  difficult  for 
the  pupils  to  discern  the  only  proper  function  to 
be  fulfilled  by  a  mint.  The  causes  of  fluctuations 
in  the  value  of  money  will  be  next  investigated, 
and  the  phenomena  of  price  and  its  fluctuations 
observed.  The  use  and  functions  of  credit  will 
now  be  inquired  into,  and  the  unhappy  con- 
sequences of  its  abuse  traced  to  their  source. 
Now,  or  at  a  later  period  in  the  course,  the 
causes  of  the  so-called  "tightness  in  the  money 
market",  of  business  derangements,  commercial 
crises,  and  of  panics,  will  be  rigidly  investigated 
and  their  only  remedy  discerned,  namely,  greater 
trustworthiness  and  honesty,  to  be  secured  by  the 
improved  teaching  and  training  of  youth.  The 
policy  of  laws  for  the  recovery  of  debts  may  now 
be  profitably  inquired  into,  as  also  the  function 
which, at  best,  governments  may  hope  to  perform 
in  the  economy  of  society. — Bills  of  exchange, 
rates  of  exchange,  the  par  of  exchange  between 
distant  countries,  rates  of  interest,  bunks  and 
banking,  may  all  now,  in  turn,  be  discussed,  and 
the  want  of  wisdom  shown  by  legislatures  in  the 
enactment  of  usury  laws,  and  of  laws  which  at- 
tempt to  control  or  regulate  banking,  may  be 
made  apparent.  Paper  money,  and  the  promise 
made  by  the  issuers  thereof,  the  dishonesty 
evinced  in  breaking  the  promise  thus  made,  and 
the  duty  incumbent  upon  those  who  have  either 
dishonestly  or  ignorant  ly  broken  such  promises, 
shoidd  be  dwelt  upon,  and  illustrated  by  examples 
drawn  from  history.  Foreign  commerce  may 
next  be  illustrated,  its  origin  and  the  cause  of 
its  existence  observed,  and  the  want  of  wisdom 
shown  by  those  legislatures  which  have  attempted 
arbitrarily  to  interfere  with  it. — The  proper 
mode  of  raising  revenue,  to  be  deduced  in  great 
part  from  the  truths  discovered  when  consider- 
ing the  phenomena  of  rent  and  of  its  progressive 
increase,  will  next  be  investigated ;  and  the 
wisest  methods  of  expenditure,  both  public  and 
private,  may  then  be  discussed. — With  the  con- 
sideration  of  all  these  questions,  and  mainly  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  here  sketched,  the 
school  course  of  study  in  social  economy  may 
be  closed.  Not,  however,  without  warning  the 
pupil  that  he  has,  by  no  means,  mastered  all 
the  truths  of  the  science,  but  that,  if  he  has 
thoroughly  assimilated  the  lessons  he  has  re- 
ceived,  they  will  suffice  to  direct  his  path  in  in- 
dustrial life.-  -The  course  as  sketched  in  these 
pages  should  occupy  from  two  to  four  years  of 
the  school  .in  ■ricnliim, — two  years,  if  the  knowl- 
edge to  be  acquired  is  to  be  learned  from  books; 
but  about  four  years,  if  the  Socratic  method  he, 
adopted  by  the  teacher.  Another  method  of  in- 
struction, and  one  which,  like  that  already  in- 
dicated, has  Keen  successfully  practiced,  is  the 
division  of  the  science  into  progressive  problems, 
demonstrating  these  either  on  the  Socratic  plan 


or  by  a  deductive  process,  as  in  the  study  of  ge- 
ometry. The  former  of  these  two  plans  is  that 
chiefly  followed  in  the  admirable  Birkbeck  schools 
of  Ixjndon,  schools  founded  and  endowed  by 
William  Ellis  (q.  v.),  of  that  city,  for  the  special 
purpose  of  introducing  the  science  of  social  econ- 
omy as  a  branch  of  school  teaching,  especially 
for  the  children  of  mechanics  and  laborers. 
Since  the  year  1848,  this  instruction  has  been 
continued  in  these  schools,  and  their  example 
has,  at  last,  been  followed  by  the  London  school 
board. —  See  Ellis,  Outlines  of  Social  Economy 
(a  text-book  for  schools)  ;  Progressive  Lessons 
in  Social  Science  (for  teachers);  Introduction  to 
the  Stud//  of  the  Social  Sciences  (London) ; 
PhUo-Socrates  (London);  Lessons  on  the  Phe- 
nomena of  Industrial  Life,  eft;.,  edited  by  the  Dean 
of  Hereford  London)  ;  J.  J.  Champlin,  Lessons 
on  Political  Economy  (N.  V.);  M.  R.  Leverson, 
Common  Sense,  or  First  Steps  in  Political  Econ- 
omy (N.  Y.  and  Denver,  1876). 

SOCRATES,  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher 
and  teacher,  born  in  a  village  near  Athens,  about 
469  B.  C;  died  in  that  city  399  B.  C.  He  was 
trained  in  his  father's  art,  that  of  sculpture,  and 
pursued  it  for  several  years.  At  the  same  time, 
he  devoted  himself  to  study,  and  attended  the 
lectures  of  Anaxagoras  and  other  eminent  phi- 
losophers at  Athens,  and  gained  a  reputation  as 
a  man  of  superior  intelligence.  Indeed,  one  of 
his  friends  asked  the  oracle  at  Delphi  whether 
Socrates  was  not  the  wisest  man  living,  and  was 
answered  in  the  affirmative.  This  answer  sur- 
prised and  perplexed  Socrates,  who  was  deeply 
impressed  with  his  own  ignorance  ;  but  he  Mas 
incited  by  it  to  continue  in  his  career  as  a  phi- 
losopher, in  this,  however,  he  assumed  the 
character  of  an  ignorant  person  asking  for  in- 
formation. Accordingly,  he  entered  into  con- 
versation with  the  most  eminent  men  in  Athens, 
particularly  the  Sophists  ;  and  soon  was  con- 
vinced that  their  claims  to  superior  wisdom  were 
without  foundation.  He  adopted  a  peculiar 
method  of  questioning  (since  called  the  Socratic 
method),  by  which,  under  the  guise  of  seeking 
information,  he  convinced  the  person  whom  he 
questioned  of  ignorance,  and  showed  him  the 
truth,  lie  passed  much  of  his  time  wandering 
about  the  streets  of  Athens  in  meditation,  or 
mingling,  in  the  school  and  in  the  market  place, 
with  people  of  all  ages  and  conditions,  and  of  both 
sexes,  and  soughl  to  engage  them  in  conversation, 
his  good  humor  and  brilliant  powers  as  a  dis- 
putant charming  all  classes.  In  his  walks,  he 
was  constantly  attended  by  a  crowd  of  persons 
who  were  commonly  looked  upon  as  his  disciples; 
though  he  never  opened  a  school,  or  assumed 
the   name    of  teacher.      He  selected,  however,  a 

few  as  his  special   disciples  and  companions, 

among  whom  were  Plato  and  Xeiiophon  ;  and 
to  these  he  was  particularly  endeared.  The 
unselfishness  of  his  aims  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  he  never  accepted  payment  for  the  instruc- 
tion he  gave,  never  sought  public  influence  or 
place,  and  only  once  in  his  life  occupied  a  polit- 
ical office  ;  while  he  frequently,  in  the  interest 


SOCRATES 


SOUTH   CAROLINA 


is: 


of  justice,  defied  popular  clamor,  when  acquies- 
cence in  its  demands  would  have  been  to  his  ad- 
vantage, if  his  designs  had  liven  ambitious.      1  lo 
acted  constantly  as  if  under  the  sense  of  a  divine 
commission,      lie  professed   to  hear  a  super- 
natural voice,  proceeding  from  what  he  called 
his  genius  (dai/zoviov),  which  exerted  over  him  a 
restraining,  but  never  an  inciting,  influence.  His 
unsparing  irony  towards,  and  contempt  for,  the 
Athenian  rulers,  and  his  demonstration  of  the 
ignorance  of  men  prominent  in  all  walks  of  life, 
which  he  made  plain  to  others  by  his  unrivaled 
skill  in  questioning,  created  finally  an  intense 
opposition  to  him,  particularly  on  the  part  of 
the  Sophists.     A   conspiracy  against   him   was 
formed  by  an  orator,  a  poet,  and  a  demagogue 
(Lycon,  Melitus,  and  Anytus),  who  made  a  pub- 
lic accusation  against  him  that  his  teaching  had 
brought  contempt  upon  the  national  gods,  that 
he  had  sought  to  introduce  other  gods  in  their 
stead,  and  that  he  had  corrupted  the  Athenian 
youth.      He  approached  his  trial  in  the  same 
spirit  of  independence  and  defiance  that  he  had 
always  exhibited.     "With  no  expectation  of  ac- 
quittal, he  yet  defended  himself  to  the  extent  of 
showing   the   falsity   of    the    charges    brought 
against   him,   and  declaring  exactly   what  his 
teaching  had  been.    A  court  composed  of  citizen 
judges,  variously  estimated  at  557  to  567  mem- 
bers, condemned  him  to  death  by  a  very  small 
majority.     It  is  thought  that  the  fearlessness  of 
his  defense  led  to  his  condemnation,  as  the  pros- 
ecution was  intended  rather  to  humble  than  to 
destroy  him.     After  his  sentence,  he  passed  30 
days  in  prison,  and  ended  his  life  by  drinking 
poison,  according  to  the  sentence  of  the  court. 
From   a  moral  stand-point,  Socrates  has  been 
considered  the  type  of  the  highest  virtue  at- 
tainable by  man  when  unaided  by  the  spirit  of 
Christianity.      The   immediate   and   inevitable 
product  of  his  method,  as  an  instrument  of  in- 
tellectual research,  is  clearness  of  conception — 
the  most  important  prerequisite  to  precision  of 
thought.     The  result  of  his  teaching,  therefore, 
was  comprehensive  and  radical,  leading  to  an 
entire  reconstruction   of    fundamental  ideas  in 
many  departments   of    human   inquiry.      The 
sophistry  which  constantly  enveloped  every  sub- 
ject, under  the  methods  pursued  by  the  ancients 
for  centuries,  was  dissipated   by  his  merciless 
questioning.      The   practical   character   of    his 
mind,  also,  in  regard  to  natural  science,  is  re- 
markable, considering  the  age  in  which  he  lived; 
in  this  respect,  forcibly   recalling  the   similar 
characteristic  of  Franklin.    Thus,  he  would  have 
had  the  men  of  his  time  know  only  so  much  of 
arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy,  as  would 
be  of  use  to  them  in  the  daily  occupations  of 
fife,  on  the  ground  that  the  vast  realm  of  human 
nature,  with  its  characteristics  and  duties,  was  at 
that  time  unexplored,  and  was  a  more  appro- 
priate field  for  investigation  than  what  he  called 
the  divine  phase  of  philosophy,  by   which  he 
meant  what  is  now  understood  by  speculative 
science.     In  his  estimate  of  the  proper  subjects 
for  investigation,  this  strongly  practical  bias  is 


always  apparent,  insomuch  that  Xenophon  says. 

"he  continued  incessantly  to  discuss  human 
affairs,"  and  Cicero  impressively  declares  that 
'•he  called  philosophy  down  from  heaven  to 
the  earth."  'J  he  career  of  Socrates  as  a  teacher 
was  a  remarkably  illustrious  one.  it  was,  also, 
eminently  successful.  Those  who  listened  to  his 
instructions  always  felt  their  minds  enlarged, 
and  their  virtuous  inclinations  strengthened. 
Certainly,  no  teacher  has  ever  presented  a  more 
complete  example  of  what  should  be  the  aim  of 
instruction,  and  none  has  ever  employed  a 
method  so  well  calculated  to  develop  in  the 
minds  of  his  pupils  the  ideas  and  truths  which 
he  designed  to  impart. — See  Grote,  History  of 
Greece,  chap,  lxviii. 

SOLON,  the  author  of  the  Athenian  system 
of  education,  was  born  at  Athens  in  G39.  B.  C; 
and  died,  in  559,  on  the  island  of  Cyprus.  He 
was  one  of  the  noblest  men  of  his  aye,  and  was 
reckoned  among  the  seven  sages  of  Greece.  A 
modern  historian  (Duncker.  Geschichte  des 
Alterthums)  calls  him  the  greatest  political 
genius  of  antiquity.  Having  been  called  to 
the  archonship,  in  594  B.  C,  by  all  parties,  with 
authority  to  confirm,  repeal,  or  modify  the  Dra- 
conian laws,  he  gave  to  the  Athenians  a  new 
constitution,  which  educated  the  people  to  a 
higher  degree  of  culture  than  had  been  attained 
by  any  nation  before  that  time.  The  eminence 
which  Greece  occupies  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion, is  chiefly  due  to  the  laws  of  Solon.  (For 
an  account  of  the  educational  legislation  of 
Solon,  see  Athens.) 

SOUTH,  University  of  the,  at  Sewanee, 
Tenn.,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church.  It  was  chartered  in 
1858,  but  was  not  opened  until  lyG8,  its  organ- 
ization being  interrupted  by  the  civfi  war.  It  is 
situated  on  the  Sewanee  Plateau,  a  spur  of  the 
Cumberland  Mountains,  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  1 ,000  ft.  above  the  surrounding  country.  The 
university  domain  comprises  nearly  10,000  acres. 
The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus 
is  $150,000;  the  amount  of  its  productive  funds, 
350,000.  The  library  contains  6,000  volumes. 
The  university  consists  of  10  schools ;  namely, 
civil  engineering  and  physics,  mathematics,  mod- 
ern languages  and  literature,  theoretical  and  ex- 
perimental chemistry,  metaphysics  and  English 
literature,  geology  and  mineralogy,  ancient  lan- 
guages, history  and  political  science,  commerce 
and  trade,  moral  science  and  evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity and  theology.  There  is  also  a  grammar 
or  preparatory  school.  The  charge  for  tuition, 
board,  etc.,  is  $310  a  year.  In  1875,  there  were 
12  instructors  and  243  students  (92  preparatory). 
The  vice-chancellor,  who  is  the  administrative 
head  of  the  university,  is  (1876)  Gen.  J.  Gorgas. 
SOUTH  CAROLINA,  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  American  Union,  having 
an  area  of  about  34,000  sq.m.;  and  a  population, 
in  1870,  of  705,606,  of  whom  289,667  were 
whites,  and  415,814  colored  persons. 

Educational  History. — The  first  constitution 
of  the  state  was  silent  on  the  subject  of  educa- 


TS8 


SOUTH   CAROLINA 


tion,  the  custom  at  that  time  being  to  leave 
elementary  education  in  the  hands  of  parents. 
In  181 1,  the  legislature  created  a  free-school  fund, 
the  use  of  which  was  to  be  confined  to  the  poor 
in  case  of  its  inadequacy  for  all.  This  proviso, 
imparting  a  sort  of  charity  phase  to  the  state 
effort  to  promote  education,  has  always  proved 
an  obstacle  in  its  way  by  alienating  from  it  the 
support  of  the  wealthier  classes.  An  effort  was 
made  in  1 843  to  revive  an  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, but  without  permanent  success.  From  the 
earliest  times,  the  city  of  <  'harleston  has  been 
the  recipient  of  benefactions  for  educational 
purposes,  but  these  have  been  limited  in  amount, 
and  their  influence  has  not  extended  over  the 
state.  Good  public  schools,  however,  existed  in 
that  city  previous  to  1 8(51.  In  1868,  a  new  consti- 
tution was  adopted,  which  provided  for  a  uni- 
form system  of  public  schools,  to  be  supported 
by  an  annual  tax  on  property  and  polls,  for  the 
establishment  of  a  state  normal  school,  a  state 
reform  school,  a  state  university,  and  educational 
institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  blind, 
ft  also  provided  that  all  schools,  colleges,  ami 
universities,  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by 
public  funds  should  be  free  to  the  children  of 
the  state,  regardless  of  color  ;  but  this  provision, 
together  with  one  compelling  the  attendance  at 
school  of  all  children  in  the  state  between  tli" 
ages  of  <i  and  L6,  has  been  disregarded.  Separate 
schools  are  now  generally  provided  for  colored 
children.  No  state  superintendent  of  public 
infraction   was  chosen   in    South  Carolina   till 

l868,whenJ.   K.  JillsOn    was    elected,       lie  was 

re-elected  in  L872  ;  and  was  succeeded  by  Hugh 
S.  Thompson,  elected  in   L876. 

School  System. — The  present  school  system  of 
the  state  was  established  in  L870,  the  act  which 
established  it  receiving  some  slight  modifications 
the  following  year.  The  general  supervision  of 
the  schools  rests  with  the  state  superintendent. 
lie  is  elected  for  four  years,  is  required  to  secure 
uniformity  in  the  text-books  used  in  I  he  schools, 
and  to  discharge  all  other  duties  usually  pertain- 
ing to  the  office.  The  n/.ft/>'  board  of  education 
consists  of  the  superintendent,  ami  the  several 
county  school  commissioners.  It  convenes  an- 
nually in  regular  meet  ings  at  the  capital,  or  in 
special  meetings  at  such  other  times  and  places 
as  the  superintendent,  who  is  its  chairman,  may 
direct.  Count//  school  commissioners  are  elected 
biennially,  one  in  each  county.  They  direct  the 
expenditure  of  the  School  funds,  appoint  teachers. 
and  manage  the  schools,  generally  with  entire 
independence  of  the  state  superintendent,  whose 
powers  are  chiefly  advisory.  County  school 
amh/<Ts,  two  in  number,  are  appointed  by  the 
county  commissioner,  the  three  constituting  a 
board,  of  which  the  county  commissioner  is  chair- 
man, for  the  examination  of  teachers,  and  the 
appointment  of  district  trustees.  In  addition 
to  these  officers,  the  governor,  the  chairmen  of 
the  committees  of  education  in  the  two  houses 
of  the  legislature,  and  two  others  one  appointed 
by  each  house,  constitute  a  committee  of  five 
to  choose  a  uniform  scries  of  textbooks  for  the 


schools  of  the  state.  The  school  revenue  is 
composed  of  the  state  school  tax,  the  poll  tax, 
and  district  taxes.  The  first  is  derived  from  a 
levy  of  two  mills  on  every  dollar  of  taxable 
property.  District  taxes  are  subject  to  the  will 
of  the  people.  Owing  to  the  failure  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly  to  pass  specific  laws,  as  intended 
by  the  constitution  of  1868,  various  matters 
necessary  to  give  definiteness  to  the  school  law 
and  make  it  effective,  are  undetermined.  The 
school  age  is  from  6  to  16  years. 

Educational    Condition.  —  The    number    of 
school-districts  in  the  state,  in  1876,  was  427  ; 

the  number  of  free  schools,  2,776.      The  only 
graded  schools  in  the  state  are  in  the  city  of 
Charleston.     The  school  revenue  for  the  year 
1876  was  as  follows  : 
Prom  state  appropriation...  $250,000.00 

"      district  taxes 146,493.57 

"      poll  tax 62,250.24 

"      Peabody  Fund ::,s.,it,00 

Total $462,593.81 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 

For  teachers'  salaries $377,920.33 

Building  and  repairing 

school-houses,  etc.  .    24,989.98 

Expense   of  enumeration  of 

school  children 4,230.65 

For  all  other  purposes 16,731.19 

'total $423,872.15 

This  statement   of  expenditures  is   only  ap- 

pioximatrly  correct,  as   complete  returns  from 

some  parts  of  the  state  had  not  been  received  by 

i  he  superintendent. 

'i'he  chief  items  of  sckool  statistics,  for   the 

year  1876,  are  the  following  : 

Population  of  the  state  ot  school  . 

Whites 86,678 

Colored 15'2,-2'>3 

Total 237,971 

Number  of  children  attending  school: 

Whites : 52,2s;; 

Qolored 70,802 

Total 123,0-v5 

Teachers  employed,  males,  white. . . .     1,140 

"  females     "      ....         841 

"  "  males,  colored. ..        774 

"         females     "      ...       313 

Total 3,068 

Monthly  average  paid  to  teachers,  males...      $30.40 

«  .<  «      .<  <<  females..         | 

Average  number  of  months  of  school  session         4,"> 

Normal  Instruction. —  The  State  Normal 
School  at  Columbia  was  opened  in  1874.  It 
provides  a  two  years'  course  of  study  in  two  de- 
partments; the  first,  a  training  class  for  fitting 
teachers  for  lower-grade  positions;  the  second. 
for  fitting  them  for  positions  in  the  higher 
schools.  The  board  of  regents  determines  the 
number  of  students  to  be  admitted  annually. and 
these  are  apportioned  among  the  counties  of 
the  state  according  to  the  number  of  represent- 
atives of  each  in  the  general  assembly.  The  can- 
didates so  apportioned,  pass  through  a  competi- 
tive examination,  conducted  by  the  county  school 
commissioners  and  board  of  examiners,  the  com- 


SOUTH   CAROLINA 


S.  W.  BAPTIST  UNIVERSITY     789 


missioner  recommending  the  candidates  accord- 
ing to  their  standing  in  the  examination,  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  special  aptitude  for  teaching  on 
the  part  of  the  applicant.  They  are  theme-ex- 
amined by  the  president  of  the  normal  school, 
and  if  found  qualified,  arc  admitted  upon  a 
pledge  of  intention  to  teach  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  state.  Certificates  and  diplomas  are 
gr  uited  according  to  the  degree  of  proficiency 
attained.  During  the  first  year  of  the  school, 
39  students  were  registered,  6  males  and  33  fe- 
males. The  report  for  1873  stated  that  the 
school  was  in  a  flourishing  condition. —  Six. 
teachers''  institutes  were  held  during  the  year 
1875  ;  but  the  system  has  not  yet  been  developed 
sufficiently  to  affect  materially  the  educational 
interests  of  the  state. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  institutions  for 
supplying  this  kind  of  instruction,  are  few  in 
number.  In  1875,  only  7  academies  and  sem- 
inaries made  reports  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education, — 1  for  boys,  2  for  girls,  and  4  for 
both  sexes.  They  employed  22  teachers,  and 
had  an  attendance  of  663  pupils.  The  number 
of  pupils  in  the  public  schools  pursuing  higher 
studies,  was  2,752.  There  are  no  high  schools 
organized  outside  of  Charleston.  There  is  a 
preparatory  school  at  Orangeburg,  having,  in 
1875,  an  attendance  of  209  pupils. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Instruction. 
— -The  denominational  schools  in  the  state  are 
not  numerous,  the  instruction  usually  given  in 
such  institutions,  being  furnished,  as  demanded, 
by  schools  of  other  grades. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  colleges  and  uni- 
versities of  the  state  are  as  follows  : 


When 

Religious 

NAME 

Location 

organ- 

denomi- 

ized 

nation 

Claflin  University. . . . 

Orangeburg 

IS  70 

M.  Epis. 

College  of  Charleston. 

Charleston 

1789 

Non-sect. 

Due  West 

1839 

Rf.  Presb. 

Furman  University.. 

Greenville 

18;H 

Baptist 

Newberry  College .... 

Walhalla 

1858 

Luth. 

University  of  S.  C 

Columbia 

1805 

Non-sect. 

Wofford  College 

Spartanburg 

1853 

M.  Epis.S. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — De- 
partments for  furnishing  this  kind  of  instruction, 
are  in  operation  in  many  of  the  colleges  and 
universities  of  the  state,  but  there  are,  in  addi- 
tion, special  institutions,  as  follows :  The  South- 
ern Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  at  Greenville, 
with  5  instructors  and  66  students,  in  1874 — 5  ; 
and  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  at  Colum- 
bia, with  5  instructors  and  57  students. 

Special  Instruction. — The  South  Carolina  In- 
stitution for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  and  the  blind,  located  at  Spartanburg,  is 
a  state  institution.  It  has  been  closed,  since 
October,  1873. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA,  University  of,  at 
Columbia,  S.  C,  was  chartered  as  South  Caro- 
lina College  in  1801,  and  was  organized  in  1805. 
It  became  a  university  in  18G5.  It  is  a  state  in- 
stitution, supported  by  legislative  appropriations. 
Instruction   is    free    to  all,  and   there   are  no 


charges  for  rent  of  rooms  or  matriculation.  The 
campus  and  grounds  are  in  the  center  of  the 
city.  They  cover  four  squares,  including  eighteen 
acres,  and  are  adorned  with  shade  trees.  Within 
the  enclosure  are  the  library  building,  recitation 
rooms,  dormitories,  society  halls,  and  residences 
of  tin'  professors.  The  university  has  a  museum 
of  mineralogy  and  geology,  and  a  library  of  over 
26,000  volumes.  It  comprises  an  academic  depart- 
ment, preparatory  school,  law  school,  and  medical 
school  (suspended).  In  the  academic  department 
there  are  two  quadrennial  courses,  the  classical, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  A.  B.,  and  the  modern, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Ph.  B.  The  preparatory 
school  is  designed  for  instruction  in  the  higher 
English  branches,  as  well  as  to  fit  boys  for  the 
college  courses.  Colored  as  well  as  white  youth 
are  admitted  to  all  the  courses,  The  legislature, 
in  the  session  of  1873- — 4,  established  124  bene- 
ficiary scholarships,  open  for  general  competition, 
each  yielding  $200  a  year  to  the  successful  ap- 
plicant. They  are  apportioned  to  the  counties  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  representatives  to  which 
each  is  entitled  in  the  lower  branch  of  the  general 
assembly.  The  scholarships  are  tenable  for  four 
years,  or  until  graduation  ;  and  the  holder  may 
pursue  either  of  the  quadrennial  courses.  In 
January,  187G,  there  were  12  instructors  and  19G 
students  (11  law,  88  collegiate,  97  preparatory). 
Of  the  college  students.  35  were  pursuing  the 
classical  course,  and  53  the  modern  course.  The 
Rev.  Anson  W.  Cummings,  A.  M.,D.  D., is  (1877) 
the  chairman  of  the  faculty. 

SOUTHERN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Greens- 
boro', Ala.,  chartered  in  1858,  and  organized  in 
1859,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South.  It  has  productive  funds  to 
the  amount  of  $51,000  ;  the  value  of  its  grounds, 
buildings,  and  apparatus  is  §90,000.  Before  the 
war,  its  endowment  was  over  $200,000.  The  li- 
brary contains  upward  of  2,000  volumes,  and  the 
laboratory  is  well  supplied  with  apparatus,  chem- 
ical and  philosophical.  It  was  originally  organized 
on  the  plan  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  and, 
besides  the  ordinary  collegiate  schools,  has  schools 
of  law,  medicine,  and  Biblical  literature.  In 
1876 — 7,  there  were  14  instructors  and  about 
100  students.  The  Rev.  A.  S.  Andrews,  D.  D., 
was  the  chancellor  until  July,  1875,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Luther  M.  Smith,  D.  D., 
the  present  incumbent  (1877). 

SOUTHWESTERN  BAPTIST  UNI- 
VERSITY, at  Jackson,  Tenn.,  was  founded  in 
1874,  by  the  Baptists  of  the  south-western 
States.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  ran- 
ging from  $12 i  to  $30  per  term  of  20  weeks, 
and  by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of  $G0,00O. 
The  value  of  its  real  estate  is  $50,000.  The 
academic  department  consists  of  a  primary  school 
and  a  grammar  (or  preparatory)  school.  The 
university  comprises  two  departments  :  (1)  liter- 
ature and  science ;  (2)  law.  The  department  of 
literature  and  science  comprehends  the  seven 
schools,  as  follows:  (1)  Latin;  (2)  Greek; 
(3)  mathematics ;  (4)  natural  science  ;  (5)  moral 
science  ;   (6)  English;   (7)  German  and  French. 


V90      S.  W.  PRESB.  UNIVERSITY 


SPAIN 


Two  auxiliary  preparatory  schools  are  to  be  es- 
tablished :  one  for  East  Tennessee,  at  Mossy 
Creek,  ami  one  for  Middle  Tennessee,  in  Mur- 
freesboro,  which  will  be  component  parts  of  the 
university.  In  1<S7.">— (>,  there  were  -i  instructors 
and  191  students  (52  collegiate,  44  grammar,  95 
primary).  The  presidents  have  been:  Geo.  W. 
Jarman,  A.  M.,  1S74 — 5  ;  Wm.  Shelton,  1).  1)., 
1875 — (i ;  and  Geo.  W.  Jarman,  A.  M.,  again, 
since  187G. 

SOUTHWESTERN  PRESBYTERIAN 
UNIVERSITY,  at  ( 'larksville,  Tenn.,  char- 
tered in  1 875,  was  established  by  the  Presbyterian 
synods  of  the  South-west.  It  succeeded  to  the 
property  and  funds  of  Stewart  <  'ollege,  which  was 
continued  on  the  existing  plan,  until  the  formal 
organization  of  the  university  proper.  The  uni- 
versity now  has  an  endowment  fund  of  $100,000, 
24  acres  of  laud,  with  commodious  college  build- 
ings, and  a  considerable  building  fund,  besides 
large  and  costly  cabinets  of  minerals,  fossils,  and 
shells,  and  a  valuable  scientific  library,  presented 
by  Prof.  Win.  M.  Stewart,  after  whom  Stewart 
<  'ollege  was  named.  The  college  received  its  name 
in  18.")."),  when  the  buildings,  grounds,  etc.,  of  the 
Masonic  University  of  Tenn.  (founded  in  1850 
by  the  Masonic  Fraternity  of  the  state) 
purchased  in  behalf  of  the  Synod  of  Nashville. 
Jt  was  suspen  led  during  the  civil  war,  and  re- 
opened some  tim.'  after  its  clos  '.  It  has  a  sub- 
collegiate  an  1  a  collegiate  department,  and  con- 
fers the  usual  '1  sgrees.  A  Biblical  course  is  pre- 
scribed through  the  four  college  classes.  The 
cost  of  tuition  ranges  from  $40  to  $70  per  an- 
num. Free  tuition  is  provided  for  all  candidates 
for  the  ministry,  and  lor  all  sons  of  Presbyterian 
ministers.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  6  professors 
and  131  students.  The  Rev.  J.  B.  Shearer,D.D., 
is  (1876)  the  president. 

SOUTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,  at 
Georgetown,  Williamson  Co.,  Texas,  under  the 
control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South,  was  opened  as  Texas  University  in  L87  !. 
and  chartere  I  under  its  present  title  in  1875.  In 
it  were  merged  Rutersville  College,  at  Ru 
ville,  chartered  in  1840;  Wesleyan  College,  at 
San  Augustine,  1844;  Soule  University,  at  <  Ihap- 
pel  Bill,  1856;  and  McKenzie  College,  a1 
ville,  1860;  all  controlled  by  the  same  church.  It 
is  supported  chiefly  by  tuition  fees,  but  has  an 
endowmenl  of  L 2, 000  acres  of  land.  The  tuition 
fee  is  $30  for  one  term  of  five  months,  or  $50 
for  one  session  of  ten  months.  The  university 
comprises  12  schools;  namely,  mental  and  moral 
philosophy,  Latin,  Greek,  pure  mathematics,  ap- 
plied mathematics,  German,  Spanish,  English 
language  and  literature,  history  and  political 
economy,  chemistry  and  geology,  a  commercial 
school,  and  a  preparatory  school.  In  1875 — <>, 
there  were  6  instructors  and  78  students.  The 
Rev.  I'.  \.  Mood,  l>.  I'.,  formerly  presidentof 
Soule  University,  is  now  (1876)  regent  of  this 
university. 

SPAIN,  a  country  of  Europe,  having  an 
area  of  1 95,77  1  sq.  in.,  and  a  population,  in  L870, 
of  16,835,500.  With  the  except  ion  of  the  Basques, 


in  four  of  the  northern  provinces,  almost  all 
the  inhabitants  are  Spaniards,  and  speak  the 
Spanish  language.  Until  quite  recently,  the 
only  form  of  religion  allowed  by  law  was  the 
Roman  <  'atholic. 

History  of  Education.- — Education,  in  Spain, 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Roman  power,  in  the  2d  century 
before  <  Ihrist.  The  progress  made  by  the  natives 
was  so  great  that  Strabo  found  no  difference  be- 
tween a  1  Ionian  and  an  Iberian  youth.  The 
j  schools  of  Cordova,  especially,  were,  during  the 
first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition,  and  educated  some  of  the  best 
representatives  of  the  later  Roman  literature. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  two  Romans,  who.  un- 
der the  reign  of  the  emperors,  achieved  the 
highest  reputation  as  writers  on  education  — 
Seneca  and  Quintilian,  were  both  natives  of 
Spain.  The  invasion  of  the  German  tribes,  for 
a  time,  checked  the  progress  of  education  ;  but 
the  scholarship  of  the  Spanish  monasteries  was 
soon  worthy  to  be  compared  with  that  of  other 
Christian  countries.  Some  of  the  Gothic  kings, 
too,  began  to  show  an  interest  in  education, 
which  was  well  calculated  to  raise  great  hopes 
for  the  future.  The  conquest  of  Spain  by  the 
A  talis  raised  the  country  to  the  foremost  rank 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth  in  regard  to  edu- 
cation. The  religious  toleration  of  the  Moham- 
medan rulers  allowed  Christian  and  Jewish 
scholars  to  teach  in  the  schools  side  by  side 
with  Mohammedans,  and  produced  a  literary 
emulation  which  was  followed  by  the  mosl 
beneficial  results.  Dozy,  in  his  History  of  Ike 
Mohammedans  in  Spain,  shows  that  primary 
schools  were  numerous  and  well  conducted, 
and  that,  while  in  the  Christian  countries  only 
the  priests  possessed  a  moderate  knowledge,  in 
Andalusia  the  bulk  of  the  people  were  able  to 
read  and  write.  Aristotle  became  better  known 
to  Christian  Europe  from  translations  made  by 
Mohammedan  Arabs;  and  Cordova  and  other 
seats  of  Mohammedan  learning  attracted  the 
most  gifted  students  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 
One  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Popes  of  the 
middle  ages,  Sylvester  II.,  was  chiefly  indebted 
for  his  scholarship  to  Mohammedan  teachers. 
When  the  power  of  Mohammedanism  declined, 
and  the  Christian  kings  began  to  recover  the 
losl  ground,  Spain  found  a  distinguished  patron 
lucation  in  king  Alfonso  X..  sumamed  the 
Wise  (1252 — 84),  who,  in  his  remarkable  code 
of  laws,  entitled  Las  Siete  Par  lidos,  devoted 
one  chapter  to  Estudios  Generates.  Salamanca 
became  the  most  famous  university  of  Christian 
Europe, having, at  one  time, over  L 0,000 students. 
During  the  L6th  and  17th  centuries, the  cause  of 
education  visibly  declined.  In  the  second  half  of  , 
the  L  8th  century,  Charles  III.  re-organized  the 
universities  of  Salamanca.  Alcala  de  I  [enares.and 
Granada,  and  established  elementary  and  higher 

schools    in    all    the   market    towns   and    villages. 

Under  Charles  IV.  (1788-  L808),  the  Pestaloz- 
/ian  system  was  introduced  ;  bui  ;t  did  nol  lead 
to  any  laslin-   improvement.     The  new   cousti- 


SPAIN 


■791 


tution  of  1812  favored  the  development  of  edu- 
cation, but  no  real  progress  could  be  made  dur- 
ing the  illiberal  reign  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Sev- 
eral attempts  to  re-organize  the  educational  sys- 
tem were  made  during  the  regency  of  Chris- 
tina, the  reigns  of  Isabella  and  Amadeo,  and  the 
short  republican  administration  ;  but,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  ensuing  civil  wars,  no  reform  of 
importance  has  as  yet  been  carried  into  effect. 

rrimary  Instruction. — Primary  instruction 
is  compulsory,  and,  since  18G9,  free  to  all.  By 
the  law  of  1857,  it  was  divided  into  an  element- 
ary and  a  higher  grade.  The  course  of  studies 
of  the  elementary  schools  comprised  religion, 
Scriptural  histoiy,  reading,  writing,  the  elements 
of  Spanish  grammar,  and  the  rudiments  of 
arithmetic.  In  the  higher  primary  schools,  the 
same  subjects  were  taught  and,  in  addition,  the 
elements  of  geometry,  of  linear  drawing  and 
surveying,  history  and  geography  (particularly 
of  Spain),  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  and 
natural  history.  The  law  of  18G8  abolished  the 
above  distinction.and  divided  the  schools  into  four 
•classes:  (1)  Escuelasde  entrada,  for  communities 
■of  from  500  to  1,000  inhabitants  ;  (2)  Escuelas 
de  primero  ascenso,  for  communities  of  from 
2,000  to  10,000  inhabitants  ;  (3)  Escuelas  de  se- 
ll undo  ascenso,  for  cities  of  from  10,000  to  20,000 
inhabitants  ;  and  (4)  Escuelas  de  termino,  for 
the  chief  towns  of  provinces  and  cities  of  more 
than  20,000  inhabitants.  The  course  of  studies 
generally  agreed  with  that  of  the  law  of  1857, 
but  required  for  the  girls'  schools  practical  in- 
struction in  needle  work,  and  recommended  the 
introduction  of  music  wherever  possible.  The 
law  of  1857  declared  all  those  schools  public 
schools,  which  were  sustained  wholly  or  in  part 
by  the  state,  by  charitable  institutions,  or  by 
funds  specially  appropriated  for  this  purpose. 
The  law  of  1868  added  to  these  all  schools 
.sustained  by  religious  corporations,  but  the  re- 
publican government  deprived  the  religious 
corporations  of  all  privileges  formerly  possessed 
by  them.  An  elementary  school  for  boys  is  re- 
quired to  be  established  in  every  village  of  500 
inhabitants,  and  also  one  for  girls,  though  nei- 
ther need  comprise,  in  the  course  of  studies,  all 
the  subjects  enumerated  above.  Similar  schools 
for  boys  only,  are  admissible  in  communities 
with  less  than  500  inhabitants.  Every  town 
of  2,000  inhabitants  must  have  two  complete 
schools  for  boys  and  two  for  girls  ;  and,  for  every 
additional  2,000  inhabitants,  there  must  be  an 
additional  school  for  boys,  and  one  for  girls. 
Private  schools  are  accepted,  but  one-third  of 
the  schools  of  a  town  must  be  public.  In  the 
chief  towns  of  provinces,  and  in  cities  of  more 
than  10,000  inhabitants,  one  of  the  public 
schools  must  be  of  a  higher  grade.  Schools  for 
children  from  two  to  seven  years  of  age  must  be 
kept  in  cities  with  more  than  10,000  inhabitants. 
At  the  same  places,  are  evening  schools  and 
Sunday-schools  for  adults.  By  the  law  of  lsiis, 
only  the  normal  school  at  Madrid  was  retained  ; 
while,  in  the  provinces,  it  was  deemed  sufficient 
to  permit  the  candidates  for  the  office  of  teacher 


to  attend  the  model  schools  in  the  chief  towns. 
i  he  normal  schools,  however,  were  re-opened  by 
the  revolutionary  government.  Every  capital 
of  a  province  is  required  to  have  a  normal  school, 
with  a  model  school  attached,  which  is  generally 
the  higher  school  of  the  town.  The  school  in 
Madrid  is  called  the  Central  Normal  School.  In 
order  to  become  a  teacher,  a  candidate  must  be 
20  years  of  age,  possess  a  good  moral  character, 
and  must  have  passed  the  prescribed  examina- 
tion. Teachers  can  be  removed  only  by  the 
government  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
supreme  council  of  study.  The  salaries  of  the 
teachers  are  very  small ;  but,  owing  to  the  com- 
plete exhaustion  of  the  Spanish  treasury,  even 
these  are  not  regularly  paid.  The  schools  of  the 
kingdom  are  under  the  supervision  of  a  supreme 
council  of  study,  consisting  of  24  members  who 
are  appointed  by  the  king.  This  council  is  divided 
into  three  sections  :  one  for  primary,  special,  and 
art  schools,  one  for  secondary  schools,  and  one  for 
superior  schools.  Every  province  has  a  provincial 
junta  for  the  schools  of  that  province;  and  every 
town  has  its  local  junta,  consisting  of  the  princi- 
pal officers  of  the  province  or  town,  a  priest,  and 
at  least  two  heads  of  families.  At  least  one  in- 
spector is  appointed  for  every  province,  by  the 
king  ;  and  sometimes  two  are  appointed  ;  Mad- 
rid is  entitled  to  three.  The  inspectors  visit 
all  the  schools  in  their  district,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  primary  normal  schools,  which  are 
left  to  three  general  inspectors.  In  1872,  there 
were  22,625  public  schools,  of  which  10,294  were 
for  males  (infants,  boys,  and  adults),  and  6,331 
for  females.  The  number  of  private  schools  was 
5,135,  of  which  2,901  were  for  males,  and  2,234 
for  females;  making  a  total  of  27,760  primary 
schools.  The  number  of  male  pupils  in  the 
public  schools  was  745,686 ;  and  of  female  pu- 
pils, 441,773  ;  making  the  total  number  of  pupils 
in  the  public  schools  1,187,459.  The  private 
schools  had  96.753  male  and  97,760  female  pu- 
pils, or  194,513  pupils  of  both  sexes.  The  total 
number  of  pupils  in  the  primary  schools  was 
1,381,972.  The  number  of  normal  schools  was  31. 
Secondary  Instruction.- — -Secondary  instruc- 
tion is  imparted  in  institutes,  which  are  divided 
into  three  classes  according  to  the  population 
of  their  localities,  that  in  Madrid  being  of  the 
first  class  ;  those  in  the  provincial  capitals  and 
at  the  seats  of  universities,  of  the  second  ;  and  all 
the  rest,  of  the  third.  Every  province  has  one 
provincial  institute ;  and  Madrid,  two  ;  while 
local  institutions  are  opened  wherever  they  are 
needed.  Colagios,  or  boarding-houses,  have  been 
established  in  connection  with  most  of  the  in- 
stitutes; while  private  colegios  may  be  opened 
by  any  Spaniard  of  good  repute  and  over  25 
years  of  age,  who  holds  the  degree  of  licentiate 
from  a  university.  The  law  of  1857  prescribed 
that  all  teachers  in  secondary  schools  should  be 
24  years  of  age,  and  should  hold  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts.  This  provision  was  abol- 
ished by  the  revolutionary  government,  which 
required  a  competitive  examination.  The  in- 
stitutes are  under  the  control  of  the  rectors  of 


702 


SPANISH    LANGUAGE 


the  university  districts,  to  whom  the  directors 
of  the  institutes  must  furnish  a  monthly  tinam 
ci;il  report.  If  no  university  is  near,  the  report 
is  made  to  the  minister.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  institutes  is  divided  into  genera]  and 
applied  studies.  The  former  comprise  religion 
and  Scriptural  history,  reading,  writing,  uni- 
versal and  Spanish  history,  modern  languages, 
Spanish  and  Latin  grammar  and  composition, 
the  rudiments  of  'Jreek.  logic,  psychology,  and 
drawing.  The  course  of  general  studies  emu- 
1  nises  two  periods,  of  two  and  four  years  re- 
spectively, and  prepares  the  student  for  the  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  The  applied  studies 
prepare  the  student  to  be  an  expert  in  mercan- 
tile affairs,  mechanics,  chemistry,  or  survey- 
ing, and  cover  a  term  of  three  years.  They 
comprise  linear  and  object  drawing,  mercantile 
arithmetic,  and  all  such  branches  as  can  lie  applied 
ia  agriculture,  in  the  arts,  in  trades,  and  in  com- 
iuerce  and  navigation.  The  Dumber  of  insti- 
tutes, in  1872,  was  63,  with  about  30,000  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction. — Superior  instruct  ion 
is  imparted  in  the  universities.  There  arc  five 
♦'acuities;  namely,  philosophy  and  literature; 
mathematical,  physical,  and  natural  sciences: 
pharmacy;  medicine:  and  laws.  These  faculties 
however,  are  not  all  represented  in  each  uni- 
versity. Three  degrees  are  conferred,  the 
baccalaureate,  the  licentiate,  and  the  doctorate. 
The  universities,  in  lST.'J,  were  as  follows: 
Barcelona,  with  55  prof essors  and  2,440  students; 
Granada,  with  47  professors  and  l.lu  !  students; 
Madrid,  with  76  professors  and  6,496  students: 
Oviedo,  with  L5  professors  and  223  students; 
Salamanca,  with  II  prof  essors  and  419  students; 
Santiago,  with  28  professors;  Seville,  with  35 
professors;  Valencia,  with  -!7  professors  and 
t ,693  students ;  and  Valladolid,  with  31  profess- 
ors and  1,050  students. 

Special  Instruction. — Special  instruction  is 
imparted  in  schools  of  agriculture,  of  architect- 
ure, of  fine  arts,  of  commerce,  of  engineering, 
and  of  mining.  There  is  also  a  conservatory  of 
music,  at  Madrid  ;  a  school  of  forestry,  at  Villa- 
viciosa  de  Odon,  and  four  schools  of  veterinary 
I  ittgery,  —  at  Madrid,  < -ordova,  Leon,  and  Sara- 
gossa.  The  total  number  of  students  receiving 
special  instruction,  in  L872,  was  L,372.  See 
.-'ciiMin,  Padagogische  EJncyclopadie ;  Report 
of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  for  L873. 

SPANISH  LANGUAGE.  The  Spanish 
language  has  but  little  claim  to  a  place  in  the 
regular  course  of  instruction,  in  schools  and  col- 
leges, in  comparison  with  the  French  and 
German  languages.  As  Spanish,  however,  is 
not  only  the  language  of  one  of  the  cations  of 

Europe,  bu1  is  spoken  in  all  the  countries  of 
South     America,    except      Brazil;    and    also     in 

Central  America,  Mexico,  and  even  in  some 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is  thus  the 
vernacular  language  of  at  least  60  millions 
of  people,  practical  considerations  commend 
its  study  to  thousands  of  persons,  students 
and  others,  in  preference  to  either  German  or 
ach,     independently   of  this  consideration, 


;  the  Spanish  language,  as  a  school  accomplish- 
ment, is  not  wnli'uit  attractions.  It  ranks,  in- 
deed, among  the  most  euphonious  of  modern 
languages,  being  even  preferred,  by  some  linguists, 
to  the  Italian  :  and  its  literature  contains  many 
works  of  enduring  interest  and  value.  Among 
historians.  Mariana,  and  among  poets,  Lope  de 
Vega  and  Calderon,  deservedly  hold  a  very  high 
rank ;  while  Cervantes,  the  immortal  author  of 
Don  Quixote,  has  scarcely  been  surpassed  for 
humorous  description  and  lively  satire.  The 
Spanish  language,  like  the  French  and  the  Italian. 

is  one  of  the  so-called  Romanic  languages  (q.  v.); 

but  there  are  some  words  in  it  which  may  be 
traced  either  to  the  ancient  Iberians,  the  riding 
race  before  the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  and  an 
offshoot  of  whose  language  is  supposed  to  sur- 
vive in  the  Basque,  or  to  the  Celts  who  overran 
Spain  as  well  as  other  parts  of  western  Europe. 
The  remarks  made  in  the  articles  of  this  work  on 
the  derivation  of  the  French  and  Italian  from 
the  Latin  apply  in  a  large  measure  also  to  the 
Spanish.  \\  hen  the  Visigoths  had  established 
their  rule  in  the  country,  they  gradually  adopted 
the  vulgar  Latin,  which  had  already  become  the 
language  of  the  bulk  of  the  population.  Thej 
retained,  however,  and  introduced  into  the  com- 
mon language,  a  number  of  terms  designating 
their  political  institutions  and  war  customs 
The  use  of  the  definite  article,  also,  and  the 
employment  of  auxiliary  verbs  in  the  formation  of 
the  past  tenses  of  the  active  voice,  and  in  all  the 
tenses  of  the  passive,  passed  from  the  language 
of  the  Teutonic  conquerors  into  the  new  language 
of  Spain,  as  likewise  into  those  of  Prance  and 
Italy.  'I'he  Arabs,  with  whom  the  Spanish 
Christians,  for  nearly  800  years,  had  to  wrestle 
for  the  control  of  the  country,  introduced 
into  the  language  a  number  of  words  relating  to 
industry,  science,  and  commerce;  and  some  of 

these  words,  especially  those  beginning  with  the 
Arabic  article  al  (as  almanac,  alcohol, etc.). have 
passed,  through  Spanish,  into  the  modem  lan- 
guages of  Europe  in  general.  While  the  Spanish 
language  presents  a  considerably  larger  number 
of  non-Latin  elements  than  either  French  or 
Italian,  it  deviates  but  little  from  these  two  sister 
languages  in  its  structure  and  grammar.  In  the 
pronunciation  of  the  vowels,  n  entirely  agrees 
with  the  Italian.  The  twodoublei  onsonants  and 
/"  are  peculiar  to  the  Spanish  :  and  of  the  English 
consonant  sounds.  ;  (as  in  .-.  m  |  is  entirely  want- 
ing. Though  substantives  have  only  two  genders, 
masculine  and  feminine,  the  article  has  three, 

el,  In,  ami  lo;  the  last,  which  is  the  neuter  form. 
being  used  to  change  adjeethes  into  substant  i\  es 

[lo  bueno,  that  which  is  good).     The  Spanish  is 

richer  than  either  French  or  Italian  in  augment- 
atives  and   diminutives:    and  the  reflexive  form 

of  the  verb  is  used  more  extensively,  perhaps, 
than  in  any  other  language  of  Kurope.  The  sub- 
junctive has  tWO  more  ieiises  than  the  Italian 
or  French  (amare,  future:  amara,  second  condi- 
tional).   In  words  derived  from  Latin,  the  e  and 

0  of  the  accented  pen  ultima  have  frequently  been 
developed    into    ie  and    we,  a  change   which,  in 


SPARTA 


SPENCER 


"793 


•this  class  of  words,  gives  to  the  Spanish  an  un- 
doubted superiority  in  euphony  (Spanish  tiempo, 
faerie;  French  temps,fort;  ltal.  tempo, forte). — 
The  proper  method  of  teaching  Spanish  does  aol 
differ  from  that  of  teaching  the  French  language 
(q.  v.)  A  few  lessons  in  comparative  etymology 
will  greatly  facilitate  the  study  of  this  as  of  every 
language.  If,  for  instance,  the  pupil  learns  that 
such  combinations  as  c/, ,//.  pi  etc.  in  English 
words  of  Latin  origin  are  often  changed  into  // 
[l/a/nar,  clamor;  llama,  flame:  llano,  plain),  a 
large  number  of  words  will,  at  once,  be  familiar 
to  him. — The  first  grammar,  as  well  as  the  first 
dictionary,  of  th.'  Spanish  language,  was  pub- 
lished in  L4D2  by  Antonio  de  Lebrija.  The  gram- 
mar and  dictionary  of  the  Spanish  Academy 
(first  published  in  1771)  at  once  became,  and 
nave  since  remained,  standard  authorities.  The 
dictionary  of  the  Academy  has  received  many 
valuable  additions  and  corrections  from  Salva, 
who  has  also  written  the  best  Spanish  grammar 
for  natives.  Etymological  dictionaries  have  been 
published  by  Covarrabias  (1G74)  and  Cabrera 
(1837). 

SPARTA,  one  of  the  principal  states  of 
ancient  Greece,  dates  its  important  history  from 
the  regency  of  Lycurgus  (q.v.),  who  devised  a 
peculiar  system  of  education,  designed  to  foster, 
as  the  highest  virtue,  a  contempt  of  life  and  of 
worldly  goods,  and,  as  worthy  of  the  highest 
honor,  the  habit  of  prompt  obedience  to  all  the 
demands  of  the  state.  The  central  idea  of  his 
system  was,  that  the  interests  of  the  state  are 
paramount  to  every  consideration  of  individual 
rights  or  feelings.  Hence,  according  to  it,  the 
child  was  the  property  of  the  state,  and  its 
officers  alone  had  the  right  to  decide  its  destiny, 
even  from  its  birth,  infants  physically  incapable 
of  the  prescribed  training  not  being  permitted 
to  five.  In  the  early  period  of  its  life,  the  in- 
fant was  allowed  to  remain  with  its  mother,  who 
was  required  to  adopt  every  possible  means  to 
invigorate  its  body.  With  the  7th  year  of  age, 
the  state  education  began.  The  boys  were  com- 
mitted to  a  public  educational  establishment  (a 
sort  of  military  school);  and,  by  living  thus 
apart  from  their  friends,  were  made  to  realize 
early  their  membership  in  the  state  organism, 
with  common  interests  and  aspirations.  The 
general  direction  was  entrusted  to  a  superin- 
tendent {-mSoKouoq),  who  was  selected  from 
among  those  who  had  been  previously  invested 
with  the  highest  political  dignities.  Under  him, 
were  officers  whose  duty  it  was  to  guide  the  ex- 
ercises of  the  boys.  The  Spartan  system  aspired 
to  establish  a  perfect  harmony  between  the  will 
of  the  individual  and  the  interests  and  demands 
of  the  state,  as  expressed  by  the  laws.  It  pro- 
vided a  gradual  transition  from  obedience  to  the 
exercise  of  authority,  on  the  principle  that  those 
only  know  how  to  command  who  have  learned 
to  obey.  Thus,  the  elder  boys  were  permitted 
to  participate  in  the  training  of  the  younger  : 
and  the  latter  were  obliged  to  wait  upon  the 
former  at  table.  As  the  purpose  of  the  Spartans 
"was  to  rear  warlike   citizens,  physical  training 


!  constituted  the  chief  part  of  a  youth's  education. 
Every  possible  means  was  resorted  to  in  order 
to  cultivate  fortitude,  and  the  habit  of  enduring 

i  hardship  and  pain.  The  youths'  diet  was  not 
only  plain  but  scanty.  They  were  permitted  to 
steal  the  provisions  accessary  to  satisfy  their 
hunger,  but  if  caught,  were  severely  punished  ; 
as  the  intention  was  to  develop  cunning,  agility, 
and  dexterity — qualities  requisite  in  war.  The 
boys  wore  neither  head  nor  foot  covering,  up 

!  to  the  age  of  manhood.  At  the  12th  year,  every 
kind  of  under-garment  was  laid  aside,  a  long 
cloak  [xir&v)  being  the  only  article  of  clothing 
worn,  and  that  at  all  seasons.  Their  bed  was 
hard,  being  prepared  of  the  rushes  that  grew  on 

i  the  banks  of  the  Eurotas.  Corporal  punishment 
was  not  only  used  as  a  means  of  discipline,  but 
was  deemed  to  be  indispensably  requisite  for  the 
formation  of  a  manly  disposition.  The  intel- 
lectual cultivation  of  the  Spartans  was  very 
slight  ;  but,  on  account  of  their  political  life, 
they  were  obliged  to  possess  some  learning. 
They,  therefore,  acquired  by  oral  instruction  a 
rudimentary  knowledge  of  arithmetic  and  some 
other  branches.  They  also  learned  to  dance, 
sing,  and  play  on  some  musical  instrument, 
especially  the  flute  and  lyre  {m-dapa),  and  com- 
mitted to  memory  the  laws  of  Lycurgus.  Girls 
studied  the  same  subjects  as  boys,  and  also 
practiced  gymnastic  exercises  to  promote  health 
and  beauty.     (See  Greece.) 

SPENCER,  Herbert,  an  English  philos- 
opher and  author,  born  in  Derby,  April  27., 
1820.  At  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  became  a 
civil  engineer ;  but,  at  the  end  of  eight  years, 
during  wThich  he  was  a  contributor  to  the  Civil 
Engineers'  and  Architects7  Journal,  he  relin- 
quished his  profession,  and  engaged  in  study.  In 
1842,  he  began  the  publication,  in  the  Xon-Con- 
formisi,  of  a  series  of  papers,  entitled,  The 
Proper  Sphere  of  Government.  From  1848  to 
1852,  he  was  a  regular  contributor  to  the  Econ- 
omisi,  and  furnished  reviews  and  criticisms  on 
various  subjects  to  other  periodicals.  In  1854, 
the  theory  of  evolution,  a  belief  in  which, as  the 
cause  of  the  present  diversity  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  had  gradually  become  strengthened  in 
his  mind,  suggested  itself  to  him  as  a  universal 
process ;  and  subsequent  study  has  only  served 
to  confirm  the  truth  of  the  suggestion.  This 
view  of  evolution,  as  the  method  of  nature  in 
every  department,  is  reflected  in  the  only  dis- 
tinctively educational  work  he  has  published — a 
small  volume,  entitled,  Education- :  Intellectual, 
Moral,  and  Physical  (London  and  New  York, 
L860).  This  work,  based  upon  the  latest  dis- 
coveries and  conclusions  of  science,  confirms  the 
most  important  results  of  Montaigne,  Locke, 
Rousseau,  Isaac  Taylor,  and  others  —  results 
reached  only  by  an  acute  observation  of  mental 
phenomena,  but  without  a  perception  of  the  reason 
or  order  of  their  development.  It  goes  beyond 
them,  however,  in  its  attempt  to  lay  down  a 
complete  scheme  of  education  in  accordance 
with  the  doctrine  of  evolution.  The  dominant 
idea  of  the  method  of  Restalozzi,  discovered  by 


•794 


STATE  AND  SCHOOL 


STEPHENS 


him  empirically  through  his  strong  sympathy 
for  children,  is  in  this  work  shown  to  be  the 
true  one  ;  while  his  errors  in  the  application  of 
the  method — errors  which  he  himself  acknowl- 
edged— are  explained.  Two  of  the  distinctive 
features  of  the  system  proposed  by  Mr.  Spencer 
are,  that  the  concrete  should  precede  the  ab- 
stract in  all  early  instruction,  and  the  corollary 
which  follows  from  this  :  namely,  the  superior 
uses  of  science  as  an  educator ;  and  the  use  of 
pleasure  or  interest  as  a  test  of  the  efficacy  of 
the  instruction.  The  gradual  abandonment  of 
corporal  punishment,  the  disuse  of  rote-teaching, 
and  the  substitution  of  the  direct  appeal  to  nat- 
ure, the  increased  attention  given  to  physical  ed- 
ucation, and  the  general  acceptance  of  the  idea 
of  mental  growth  by  inherent  power,  in  place  of 
the  artificial  expansion  produced  by  purely  ex- 
terior forces,  seem  to  indicate  a  practical  accept- 
ance of  the  doctrines  of  Mr.  Spencer,  whatever 
theoretical  objections  may  be  made  to  them. 

STATE  AND  SCHOOL.  In  all  civilized 
countries,  the  control  of  public  schools  is  looked 
141011  as  one  of  the  most  important  and  difficult 
branches  of  public  administration.  Many  states 
have  a  special  ministry  of  public  instruction; 
while  others  have  established  a  bureau  of  edu- 
cation, connected  with  one  of  the  ministries. 
Ministry  of  Public  [nstbuction.)  As  has  been 
shown,  in  the  articles  on  the  history  of  education 
an  1  on  the  several  countriesof  the  world, ancient 
and  modern,  the  relation  of  state  authorities  to 
school  affairs  has  widely  differed  in  different 
times  and  countries.  Even  at  the  present  time. 
there  is  not  only  a  vast  diversity  in  the  school 
laws  of  different  countries,  but  fundamental 
questions  in  regard  to  the  powers  of  state  author- 
ities, in  educational  affairs,  are  still  warmly  dis- 
cussed. Generally,  however,  it  is  conceded  that 
the  state  has  the  right  to  require  that  every 
child  in  the  country  shoukl  receive  a  certain  de- 
gree of  elementary  education.  (See  Compulsory. 
Education,  and  Public  Schools.)  But  one  of  the 
greatest  educational  controversies  of  the  present 
time  is,  whether  the  state  authority  has  the  sole 
right  to  arrange  a  course  of  studies,  without  re- 
gard  to  the  different  religious  views  existing  in 
a  community.  (See  Denominational  Schooi 
Another  controvert"!  question  is  the  right  of 
the  state  to  support  by  the  public  money  any 
mis  higher  than  those  of  an  elementary  grade. 
1 1 11 : 1 1  Schools.) 
STEPHANI,  Heinrich,  a  German  educator 
and  Protestant  clergyman,  born  at  Gemiind,  in 
Bavaria,  April  1 .,  1761;  died  at  Gorkau,  in  Sile- 
sia. Dec.  21.,  L850.  After  having  been  for  a  few 
ye  irs  at  the  head  of  the  schools  in  the  little  state 
of  Castell,  he  was,  in  L808,  after  the  incorporation 
of  Castell  with  Bavaria,  appointed  school  coun- 
cilor at  Augsburg.  Subsequently  he  held  the  same 
iiosition  at  Bichstadl  and  Anspach;  and.  in  L818, 
ie  became  dean  at  Gunzenhausen.  From  the 
latter  position,  lie  was  removed  in  L834,  on  ac- 
count of  his  rationalistic  views.  I  lis  FHbel  1 L802), 

I    several    works   on    an    improved    method   of 
teaching    to   read,   contributed    more    than   any 


I  other  work  to  the  progress  of  the  phonic  method 
[Lautirmethode)  of  reading  German.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  national  education 
( Grundlinien  der  Staatserziehungswissenschqfl 
(lTDT);  and  System  der  bffentlicken  Erziehung 
(1805), in  which  he  took  the  ground  that  the  school 
should  be  separated  from  the  church,  and  placed 
under  the  exclusive  control  of  the  state  author- 
ities, but  that  parents  should  have  liberty  to  send 
their  children  to  cither  state  or  private  schools. 

STEPHENS,  Henry  (Lat.  Stephanus,  Ft. 
Estienne  or  Etu  nne),  was  born  in  Paris  in  1528, 
and  died  in  Lyons  in  1598.  He  was  the  grand- 
son of  Henry  Stephens,  who  was  the  founder  of 
a  remarkable  family  of  scholars  and  printers, 
which,  for  three  generations,  maintained  its 
peculiar  eminence.  He  was  distinguished  by 
the  scholarly  ability,  but  was  wanting  in  the 
worldly  prudence,  which  characterized  his  an- 
cestors. He  continued  the  business  of  his 
father  in  Paris  and  Geneva  successively,  publish- 
ing, among  other  works,  those  of  J.schylus, 
Herodotus,  Horace.  Plato,  Virgil,  Pliny,  and 
Plutarch.  In  1572,  he  issued  his  Thesaurus 
Lingual  Greece,  an  abridgment  of  which  was 
mane  by  Scapula.  The  costliness  of  this  work. 
by  confining  its  sale  to  the  wealthy,  involved 
him  in  pecuniary  difficulties,  which  ended  only 
with  his  life.  His  remarkable  ability  as  a  clas- 
sical scholar  secured  him  the  approval  of  the 
learned,  and  would  alone  entitle  him  to  an  en- 
during reputation.  See  Leon  Feugere,  Essai 
l<t  vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  H.  Estienne, 
(Paris,  1853);  A.  A.  Renouard,  A/males  de 
Vimprimerie  des  Estienne  (Paris,  1837 — 43). 

STEPHENS,  Robert,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1503;  died,  in  1559, 
in  Geneva,  to  which  city  he  had  removed  on 
account  of  persecution  for  his  advocacy  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation.  The  occasion  for 
his  persecution  was  found  by  his  enemies  in  his 
edition  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Greek  Testament, 
the  former  published  in  1545.  the  latter,  in  1549. 
lie  was  considered  one  of  the  most  excellent 
scholars  of  his  time.  As  early  as  his  2(ith  year, 
he  published  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
in  Latin,  with  corrections  by  himself,  and,  in 
L532,  began  the  publication  of  the  most  famous 
of  all  his  works,  his Dictionarium  seu  Thesaurus 
Linguae  Latince,  a  work  which  maintained  an 
acknowledged  superiority  for  more  than  two 
hundred  years,  new  editions  appearing,  iii  London 
and  Paris,  as  late  as  the  present  century.  In 
151.'!.  he  compiled  the  first  Latin-French  dic- 
tionary, a  work  which  was  received  with  great 
favor,  lie  was  at  once  author,  printer,  and 
publisher;  and  from  his   press  were  issued  many 

editions  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics,  all  of  which  were  marked  by  accuracy  of 
Scholarship  and  an  artistic  excellence  which  sur- 
passed any  thing  that  had  been  published,  up  to 

that  time,  in  France.    The  division  of  the  New 

Testament  into  verses,  the  method  HOW  generally 

employed,  was firsl  introduced  by  him.  See  \- 
I-'.  Didot,  in  the  Nbnvelle  Biographic  Gfeneralt  : 
ami  London  Quarterly  Review  for  April,  li. 


STEWART  COLLEGE 


STURM 


795 


STEWART  COLLEGE,  Clarksvffle,  Tonn. 
See  Southwestekn    Preshyteeian   UNIVERSITY. 

STONE,  William  Leete,  an  American 
author,  born  at  New  Paltz,  ]S.  Y.,  April  20., 
1792;  died  at  Saratoga  Springs,  Aug.  L5.,  1844. 
lie  began  life  as  a  printer,  but  at  18  became  an 
ei  litor — editing  successively  various  journals,  but, 
from  1821  until  his  death,  the  _ZV!  Y.  Conn,/,  n  ;  tl 
Advertiser.  For  some  years,  he  was  one  of  the 
school  commissioners  of  New- York  City;  and, 
during  the  years  1843 — 4,  was  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  common  schools.  lie  will  long  be 
remembered  on  account  of  his  famous  discussion 
with  Archbishop  Hughes  in  relation  to  the  use 
of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools,  his  last  letter 
to  whom — occupying  three  columns  of  fine  type 
in  the  Commercial  Advertiser — was  dictated  on 
his  death-bed  but  one  week  previous  to  his  de- 
cease. Although  Col.  Stone's  influence  was 
widely  extended  throughout  the  country,  it 
was  felt  more  particularly  in  New  York  <'it}'. 
For  many  years,  he  was  identified  with  all  her 
interests ;  and  she  has  reason  ever  to  hold  his 
name  in  kindly  remembrance.  The  religious 
enterprises  and  benevolent  associations  of  the 
day  commanded  his  earnest  efforts  in  their  be- 
half ;  and,  at  home,  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb,  and  the  Society  for  the  Reformation 
of  Juvenile  Delinquents,  found  in  him  a  steadfast 
supporter.  "Col.  Stone,"  writes  Harvey  P.  Peet, 
the  president  of  the  New  York  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Asylum,  "  entered  with  characteristic  energy  into 
the  effort  to  build  up  a  superior  institution  for 
the  Deaf  and  Dumb  in  New  York  ;  and  I  ascribe 
much  of  the  success  which  crowned  my  labors 
to  his  ready  sympathy  and  encouragement  and 
his  intelligent  and  zealous  co-operation."  Indeed, 
it  may  be  truly  said  that  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation he  gave  his  whole  energies  and  spared 
not  his  decaying  strength.  "As  Superintend- 
ent of  Common  Schools,"  said  Mr,  Clark  in 
announcing  the  fact  of  his  decease  to  the  Board 
of  Education,  at  a  special  meeting  called  for  the 
purpose.  "  his  loss  is  irreparable,  and  from  any 
knowledge  I  possess  of  the  qualifications  of 
others,  1  fear  it  will  be  long  before  his  place 
will  be  fully  supplied.  His  qualifications  for  that 
office  were  pre-eminent."  His  published  works 
are  quite  numerous,  but  mostly  on  subjects  per- 
taining to  American  history.  Of  these,  perhaps 
the  most  admired  are  Life  of  Joseph  Brant; 
Tha-yen-da-ne-gea  (1838),  new  edition  edited 
by  VV.  L.  Stone,  Jr.  (Albany,  1865);  Border 
Wars  of  the  American  Revolution  (1837);  Life 
of  Red-Jacket — Sa-go-ye-wat-ha  (1835),  new  edi- 
tion with  life  of  the  author  by  his  son,  W.  L. 
Stone  (Albany,  1866). 

STOWE,  Calvin  E.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  Natick,  Mass.,  April  6.,  1802.  1  le 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College,  in  1824,  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  in  1828;  and,  in 
the  latter,  he  was  immediately  made  assistant 
professor.  From  1830 — 33,  he  was  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  in  Dartmouth  ( 'ollege  ;  and  in 
1833,  of  languages  and  Biblical  literature  in  the 
Lane  Theological  Seminary.  He  visited  Europe  in 


1G3G,  to  examine,  for  the  State  of  Ohio,  the  pub- 
lie-school  system  of  the  <  iernian  States,  and  pub- 
lished Elementary  l  ublic  Instruction  in  Europe 
18),  which  was  exb  d:  i \  <  ly  circulated  in  Ohio 
by  direction  of  the  legislature.  He  published 
reports,  also,  on  the  Education  of  Immigrants, 
and  the  Course  of  Instruction  in  the  I  rimary 
">ls  of  Prussia.  In  1850,  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  natural  and  revealed  religion  in  Bow- 
doin College,  Me.,  and,  in  1852,  professor  of 
Biblical  literature  at  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary. This  position  he  resigned  in  1864.  He 
has  published,  also,  a  History  of  the  Hebrew 
Commonwealth,  a  translation  from  the  German 
of  Johann  Jahn  (1828),  Lectures  on  the  Sacred 
Poetry  of  the  Hebrews  (1829),  Introduction 
to  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  the  Bible 
(1835),  Origin  and  History  of  the  Books  of 
the  Bible  (Part  I.,  New  Testament,  1867).— 
See  Barnard,  American  Teachers  and  Educa- 
tors (New  York,  1861). 

STRAIGHT  UNIVERSITY,  in  New 
Orleans,  La.,  founded  in  1869,  is  under  Congre- 
gational control.  It  was  especially  designed  for 
colored  youth,  but  none  are  excluded  on  account 
of  race  or  sex.  It  has  an  endowment  of  $10,000, 
but  is  mainly  supported  by  the  American  Mis- 
sionary Association.  The  library  contains  nearly 
2,500  volumes.  It  has  now  in  operation  a  theo- 
logical, a  law,  a  normal,  a  classical,  a  preparatory, 
and  an  English  course,  and  elementary  depart- 
ments. In  1875 — 6,  there  wrere  10  instructors 
and  246  students.  The  presidents  have  been:  the 
Rev.  Joseph  W.  Healy,  1869—71  ;  the  Rev. 
Samuel  S.  Ashley,  1871 — 4;  and  James  A. 
Adams,  A.  M.,  since  1875. 

STURM,  Johann,  one  of  the  foremost  edu- 
cators of  the  16th  century,  born  at  Schleiden 
(now  in  Prussia),  in  1507  ;  died  in  1589.  After 
teaching  several  years  at  Louvain  and  Paris,  he 
was,  in  1538,  appointed  rector  in  the  newly- 
established  gymnasium  of  Strasbourg,  where  his 
success  was  so  great,  that  the  city  was  called 
the  New  Athens;  and  pupils  were  sent  there 
from  many  parts  of  Europe,  among  them  the 
sons  of  noblemen  and  princes.  In  1578,  the  in- 
stitution contained  more  than  a  thousand  pu- 
pils. In  1566,  the  emperor  Maximilian  II.  con- 
ferred upon  it  the  dignity  and  privileges  of  an 
academy,  and  Sturm  was  appointed  rector  per- 
petuus, in  which  position  he  continued  till  1581. 
His  title  to  fame  rests  upon  his  conception  of  an 
educational  system,  the  record  of  his  work  in  the 
gymnasium  at  Strasbourg,  and  the  impulse 
which  he  gave  to  the  establishment  of  classical 
schools.  His  educational  system  is  clearly  set 
forth  in  his  treatise  on  the  best  mode  of  opening 
institutions  of  learning  [Be  literarum  ludis  recte 
aperiendis),  written  in  1539,  and  published  in 
his  Epistolrp  classics  (Strasb.,  1565).  Sturm 
was  generally  regarded  as  the  greatest  educator 
connected  with  the  Reformed  Church,  in  the 
times  of  the  Reformation  ;  and,  like  Melanch- 
thon,  he  received  the  title  Prceceptor  Germania?. 
— See  Barnard,  German  Teachers  and  Educa- 
tors (N.  Y.,  1863) ;  Schmidt,  La  vie  ei  les  tra- 


T9G 


-i   \  DAY-SCHOOLS 


■rui/.r  <li>  Ji'ini  Sturm  (Strasb.,  1855)  ;  Loos,  Die 
Padagogik  des  Johannes  Sturm  (Berlin,  l's~lij; 
Kikckki.iiaiix.  Strassburg's  erster   Schuln 
(Leips.,  L872). 

SUNDAY-SCHOOLS,  although  of  corn- 
paratively  recent  origin,  and  even  yet  in  a  condi- 
tion of  partial  development,  are  already  entitled 
to  be  ranked  among  the  most  important  educa- 
tional agencies  of  modern  times,  no  less  than 
among  the  voluntary  activities  of  the  <  Ihristian 
Church.  In  the  latter  character,  tiny  have  been 
extensively  established  throughout  Greal  Brit- 
ain  and  the  United  States,  and  every- where,  even 
beyond  their  primary  object  of  moral  and  religious 
influence,  their  incidental  results  have  entitled 
them  to  a  high  appreciation.  They  have  given  rise 
to  new  and  important  improvements  in  church 
architecture,  and  they  have  called  into  existence 
an  extensive  literature  contemplating  their  special 
wants  and  use,  while  they  have  enlisted  teachers 
by  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  scholars  by  mil- 
lions. In  the  United  States,  more  particularly, 
they  have  claimed,  and  in  fact  assumed,  a  reky 
toion  to  public  (week-day)  schools  corresponding 
to  that  which  the  sabbath  holds  to  the  secular 
days  of  the  week.  In  this  relation,  they  seek  to 
supplement  public  and  genera]  education  with 
the  moral  and  religious  influences  of  <  'hristianity. 
For  this  object,  they  secure  the  attendance  of 
scholars  from  the  higher  as  well  as  the  lower 
classes  of  the  community,  and  enlist  for  their  in- 
struction a  quality  of  talent  and  an  amount  of 
effort  which  money  could  never  hire.  The  sub- 
ject of  Sunday-schools  will  be  here  considered 
under  the  three  follow  in-  heads:  1 1 1  Their  origin 
and  early  history;  (2)  Their  leading  agencies; 
.'!)  Their  past  progress  and  present  position. 

Orii/in  and  Early  History.  -Since  Sunday- 
schools  became  popular,  various  efforts  have 
been  made  to  ti\  their  origin  further  back  than 
the  period  to  which  it  is  usually  assigned.  The 
most  that  such  efforts  have  been  able  to  accom- 
plish has  been  to  point  out  a  few  sporadic  be- 
ginnings somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  Robert 
Raikes;  but,  in  no  other  instance  than  his.  can 
an  actual  historic  connection  be  traced  down- 
ward to  the  existing  system    of  Sunday-schools. 

The  effort  of  Raikes  began  in  <  lloucester,  England, 

in  thi'  year  L781.    It  was  purely  philanthropic  in 

its  design*  and  only  contemplated  local   results. 

Gl tester  was  a  focus  of  pin  manufacturing,  at 

which  children  were  gathered  together  in  ureal 
numbers  in  order  to  be  employed  in  the  light 
work  of  the  factories.     As  mosl   of  them  were 

wholly  uneducated,  and    many  without    parental 

restraint  or  supervision,  they  naturally  fell  into 
disorder  and  vice,  especially  on   the  Lord's  day, 

when  they  were  n<>i  employed  in  work.  The 
attention  of  Mr.  I.'aikes.  a  worthy  printer  of  thai 
town,  was  arrested    by  a    COnditi I'    thing 

distressing  to  a  person  of  Christian  sensibilities. 
Bis  own  account  of  the  origin  of  bis  efforts  to 
establish  Sunday  instruction  for  those  neglected 

children  has  a  permanent  interest.  It  was 
furnished  in  a  letter  to  Col.  Townley,  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  oi  London. 


Gloucester,  June  5th,  K84. 

"The  utility  of  an  establishment  of  this  sort  was  first 
suggested  by  a  group  of  little  miserable  wretches,  whom 
I  observed  one  day  id  the  street,  where  many  people 
employed  in  the  pin  manufactory  reside. 

''I  was  expressing  my  concern  to  one,  at  their  for- 
lorn and  neglected  Btate  ;  and  was  told,  that  if  1  were 
to  pass  through  that  street  upon  Sundays,  it  would 
shock  me,  indeed,  to  see  the  crowds  of  children,  who 
were  spending  that  sacred  day  in  noise  and  riot,  to 
the  extreme  annoyance  of  all  decent  people. 

"I  immediately  determined  to  make  some  little  effort 
to  remedy  the  evil.  Having  found  four  persons,  who 
had  been  accustomed  to  instruct  children  in  reading, 
1  engaged  to  pay  the  sum  they  required,  for  receiving 
and  instructing  such  children  as  I  should  send  to  them 
every  Sunday.  The  children  were  to  come  soon  after 
ten  in  the  morning,  and  stay  till  twelve:  they  were 
then  to  go  home  and  return  at  one;  and  after  leading 
a  lesson,  they  were  to  lie  conducted  to  church.  After 
church,  they  were  to  be  employed  in  repeating  the 
catechism  till  half  after  five,  and  then  to  be  dismissed, 
with  an  injunction,  to  go  home  without  making  a  noise, 
and  by  no  means  to  play  in  the  street.  This  was  the 
general  outline  of  the  regulations.  R.  Rajkks. 

The  terms  in  which  the  above  letter  was 
Couched  prove  conclusively  that  the  writer  was 
describing  something  new.  audit  may  be  deemed 

fortunate  that  so  intelligent  an  account  of  a 
project,  then  in  its  infancy, was  placed  upon  rec- 
ord.     So   obvious    was  the  utility  of  the  schools 

thus  founded  by  Mr.  Raikes,  thai  they  immedi- 
ately began  to  be  imitatedin  surrounding  towns. 

The  period  was  favorable  to  their  diffusion, 
other  philanthropists  seized  upon  the  idea.  '!  he 
want  of  such  schools  was  found  to  be  urgent  in 
every  large  town,  and  in  many  smaller  places. 

A    Sunday  si  I I    society    was   formed,  and  so 

general  an  interest  was  awakened  on  the  subject, 
that,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  Sunday-schools 
were  opened    in    nearly  every  part  of    England. 
But  they  did  not  become  universal  till  a  higher 
idea  than  that  of  mere  philanthropy  took  po£ 
sion  of  their  promoters.    -As  in  the  case  of  Mr. 
Raikes,  most  of  the  early  Sunday-schools  were 
taught  by    hired  teachers.     This   arrangement 
made  it  necessary  to  raise  considerable  sums  of 
money   which    would    need   to    be   increased    in 
proportion  to  the  multiplication  of  the  schools. 
Besides,    it    was   found  that  persons  engaged  in 
the  task  of  teaching  in  them  from  motives  of  an 
inferior  if  not  mercenary  character:  and.  hence, 
even  the  philanthropic  design  of  the  instruction 
was  marred.      It  was.  therefore,  a  grand  improve- 
ment   upon  the    project    of  Mr.    Raikes   when 
gratuitous  instruction  from  persons  who  served 
from  Christian  motives  became  generally  intro- 
duced into  the    rising  Sunday-schools.     Perhaps 
no  one    individual    was    more    instrumental    in 
promoting  this  great  improvement  than  the  Rev. 
John  Wesley,  who  was  (hen  in  a  most  influential 
position  at    the  head  of  a  growing  religious  or- 
ganization, and  accustomed  frequently  to  travi 
England  from  end   to  end.     He  earlj  conceived 
the  idea  of  making  these    schools    "Nurseries  for 
Christians",  and  encouraged  good  people  to  work 
in  them  as  teachers  without   pecuniary  reward. 
The   idea   of    gratuitous   instruction    on   the 

Lord's  day  to  pour  children,  when   once   brought 

to  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  Christian  people 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


7!>7 


of  Great  Britain,  was  seen  to  be  so  perfectly  in 
accoul  with  the  Saviour's  command,  "Go  teach 

all  nations",  that  it  was  adopted  with  a  zeal 
and  a  universality  that  astonished  the  most  san- 
guine of  the  original  supporters  of  Sunday- 
schools.  From  that  period,  the  success  of  the 
Sunday-school  enterprise  was  assured.  It  crossed 
the  Atlantic  as  early  as  1786,  during  which 
year  Bishop  Asbury  organized  Sunday-schools 
in  Virginia,  in  South  Carolina,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  South.  In  America,  the  system  of 
gratuitous  instruction  has  prevailed,  with  very 
lew  exceptions,  from  the  first.  It  must,  however, 
be  acknowledged  that  the  circumstances  of 
society  in  the  United  States  were  veiy  unfavor- 
able to  the  general  establishment  and  mainte- 
nance of  Sunday-schools  at  that  early  period.  The 
country  was  but  thinly  settled,  and  wras  just 
emerging  from  its  colonial  condition  under  the 
heavy  burdens  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  More- 
over, in  the  Southern  States,  where  Sunday- 
schools  were  first  introduced,  an  active  prejudice 
began,  almost  from  the  first,  to  develop  itself 
against  the  instruction  of  colored  children,  lest 
they  should  be  unfitted  by  it  for  the  condition 
of  slavery.  From  these  and  other  causes,  some 
twenty-five  or  thirty  years  elapsed  before  Sun- 
day-schools sprung  up  extensively  in  America. — 
Sunday-schools  in  England  were  for  a  long 
period  burdened  with  the  task  of  teaching  let- 
ters and  the  lowest  rudiments  of  knowledge  to 
the  mass  of  their  scholars.  This  was  indispen- 
sable as  a  means  of  preparing  them  to  read  the 
Scriptures,  and  to  comprehend  moral  and  relig- 
ious truth.  The  same  necessity  prevailed  in 
some  sections,  and  classes  of  the  population,  in 
the  United  States ;  but,  throughout  the  larger 
portions  of  that  country,  the  great  majority  of 
children  gathered  into  Sunday-schools  were  those 
who  received  elementary,  and  indeed  contin- 
uous, instruction  in  the  public  schools.  In  both 
countries,  Sunday-schools  have  done  not  a  little 
toward  elevating  general  intelligence  and  stimu- 
lating  secular  study;  but  it  is  only  where  a  good 
system  of  ptiblic  instruction  has  prevailed  that 
they  have  been  able  to  do  their  best  work. — As 
Sunday-schools  are  for  religious  instruction  on 
the  Sabbath,  the  Bible  is  the  foundation  and 
central  text-book  of  all  proper  Sunday-school 
teaching.  But  as  the  word  of  God  admits  of 
elucidation  from  all  branches  of  sound  learning, 
it  follows  that  the  more  knowledge  persons, 
whether  young  or  old,  bring  to  its  study,  the 
greater  progress  they  may  be  expected  to  make 
in  the  comprehension  of  its  truths.  The  recent 
even  more  than  the  early  history  of  Sunday- 
schools  corroborates  this  view,  in  the  fact  that 
they  have  flourished  most,  and  with  the  best 
results,  where  their  scholars  were  most  intelligent. 
Nevertheless,  from  first  to  last,  they  have  shown 
the  capacity  of  adaptation  to  all  phases  of  society 
and  all  grades  of  intelligence.  They  have  proved 
of  inestimable  value  among  the  most  degraded 
populations  of  great  cities,  and  a  fitting  religious 
counterpart  to  the  highest  and  most  progressive 
secular  schools. 


Leading  Agencies. — The  whole  history  of 
Sunday-schools  illustrates  the  voluntary  principle 
in  education,  government  aid  having  never  been 
sought  in  their  support.  The  instruction  given 
in  them  has  always  been  free ;  and,  there- 
fore, whatever  Sunday-schools  have  cost  has 
been  the  voluntary  gift  of  the  friends  of  religious 
education.  The  gratuitous  bestowing  of  time 
and  effort,  on  the  part  of  teachers  has  remained 
no  less  a  gift  of  value  than  the  money  by  which 
rooms,  fixtures,  books,  and  apparatus  have  been 
provided.  Associated  effort  may  be  designated 
as  the  generic  agency  by  which  the  vast  sum  of 
money  has  been  obtained  which  has  been  fur- 
nished  in  aid  of  Sunday-school  instruction.  As- 
sociated efforts  in  behalf  of  Sunday-schools  have 
assumed  two  forms  :  (1)  local ;  (2)  general;  each 
correspondent  and  supplementary  to  the  other. 
Local  associations,  whether  in  neighborhoods  or 
in  churches,  have,  from  the  first,  been  necessary 
to  found  and  maintain  individual  schools.  Gen- 
eral associations  were  also,  from  an  early  day, 
seen  to  be  important,  for  the  purpose  of  diffus- 
ing information,  and  awakening  public  interest, 
both  as  to  the  necessity  and  the  means  of  in- 
structing the  young  in  religious  truth.  They 
also  did  much  to  enlist  and  direct  individual  and 
local  effort  in  the  work  of  organizing  schools ; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  they  practically  served 
as  a  bond  of  union  between  individual  schools 
not  locally  connected. — A  brief  enumeration  of 
the  principal  agencies  and  movements  of  the 
latter  class  will  illustrate  the  progress  and  ex- 
pansion of  the  Sunday-school  idea  both  in  Eng- 
land and  America.  In  1785,  "The  Society  for 
Promoting  Sunday-schools  in  the  British  Domin- 
ions'', was  organized  in  London,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  William  Fox,  who  had  previously  proved 
himself  to  be  a  true  philanthropist,  by  his  zeal 
and  liberality  in  efforts  to  educate  the  poorer 
classes  of  his  countrymen.  This  society,  during 
the  first  sixteen  years  of  its  existence,  expended 
£4,000  in  paying  for  the  services  of  hired 
teachers.  In  1790,  the  first  official  church  action 
of  a  general  character  in  behalf  of  Sunday- 
schools  took  place  at  a  conference  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  ( liurch,  held  at  Charleston,  S.  C, 
in  February  of  that  year,  under  the  presidency 
of  Bishop  Asbury.  That  good  bishop  and  the 
ministers  associated  with  him,  had  evidently  seen 
such  fruits  following  the  establishment  of  Sun- 
day-schools in  various  placesduring  the  previous 
four  years,  that  they  then  sought  to  make  them 
universal  by  the  enactment  of  the  following 
church  ride : 

"Let  us  labor,  as  the  heart  and  soul  of  one  man,  to 
establish  Sunday-schools  in  or  near  the  place  of 
public  worship.  Let  persons  be  appointed  by  the 
bishops,  elders,  deacons,  or  preachers  to  teach  gratis 
all  that  will  attend  and  have  a  capacity  to  learn, from  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning  till  ten,  and  from  two  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon  tiil  six,  where  it  does  not  interfere  with 
public  worship.  The  council  shall  compile  a  proper 
school  book  to  teach  them  learning  and  piety." 

In  1791,  the  First-day  or  Sunday  School  So- 
ciety was  formed  in  Philadelphia.  This  society 
embraced  persons  of  various  denominations  of 


798 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL* 


Christians,  and  contemplated  the  payment  of 
teachers  for  their  services.  In  J  TUT,  the  Gratis 
Sunday  School  Society  was  established  in  Scot- 
land, in  1802,  the  Sunday  School  Committee  of 
Wesleyans  was  organized  in  London,  for  the 
purpose  of  correspondence  and  other  efforts  to 
promote  the  organization  and  improvement  of 
Sum  lay  schools  in  the  Wesleyan  societies  of 
Great  Britain.  In  1803,  the  London  Sunday 
School  Union  was  formed,  a  society  still  exist- 
ing and  in  efficient  action,  though  limited  by  its 
plan  to  the  city  and  its  immediate  vicinity.  In 
1809,  the  Hibernian  Sunday  School  Society  was 
formed.  In  181(5,  the  New  York  Sunday  School 
Union  was  formed;  and,  in  1817,  the  Philadel- 
phia Sunday  and  Adult  School  Union.  The 
latter  was  merged  in  the  formation  of  the  Amer- 
ican Sunday  School  Union,  in  1824.  In  1826, 
the  Sunday  School  Union  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  was  organized  in  New  York; 
and,  in  ts'27,  the  Sunday  School  Union  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  in  the  same  city. 
Since  that  period,  several  other  Sunday-school 
societies  and  unions  have  been  formed  in  the  in- 
terest of  different  denominations  of  Christians, 
both  in  America  and  in  Europe.  Prominent 
among  them  maybe  named  the  Massachusetts 
Sunday  School  Society,  located  in  Boston,  and 
supported  by  the  Congregational  churches  of 
the  United  States.  The  enlistment  of  the  press 
as  an  agency  of  help  to  Sunday-schools,  was  an 
event  of  the  highest  importance.  For  a  con- 
siderable period,  all  efforts  in  their  behalf  were 
made  at  great  disadvantage,  for  lack  of  suitable 
books  of  every  kind,  not  excepting  copies  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures.  The  formation  of  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  1804,  and, 
subsequently,  of  numerous  other  societies  of  a 
similar  design,  tended  to  a  gradual  supply  of  the 
Scriptures,  in  forms  and  at  prices  adapted  to  ex- 
tensive use  in  Sunday  schools.  Aside  from  Tes- 
taments and  Bibles,  and  the  elementary  instruc- 
tion books  preparatory  to  their  use,  the  first 
publications  extensively  introduced  into  Sunday- 
schools  were  used  as  rewards.  They  were  small 
tracts  and  story  books,  in  paper  covers,  of  a  very 
inferior  quality,  only  such  being  then  attainable. 
About  1810,  the  Religious  Tract  Society  of  Lon- 
don began  issuing  children's  books  of  an  im- 
proved  style  as  to  paper,  cuts,  and  matter,  with 
special  reference  to  Sunday-school  patronage. 
The  demand  for  such  books  increased  with  their 
production,  so  that  the  society  name  1  has  gone 
on  to  the  present  day,  constantly  enlarging  th  - 
list  and  improving  the  quality  of  its  publications 

designed  for  the  young,  and  also  for  teachers  and 

a  lull  per- his  engaged  in  Sunday-schools.  In 
this  respect,  it  has  done  a  work  of  inestimable 

value  for  the  Sunday-schools  of  Great  Britain. — 
It  is,  however,  in  the  United  States  that  the 

greatest  work  has  been  done  in  the  preparation 
and    publication     of     Sunday-school    literature. 

There, circulating  libraries  and  juvenile  religious 
books  were  first  extensively  adopted  as  auxil- 
iaries of  Sunday-school  work.  There,  too,  not 
only   Sunday-school    library   books,   but  period- 


icals and  requisites  of  every  description  have 
been  published  in  the  greatest  profusion,  as  well 
as  with  great  elegance  and  cheapness.  Not  only 
have  the  Sunday-school  unions  made  a  specialty 
of  such  publications,  but  various  other  religious 
publication  ,  e.  g.  the  American  Tract 

Society  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Baptist  Hoards 
of  Publication;  and,  indeed,  many  private  pub- 
lishers have  issued  large  lists  of  books  designed 
for  youth  and  children.  In  fact,  the  Sunday- 
school  libraries  of  the  United  States  have  become 
so  numerous  and  important,  as  to  secure  enu- 
meration in  the  official  census  of  the  govern- 
ment, with  the  following  result,  in  I -TO  :  Sun- 
day-school libraries,  33,580  ;  volumes,  8,3-iG.l 
This  aggregate,  large  as  it  is,  does  not  include 
the  State  of  Connecticut,  and,  for  other  reasons, 
is  evidently  far  below  the  facts  in  the  case  at 
the  present  time.  No  other  libraries  are  so 
widely  diffused  as  those  of  Sunday-schools. 
They  are  not  only  found  in  cities,  where  most 
great  libraries  are  located,  but  in  the  remotest 
sections  and  neighborhoods  of  the  land,  and 
everywhere  circulated  without  charge  to  those 
who  desire  to  read  them.  In  so  vast  an  aggre- 
gate  of  volumes,  it  would  not  be  strange,  if  there 
were  some  of  an  indifferent  and,  possibly,  even 
of  a  bad  character.  I  >ut  such  would  prove  only 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule  that  Sunday-school 
libraries  furnish  wholesome  as  well  as  attractive 
reading  to  millions  of  children  and  youth,  thus 
projecting  the  influence  of  the  schools  into  the 
week-day  life  of  the  scholars  who  attend  them. 
Most  of  the  American  Sunday-school  unions 
not  only  publish  books,  but  maintain  depart- 
ments of  missionary  effort  for  the  purpose  of 
founding  new  and  aiding  needy  schools.  In  this 
manner,  they  are  constantly  enlarging  the 
sphere  of  Sunday-school  work  and  influence. 
The  sums  of  money  expended  by  these  societies 
are,  in  the  aggregate,  very  large,  but  yet  small 
w  hen  compared  with  the  larger  amounts  locally 
contributed  for  the  same  objects. — To  pass  from 
external  to  internal  agencies  which  have  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  success  of  Sunday-schools, 
mention  may  be  made  of  music,  infant  classes, 
and  measures  for  the  training  and  special  quali- 
fication of  teachers.  The  practice  of  devoting 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  time  allotted  to 
Sunday-schools  to  the  singing  of  hymns,  origi- 
oated  very  early,  and  has  been  continued  to  the 
present  day.  It  has  proved  at  once  a  means  of 
attracting  children  to  the  schools,  ami  an  easy 
and  pleasant  method  of  impressing  sacred  truth 
upon  their  memory. — In  1788,  the  Rev.  John 
Mosby  recorded  in  his  journal  the  opinion  that 
there  were  not  to  be  "found  together  in  any 
chapel,  cathedral,  or  music  room  within  the  four 
seas,  such  a  set  of  singers,  as  the  boys  and  girls 
selected  out  of  our  Sunday-schools  in  Bolton,  in 
which  they  had  been  accurately  taught." — -"Be- 
sides," said  he,  in  concluding  his  record,  "  the 
spirit  with  which  they  all  sing,  and  the  beauty 
of  many  of  them  so  suits  the  melody,  that  1  defy 
any  to  exceed  it,  except  the  singing  of  angels  in 
our  father's  house."     The  venerable  man  had 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


799 


evidently  caught  the  enthusiasm  which  pervaded 
the  children,  and  which,  from  that  day  to  tins, 
has  been  a  great  source  of  power  throughout  the 
Sunday-schi  k  >1  world.  In  later  years,  hymns  and 
tunes  specially  designed  fur  the  young  have  been 
composed  and  published  in  great  numbers,  and 
their  use  has  become  so  common  and  so  popidar, 
as  to  have  greatly  influenced  the  singing  in  the 
churches  of  all  denominations  of  Christians. — 
Infant-class  instruction  has  had,  by  far,  its  widest 
field  and  largest  success  as  a  branch  of  Sunday- 
school  effort.  By  means  of  oral  instruction, 
simple  music,  and  diversified  object  lessons,  it 
has  been  found  practicable  to  secure  the  regular 
attendance  of  vast  numbers  of  children  of  in- 
fantile years,  and  to  hold  them  under  profitable 
instruction  till  of  sufficient  age  to  be  promoted 
to  higher  classes. — For  a  long  period,  the  most 
that  was  thought  possible  to  be  done  for  the 
training  and  special  instruction  of  Sunday- 
school  teachers,  was  sought  to  be  accomplished 
through  pastors'  and  superintendents'  Bible 
classes.  But  after  the  establishment  of  teachers' 
institutes  for  the  higher  instruction  of  the  teach- 
ers of  public  schools,  the  query  was  raised 
whether  something  analogous  might  not  be  de- 
vised  for  the  special  improvement  of  Sunday- 
school  teachers.  With  a  joint  reference  to  that 
design,  and  the  kindred  one  of  deepening  and 
widening  public  interest  in  the  Sunday-school 
enterprise,  a  system  of  conventions  was  projected, 
which,  from  small  beginnings,  has  grown  to  grand 
proportions.  In  these  conventions,  lectures  are 
given  on  important  topics,  apparatus  and  new 
publications  are  exhibited  and  explained,  and 
model  and  normal  classes  are  taught  by  skilled 
instructors.  Wherever  practicable,  as  in  small 
towns  or  villages,  Sunday-school  teachers  are  in- 
vited to  attend  in  mass.  Conventions  for  larger 
districts,  counties,  and  states  are  composed  of 
delegates  who  are  supposed  to  be  representative 
persons  from  their  several  localities.  So  en- 
couraging have  been  the  results  following  Sun- 
day-school  conventions,  that  they  have  been  ex- 
panded so  as  to  transcend  even  the  bounds  of 
large  states,  and  to  enlist  national  and  even  in- 
ternational representation.  A  world's  convention 
met  in  London  in  1862,  and  a  German  national 
convention  in  Hamburg  in  1874.  In  the  United 
States,  in  1875.  twenty-one  state  conventions 
were  held,  besides  one  national  and  one  inter- 
national convention.  One  result  of  these  large 
conventions  has  been  the  extensive  adoption, 
since  1872,  of  a  system  of  international  lessons 
for  Bible  study.  Uniform  schemes  of  simul- 
taneous study  had  been  previously  adopted,  to 
a  considerable  extent,  both  in  Great  Britain  and 
•  America.  The  international  use  of  systems 
prepared  by  joint  committees  has,  undoubtedly, 
given  increased  interest  and  impetus  to  Scriptural 
studies  throughout  the  Protestant  world.  This 
kind  of  simultaneous  study  has  been  further 
popularized  by  the  publication  of  notes  and 
comments  on  the  uniform  lessons  in  hundreds  of 
periodicals  throughout  various  countries  and  in 
different  languages.    The  one  serious  defect  of 


the  convention  system  is  the  brevity  of   time 
during  which  conventions  can  be  held.     Efforts 
have   been    made,  within   a    few   years    past,  to 
remedy  this,  by  holding  Sunday-school  assem- 
blies to  continue  in  session  from  one  to  three 
weeks  at  a  time.     The   Chautauqua  Sunday- 
School  Assembly  has  now  held  three  successful 
and  largely  attended  annual  sessions,  at  which 
hundreds  of  persons  have  participated  in  thor- 
ough and  systematic  Bible  study,  with  a  degree 
of    enthusiasm   which    has  so   far   become  con- 
tagious, as  to  result  in  permanent  arrangements 
for  similar  annual  assemblies,  at  summer  resorts, 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States.     Should 
these  assemblies  become  a  permanent  feature  of 
the  American  Sunday-school  enterprise,  as  now 
seems  probable,  they  will  go  far  towards  form- 
ing a  parallel  with  the  normal  schools  of  the 
various  states  for  the  training  of  public-school 
teachers,  and  thus  largely  contribute  to  the  con- 
tinued elevation  of  the  character,  and  increase  of 
the  efficiency,  of  Sunday-school  instruction. — It 
is,  perhaps,  difficult  to  determine  whether  Sun- 
day-schools are  more  indebted  to  modern  archi- 
tecture for  helps  toward  their  development,  or 
modern  church  architecture  to  Sunday-schools 
for  the  material  improvements  they  have  de- 
manded in  recognition  of  the  wants  and  welfare 
of  children.     Certain  it  is  that  no  church  edifice 
is  now  considered  complete,  or  properly  adapted 
to  its  objects,  that  does  not  embrace,  within  it- 
self, or  some  contiguous  structure,  ample  rooms 
and  fixtures  for  the  accommodation  of  infant 
classes,  youths'  classes,  and  Bible  classes,  includ- 
ing a  general  assembly  room  for  the  Sunday- 
school,  as  a  whole.     These  provisions  already 
exist  in  thousands  of  beautiful  churches,  which 
thus  stand  as  monuments  of  the  Sunday-school 
idea,  and  are.  also,  suggestive  of  other  improve- 
ments likely  to  be  introduced  hereafter. 

Past  Progress  and  Present  Position  of  Sun- 
day-Schools.— There  are  two  modes  of  indicating 
the  progressive  advance  of  Sunday-schools  and 
the  position  to  which  they  have  now  attained. 
The  one  is  by  general  statements,  and  the  other, 
by  the  comparative  showing  of  such  numerical 
statistics  as  are  available.  As  neither  of  these 
modes  is  fully  adequate,  both  will  here  be  em- 
ployed to  a  limited  extent,  in  order  that  they 
may.  as  far  as  possible,  supplement  each  other. 
Going  back  to  the  beginning  of  1781 — less  than 
100  years — we  find  no  such  institution  as  the 
Sunday-school  known  in  any  part  of  the  world. 
At  the  present  time,  Sunday-schools  are  found 
in  active  operation  in  all  Protestant  countries 
and  missions  throughout  the  world.  They  have 
also  been  adopted  by  Roman  Catholics  and 
Jews,  in  all  Protestant  countries.  Not  to  speak 
of  the  influence  of  Sunday-schools,  in  the  relig- 
ious bodies  last  named,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
great  majority  both  of  the  members,  ministers, 
and  missionaries  of  the  Protestant  world  are,  at 
this  time,  the  alumni  of  Sunday-schools,  and  are 
found  among  their  grateful  and  active  support- 
ers. In  passing  from  general  though  significant 
statements  like  these,  to  such  showings  as  may 


800 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


SUPERVISION 


be  made  in  figures,  ii  seems  to  be  necessary  to 
explain  that  Sunday-school  statistics  as  minute 
and  comprehensive  as  are  now  seen  to  be  desir- 
able, are  nut  in  existence.  Governments  have  not 

been  interested  to  collect  them,  and  comparative- 
ly few  of  the  promoters  of  Sunday-schools  have 
recognized  their  importance.     Hence,  even  up  to 
this  time,  there  has  been   little   uniformity  in 
methods,  and  still  less  co-operation  in  making  up 
comprehensive  exhibits  of  numbers  and  results. 
The  most,  therefore,  that  has  been  as  yet  pos- 
sible in  the  way   of  such  exhibits,  has  been  to 
form  estimates  based  upon  accurate   statist  i<  - 
taken  within  certain  districts  or  churches,  and 
to  extend  the  pro  rata  outward.     The  earliest. 
Sunday-school  estimate  on  record  is  that  of  the 
Sunday  School  Society  of  London,  which,  in 
1  "si;,  live  years  after  the  opening  of  Haikes's  first 
school,  estimated  that   250,000  scholars  were  al- 
ready  enrolled  in   Sunday-schools.     About   40 
years  later  (1827),  the  American  Sunday  School 
Union  estimated  that  the  number  of  Sunday- 
school  scholars  in  different  countries  reached  the 
number  of  1,250,000.     Prom  about  that  period, 
the  growth  of  the  Sunday-school  enterprise  was 
more  rapid  than  previously,  so  that  the  second 
quarter  of  the   current   century   witnessed    re- 
markable progress  in  it.     About  the  middle  of 
the  century,  an  effort  was  made  in  Kngland  un- 
der government  sanction  to  ascertain  the  num- 
ber and   attendance    of   the   Sunday-schools    in 
that  country.     On  a  given  Sunday,  the  30th  of 
March,  L851,the  Sunday-schools  of  England  and 
Wales  were  simultaneously  inspected:  and  there 
were  found,  in  23,514  schools,  302,000  teachers 
and  2.280,000  scholars.     The  number  of  enrolled 
scholars  was  2,407,409,  or  about  three-fifths  of 
the  number  of  children  enumerated  by  the  cen- 
sus of  the  country,  between  the  ages  of  live  and 
fifteen.      A    similar   proportion   of   children  in 
American   Sunday-schools,  at  the   same    period, 
would  have  reached  the  number  of  3,000.000. 
if  to  those  aggregates,  the  probable  number  of 
Sunday  scholars  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  other 
countries,  at  the  same  date,  be  added,  it  seems 
quite  safe  to  believe  that  there  were  in  Sunday- 
schools   throughout  the  world,  at   the   end   of 
1850,  not  less  than  6,000,000  of  scholars.     Simi- 
lar estimates  made  at  the  end  of  another  quarter 
of  a  century,  indicate  that,  at  the  end  of  1875, 
there  were  in  operation,  in  all  countries,  I  1.0,000 
Sunday-schools,    embracing     L,500,000    teachers 
and    10,000,000   scholars.      One   statistician   of 
some  prominence  has  estimated    that    there  are, 
in  the  United  States  alone,  not    less  than  81,858 
Sunday-schools  and  6,869,696  scholars.     On  that 

basis, the  above  aggregate  for  all  countries  might 
sately  be  enlarged.     Unquestionably, the  proper- , 
tion  of  Sunday-school  Bcholars  to  the  population, 
or  to  the  membership  of  churches,  is  greater  in 

that  country  than  in  any  other.     Hence,  it  seems 

appropriate  that  there  should  exist  in  New  York 
a  Foreign  Sunday-school  Union,  having  for  its 

design  the  promotion  of   Sunday-schools  abroad. 

particularly  on  the  continent   of  Europe.    That 
society,  though  of  recent   origin,  La  in  vigor 


operation,  and  hopeful  of  increasing  results  from 
Year  to  vear. 

SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION,  a  term  used 
to  denote  instruction  of  the  highest  grade,  or 
that  given  in  colleges  and  universities,  both  in 
the  acai  lemic  course,  or  in  special  or  post-graduate 

courses. 

SUPERVISION,   School,    constitutes  one 
of  the  most  essential  elements  of  an  efficient  school; 
system.     The   supervision   which   is   necessarily 
given  by  the  principal  of  the  school  to  the  work 
performed  by  his  assistants  is  not  here  referred 
to,  but  that  which  is  usually  assigned  to  a  super- 
intendent of  schools,  whose  special  function  it  is 
to  see  that  every  school  under  his  jurisdiction  is 
efficient  both  in  discipline  and  instruction.     As 
a  general  rule,  no  extensive  work  employing  a 
large  number  of  operatives,  each  performing  cer- 
tain prescribed  duties,  which  contribute  toward 
the  accomplishment  of  a  general  result,  can  be 
carried  on  efficiently  without  constant  supervi- 
sion.   School  supervision  is  needed  for  two  pur- 
poses :  (1)  to  enforce  the  general  rules  and  reg- 
ulations  prescribed   by  school  authorities:   and 
(2)  to  sic  that  the  proper  methods  of  instruction 
are  employed,  and  thai  the  teaching  is  made  ef- 
fective.  To  attain  these  objects,  the  schools  must 
be  both  inspected  and  examined.    By  inspection 
the  superintendent  keeps  himself  informed  in  re- 
gard   to   the   discipline  of  the   school  and   the 
methods  of  instruction  employed  by  the  teachers: 
by  formal  examinations  at  stated  periods,  he  is 
enabled   to  ascertain,   to  a  certain  extent,  the 
actual  result    of  the   teaching,  that    is,  its  effect 
on  the  pupils'  minds,  both  as   to    imparting  in- 
formation and  training.     Both  of  these  are  con- 
sidered  indispensable.     "An  inspection,"   says 
Superintendent  Philbrick,  of  Boston, "is  a  visita- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  observation,  of  oversight, 
of  superintendence.     Its  aim  is  to  discover,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  the  tone  and  spirit  of  the 
school,  the  conduct  and  application  of  the  pupils, 
the  management  and  methods  of  the  teacher,  and 
the  fitness  and  condition  of  the  premises.     Good 
inspection  commends  excellences,  gently  indicates 
faults,  defects,  and  errors,  and  suggests  improve- 
ments as  occasion  requires.  *  *  *  An  examina- 
tion is  different  from  an  inspection,   both    in  its 
aims  and  methods.   An  examination  is  a  thorough 
Scrutiny  and  investigation   in    regard  to  certain 
definitely  determined  matters  for  a  specific  pur- 
pose." The  best  methods  of  teaching,  if  not  uni- 
formlyand  diligently  employed,  will  not  impress 

the  pupils'  minds  :    and    on   the   other   hand,  the 

pupils  may  gain  considerable  knowledge  of  the 
prescribed  branches  of  study,  but  not  in  such  a 

\\a\    as   to   cultivate   proper   habits    of    thought, 
ilar  examinations,   besides  ascertaining  the 

merits  and  qualifications  of  the  teachers,  afford 
a  wholesome  stimulus,  when    judiciously  and 

skillfully   conducted,  and    afford    a    definite   aim 
toward  which  their  efforts  ma\   he  directed.      On 

the  other  hand,  if  attempted  by  incompetent  and 
indiscreet  persons,  supervision  of  this  and  every 

other  kind    may  do   much   harm.     The  qualities 
a ry  for  a  good  examiner  are  well  defined 


SWARTHMORE  COLLEGE 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY       W)l 


by  Supt.  Philbrick  :  "In  the  first  place,  lie  should 
be  independent,  or,  to  speak  more  precisely,  he 
should  not  be  dependent  upon  the  teaching 
corps.  He  ought  to  have  bad  experience  in 
teaching;  and  if  he  has  had  experience  in  grades 
similar  to  those  in  which  he  examines,  so  much 
the  better.  His  mind  ought  to  be  liberalized 
by  a  wide  range  of  educational  reading  and 
study.  He  ought  to  have  a  good  deal  of  practical 
common  sense.  He  should  be  more  inclined  to 
look  on  the  bright  side  of  things  than  on  the 
dark  side.  He  should  look  sharper  for  merits 
than  for  demerits.  He  should  fear  only  two 
things  :  he  should  fear  to  do  injustice,  and  he 
should  fear  himself.  He  should  be  eminent  for 
good  breeding,  as  a  guaranty  of  respectful  treat- 
ment from  teachers  and  pupils.  And  to  make 
sure  of  the  requisite  sympathy,  like  Burke's  law- 
giver, he  ought  to  have  a  heart  full  of  sensibility. 
In  one  word,  for  the  successful  exercise  of  this 
delicate  and  most  useful  function,  the  very  best 
educators  are  demanded."  The  objection  has 
sometimes  been  urged  against  examinations  of 
this  kind,  that  they  encourage  cramming ;  but 
this  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  character 
of  the  examinations  themselves.  —  See  Payne, 
School  Supervision  (Gin.  and  N.Y.,  1875);  Thir- 
tieth Semi-Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent 
of  the  Pi'blic  Schools  of  Boston  (Boston,  1876). 
(See  also  Examinations.) 

SWARTHMORE  COLLEGE,  at  Swarth- 
more,  Delaware  Co.,  Pa.,  was  founded  in  1869, 
for  the  education  of  both  sexes,  who  here  pur- 
sue together  the  same  courses  of  study,  and  re- 
ceive the  same  degrees.  It  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Society  of  Friends.  It  is  supported  by 
the  fees  of  students,  and  the  income  of  an  en- 
dowment of  about  $75,000.  For  resident  stu- 
dents, the  price  of  boai'd  and  tuition  is  $350  a 
year.  For  day  scholars  th3  price  is  $200  a 
year.  The  libraries  contain  about  3,000  vol- 
umes. The  institution  embraces  a  preparatory 
and  a  collegiate  department.  The  latter  has  a 
classical  section,  with  an  ancient  course  leading 
to  the  degree  of  A.  B.,  a  modern  course,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Literature;  and 
a  scientific  section,  with  a  chemical  and  an  en- 
gineering course,  each  leading  to  the  degree  of 
B.  S.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  19  instructors 
and  237  students,  of  whom  90  (56  classical,  26 
scientific,  and  8  pursuing  an  irregular  or  partial 
course)  were  of  collegiate  grade.  The  presidents 
have  been  Edward  Parrish,  1869 — 71,  and 
Edward  H.  Magill,  A.M.,  since  1871. 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY,  two  king- 
doms in  Europe,  united  under  one  sovereign, 
but  otherwise  independent  of  each  other  in  their 
constitution.  Conjointly  with  Denmark,  they 
constitute  the  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Teu- 
tonic or  Germanic  nations.  Nearly  the  entire 
population  of  both  kingdoms  belong  to  the 
Lutheran  Church.  The  area  of  Sweden,  is 
171,761  square  miles,  and,  in  1876,  its  popula- 
tion was  4,383,291  ;  the  area  of  Norway  is 
122,280  square  miles,  and  its  population,  accord- 
ing to  the  same  census,  was  1,802,882. 
51 


I.  Sweden. — Educational  History. —  During 
the  middle  ages,  Sweden  compared  favorably,  in 
regard  to  education,  with  the  countries  of  central 
and  southern  Europe.  A  larger  proportion  of 
boys  and  girls  than  in  most  other  countries  re- 
ceived an  education  in  convent  schools,  and 
home  education  was  of  a  superior  character.  In 
the  16th  century,  the  cause  of  education  began 
to  make  rapid  progress,  and  many  common 
schools,  called  pop.dagogia,  were  established, 
which  were  at  first  of  the  primary,  but  soon  of 
a  higher  grade.  The  church  order  of  1571  con- 
tained a  chapter  entitled,  "  How  schools  should 
be  taught,"  which  must  be  regarded  as  the  first 
Swedish  school  law.  Gustavus  Adolphus  estab- 
lished the  first  gymnasium.  His  daughter,  the 
learned  Christina,  promulgated,  in  1643,  a  school 
order,  dividing  the  schools  into  children's  (ele- 
mentary) and  higher  schools.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  were  so-called  "  writing  classes," 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  germ  of  the 
burgher  and  real  schools.  The  school  order  of 
1693  provided  that  no  one  should  be  permitted 
to  marry,  without  a  knowledge  of  Luther's  small 
catechism.  This  largely  increased  the  demand  on 
the  part  of  the  peasantry  for  the  establishment 
of  more  schools.  Teachers,  however,  as  well  as 
schools  continued  in  an  unsatisfactory  condition 
until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  In 
1820,  the  consistories  and  the  clergy  were  in- 
structed to  see  that  no  unfit  persons  were  ap- 
pointed teachers ;  and,  in  1824,  a  new  school 
order  provided  for  the  introduction  of  the  Lan- 
casterian  system.  In  1842,  the  present  school 
law  was  introduced.  It  provides  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  stationary  school  in  every  church 
district  or  parish  ;  but,  in  case  of  the  extreme 
poverty  of  a  parish,  or  when  other  local  circum- 
stances prevent  the  establishment  of  a  station- 
ary school,  instruction  may  be  imparted  in  a 
migratory  school.  Attendance  at  school  is  obli- 
gatory for  all  children  of  school  age.  A  teach- 
ers' seminary  is  to  be  established  in  the  chief 
town  of  every  diocese.  In  1858,  the  support  of 
a  higher  elementary  school  was  made  obligatory 
in  villages  and  districts  having  more  than  60  pu- 
pils. A  system  of  state  supervision  was  provided 
for  in  1851.  In  1864,  the  Peasants'  or  People's 
High  Schools  were  established  on  the  plan  of  the 
Danish  schools  of  that  name.  (See  Denmark.) 

Primary  Instruction.—  According  to  the  law 
of  1842,  primary  instruction  is  imparted  in 
stationary  and  migratory  schools,  besides  which 
there  are  schools  for  young  children,  generally 
under  a  female  teacher.  Besides  the  school 
board  of  the  district,  there  are  one  or  more  in- 
spectors for  each  diocese,  who  are  appointed  by 
the  minister  of  instruction.  The  local  manage- 
ment of  the  rural  schools  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
committee,  of  which  the  oldest  clergyman  is  the 
chairman,  whose  vote  in  the  election  of  a  teacher 
counts  as  much  as  one  half  of  all  the  votes  cast. 
In  the  cities  of  Stockholm,  Gothenburg,  and  Norr- 
koping,  the  schools  are  governed  by  special  laws ; 
and,  in  each  of  the  cities,  they  are  under  the  man- 
agement of  a  board  of  education.     The  salaries 


802 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 


of  the  teachers  are  very  small.  The  course  of 
stiu lies  in  the  teachers'  seminaries  extends  over 
three  years,  and  comprises  religion,  the  Swedish 
language,  arithmetic  and  geometry,  history,  geog- 
raphy, natural  science,  pedagogy,  penmanship, 
drawing,  music,  gymnastics,  military  drill,  gar- 
dening, and  fruit  culture.  In  every  seminary, 
there  is  a  rector  and  at  least  three  assistant 
teachers,  besides  special  assistants  for  music, 
drawing. gymnastics,  and  military  drill.  In  1ST"), 
there  were  8,123  primary  schools,  with  606,876 
children.  The  number  of  teachers'  seminaries  in 
L'875,  was  10. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  secondary  schools 
are  either  higher  or  complete  schools,  with  7 
classes,  or  lower  or  incomplete  schools,  with  L\ 
3,  or  5  classes  each.  From  the  first  class  up, 
counting  the  lowest  class  as  the  first,  the  schol- 
ars are  separated  into  two  departments, — the 
classical  and  the  real,  of  which  the  former  cor- 
responds to  the  Latin  school  and  the  gymnasium; 
and  the  latter  to  the  real  school.  The  school 
year  comprises  36  weeks,  and  scholars  are  ad- 
mitted only  at  the  opening  of  the  schools  in  the 
autumn.  All  pupils  must  be  at  least  nine  years 
of  age.  The  immediate  direction  of  the  schools 
is  in  the  bands  of  the  rector  and  the  council  of 
teachers.  The  bishop,  as  ephorus  of  all  the 
schools  in  his  diocese,  stands  above  the  council 
of  teachers.  All  matters  that  cannot  be  decided 
by  these  authorities  must  be  submitted  to  the 
ministry  of  instruction,  and  by  the  ministry  to 
the  king  for  a  final  decision.  The  king  is,  there- 
fore, the  highest  school  authority,  and  possesses, 
in  school  matters,  both  legislative  and  executive 
power.  All  matters  pertaining  to  secondary 
schools  are  arranged  by  the  bureau  of  the  min- 
istry of  instruction,  the  chief  of  the  bureau  acting 
as  inspector-general  of  all  the  secondary  schools 
in  the  kingdom,  which  he  must  visit  from  time 
to  time.  For  the  two  Lower  classes,  there  arc 
class  teachers,  for  the  two  highest,  teachers  of 

special  subjects;  and,  in  the  intermediate  classes, 
a  mixed  system  prevails.  The  course  of  studies 
comprises  religion,  Swedish,  Latin,  Greek,  lie 
brew.  French,  German,  English,  mathematics, 
general  history,  natural  philosophy  and  mechan- 
ics, chemistry  and  mineralogy,  history,  geog- 
raphy, mental  philosophy,  penmanship,  and  draw- 
ing.   Of  these,  the  ancient  languages  are  not 

taught  in  the  real  department  ;  nor  are  chemis- 
try and  mineralogy  taught  in  the  classical  de- 
partment. English  and  Hebrew  are  optional  in 
the  chemical  department,  no  special  time  being 
assigned  for  them.  Duringthe  last  few  years 
the  study  of  German  has  made  great  progress. 
In  1872,  there  were  98  schools,  with  12,356  pu- 
pils and  976  teachers. 

Superior  Instruction.  Sweden  has  two  uni- 
versities,—at  LTpsal  ami  at  Lund,  with  L68  pro- 
fessors and  2 .OHO  students,  in  L871.  Of  these. 
109  studied  theology,  207  law,  L88  medicine, 
and  1,276  philosophy. 

Special  Instruct;,,,,. —  In  l H71,  Stockholm  had 
■  mi    industrial    school,    with    L,765   students,   the 

Royal  Technical  Institute,  a  college  of  pharmacy, 


a  royal  college  of  surgery,  an  academy  of  fine 
arts,  and  a  royal  academy  of  music.  There  were 
also  2  academies  of  agriculture,  at  LTtuna  and 
Alnarp.  29  lower  agricultural  schools,  an  acad- 
emy of  forestry,  7  lower  schools  of  forestry,  9 
schools  of  navigation,  5  technical  schools.  4  ele- 
mentary technical  schools,  2  elementary  schools 
of  mining,  the  Chalmers  Industrial  School  in 
Gothenburg,  2  schools  for  nurses,  2  schools  of 
veterinary  Burgery,  and  various  military  schools. 
The  military  schools  arc  under  the  direction  of 
the  ministry  of  war;  and  the  other  special 
schools,  partly  under  the  ministry  of  the  interior, 
and  partly  under  that  of  finance. 

II.  Norway. — Educational  History. — Little 
was  done  for  public  instruction  in  Norway  prior 
to  the  isth  century.  In  1736,  a  royal  decree 
provided  that  no  children  should  be  admitted  to 
confirmation,  who  had  not  been  instructed  in 
the  elements  of  Christianity.  A  school  law. 
based  on  this  provision,  was  passed  in  1739.  hut 
modified  in  1741.  Since  the  establishment  of 
Norwegian  independence,  in  1814,  Hie  Storthing, 
or  national  legislature,  has  been  actively  engage*  I 
in  promoting  public  instruction.  A  compre- 
hensive school  law  was  promulgated  in  1  s •_» 7  ;  a 
special  law  on  city  schools  appeared  in  1848.  In 
1H60,  the  sel Is  were  re-organized  under  a  new- 
law,  which,  with  a  few  additions,  made  in  1869, 
is  still  in  force.  Children  must  attend  school 
from  their  eighth  year  until  they  are  continued. 
Those  who  receive  private  instruction,  must  at- 
tend the  examinations  of  the  schools,  and.  if 
found  deficient,  must  attend  school. 

Primary  Instruction. —  Primary  schools  are 
divided  into  lower  schools  and  higher  schools. 

Norway  is  divided,  for  school  purposes,  into  591 
communities,  of  which,  in  Is7">.  57  were  city, 
and  434,  country  communities.  The  communi- 
ties are  again  subdivided  into  circles,  of  which. 
in  1874,  there  were  6,371.  Wherever  30  chil- 
dren can  attend  school,  a  separate  school-house 
must  he  procured  for  them.  Whenever  the 
houses  of  a  circle  are  too  far  apart,  or  if.  for  any 
other  cause,  a  permanent    school   docs  not  seem 

advisable. a  migratory  school  must  he  supported. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  numerous 
valleys  on  the  coast,  which  are  virtually  shut  off 
from  each  other.  The  studies  pursued  in  the 
primary  schools,  are  leading,  writing,  arithmetic. 
religion,  music  and  gymnastics  and  military 
drill,  wherever  the  latter  is  possible.  All  chil- 
dren must  attend  school  1  2  weeks  in  the  year, 
or  in  some  migratory  schools,  '.•  weeks.  Children 
who  have  reached  the  fourteenth  year,  and  are 
backward  in  their  education,  musl  receive  special 
instruction,  until  they  are  prepared  to  enter  the 

schools;  and  the  necessary  expense  must  he  home 
by  the  parents.  The  school  authorities  ma\  also 
establish  infant  schools  and  industrial  schools. — 
Higher  schools  may  he  organized  either  in  con- 
nection with  lower  schools, or  in  connection  with 
teachers'  seminaries. or  independently.  Whenever 
the  course  of  study  extends  over  more  than  two 
years,  the  school  must  he  divided  into  two  de- 
partments, the  first  of  which  comprises  the  first 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 


SWITZERLAND 


803 


two  years,  and  the  other,  the  remainder.  When- 
ever necessary,  the  two  departments  may  be  situ- 
ated in  different  parts  of  the  district     Besides 

the  studies  of  the  lower  school,  there  are  taught 
in  the  higher  school  the  native  tongue  (Danish), 
geography,  history,  natural  sciences,  drawing, 
and  surveying.  In  the  higher  department,  are 
still  further  added,  mathematics,  agriculture, 
and  a  foreign  language,  where  it  i-;  desirable. 
No  child  under  12  years  of  age  is  admitted  to 
the  higher  school.  The  schools  in  a  community 
are  under  the  direction  of  a  school  board,  of 
which  the  clergyman  is  chairman,  which  board 
has  charge  of  all  school  matters,  while  the  clergj 
man,  in  particular,  must  superintend  the  instruc- 
tion given  in  the  schools.  The  board  has  also 
power  to  appoint  agents,  who  must  see  that 
all  children  of  school  age  attend  schools.  The 
provost  has  charge  of  the  schools  in  his  district; 
and  the  directory  of  the  stift,  or  ecclesiastical 
province,  of  the  schools  in  the  ami.  The  king- 
appoints  a  number  of  inspectors.  The  inspector 
is  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the  directory  of  the  stift, 
whenever  school  matters  are  under  deliberation. 
The  direct  supervision  over  the  schools  of  a  stift 
is  exercised  by  the  inspector  in  conjunction  with 
the  bishop.  Burgher  and  real  schools  are,  in 
some  cases,  but  little  above  the  higher  common 
schools  ;  in  others,  they  correspond  to  the  Ger- 
man realschtde ;  one,  the  Latin  and  real  school 
at  Frederiksstad,  prepares  its  pupils  for  the  uni- 
versity. Of  teachers'  seminaries,  there  are  two 
classes :  higher  or  stift  seminaries,  and  the  so- 
called  teachers'  schools.  In  the  higher  seminaries, 
the  course  of  study  comprises  religion,  the  native 
tongue,  arithmetic,  music,  geography,  history, 
natural  sciences,  penmanship,  drawing,  gymnas- 
tics, and  pedagogics.  A  model  school  exists  in 
connection  with  each  seminary.  In  the  Teachers' 
Schools,  the  course  of  study  requires  from  1  to 
li  years.  In  1874,  there  were  in  Norway,  ex- 
clusive of  Christiania,  4,277  permanent  common 
schools,  2,094  migratory  schools,  131  work  schools 
for  girls,  4  general  work  schools,  and  1 3  infant 
schools.  The  number  of  children  of  school  age 
was  213,908 ;  the  number  of  children  in  per- 
manent schools,  169,737  ;  in  migratory  schools, 
36,577  ;  the  number  of  children  instructed  out- 
side of  the  district  schools,  3,235  ;  and  children 
not  attending  school,  4,419.  The  expenditures 
for  primary  schools  amounted  to  $673,052,  to- 
ward which  the  state  contributed  $91,875.  The 
number  of  burgher  and  real-schools,  in  1867,  was 
35,  with  159  teachers  and  2.531  pupils.  The 
number  of  stift  seminaries,  in  the  same  year,  was 
6,  with  about  300  pupils;  and  the  Teachers' 
Schools  were  15,  with  217  pupils.  Besides  these, 
a  seminary  for  female  teachers  has  been  estal>- 
lished  in  Christiania.  Peasants'  or  People's  High 
Schools  have  been  recently  established  in  Norway 
on  the  same  plan  as  those  in  Denmark  (q.  v.). 
Of  these,  in  1870,  there  were  11.  In  1867,  there 
were,  also,  20  Sunday-schools,  with  1520  pupils, 
and  27  asylums,  with  2,876  children. 

Secondary  Instruction. — Secondary  instruction 
is  imparted  in   middle  schools  and  gymnasia. 


The  latter  are  divided  into  Latin  and  real  gym- 
nasia. The  middle  schools  prepare  scholars  for 
the  gymnasia.  The  course  of  study  comprises 
religion,  the  native  tongue.  German,  Latin.  En- 
glish, French,  history, geography,  the  natural  sci- 
ences, mathematics,  drawing,  and  penmanship. 
In  the  Latin  gymnasia,  the  studies  comprise  re- 
ligion, the  native  tongue,  ancient  Norwegian, 
Latin,  Greek,  French  and  English,  history,  and 
mathematics.  In  the  real  gymnasia.  Latin  and 
Greek  are  omitted;  while  geography,  natural 
sciences,  and  drawing  are  added, and  more  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  mathematics  and  the  modern  lan- 
guages. Besides  the  state  schools,  there  are 
also  private  schools  for  secondary  instruction. 
There  were,  in  1875.  16  secondary  schools,  with 
160  teachers  and  2,099  pupils.  The  number  of 
private  schools,  in  1870,  was  6,  of  which  4,  with 
1,266  pupils,  were  in  Christiania. 

Superior  Instruction. — Norway  has  one  uni- 
versity, at  Christiania,  which  was  founded  in 
1811.  It  had.  in  1874,  978  students.  Connected 
with  the  university  is  a  library,  also  large  scientific 
collections,  and  an  astronomical  and  a  magnetic 
observatory.  The  lectures  are  entirely  gratui- 
tous, and  matriculation  at  the  university  is  made 
dependent  upon  a  previous  examination. 

Special  Instruction. — Agricultural  schools  are 
found  in  almost  every  province,  supported  by 
the  provincial  authorities ;  while  a  higher  agri- 
cultural school  is  supported  in  Aas,  near  Chris- 
tiania, by  the  government.  The  navigation 
schools,  of  which  there  are  6,  necessarily  occupy 
a  prominent  place  in  a  country  situated  like 
Norway.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  military  high 
school,  a  military  and  naval  school,  a  polytech- 
nic school,  in  Norten,  and  a  drawing  school,  in 
Christiania. — See  Schmid,  Encyclopcidie ;  Bar- 
nard, National  Education,  vol.  n.;  Report  on 
the  Systems  of  Public  Instruction  in  Sweden  and 
Norway,  published  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation (Washington,  1871)  ;  and  Report  of  the 
U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1873  and 
1874. 

SWITZERLAND,  a  federal  republic  of 
Europe,  having  an  area  of  15,992  square  miles, 
and  a  population,  in  1870,  of  2,669,147.  It  is 
composed  of  22  cantons,  3  of  which  are  each 
subdivided  into  2  sovereign  half-cantons.  About 
59  per  cent  of  the  population  are  Protestants, 
and  almost  41  per  cent,  Catholics.  The  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  (about  69  per  cent)  are  of 
German  nationality;  nearly  24  per  cent  speak 
French  ;  the  canton  Ticino  and  a  part  of  the 
canton  Grisons  are  Italian.  In  the  latter  canton, 
there  are  also  about  9,000  families  that  speak 
Romansch. 

Educational  History. — At  the  beginning  of 
the  middle  ages,  we  find  within  the  present- 
boundaries  of  Switzerland  some  of  the  most 
famous  monasteries  of  the  Benedictine  order.  (See 
Benedictines.)  Later,  the  university  of  Basel 
occupied  a  high  rank  among  the  earliest  univer- 
sities of  Europe.  After  the  Reformation  in  the 
16th  century,  the  canton  Zurich  took  the  lead  in 
the  regulation  of  school  affairs  by  forbidding  any 


804 


SWITZERLAND 


one  to  keep  school  without  permission  of  the 
city  council.  Several  other  cantons  could,  in 
the  16th  century,  boast  of  good  schools ;  but 
down  to  1830,  there  was  a  lack  of  efficiency  in 
the  organization  of  the  public-school  system ; 
and  schools,  more  than  in  many  other  countries, 
were  left  to  private  enterprise.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century,  the  educational 
achievements  of  Pestalozzi,  Fellenberg,  Wehrli, 
( iirard,  and  others  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
civilized  world.  Xot  only  were  hundreds  of 
pupils  sent  to  Swiss  institutions  from  various 
countries,  even  from  America,  to  obtain  a  good 
education,  but  young  teachers  repaired  there,  in 
large  numbers,  to  study  the  new  educational 
methods.  On  the  shores  of  the  lake  of  Geneva, 
a  large  number  of  private  institutions  arose  to 
Supply  the  universal  demand  at  that  time  for 
instruction  in  the  French  language. The  increase 
of  these  institutions  stimulated  an  eagerness  to 
educate  boys  and  girls  as  private  tutors  and  gov- 
ernesses:  and  for  a  long  time,  French  Switzerland 
furnished  Europe  with  a  larger  supply  of  this 
class  of  teachers  than  any  other  country. — Great 
progress  began  to  be  made,  about  1830,  in  most 
of  the  Protestant  and  mixed  cantons.  In  addition 
to  the  mediaeval  university  of  Basel,  new  univer- 
sities, after  the  German  model,  were  established 
at  Zurich  and  Hern;  and.  in  French  Switzerland, 
the  academies  at  (Geneva,  Lausanne,  and  Xeuf- 
chatel  endeavored  to  rival  tic  best  institutions 
of  the  kind  in  I'1  ranee. — lulv|s.  t]u.  federal  con- 
stitution of  Switzerland,  tor  the  first  time,  took 
notice  of  educational  affairs,  which  until  then 
had  been  under  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the 
cantons,  by  providing  for  the  foundation  of  a 
federal  university.  In  1S7T.  this  project  had  not 
yet  been  executed.  In  1854,  the  federal  assem- 
bly resolved  to  establish  in  Zurich  a  federal  poly- 
technic school.  Since  then,  a  growing  desire  has 
been  evinced,  especially  among  teachers,  that  the 
federal  government  should  exercise  an  authority 
in  school  matters.  Accordingly,  the  new  federal 
constitution,  adopted  in  1874,  contains  the  fol- 
lowing provision  in  regard  to  schools:  "The 
Build  (confederation)  is  authorized  to  establish, 
besides  the  existing  polytechnic  school,  a  univer- 
sity and  other  higher  institutions  of  learning,  or 
to  aid  such  institutions.  The  cantons  shall  pro- 
vide  satisfactory  primary  instruction,  which 
shall  be  under  t  lie  exclusive  control  of  the  govern- 
ment. Primary  instruction  shall  be  obligatory 
and  free  in  all  the  schools.  The  public  schools 
shall  be  open  to  children  of  all  creeds.  Cantons 
that  fail  to  observe  these  provisions  shall  be  pro- 
ceeded against  by  the  B mid.      No    one   shall  lie 

forced  to  receive  any  religious  education  or 
to  perform  any  religious  ceremony.  The  religious 
-■  'Ideation  of  children,  up  to  the  age  of  1  6,  shall 
be  left  to  their  parent-  or  guardians." 

Primary  Schools.  The  primary  schools  in 
the  Swiss  cantons  are  generally  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  communities.     In  L871,  there  wen. 

in  all  Switzerland,  ">,088  primary    schools,    with 

II  1,760  pupils  (205,228  boys.  206,532  girls)  and 

50  male  and  L,724  female  teachers.      Of  these 


schools.  3.924  were  mixed;  578,  boys' schools ; 
and  586,  girls'  schools.  In  58.1  per  cent  of  the 
6ehools,  the  German  language  is  the  medium  of 
instruction  ;  in  31  per  cent,  French  ;  in  9.6  per 
cent,  Italian;  and  in  1.3  percent,  Romansch.  The 
expenditure  fur  primary  schools  amounted,  in 
1871,  to  900,000  francs.  In  most  of  the  can- 
tons, the  elementary-school  systems  have  been 
re-organized  by  school  laws  enacted  since  1870. 
According  to  the  new  school  law  of  Zurich,  pro- 
mulgated in  L872,  which  has  served  as  the  basis 
of  a  number  of  school  laws  in  other  countries, 
the  communal  school  comprises  nine  annual 
classes,  instead  of  six  classes  as  before  that 
time.  The  chief  branches  of  instruction  in  the 
primary  schools  of  Switzerland  are  language  and 
object  lessons,  the  latter  receiving  more  attention 
than  in  most  other  countries  of  Europe.  The 
other  studies  of  a  primary  school  are  religion, 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  drawing,  singing, 
and  gymnastics.  The  real  schools  add  to  these 
studies  geometry,  history,  natural  history,  and 
composition.  Industrial  schools,  in  which  boys 
learn  the  elements  of  a  trade  or  of  agriculture, 
and  girls  are  instructed  in  needle-work,  are 
numerous  in  every  part  of  Switzerland.  For  the 
education  of  teachers,  there  were,  in  1875,  32 
teachers'  seminaries,  the  course  of  studies  in 
which  embraces  pedagogy,  religion,  German, 
French,  arithmetic, geometry, history, geography, 
natural  history,  singing,  playing  on  a  musical 
instrument,  penmanship,  drawing,  gymnastics, 
military  exercises,  and  agriculture.  The  larger 
institutions  have  four  annual  classes.  In  the  can- 
tons of  Zurich,  Yaud,  Bern,  and  Aargau,  pen- 
sions for  superannuated  teachers  are  obligatory; 
in  Schaffhausen,  Glarus,  and  the  city  of  Basel, 
they  are  only  permitted.  The  following  table  ex- 
hibits the  number  of  schools,  and  the  number  of 
male  and  female  teachers:  also  the  proportion  of 
scholars  to  the  total  population: 


Cantons 


No. 

of 

schools 


1.  Zurich 

2.  Bern 

3.  Lucerne 

4.  Uri 

5.  Bchweitz 

ti.  (Tnterwaldt  n,  Upper. 

7.  i "iitcrwalili  ii .  Lower, 

8.  GlarnB 

9.  Zuo 

10,  Fribotirg 

1 1.  Boleure 

Basel  Citj , 

iBBe]  <  '>  untry 

•    h;i!lh;iusrll 

15.  Appenzell,  I  >ut<  r  I  s 

16.  IppenzeU,  [nn<  c  Bi 

I    Oall   

i  i.  i  trieons . 

19.  Aargau 

aurgan  

I  lolno 

33,  \au,l 

38    Valaia , 

34.  NeufchateJ 

20.  Gtoneva , 


s77 

163 

29 

74 

26 

24 

S3 

28 

BOS 

137 

II 

74 

39 

70 

It 

384 

185 
440 
570 

Ml 
ISM 

76 


V 

of 

teachers 

8 

n 

i 

E 

£ 

565 

8 

1.098 

604 

249 

15 

37 

9 

57 

44 

9 

26 

16 

17 

65 

— 

41 

33 

•Jjs 

187 

6 

48 

10 

111 

— 

116 

o 

86 

— 

is 

4 

406 

13 

:;ss 

.'.1 

505 

33 

340 

2 

309 

266 

589 

205 

381 

169 

146 

172 

86 

54    J 

3 
£  -  = 

■3  ofl 

& 


156 
175 
128 
138 
150 
134 
126 
159 
140 
164 
VA 

66 
196 
199 
lss 
133 
156 
150 
158 
185 
149 
14'J 
172 
14. '. 

72 


SWITZERLAND 

Secondary  Instruction.  —  The  gymnasia  and 
real  schools  of  a  higher  grade  are  very  differently 
organized  in  the  several  cantons  of  Switzerland. 
The  state  institutions  in  which  a  complete  gym- 
nasium is  combined  with  a  real  school,  under 
one  direction;  are  called  cantonal  schools.  In 
L873,  there  were,  in  Switzerland,  67  gymnasia, 
colleges,  and  pro-gymnasia,  with  an  aggregate  of 
4,900  pupils  ;  and  41  industrial  and  real  schools 
of  a  higher  grade,  with  3,800  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  Switzerland  had,  in 
]  876,  four  universities, — those  of  Basel,  Zurich, 
Bern,  and  Geneva.  That  of  Basel  was  founded 
in  1460 ;  of  Zurich,  in  1833  ;  of  Bern,  in  1834. 
Geneva  has  had  a  higher  institution  of  learning 
since  1559  ;  but  it  did  not  become  a  complete 
university  until  1875.  The  number  of  students, 
in  1876,  was,  in  Zurich,  328;  in  Bern,  385;  in 
Basel,  158;  and  in  Geneva,  235.  All  these  uni- 
versities have  the  four  faculties  of  theology,  law, 
medicine,  and  philosophy.  The  theological  faculty 
of  each  of  the  universities  belongs  to  the 
Reformed  Church  ;  Bern  has  also,  since  1874,  an 
Gld  Catholic  faculty  of  theology.  At  the  uni- 
versities of  Zurich  and  Geneva,  the  phflosophical 
faculty  is  divided  into  two  sections:  one  com- 
prising philology,  philosophy,  and  history;  and 
the  other,  mathematics  and  natural  science.  In 
Bern,  the  medical  faculty  is  divided  into  a  med- 
ical and  a  veterinary  section. — Besides  the  uni- 
versities, there  are  3  academies,  or  incomplete 
universities,  —  at  Lausanne,  Neufchatel,  and 
Fribourg.  That  of  Lausanne  has  faculties  of 
Reformed  theology,  law,  science,  and  literature  ; 
that  of  Neufchatel,  law,  science,  and  literature  ; 
that  of  Fribourg,  Catholic  theology  and  law.  The 
universities  of  Bern  and  Zurich  were  among  the 
first  in  Europe  to  admit  female  students ;  and 
their  example  has  been  followed  by  the  university 
of  Geneva.  In  1875,  Bern  and  Zurich  had  an 
aggregate  of  63,  and  Geneva,  24  female  students. 
Among  those  in  Bern  and  Zurich,  39  were 
Russians,  8  Americans,  5  Austrians,  4  Germans, 
and  3  Servians. 

Special  and  Professional  Schools. — The  Poly- 
technic School,  at  Zurich,  is  the  only  Swiss 
school  under  the  control  of  the  federal  authorities. 
It  comprises  eight  departments :  architecture, 
civil  engineering,  industrial  mechanics,  industrial 
chemistry,  agriculture  and  forestry,  a  normal 
school  of  mathematics  and  natural  sciences,  a 
school  of  literature,  moral  sciences,  and  political 
economy,  and  a  preparatory  course  in  mathe- 
matics. The  other  technical  schools  are  the 
technical  department  in  the  academy  of  Lau- 
sanne, and  the  department  of  architecture  iu  the 
lyceum  of  Lugano.  The  lyceum  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, at  Einsiedeln,  has  a  philosophical  and  a 
theological  department.  There  is,  also,  a  philo- 
sophical department,  connected  with  the  lyceum 
of  Lugano.  There  are  six  Catholic  theological 
seminaries ;  a  Reformed  theological  faculty,  at 
Neufchatel ;  and  theological  schools  of  the  Free 
Evangelical  Church,  at  Lausanne  and  Geneva. 
There  is  a  veterinary  school  at  Zurich  ;  an  in- 
dustrial school  of  higher  grade,  at  Winterthur  ; 


SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY        805 

a  school  for  watch-makers,  at  Geneva  ;  several 
commercial  schools  ;  seven  agricultural  schools  ; 
and  a  school  of  line  arts,  in  Geneva.  There 
were  also,  in  1*75.  13  institutions  for  de 
mutes,  with  233  boys  and  L59  girls;  two  in- 
stitutions for  the  blind,  in  Zurich  and  Hern, 
with  58  boys  and  54  girls;  and  one  asylum  for 
Hie  blind,  in  Lausanne. — Sec  Schmid,  Encyclq- 
pddie,  art.  Schweiz;  Barnard,  National  Edu- 
cation, vol.  ii. ;  Beer,  Das  Unterrichtswesen  der 
Schweiz  (Vienna,  1868)  ;  Kixkelin,  Statislik 
<l<>s  Uhterrichtswesens  in  der  Schweiz  im  Jahre 
1871  (Basel,  7  vols.,  1874,  seq.);  Wirth,  AUge- 
meine  Beschreibung  und  Statisltk  der  Schweiz, 
vol.  in.:  Das  Unterrichtswesen;  also  the  annual 
reports  on  the  educational  condition  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  Pddagogischer  Jahresbericht. 

SYMPATHY,  an  instinctive  feeling  of  in- 
terest in  and  affection  for  others,  which  prompts 
a  correspondence  of  emotions.  Persons  in  sym- 
pathy readily  discern  the  mental  states  of  one 
another,  and  evince  by  their  actions  that  they 
suffer,  mentally,  the  same  distress,  and  feel  the 
same  joy.  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  and  define 
the  source  and  basis  of  this  sympathetic  relation- 
ship ;  but  personal  influence  greatly  depends 
upon  it.  It  is  natural  to  some  persons  to  be  in 
sympathy  with  others ;  they  seem  to  exert  a 
kind  of  positive  influence,  drawing  and  binding- 
all  around  them  to  themselves.  Others,  on  the  con- 
trary, seem  to  be  negative  in  their  influence ;  they 
repel  instead  of  attracting.  They  are  cold  and 
indifferent  to  others ;  or,  if  otherwise,  uncon- 
sciously show  that  their  apparent  interest  is 
feigned,  not  felt,  proceeding  from  a  sense  of  duty, 
not  from  natural  warmth  of  feeling.  —  The 
teacher,  above  all  others,  should  be  sympathetic, 
because  so  much  of  his  success  depends  upon 
personal  influence.  He  should  habitually  strive 
to  cultivate  this  quality,  feeling  assured  that  the 
measure  of  his  professional  skill  and  efficiency 
is  the  degree  of  sympathetic  regard  with  which 
he  inspires  his  pupils.  (See  Antipathy,  and 
Love.) 

SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY,  in  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  chartered  in  1870,  is  under  Methodist 
Episcopal  control.  Genesee  College,  at  Lima, 
chartered  in  1849,  was  merged  in  it.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an  en- 
dowment of  $150,000.  The  value  of  its  buildings 
and  grounds  is  $300,000.  It  has  valuable  mu- 
seums, and  libraries  containing  9,000  volumes, 
The  university  consists  of  (1)  The  College 
of  the  Liberal  Arts,  opened  in  1871  ;  (2)  The 
Medical  College,  opened  in  1872;  (3)  The 
College  of  the  Fine  Arts,  opened  in  1873. 
Other  colleges  are  contemplated  by  the  charter. 
All  the  colleges  of  the  university  are  open  for 
the  admission  of  women  on  the  same  terms  as 
men.  The  following  seminaries,  in  different  parts* 
of  the  state,  have  entered  into  the  relation  of 
gymnasia  or  preparatory  schools  to  the  universi- 
ty :  The  Hudson  River  Institute  and  Female 
( 'ollege,  at  Claverack ;  The  Cazenovia  Seminary, 
at  Cazenovia  ;  The  Ives  Seminary,  at  Antwerp  ; 
The  Amenia  Seminary,  at  Amenia ;   and  The 


806 


TABOR   COLLEGE 


TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE 


Onondaga  Academy,  at  Onondaga  Valley.  The 
courses  in  the  College  of  liberal  Arts,  with  the 
degrees  conferred  on  their  completion,  are  as  fol- 
lows: classical,  A.  I!.;  Latin-scientific  and  Greek- 
scientific,  Ph.  B.;  scientific,  U.S.  The  College  of 
the  Fine  A  rts  is  intended  ultimately  to  include  in- 
struction in  all  the  fine  arts,  consisting  of  (1)  the 
formative  arts, — architecture,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, engraving,  and  the  various  forms  of  indus- 
trial art,  and  (2)  the  sounding  arts, — music, 
poetry  and  belles-lettres,  and  oratory.  At  present, 
courses  of  instruction  in  architecture,  painting 
and  engraving  are  all  that  have  been  organized. 
Tor  the  advanced  degrees,  in  either  college,  a 


!  post  graduate  course  of  one  year  may  be  pursued. 
Tin'  cost  of  tuition  in  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts 
is  siio  a  year  (to  children  of  clergymen,  830);  in 
the  other  colleges  tuition  is  $100  a  year.  The 
number  of  instructors  and  students,  in  1876 — 7, 
was  as  follows  :  liberal  Arts,  11  instructors  and 
155  students:  Fine  Aits,  '.)  instructors  and  24 
students;  .Medical  School,  15  instructors  and 
58  students  :  total,  35  instructors  and  237  stu- 
dents.—The  number  of  pupils  in  the  gymnasia 
preparing  for  college  was  165.  The  chancellors 
of  the  university  have  been  as  follows:  Alexander 
Winchell,  LL.D.,  1872 — 1.  and  the  Rev.  Erastus 

j  0.  Haven,  I).  D.,  LL.  D.,  since  1874. 


TABOR  COLLEGE,  at  Tabor,  Fremont 
Co.,  Iowa,  chartered  in  1854,  is  controlled  by 
Congregationalists.  It  was  opened  as  an  acad- 
emy in  L857,  and  as  a  college  in  1866.  It  is 
supported  by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
$40,000,  and  by  tuition  fees,  amounting  to 
about  $3,500  a  year.  It  has  a  library  of  3,500 
volumes,  and  embraces  the  following  depart- 
ments: (1)  College  Department,  including  a 
classical  and  a  scientific  course  of  four  years 
each;  (2)  Ladies'  Department,  with  a  four 
years'  course  ;  (3)  Teachers'  Department,  with  a 
two  years'  course  ;  (■!)  Preparatory  Department, 
with  facilities  for  fitting  for  the  higher  depart- 
ments; (5)  Musical  Department.  Females  are 
also  admitted  to  the  college  department.  In 
1874 — 5,  there  were  12  instructors  and  246  stu- 
dents ;  namely,  college,  24;  preparatory,  104; 
ladies'  department,  89  ;  teachers'  department, 
15  ;  music,  50.  The  Rev.  Win.  M.  Brooks,  A.  M., 
is  (1877)  the  president. 

TALLADEGA  COLLEGE,  at  Talladega, 
Ala.,  chartered  in  L869,  is  under  the  control  of 
the  American  Missionary  Association.  It  is 
supported  chiefly  by  contributions  from  the 
Congregational  churches  in  the  North.  Itwa3 
established,  especially,  for  colored  youth  of  both 
s  Acs,  and  comprises  a  primary,  a  normal,  a  pre- 
paratory, a  collegiate  and  a  theological  depart- 
ment, in  1875 — 6,  there  were  L2  instructors 
and  217  students :  preparatory,  15;  theological, 
14;  normal,  40;  grammar,  25;  intermediate  an  1 
primary,  1  17.  The  Rev.  B.  1'.  Lord,  A.  M.,  is 
i  L877)  the  principal. 

TASMANIA.  See  Australasian  Colonies. 

TAYLOR,  Isaac,  an  Rnglish  author,  born 
in  Lavenham,  Aug.  17.,  17*7:  died  in  Stanford 
I  fivers,  dune  28.,  1805.  lie  was  educated  as  an 
artist,  but  relinquished  that  pursuit  and  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  In  L818,  he  began  his 
literary  career  by  contributions  to  the  Eclectic 
Review;  ami.  in  L  865,  he  contributed  to  Good 
Words.  The  Natural  History  of  Enthusiasm, 
which  appeared  in  L829,  was  published  anonj 
mously,and  was  received  with  extraordinary  favor, 
in  1836,  appeared  Home  Education,  a  work  of 
unusual  interest  to  educators  by  reason  of  its 
c  irred  analysis  of  the  human  mind, and  its  illus- 


tration of  the  true  order  of  the  development  of 
its  powers.  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that 
this  book  is  invaluable  to  the  teacher  who  would 
learn  the  right  method  to  be  pursued  in  educa- 
tion, or  the  rationale  of  that  method,  its  general 
conclusions  are  universally  accepted  by  modern 
educators  ;  while  the  detailed  methods  given  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  mental  faculties,  and  the 
illustrations  of  their  unconscious  exercise,  are 
exceedingly  suggestive  and  interesting.  Mr. 
Taylor  was  the  author  of  several  other  works, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  The  Elements 
of  TliougM  (1822),  and  The  World  of  Mind 
,1857,. 

TEACHER,  a  person  who  assists  another  in 
Learning,  thai  is.  in  acquiring  knowledge  or  prac- 
tical skill.  A  school-teacher's  office  is,  for  the 
most,  partjConfined  to  aiding  the  pupil  in  acquir- 
ing knowledge,  with  the  twofold  object  of 
ill  mental  discipline,  and  (2)  imparting  valuable 
information.  \\  hich  of  these  is  to  be  considered 
of  primary  importance  depends  upon  the  grade 
of  the  instruction  and  the  subject  taught.  Al- 
though teaching  is  only  a  part  of  education,  the 
teacher  should  be  an  educator,  since  he  is  re- 
quired to  perform  an  office  which  bears  an  im- 
portant relation  to  the  general  development,  or 

education,  of  the  child;  and.  consequently,  he 
should  clearly  understand  the  nature  of  that  re- 
lation. In  other  words,  no  person  can  be  merely 
a  teacher;  he  must,  to  be  truly  efficient,  educate 
while  he  teaches.  Indeed,  he  cannot  but  do  so. 
I  lis  example,  and  his  personal  influence  of  every 
kind,  will  necessarily  educate-  will  tend  to 
form,  permanently,  the  character  of  his  pupil, 
either  for  good  or  evil.  This  consideration  should 

determine  the  qualifications  of  the  teacher,  which 
slnnild  not  consist  merely  in  scholarship,  book- 
learning,  or  intellectual  culture, bul  that  assem- 
blage of  personal  qualities  and  accomplishments 

(including  scholarship)  which  will  rentier  his  in- 
fluence in  everj  respect  effective  and  salutary. 
(See  Didactics,  Education,  and  Instruction.) 

TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE,  the  name 
given,  in  the  United  States,  to  an  assemblage  oi 
teachers  of  elementary  or  district  Bchools,  called 
together  temporarily  for  the  purpose  of  receiv- 
ing  professional  instruction.    Such  meetings  are 


TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES 


807 


held  under  the  direction  of  the  school  authorities, 
usually  the  state,  county,  or  town  superintend- 
ent ;  and  quite  often  there  is  a  provision  of  law 
requiring  the  teachers  employed  in  the  common 
schools  to  attend,  and  permitting  a  continuance 
of  their  salaries  during  such  attendance.  .V  teach- 
ers' institute  is  usually  conducted  by  an  experi- 
enced teacher,  having  special  skill  for  the  work. 
This  requires  a  good  knowledge  of  the  practice 
and  theory  of  teaching,  especially  as  applied  to 
the  ordinary  branches  of  common-school  educa- 
tion ;  it  also  needs  ability  as  a  lecturer.  Teach- 
ers' institutes  are  designed  to  serve  as  a  substi- 
tute for,  or  as  complementary  to,  normal  in- 
struction ;  and  as  such  they  constitute  a  valuable 
agency  in  connection  with  a  system  of  common- 
school  instruction.  —  See  Bates,  Method  of 
Trackers'  Institutes  (Xew  York),  and  Institute 
Lectures  (Xew  York) ;  Fowle,  The  Teachers' 
Institute  (Xew  York)  ;  Phelps,  The  Teachers' 
II aid-Booh-  (Xew  York). 

TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES.  Schools  for 
the  education  and  training  of  teachers  are  called 
teachers'  seminaries  in  Germany,  Russia,  Fin- 
land. Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  the  Ger- 
man cantons  of  Switzerland;  training  schools, 
in  Austria  and  the  Netherlands;  preparatory 
schools,  in  Hungary;  and  normal  schools,  in 
France,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Spain.  Portugal, 
Greece.  Roumania,  the  French  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land, and  the  United  States.  In  Great.  Brit- 
ain, the  name  training  college  is  very  generally 
used. — The  first  establishment  of  the  kind  of 
which  there  is  any  accurate  account,  was  the 
Institute  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  founded,  in  1681,  by  the  abbe  de  la 
Salle,  canon  of  the  cathedral  at  Reims.  —  In 
1697,  August  Hermann  Francke,  in  connection 
with  his  orphan  school  at  Halle,  founded  a 
teachers'  class,  composed  of  poor  students  who 
assisted  him  in  the  work  of  instruction  in  return 
for  their  board  and  lodging.  From  this  class  he 
selected,  in  1704,  twelve  pupils  who  exhibited 
'•the  right  basis  of  piety,  knowledge,  and  aptness 
to  teach",  and  constituted  them  his  seminarium 
prceceptorum.  These  pupil-teachers  were  trained 
for  two  years;  and  such  was  their  aptitude  for 
teaching  that  their  fame  was  spread  over  the 
greater  part  of  Germany,  and  hundreds  flocked 
to  Francke's  school  to  study  his  improved 
methods  and  superior  organization.  Johann  .Tu- 
bus Hecker,  a  pupil  of  Francke's,  established  a 
teachers'  seminary  at  Stettin,  in  Pomerania,  in 
1735,  and  another  in  Berlin,  in  1748.  Hecker 
worked  under  the  patronage  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  issued  a  royai  ordinance  that  all 
vacancies  in  the  schools  on  the  crown-lands 
should  be  filled  by  teachers  trained  in  the  Berlin 
seminary.  In  addition  to  this,  he  granted  an 
annual  stipend  to  twelve  of  the  graduates,  a 
number  afterwards  increased  to  sixty.  The 
teachers'  seminaries  at  Rekahn.  in  Brandenburg, 
became  the  model  schools  of  Germany.  From 
Prussia,  the  system  gradually  spread  over  the 
greater  part  of  Europe.  It  was  introduced  into 
Hanover  in   1 7 ."> 7  :   into  Austria  in  1707;  into 


Switzerland  in  L805  :  into  France  in  1808  ;  into 
Holland  in    L816;  into   England  in    L842;  and 

into  Belgium  in  L843.  Since  then,  it  has  been 
introduced  into  the  remaining  countries  of 
Europe;  into  North  and  South  America ;  and 
into  British  India  and  Japan. —  As  Prussia  was 
the  in st  nation  to  adopt  and  enforce  the  special 
training  of  teachers,  the  following  provisions  of 
the  1'russian  law  of  L819  will  serve  to  explain 
the  aims  and  purposes  of  teachers'  seminaries, 
not  only  in  Prussia  itself  but  in  all  the  counties 
into  which  they  have  been  introduced  :  (1)  No 
seminary  for  teachers  in  the  primary  schools 
shall  admit  more  than  seventy  pupil-teachers. 
(2)  In  every  department  in  which  the  number  of 
Catholics  and  Protestants  are  about  equal,  there 
shall  be,  as  often  as  circumstances  will  permit,  a 
teachers  seminary  for  the  members  of  each  de- 
nomination ;  but  where  the  inequality  is  very 
marked,  the  teachers  of  the  least  numerous  de- 
nomination shall  be  obtained  from  the  teachers' 
seminaries  belonging  to  that  denomination  in  a 
neighboring  department,  or  from  smaller  estab- 
lishments, in  the  same  department,  annexed  to  an 
elementary  primary  school.  Teachers'  seminaries 
for  the  simultaneous  education  of  persons  of  dif- 
ferent religious  belief  shall  be  permitted  when 
the  pupil-teachers  can  obtain,  close  at  hand,  suit- 
able instruction  in  the  doctrines  of  their  own 
church.  (3)  The  teachers'  seminaries  shall  be 
established,  whenever  it  is  possible,  in  small 
towns,  so  as  to  preserve  the  pupil-teachers 
from  the  dissipations,  temptations,  and  habits 
of  life  which  are  not  suitable  to  their  future 
profession,  but  without  subjecting  them  to  a  mo- 
nastic seclusion ;  but  the  town  must  not  be 
too  small,  in  order  that  they  may  profit  by 
the  vicinity  of  several  elementary  and  superior 
primary  schools.  (6)  No  young  man  can  be 
received  into  a  teachers'  seminary  who  has  not 
passed  through  a  course  of  instruction  in  an  ele- 
mentary primary  school ;  nor  can  any  young  man 
be  received,  of  the  excellence  of  whose  moral 
character  there  is  the  least  ground  of  suspicion. 
The  age  of  admission  into  the  teachers'  semi- 
naries shall  be  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  years. 

(7)  As  to  the  methods  of  instruction,  the  direct- 
ors of  the  teachers'  seminaries  shall  rather  seek 
to  conduct  the  pupil-teachers  by  their  own  ex- 
perience to  simple  and  clear  principles,  than  to 
give  them  theories  for  their  guidance;  and,  with 
tin's  end  in  view,  primary  schools  shall  be  joined 
to  all  the  teachers'  seminaries,  where  the  pupil- 
teachers  may  be  practiced  in  the  act  of  teaching. 

(8)  In  each  teachers'  seminary,  the  course  of  in- 
struction shall  last  three  years,  of  which  the  first 
shall  be  devoted  to  the  continuation  of  the 
comse  of  instruction  which  the  pupils  com- 
menced in  the  primary  schools;  the  second,  to 
instruction  of  a  higher  order:  and  the  third, 
to  practice  in  the  primary  school  attached  to 
the  establishment.  From  the  law  of  1819,  and 
from  the  general  regulations,  the  following  pro- 
visions have  been  gathered :  Xo  young  man  is 
allowed  to  conduct  a  primary  school  until  he 
has  obtained  a  certificate  of  his  capacity  to  fulfill 


808 


TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES 


the  important  duties  of  a  school-master.  The 
examination  of  the  candidates  for  these  certifi- 
cates is  conducted  by  commissions,  composed  of 
two  laymen  and  two  clergymen,  or  two  priests. 
The  provincial  consistories  nominate  the  lay 
members,  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  of  the 
respective  provinces  nominate  the  clerical  mem- 
bers for  the  examination  of  the  religious  edu- 
cation of  the  Protestant  candidates;  and  the 
Roman  ( 'atholic  bishop  nominates  the  two  priests 
who  examine  the  Roman  Catholic  candidates. 
The  members  of  these  commissions  are  nomi- 
nated for  three  years,  but  they  can  afterward  be 
continued  in  office  if  advisable.  These  certifi- 
cates are  not  valid  until  they  have  been  ratified 
by  the  superior  authorities,  that  is,  by  the  pro- 
vincial consistories.  The  provincial  authorities 
can  re-examine  the  candidates,  if  they  think  that 
there  is  any  reason  to  doubt  what  is  specified  in 
the  certificate  granted  by  the  committee  of  ex- 
amination, and  can  declare  them  incompetent; 
and  they  can  require  the  local  authorities  to  pro- 
ceed to  another  examination,  if  they  are  not 
satisfied  with  the  character  of  any  of  the  can- 
didates. Young  women  who  are  candidates  for 
the  situation  of  school-mistress  are  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  same  kind  of  examination  before 
they  can  obtain  the  certificate  enabling  them  to 
take  charge  of  a  girls'  school. — The  provincial 
consistories  have  the  power  to  send  any  master 
of  a  primary  school  who  appears  to  be  in  need 
of  further  instruction,  to  a  teachers' seminary  for 
the  time  that  may  appear  requisite  to  give  him 
the  necessary  additional  instruction.  During  his 
absence,  his  place  is  supplied  by  a  student 
from  the  teachers'  seminary,  who  receives  a 
temporary  certificate.  The  expenses  of  the  mas- 
ters who  attend  for  a  second  time  the  teach- 
ers' seminaries  are  generally  defrayed  by  the 
educational  authorities.  The  school-masters  are 
encouraged  to  continue  their  education  by  the 
hope  of  preferment  to  better  situations,  or  to 
superior  schools  ;  but  before  they  can  attain  this 
preferment,  they  must  pass  a  second  examina- 
tion, conducted  by  the  same  authorities  that  con- 
ducted the  former.  -Teachers  who  show  them- 
selves entitled  to  promotion  to  the  position  of 
directors  of  teachers'  seminaries,  are  authorized 
to  travel,  both  in  Prussia  and  in  other  countries, 
for  the  purpose  of  extending  their  knowledge  of 
the  organization,  instruction,  and  discipline  of 
schools.  A  valuable  ordinance,  passed  in  1826, 
and  renewed   in  L 846,  requires   every  director  of 

a  teachers'  seminary,  once  a  year,  to  visit  a 
certain  portion  of  the  schools  within  his  circuit, 
lie  thus  makes  himself  acquainted  with  the 
condition  of  the  schools,  listens  to  the  instruc- 
tion, takes  part    in    the   same,  and   gives    to    the 

teachers  such  hints  for  improvement  as  his  ob- 
servation may  BUggest.    The  results  of  his  Nearly 

visits,  he  presents,  in  the  form  of  a  report  to 
the  school  authorities  of  the  province.  To 
render  the   efficacy  of   the    teachers'    seminaries 

more  complete,  it  is  provided  that,  at  the  end  of 

three  years  after  leaving  the  seminary,  young 
teachers  shall  return  to  pass  a  second  examina- 


|  tion. — Before  a  young  man  is  eligible  for  exam- 
i  ination  to  enter  a  teachers'  seminary,  he  must 
j  forward  to  the  director  or  principal  (1)  a  certifi- 
!  cate  signed  by  a  priest  or  minister,  certifying 
that  his  character  and  past  life  have  been  moral 
'  and  blameless,  (2)  a  certificate  from  a  physician 
;  attesting  his  freedom  from  chronic  complaints 
and  the  soundness  of  his  health  and  constitution, 
(3)  a  certificate  of  his  having  been  vaccinated 
within  two  years,  (4)  a  certificate  of  his  baptism 
(if  a  Christian),  and  (5)  a  certificate,  signed  by 
two  or  more  teachers,  of  his  previous  industrious 
and  moral  habits  and  sufficient  ability  for  the 
|  teacher's  profession.     The  subjects  in  which  the 
candidates  are  examined   are    Biblical  history, 
the  history  of  Christianity,  Luther's  catechism, 
writing,  reading, arithmetic  (mental  and  written), 
grammar,  geography,  German  history,  natural 
history,   the   first   principles  of  physics,  singing, 
and  the    \  iolin.     When  the  examination  is  fin- 
ished, a  list  of  the  candidates  is  made  out  in  the 
older  of   their  standing:  and  from  this,  as  many 
of  the  highest  are  elected  students  of  the  semi- 
nary as    will    fill    the    vacancies   of    that    year, 
occasioned  by  the  departure  of  those  who  have 
left  to  take  charge  of  village  schools.  The  course 
of  instruction   is  twofold. — intellectual   and  in- 
dustrial.    The  intellectual  course  consists  in  a 
review    of.  and    a  continuation  in,  the  sub] 
above  mentioned,    to   which    are    added   botany, 

pedagogy,  drawing,  Latin  and  French,  and  very 
often  English  also.  A  knowledge  of  these  lan- 
guages is  not  required  for  a  teacher's  diploma; 
lull,  without  a  thorough  familiarity  with  the 
other  subjects  of  study,  he  cannot  be  licensed  to 
teach.  The  industrial  training  COnsistsof  the  per- 
formance of  all  the  ordinary  household  work. — 
preparing  the  meals,  taking  care  of  the  sleeping 
apartments,  pruning  the  fruit-trees  and  culti- 
vating, in  the  lands  always  attached  to  the  Semi- 
naries, the  vegetables  necessary  for  the  use  of  the 
household.  At  the  end  of  the  third  year,  the 
young  men  are  examined,  and  marked  1 .  'J.  or  .'!. 
or  are  rejected.  Those  marked  1  are  entitled 
to  teach  as  principals;  and  those  marked  L"  or 
.'{  are  only  permitted  to  act  in  the  capacity  of 
assistants. 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  teachers'  semi- 
naries in  Europe,  during  the  past  twenty-five 
years,  has  been  very  marked.  The  number  report- 
ed, in  L875,  in  the  different  European  countries. 
British  India,  and  the  British  Colonies,  was  as 
follows  : 


Austria  proper <U 

Hungary 63 

Prussia loi 

( ither  German  Btates. . .  73 

France so 

Italy II"- 

Russia 4") 

Finland 3 

Bwi  den 1(> 

Norway 7 

ad 41 

Bcotland 6 

Ireland 1 


Denmark 5 

Netherlands 5 

Luxemburg 1 

mm 33 

Spain 31 

Portugal 6 

Gr<  < ■•■<■ 1 

Roumanja 8 

Serrla 1 

Switzerland 3'2 

British  Colonies 13 

British  India UU 


Total 855- 

Normal  Schools  in  the  United  States. — Massa- 
chusetts   was    the    first    state    of    the   American 

Union  to  introduce  the  system  of  teachers' semi- 


TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES 


809 


naries,  or  normal  schools.  The  people  of  New 
England  became  familiar  with  the  Prussian  sys- 
tem through  the  exertions  of  the  Rev.  Charles 
Brooks  who  had  obtained  his  knowledge  of  it 
from  Dr.  .Julius,  whose  acquaintance  lie  had  ac- 
cidentally formed  while  crossing  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  Dr.  Julius  had  been  sent  to  the  United 
States  by  the  Prussian  government  to  study  pris- 
on discipline;  and  it  was  while  on  a  voyage  to 
Europe  that  he  explained  to  Mr.  Brooks  the 
method  of  training  teachers  for  the  country 
schools.  Mr.  Brooks  was  so  impressed  and  inter- 
ested that  he  resolved  to  investigate  for  himself 
the  Prussian  system  of  teachers'  seminaries.  This 
he  did  with  great  care  and  attention  to  all  the 
details.  After  his  return  to  the  United  States, 
he  devoted  three  years  to  the  diffusion  of  his 
ideas  concerning  the,  necessity  and  importance 
of  institutions  for  the  education  and  training  of 
teachers.  He  enlisted  in  the  cause  a  considerable 
number  of  able  men,  among  whom  were  John 
Quincy  Adams  and  Daniel  Webster.  Finally, 
the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  was  prevailed 
upon  to  establish  a  state  board  of  education, 
with  Horace  Mann  as  its  secretary,  and  to  make 
an  appropriation  to  institute  two  state  normal 
schools.  Mr.  Mann  became  the  ardent  advocate 
of  teachers'  seminaries,  institutes,  and  all  other 
means  of  educating  and  training  teachers  for  their 
work.  Early  in  the -present  century,  De  Witt 
Clinton  recommended  the  establishment  of  teach- 
ers' seminaries  in  the  state  of  New  York.  The 
Public  School  Society  of  the  city  of  New  York 
founded,  in  1834,  a  Saturday  Normal  School  for 
teachers ;  but  this  was  only  a  high  school  in 
which  were  taught  the  elementary  branches  of 
an  English  education.  The  first  public  normal 
school  established  in  the  United  States  was  the 
one  opened  at  Lexington  (afterwards  removed 
to  Framingham,  Mass.),  July  3.,  1839,  under  the 
principalship  of  Cyrus  Peirce  (q.  v.);  although  S. 
R.  Hall  (q.  v.)  had  opened  a  teachers'  seminary  of 
a  private  character  as  early  as  1823.  From  that 
time  till  1850,  only  seven  schools  were  founded  : 
three  in  Massachusetts,  and  one  each  in  New 
York,  Maine,  Ohio,  and  Illinois.  During  the  next- 
decade,  from  1850  to  1860,  but  twelve  normal 
schools  were  established,  three  in  Ohio,  two  in 
Massachusetts,  two  in  Illinois,  and  one  each  in 
Connecticut,  Michigan,  Missouri,  New  Jersey, 
and  Pennsylvania.  Between  1860  and  1870, 
fifty-two  schools  for  teachers  were  established  ; 
and,  from  1870  to  the  close  of  1875,  sixty-six 
normal  schools  were  founded.  Very  many  of 
these  schools  have  connected  with  them  model 
schools,  or  schools  of  practice,  sometimes  called 
training  schools,  in  which  the  students  of  the 
normal  school  proper  are  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity, under  the  supervision  and  direction  of 
experienced  teachers,  of  putting  in  practice, 
to  some  extent,  the  pedagogic  principles  and 
rules  which  they  have  acquired  theoretically,  so 
as  to  be  prepared  for  actual  work  on  emerging 
as  graduates  from  the  normal  school.  Such  schools 
constitute  a  part  of  the  means  of  professional 
training,  as  indispensable  to  the  teacher  as  the 


hospital  and  clinique  to  the  young  and  inexperi- 
enced physician.  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  statistics  of  normal  schools  in  the  United 
States  for  1876. 


NAME 


tn       <h 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

District  of  Columbia. 

Utah  Territory 

Total 


V           '/I 

too 

1  °"S 

Z     8 

4 

307 

2 

21G 

1 

300 

1 

175 

2 

240 

2 

334 

8 

1,379 

5 

1,771 

3 

230 

3 

994 

3 

140 

4 

99 

4 

548 

3 

478 

7 

1,265 

1 

411 

3 

782 

2 

351 

8 

1,871 

1 

282 

1 

155 

1 

269 

9 

4,158 

4 

397 

12 

3,248 

1 

4 

12 

4,017 

1 

159 

2 

475 

7 

1,056 

3 

482 

2 

351 

6 

734 

0 

1,027 

3 

164 

1 

137 

76 

29,095 

-o  c  2 

C--    o 

-       C        *H 


18 

.") 

10 

8 
19 

3 
56 
24 
17 
20 
13 

6 
19 
21 
70 
13 
2< 

9 
72 

7 

9* 

10 

158 

15 

S3 

125 
19 
14 
35 
22 
23 
35 
53 
10 
1 

1,046 

most 


Teachers'  seminaries  have  exercised  the 
beneficial  influence  in  the  communities  in  which 
they  exist.  The  moral  effect  of  the  instruction 
of  trained  and  educated  teachers  on  the  rising 
generation  is  incalculable.  The  gain  in  time, 
the  better  and  simpler  methods  of  teaching,  the 
knowledge  of  the  children's  physical, mental,  and 
moral  nature,  the  good  order,  thorough  organiza- 
tion, and  general  spirit  of  harmony  and  humanity 
which  are  the  results  of  a  thorough  study  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  teaching,  combine  to  con- 
stitute the  teachers'  seminary  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  economic  institutions  of  modern  civil- 
ization. The  teachers'  seminaries  of  Prussia 
have  filled  the  country  schools  of  that  nation 
with  school-masters  whose  education,  talents,  and 
attainments  have  caused  them,  in  the  words  of 
an  enlightened  English  traveler,  "to  be  respected 
by  the  whole  community."  Prior  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  seminaries,  these  countrj 
schools  were  taught  by  ''ignorant  tailors,  shoe, 
makers,  common  soldiers,  and  old  women."  To 
a  great  extent,  the  normal  schools  of  the  United 
States  have  exercised  a  similar  influence  in  fill- 
ing teachers'  positions  with  a  superior  class  of 
men  and  women.  Although  the  normal  schools 
of  the  United  States  cannot  yet  furnish  one- 
tenth  of  the  number  of  teachers  required  for 


810 


TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES 


the  common  schools,  they  exercise  a  powerful, 
though  indirect,  influence  in  creating  a  demand  for 
better  teachers,  and  in  imparting  and  diffusing 
a  knowledge  of  better  methods  of  instruction. 
Intelligent  statesmen  in  Europe  and  America 
have  used  their  best  efforts  to  establish  teachers' 
seminaries, wherever  the  state  has  undertaken  the 
education  of  the  masses  at  public  expense,  as  a 
measure  of  wisdom  and  economy.  Experience 
has  demonstrated  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the 
material  on  which  the  teacher  operates  —  the 
childish  mind —  the  profession  of  teaching  dif- 
fers from  other  professions,  and  cannot  fall  under 
the  law  of  supply  and  demand,  but  requires  the 
special  interposition  of  private  corporations  or 
of  government  itself. 

The  following  table  shows  the  location  etc.  of 
the  normal  schools  in  the  United  States. 

Normal  Schools  in  the  United  States. 


NAME 


JN.  C,  Normal   College;    N.  D. 
N.  8.,  Normal  School;  T.  S., 


Normal   Department; 

Training  School.] 


X  \mi: 


Location 


1 

2 

3 
4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

10 

1G 

17 

1 

19 

20 
21 
22 

2:3 
21 

as 

26 

27 

28 
29 
30 
31 
82 
33 

35 
3G 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
-I? 
43 
44 
46 
46 
47 
•is 
49 

r,i 

fii 


aal  School 

Rust  Normal  Institute... 
Lincoln  Ni  !      iv 

N.  1).,  Talladega  Colli 

N.  D.,  Arkansas  Ind.  Univ. 

Pine  Bluff  N<  >rmal  Inst.. . 

State  X  irmal  School 

State  Norma]  School 

N.  D.  of  Delaware  College 
Del.  State  Normal  Univ... 

N.  D.  of  Atlanta  Univ 

Haven  Normal  School 

Fvan.I.ut  h.  Normal  Scl 1 

Southern  111.  Normal  Univ. 

Chicago  Normal  School. . . 
N.  D.  of  Bock  IUver  Univ. 
Cook  Co.  Normal  School. . 
N.W.  German-EnglishN.8. 
State  Normal  University. . 
Peoria  Co.  Normal  School. 
Normal  and  Class.  School. 

N.W.  Normal  School 

La  Grange  Co.  Nor.  School 
Ind.  State  Normal  School. 
N.  Ind.  Normal  School  audi 

Business  Institute  . .  . . 
K.  Iowa  Normal  School. .  .1 
i  hair   of  Didactic,    lmva 

State  University i 

Nor.  Inst.  Whittier  Coll. 

Kan.  State   '\    i  nial  School 

forma]  School 

mworth  St.  N.  s 

N.  D.  of  Berea  College 

HCky  Normal  School. 

I  die  Training  School 
Minden  High  PublicSohoo] 
N. D., New  i  ni.  ans  Univ.. 
N.  D.,  Straight  University 

Peabody  .Normal  Sem 

n  State   N.  S 

State  Normal  School 

N.  i >.,  Bfain  <  i uti al  Inst. . 
N.  D.,  Oak  Grove  Seminary 
Bait.  N.S.forCol.Teachera 

M.  State  Normal  School .  . 

st.  i latherine'a  v ir.  [net. 

ii   Normal   School .  .  . 
Normal  Art  School. 

statu  Normal  School 

Eramingham  State  V  s. . . 

Normal    School 

1.1    Stato  N.  S 

State  Normal  School 

Michigan  State  N.  8 


Elon  nee,  Ala 

Huntsville,  Ala 

Marion,  Ala , 

Talladega,  Ala 

Faj  i'tt.  \  ille,  Ark.. , 

Pine  Bluff,  Ark 

sau  Job  .  t'al , 

New  Britain,  Conn. 

Newark,  Del , 

Wilmington,  Del 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Waynesboro,  Ga... 

Addison,  111 

Carbondale,  111 

( Ihicago,  111 

Dixon,  111 

Englewood,  111 

Galena.  Ill 

Normal,  111 , 

Peoria,  111 , 

Goshen,  Ind , 

Rentland,  Ind 

La  Grange,  Ind. 

Terre  Haute,  Ind.. . 
Valparaiso,  Ind 


<  ii-anih  lew,  Iowa. 
Iowa  City,  Iowa. . . 


1873 
L866 
1870 
1870 
1872 
L870 
L862 
1850 
1878 
L866 
1869 
1868 
1847 
1874 
L856 
in;:. 

1SG7 
1868 
1 857 
1868 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1870 
1873 

1874 
1872 


Salem.  Iowa 1868 

( loncordia,  Kan 1874 

Emporia,  Kan 1864 

Leavenworth,  Kan....  1870 

Berea,  Kv 1866 

Carlisle,  Ky 's7.i 

1871 

is;:; 


1868 
L867 


Louisville,  Ky 

Minden,  La 

New  Orl(  ans,  La 
Now  Orleans,  Da. 
Now  Orleans,  Da. 

Castillo.  Me 

ETarmington,  Ale 1864 

Pittsneld,  Me 1872 

Vassalboro,  Ale 1846 

Baltimore,  Aid 1866 

Baltimore,  Md 1866 

Baltimore,  Md 187B 

Cost. .n.  Alass L852 

Host. .ii,  Alass 1^73 

t  ater,  BCass, . .  L840 

l'i  '.-mi  i  1 1 .  ■  I  i:in  i.  Bfass, . .  1839 

Salem,  Alass 1854 

Westneld,   Alass 1889 

Worcester,  Mass i  ,    i 

N  psilanti,  Mich L852 


54  State  N.  S.  at  Mankato Alankato,  Minn 1868 

56  state  N.  s.  at  St.  Cloud. . .  St.  cloud,  Alum 1868 

56  First  State  Normal  School  Winona.  Aliun 1864 

57  Mississippi  State  N.S Holly  Springs,  Aliss...  1870 

58  Tougaloo  I'n.  &  state  N.s.Tougaloo,  Miss Is7l 

69  Normal  Institute Bolivar,  Ah. 1868 

t'.u  s.  K.  Missouri  state  N.  S.  Cape  Girardeau,  Mo...  1873 

61  N.  C,  I'niv  of  Missouri. .  Columbia,   AIo 1863 

62|Fruitland  Normal  Inst...  Jackson,  Mo 1864 

63  N.  D.,  Lincoln  Institute. .  Jefferson  Citv,  Mo.. . .  1866 

t.4  X.  Alissouri  State  X.  S. . . .  Kirksville,  Mo 1867 

65  Normal  School St.  Louis,  Mo 1957 

instate  n   s.  District  No.  2.  Warrensburg,  Mo 1871 

07  Nebraska  State   N.  S Peru.  Neb... 1867 

68  X.  H.  State  Normal  School  Plymouth,   N.  H 1870 

69 State  Normal  School Trenton,  N.J 1855 

70N.Y.  state  Normal  School  Albany,  N.  V 1844 

71  State  Normal  School Brockport,   N.  V 1867 

7J  State  Normal  School Buffalo,  N.  Y 1871 

73  State  Normal  and  T.  S  ...  Cortland.  N.  Y 1869 

74State  Normal  and  T.  S....  Fredonia,  X.  Y 1S66 

75  State  Normal  and  X.  S..  .  .  Geneseo,  N.  Y 1871 

76  Female  Normal  College..  .  New  York.  X.  Y 1870 

77  Oswego  State  Nor.  ami  T.s.  Oswego,  N.  Y 1861 

7*  State  Normal  ami  T.  S. . .  .  Pots.lam.  X  Y 1869 

70  Ray's  Normal  Institute..  Kernersville.  N.  ('.. . .  L873 
so  Kliendale  Teachers'  Inst.LitUe  River, N.0 1872 

81  shaw  University Raleigh,  N.  C 1865 

82  I  .1st. .ii  Normal  School....  Wilmington,  N.  C 1872 

83  North  western  Ohio  N.  S..  Ada,  Ohio 1871 

84  Ohio.  N.S.& Business  Inst.  Bloomingburgh, Ohio 

85  Cincinnati  Normal  SchooLCincinnati,  Ohio 1808 

86Hopedale  Normal  School.  Hopedale,  Ohio 

87  National  Normal  School. .  Lebanon.  Ohio 

88  Western  Reserve  N.  S Alilan.  Ohio 1852 

89  N.  D.  Mt.  Union  College..  Mt.  Union,  Ohio 1846 

Oinirwell  Normal    Inst  itute.  Orwell.  Ohio 1865 

'.'i  Southern  Ohio  N.  s Pleasantville,  Ohio...  L876 

92  Republic  Normal  School. .  Republic,  Ohio is74 

o-ohio  Centra]  N.  s Worthington,  Ohio...  1871 

oi  n.  s.  of  will.,  rforce  Univ.  Xenia,  Ohio 1872 

96  N.  (  onrse  in  Pacific  Univ.  Forest  Grove,  Oreg.. .  1871 
96| Allegheny  Normal  Inst...  Allegheny  City, Pa 1874 

97  Bloomsburg  state  N.S...  Bloomsbiirg    Pa I860 

98  Northwestern  State  X.  S..  Edenboro',  Pa lsr.l 

99  State  Normal  School Indiana,  Pa 1875 

ion  Keystone   State   N.S Kut/towu,  Pa 1866 

lOljCentral  X.  S.  Association.  Lock  Haven,  Pa 1870 

L02  state  Normal   School .Mansfield,  Pa 1862 

L03  Southwestern  N.  C Sagamore,  Pa 1865 

104  state  Normal  School Millersville,  Pa 1859 

105  Snyder  Co.  Normal  Inst..  Selin's  (i  rove.  Pa 1872 

106  Cn'mb.  Valley  State  N.  S...  Shippensburgh,  Pa...  1873 

107  Westchester  State  N.S...  Westchester.  Pa 1871 

I os  Rhode  Island  N.  S Providence,  R.  1 1871 

lwo  Avery  Normal  Institute..  Charleston,  8.  C 1866 

II"  state  Normal  Sel 1 Columbia,  S.  C 1874 

111  Nor.  or  T.  S.  tor  l'reedmeii  Knoxville,  Tenn 

112  Freedmen's   Normal  Inst.  Mary-wile,  Tenn 1873 

113  New  Providence  Institute 

tfaryville  College Maryville,  Tenn 1868 

114  Le  Moyne  Normal  school.  Memphis,  Tenn 1871 

116  N.  D.  of  Pisa  University.  Nashville,  Tenn 1866 

1 16  N.  i>.  Centra]  Tenn.  Coll..  Nashville,  Tenn 1866 

1 17  state  Normal  University.  Nashville,  Tenn 1876 

I188tate  Normal  School.....  Castleton,  VI 1867 

no  Johnson  Normal  School..  Johnson,  vt isijt 

120State  Normal  School Randolph,  Vt 1866 

121  1  lain].  t..n  Normal  and  Agri 

cultural  Institute Hampton.  Va 1872 

122  Richmond   Normal  School  Richmond.  Ya 1m',7 

123  Fairnioiint  State  N.  S I'airmount.  W.  Va 1868 

124  Glenville  State  N   s Glenville,  W.  Vt 1876 

126  Storer  Normal  School...,  Harper's  Perry,  W.Va,  1868 

126  Marshal]  Coll.  state  N.s..  Huntington,  w.  Va...  1868 

127  shepherd  College Shepherdetown.W.Va.  1878 

1870 

1871 

i  so; 

1ST5 
1870 
1868 

1867 
1873 

1S75 


128  W.st   Libert}   Stat.-  N.S...  West  Liberty.  W.  Va 
1'j;1  State   Normal  School Oshkosh.  Wis 

130  Wisconsin  State  n  9 Platteville,  Wis 

131  River  Palls  Normal  School  River  lulls.  Wis 

132 Holj  Camih  Teach.  Sem  st.  Francis,  Wis 

13:;  state   Normal  School W  Int.  water.  Wis 

134  Kit  a  N.S Washington,  D.  C 

[36  n    n. ,  ii.war.l  University i Washington,  D.  C 

136  Washington  Nor.  School.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

157  St.i ..     i .  i    -  Normal  School  St.  George,   I'tah 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


811 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  has  for  its 
object  the  improvement  of  the  various  arts  ami 
trades  by  imparting  the  requisite  scientific 
knowledge  and  practical  skill  for  their  successful 
prosecution.  Two  great  classes  of  tradesto  which 
it  may  be  applied,  may  be  noticed;  (1)  work- 
ing trades  (including  chemical  trades,  as  dyeing, 
tanning, etc.;  mechanical  trades,  as  watch-making, 
carpentry, etc.;  artistic  trades,  as  of  the  decorator, 
jeweler,  engraver,  etc.), and  (2)  commercial  trades, 
as  of  the  iron-monger  and  retailer  of  glass,  ce- 
ramic wares,  etc.  The  higher  branches, — those  in 
which  the  value  of  the  product  consists  rather 
in  the  labor  and  skill  bestowed  than  in  the  ma- 
terial used,  and  those  involving  the  exercise  of 
taste,  have  been  naturally  found  to  exhibit  most 
improvement  under  a  proper  system  of  instruc- 
tion, and,  in  this  aspect,  may  be  said  to  need 
most  a  special  training.  The  International  Ex- 
hibition in  London,  in  1851,  which  revealed  the 
superiority  of  the  Continental  nations  in  all 
that  relates  to  the  application  of  art  and  beauty 
to  manufactures,  gave  a  special  impulse  to  tech- 
nical education.  This  superiority  was  traced 
directly  to  the  facilities  for  special  instruction 
afforded  to  manufacturers,  artisans,  and  others, 
especially  in  France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland, 
(the  need  of  which  has  been  increasingly  felt 
with  the  progress  of  modern  inventions),  the  ad- 
vance of  science,  and  the  decay,  in  England,  of  the 
system  of  apprenticeship.  A  theoretical  knowl- 
edge of  principles,  in  addition  to  mere  manual 
dexterity  and  empirical  insight,  has  become 
more  than  ever  necessary.  Among  the  branches 
generally  requisite,  are  drawing,  geometry,  and 
chemistry.  Experience  has  proved  that,  to  be 
in  the  highest  degree  efficient,  technical  educa- 
tion must  begin  in  the  primary  school,  and  be 
based  on  general  literary  culture.  In  continental 
Europe,  technical  schools  are  generally  supported 
by  the  government,  either  local  or  general.  The 
means  of  instruction  include  lectures,  evening 
schools  and  Sunday-schools,  museums,  etc.  In 
Great  Britain,  mechanics'  institutes  are  a  prom- 
inent feature.  These  generally  have  a  library,  a 
reading-room,  and  evening  classes  in  various 
branches.  In  Germany,  there  are,  among  inferior 
institutions,  handicraft  schools,  further-improve- 
ment schools,  etc.,  in  which,  sometimes,  the  com- 
mon-school branches  are  taught  to  apprentices 
and  journeymen,  and,  sometimes,  instruction  is 
given  in  geometry,  drawing,  and  other  special 
branches,  as  a  qualification  for  the  practice  of  the 
lower  trades.  The  higher  institutions  impart  tech- 
nical instruction  calculated  to  aid  in  the  pursuit 
of  the  higher  trades.  They  generally  presuppose 
such  a  training  as  is  given,  for  instance,  in  the 
higher  real  schools.  Some  are  connected  with  the 
real  schools  as  their  higher  classes ;  some  are 
separate  institutions,  with  three  or  four  classes  or 
courses,  either  similar  to  gymnasia,  or  between 
these  and  the  u ni versifies  ;  others  are,  in  form, 
technical  universities  on  the  plan  of  the  Poly- 
technic School  of  Paris.  The  branches  taught 
are  mathematics,  mechanics,  physics,  chemistry, 
natural   history,  technology,  drawing,  modeling. 


etc.  There  are  many  special  schools  for  appren- 
tices on  the  Continent  (giving  instruction  to 
weavers,  watch-makers,  machinists,  etc.  according 
to  the  needs  of  the  locality],  in  which  labor  per- 
formed under  the  direction  of  experienced  work- 
men occupies  a  large  part  of  the  time,  while  the 
rest  is  devoted  to  studies  immediately  bear- 
ing  on    the    art    or   industry    taught.      In    West 

Flanders,  Belgium,  there  are  communal  schools 
for  apprentice  weavers,  in  which  primary  and 
religious  instruction  is  joined  with  manual  labor. 
In  the  power-loom  weaving  school  of  Mulhouse, 
Alsace,  instruction  is  given  of  a  grade  to  prepare 
superintendents  of  factories.  The  most  impor- 
tant agency  in  the  direction  of  technical  educa- 
tion in  Great  Britain  is  found  in  the  numerous 
art  schools  that  have  sprung  up  in  various  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  at  the  head  of  which  are  those 
of  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  These  have 
been  instrumental  in  diffusing  a  knowledge  of 
industrial  drawing,  and  their  effects  have  been 
widely  felt.  The  establishment  of  a  central 
technical  university  (with  subordinate  colleges, 
etc.,  in  regular  gradation)  has  been  advocated. 
In  the  United  States,  but  little  has  been  done  to- 
ward technical  education.  There  are  mechanics' 
associations  in  various  cities,  which  afford,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  means  for  the  general  or 
technical  improvement  of  the  working  classes,  and 
numerous  business  colleges,  in  which  a  knowl- 
edge of  book-keeping  and  other  business  opera- 
tions is  imparted.  Industrial  training  is  given 
in  Girard  College.  Philadelphia.  The  Worcester 
County  Free  Institute  of  Industrial  Science  (see 
Science,  Schools  of)  may  be  classed  as  a  tech- 
nical school.  Industrial  art  is  taught  in  the 
schools  of  the  Cooper  Union  (New  York),  in 
the  Philadelphia  School  of  Design  for  Women, 
and  in  various  scientific  schools.  In  1870,  the 
state  of  Massachusetts  provided  by  law  that 
"  Any  city  or  town  may,  and  every  city  and 
town  having  more  than  ten  thousand  inhabitants 
shall,  annually  make  provision  for  giving  free 
instruction  in  industrial  or  mechanical  drawing 
to  persons  over  fifteen  years  of  age,  either  in 
day-  or  evening-schools,  under  the  direction  of 
the  school-committee."  Under  this  act,  consider- 
able progress  has  been  made.  A  similar  law  was 
enacted  in  the  state  of  New  York  in  1875. 
Among  European  institutions,  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  in  Austria-Hungary,  the  Imperial 
Royal  Commercial  and  Nautical  Academy,  in 
Triest,  the  Commercial  High  School,  in  Vienna, 
the  commercial  academies  in  Prague,  Gratz,  and 
Buda-Pesth,  the  Imperial  Royal  Technical  In- 
stitute, in  Cracow,  the  School  of  Industrial  Arts 
and  the  School  for  Architects  and  Machinists,  in 
Vienna,  the  schools  for  artisans  in  Gratz,  Prague, 
Briinn,  Bielitz,  Czernowitz,  and  Kaschau,  the 
Higher  Weaving  School,  in  Briinn,  and  numer- 
ous  inferior  schools,  special  and  general,  for  arti- 
sans, etc.;  in  Germany,  the  higher  commercial 
institutions  in  Berlin,  Breslau,  Dantzic,  Coblentz, 
Frankfort,  Hanover,  Augsburg,  Leipsic,  Dres- 
den, ( Jhemnitz,  <  Jera,  Bostock,  Brunswick,  Ham- 
burg, and  Liibeck,  the  technical  schools  in  Fran- 


812 


TEMPER 


TENNESSEE 


kenberg  and  Mittweida,  the  30  royal  and  pro- 
vincial schools  of  trades  in  Prussia,  the  superior 
school  for  artisans  in  Chemnitz,  the  commercial 

and  industrial  art  schools  in  Munich  and  Nurem- 
berg, the  art-industry  school  in  Offenbach,  the 
8  art  and  architectural  schools  in  Prussia,  the 
14  architectural  schools  in  the  other  states, 
the  8  superior  weaving  schools,  the  royal  school 
of  pattern  drawing  in  Berlin,  the  school  of 
modeling  and  ornamental  and  pattern  drawing 
in  Dresden,  the  21  navigation  schools,  and  the 
numerous  inferior  schools  of  commerce  and 
trades;  in  France,  the  12  professional  schools 
(ecoles  professionneUes),  the  schools  of  arts  and 
trades  (ecoles  des  mis  et  metiers)  at  Aix,  Angers, 
and  Chalons-sur-Marne.the  courses  of  instruction 
in  the  application  of  the  sciences  to  industry,  and 
in  drawing,  in  various  cities,  the  watch-making 
schools  at  Oluses  and  Besancon,  the  school  of 
tobacco-manufacture  and  the  superior  commer- 
cial school  in  Paris,  numerous  inferior  commer- 
cial schools,  and  the  42  hydro-graphic  schools 
(for  the  instruction  of  seamen  for  the  mercantile 
marine)  ;  in  Italy,  the  74  technical  or  trades  in- 
stitutes (istituti  teanici,  islituti  industrials  epro- 
fessionali)  of  the  second  grade,  the  royal  superior 
commercial  school  of  Venice,  the  2.'5  nautical  in- 
stitutes and  schools,  and  the  inferior  schools  of 
special  trades :  in  the  Netherlands,  the  42  inter- 
mediate schools  lor  the  working  classes,  the  30 
drawing  and    handicraft    schools,   the   school    of 

trade  and  industry  in  Amsterdam,  the  school 
for  architects  at  Bois-le-Duc,  and  the  9  aaviga- 
tion  schools  :  in  Belgium,  the  superior  commer- 
cial   institute    in     Antwerp,    the     26    industrial 

schools  (including  the  provincial  school  of  trade, 
industry,  and  mining  at  Monsi.  and  the  naviga- 
tion schools  in  Antwerp  and  ( tatend  ;  in  Switzer- 
land, the   technical   institute  in  Winterthur.  the 

watch-making  school  in  Geneva,  and  the  com- 
mercial schools  in  various  places.  According  to 
the  regulation  of  March  21.,  1870,  the  Prussian 
schools  of  trades  thereafter  organized,  consist 
of  three  classes  (each  with  a  course  of  one 
year),  two  lower  and  one  higher  :  the  last  is  the 
special  class,  and  embraces  four  departments 
(one  for  the  instruction  of  candidates  tor  higher 
technical  institutions,  one  of  architecture,  one 
for  mechanical  trades,  and  one  for  chemical 
trades).  The  complete  technical  institutes  in 
Italy  have  four  departments  Iphysico-mathcinat- 

ical,  agricultural,  commercial,  and  book-keep- 
ing); a  few  have  a  fifth  department,  the  indus- 
trial. Those  at  Kabriano  and  Tcrni  are   schools 

of  i banics  and  construction.   The  institute  at 

Girgenti  has  a  department  for  the  sulphur  in- 
dustry.—See  Walter  Smith.  Art  Education, 
Scholastic  <>i<<l  l>><hi*irh/i  (Boston,  L872);  Thom- 
ib  Twining,  Technical  Training  (London,  L874); 
and  Charles  B.  Stetson,  Technical  Edua ///>,,>. 
(Boston,  L876). 

TEMPER,  the  disposition  or  constitution  of 
the  mind,  in  relation  particularly  to  the  affec- 
tions and  the  passions.  Good  temper  implies  a 
serenity    of    mind,    and    a    natural    or    habitual 

cheerfulness,  which  is  not  easily  disturbed.     It 


is  opposed  to  peevishness  and  sullenness.  which 
seem  to  be  characteristic  of  certain  minds.  As 
good  temper  predisposes  to  docility,  so  ill-temper 
is  directly  antagonistic  to  it ;  hence,  the  educator 
must  cultivate  the  former  in  the  mind  of  his 
pupil,  and  strive  to  eradicate  the  latter.  In 
dealing  with  this  fault,  the  utmost  patience  is 
requisite ;  since  any  exhibition  of  ill  temper  on 
the  part  of  the  educator  will,  from  the  force  of 
example, as  well  as  from  the  additional  irritation 
caused  by  it.  aggravate  the  difficulty,  and  foster 
the  natural  failing  in  the  pupil's  mind  into  a 
confirmed  vice.  Allowance  must  always  be 
made  for  the  natural  peculiarities  of  children ; 
since  these  cannot  be  immediately  or  forcibly  re- 
pressed, but  must,  by  careftd  training,  be  brought 
under  self-control,  which  is  one  of  the  earliest 
lessons  to  be  taught,  but  one  of  the  last  objects 
attained  in  education.  Discouragement  may 
sometimes  take  the  form  of  ill  temper  ;  and.  in 
such  a  case,  the  teacher  must  make  concessions, 
and  give  special  attention  to  remove  the  feeling 
and  restore  confidence.  A  violent,  irascible,  or 
stubborn  temper  in  the  pupil  is  to  be  met  with 
calmness  and  firmness  on  the  part  of  the  teaehi  r; 
and  very  often  the  marked  contrast  between  his 
manner  and  that  of  the  pupil  will  Serve  to  recall 
the  latter  to  himself,  and  excite  in  his  mind  a 
feeling  of  shame  at  his  haste  or  violence.  Nothing 
will  tend  so  strongly  as  this  to  cure  the  vice, 
since  it  really  leads  the  child  to  punish  himself 
tor  his  Fault.  Ill  temper  that  takes  the  form  of 
obstinacy,  is  the  most  difficult  to  deal  with  ;  and 
it  is  this  that-  Locke  reserves  as  the  special  and 
only  ease  lor  the  use  of  the  rod.  A  resort  to 
this  should  not.  however,  be  hastily  made,  and 
will  scarcely  ever  be  needed,  if  the  circumstance  s 

admit  of  persistent  discipline  of  another  kind  by 
the  educator.  In  school,  unfortunately,  this  is 
not  always  the  case,  the  teacher  being  obliged 

promptly  to  choose  between  the  immediate  con- 
quest of  his  stubborn  pupil,  or  the  disorganiza- 
tion of  his  school.  (See  CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT.) 
TENNESSEE,  one  of  the  southern  states 
of  the  American  Onion,  admitted  in  L796.  Its 
area,  according   to   the   federal   census,  is  45,600 

square  miles ;  and  its  population,  in  L870,  was 
1 ,258,520, of  whom  936,1 1  !>  were  whites.  :;•_'•_>.:{.•{  1 . 
colored  persons,  and  70,  Indians. 

Educational  History. — The  first  incorporated 

seminary  of  learning  in  the  valley  of  the  Missis- 
sippi was  founded  at  Nashville,  in  L785.  In  L806, 
this  was  raised  to  the  rank  and  title  of  Cumber- 
land College,  and.  in  L826,  became  the  University 
of  Nashville.  In  L794,  Blount  College,  sA  Knox- 
\ille,  was  incorporated;  and.  immediately  after- 
ward. Greene  College.  In  L795,  Washington 
College  was  founded.  In  L806,  an  act  of  Con- 
gress provided  that  the  state  should  appropriate 
L 00,000  acres  for  the  use  of  two  colleges  to  be 
established,  one  in  east,  and  one  in  we.-t  Tennes- 
see; 100,000  acres  for  academies,  and  640  acres 

in  each  tract  6  miles  s<  place,  when  exist  ing  claims 
would  permit  it.  for  the  use  of  schools.  The  first, 
at  t  em  |  it  to  create  a  school  fund  was  made  in  I  823, 
win  ii    the   vacant    lands  north  and  east  of  the 


TENNESSEE 


813 


congressional  reservation  line  were  sold,  and  the 
money  was  paid  into  the  Bank  of  Tennessee,  to 
"remain  and  constitute  a  perpetual  and  exclusive 
fund  for  the  establishment  and  promotion  of 
common  schools  in  each  and  every  county  in  the 
state."  The  taxes  on  these  lands  were,  also,  to 
form  a  part  of  this  perpetual  fund.  Considerable 
additions  were  made  to  the  school  fund  by  the 
act  of  1827.  In  1835,  the  revised  constitution 
declared  it  to  be  the  duty  of  the  state  to  preserve 
the  school  fund  inviolate,  and  to  "cherish  litera- 
ture and  science;  knowledge,  learning,  and  virtue 
being  essential  to  the  preservation  of  republican 
institutions."  By  the  acts  of  1837  and  1838, 
and  those  of  subsequent  years,  the  school  fund 
was  made  a  part  of  the  capital  of  the  Bank  of 
Tennessee;  and  $18,000  of  the  dividends  was 
annually  set  apart  for  the  use  of  academies,  and 
$100,000  for  the  support  of  common  schools, 
the  faith  of  the  state  being  pledged  for  such  an- 
nual appropriations.  An  act,  passed  in  1844:  and 
amended  in  1846,  directed  that  certain  school 
lands  in  the  state  should  be  sold,  and  the  proceeds 
paid  into  the  Bank  of  Tennessee.  The  principal 
was  to  be  invested  by  the  bank  in  the  bonds  of 
the  state,  if  obtainable  at  par  value  or  less, 
the  interest  paid  by  the  bank  or  realized  upon 
the  investment,  to  be  annually  paid  over  to  the 
districts  or  townships  to  which  the  lands  belonged, 
according  to  the  amount  of  deposits  belonging  to 
each.  In  1858,  the  amount  of  the  school  fund 
to  be  made  a  part  of  the  capital  of  the  Bank  of 
Tennessee,  was  limited  to  $1,500,000  ;  while  the 
fund  was  increased  by  the  sale  of  lands  for  taxes, 
escheated  lands,  etc.  The  annual  distribution, 
however,  of  the  interest  of  this  fund,  which 
amounted  to  about  $90,000,  was  not  productive 
of  much  good,  owing  to  the  want  of  a  proper 
school  system,  with  competent  officers  to  super- 
intend it.  In  1863,  according  to  the  last  state- 
ment of  the  Bank  of  Tennessee,  this  fund  con- 
sisted of  $663,752.65  in  gold  and  silver.  This, 
amount,  "put  up  in  kegs  and  boxes,  and  sealed", 
was  removed  from  the  state  during  that  year, 
and  nearly  all  of  it  was  deposited  in  the  different 
banks  of  Augusta,  Ga. ;  and  the  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  legislature  to  investigate  the  re- 
moval of  the  fund,  reported  that  $50,000  of  it 
must  be  looked  upon  as  lost.  It  was  further 
shown  that,  by  the  failure  of  the  Tennessee 
National  Bank,  $200,000  of  the  $612,250  in  IT. 
S.  7-30  bonds,  deposited  as  a  part  of  the  school 
fund,  in  1866,  was  also  lost. — The  first  attempt 
toward  a  well-considered  public-school  system 
was  made  in  1867  ;  but,  owing  to  the  disturbed 
political  condition  of  the  state,  it  did  not  prove 
acceptable  to  the  people.  Under  the  law  of  1867, 
four  kinds  of  school  officers  were  created, — 
school-fund  commissioners,  a  state  superintend- 
ent, county  superintendents,  and  district  directors. 
Teachers  were  examined  and  paid  by  the  county 
superintendent,  on  the  order  of  the  district  clerk. 
Separate  free  schools  were  maintained  for  white 
and  colored  persons  between  the  ages  of  6  and  20 
years,  the  money  for  their  maintenance  (consist- 
ing of  a  yearly  tax  and  the  interest  of  the  per- 


manent fund)  being  paid  by  the  state  treasurer  to 
the  county  superintendents.  Whatever  additional 
money  was  needed  was  to  be  raised  by  district 
taxes,  or  in  any  way  which  did  not  interfere 
with  free  tuition,  prevention  of  which  constituted 
a  bar  to  the  state  appropriation.  Many  obstacles 
existed  to  the  carrying  out  of  the  provisions  of 
this  law,  chief  among  which  were  the  want  of  a 
school  census,  the  lack  of  reports  of  previous 
systems,  the  poverty  of  the  people,  the  almost 
utter  want  of  trained  teachers,  and  the  great 
destruction  of  school  property  caused  by  the  war. 
The  legislature,  accordingly,  in  1869 — 70,  re- 
pealed the  act  of  1867  ;  and  the  state  returned 
to  the  "county  system",  by  which  each  county 
was  empowered  to  establish  and  maintain  schools 
or  not,  according  to  its  pleasure.  The  school 
fund,  at  that  time,  exclusive  of  interest,  amount- 
ed to  $1,887,154.36,  of  which  $387,154.36  was 
derived  from  the  sale  of  school  lands.  By  an 
act  subsequent  to  that  passed  by  the  legislature 
of  1869 — 70,  the  state  treasurer  was  made  state 
superintendent,  ex  officio;  but  as  no  special  duties 
were  assigned  to  him,  and  as  he  had  no  authority, 
the  office  was  of  little  practical  value.  Aided, 
however,  by  the  trustees  of  the  Peabody  fund, 
he  engaged  an  assistant,  who,  in  1872,  endeav- 
ored to  awaken  public  interest  on  the  subject  of 
education.  His  report  showed  that,  while  in  some 
counties  considerable  attention  was  given  to  the 
schools,  not  one-fifth  of  the  educable  children  of 
the  state  had  any  facilities  for  acquiring  even  an 
elementary  education.  Inl873,it  was  directed  that 
the  school  fund,  amounting  to  $2,512,500,  with 
the  unpaid  interest  thereon  to  January  1.,  1873, 
the  whole  estimated  to  amount  to  $3,269,606, 
should  be'  funded  into  one  bond,  bearing  6  per 
cent  interest  payable  semi-annually  by  the  state 
treasurer.  At  the  same  time,  a  new  school  law 
was  passed,  which  has  continued  in  force  to  the 
present  time. — The  slate  superintendents  have 
been,  William  Morrow,  until  1873 ;  John  M. 
Fleming,  from  1873  to  1875;  and  Leon  Trous- 
dale, now  in  office,  appointed  in  1875. 

School  System. — By  an  act  of  the  legislature 
approved  March  23.,  1875,  the  governor  is 
directed  "to  appoint  a  state  board  of  education 
to  consist  of  six  members,  two  of  whom  shall  be 
appointed  for  six  years,  two  for  four  years,  and 
two  for  two  years  ;  and  after  the  expiration  of 
their  first  terms  of  office,  their  successors  shall 
be  appointed  for  six  years.  The  governor  of  the 
state  shall  be,  ex  officio,  a  member,  and  president 
of  said  board."  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board 
to  make  a  report  to  the  assembly  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  schools.  The  principal  school  officer 
is  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
who  is  appointed  by  the  governor  for  two  years. 
He  is  required  to  discharge  all  the  duties  usually 
devolving  upon  that  officer,  and  to  make  an- 
nually "a  detailed  report  of  his  official  proceed- 
ings." The  county  courts  elect  biennially  county 
superintendents,  whose  duty  it  is  to  visit  the 
schools  in  their  respective  counties,  keep  the 
school  records,  and  see  that  the  rules  laid  down 
by  the  state  superintendent  are  duly  enforced. 


814 


TENNESSEE 


The  salary  of  the  county  superintendent  is  fixed 
by  the  county  court,  and.  therefore,  varies  con- 
siderably, sometimes  to  such  an  extent  a-  to 
amount  to  a  virtual  annulment  of  the  office. 
This  undue  power  of  the  county  court,  in  this 
and  in  other  respects,  enables  it  to  thwart  the 
general  school  law.  District  directors,  three  in 
number,  are  elected  for  three  years,  in  each  dis- 
trict. They  employ  teachers,  exercise  a  detailed 
supervision  over  the  schools,  and  disburse  the 
school  money-  apportioned  to  their  districts.  'Che 
total  annual  income  of  the  permanent  school 
fund  is  about  $600,000.  To  this  is  added  a  poll 
tax  of  81.  and  a  tax  of  one  mill  upon  every 
dollar  of  taxable  property  in  the  state.  When- 
ever the  money  derived  from  the  school  fund 
and  state  tax  is  not  sufficient  to  keep  a  public 
school  for  five  months  in  the  year,  in  any  school- 
district,  the  county  court  is  required  to  levy  an 
additional  tax  for  the  purpose,  or  may  submit 
the  proposition  to  do  so  to  a  vote  of  the  people. 
lie  may  also  levy  a  tax  to  prolong  the  schools 
beyond  the  five  months:  but  this  must  not  exceed 
the  entire  state  tax.  The  schools  are  free  to  all 
persons  between  the  ages  of  '.'>  and  L8  years,  re- 
siding within  the  Bchool-district,  the  only  distinc- 
tion between  the  races  being  that  "white  and 
colored  persons  shall  not  be  taught  in  the  same 
school,  but  in  separate  schools,  under  the  same 
general  regulations  as  to  management, usefulness, 
and  efficiency."  Colored  children  are  counted 
alike  with  the  white  children  in  the  apportion- 
ment of  the  school  money:  and  adult  colored 
persons  are  eligible  as  teachers,  school  directors, 
and  county  or  state  superintendents.  The  school 
course  comprises  orthography,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  •_'  •■■■juphy.  elementary 
geology  of  Tennessee,  history  of  the  United 
States,  and  vocal  music,  the  last  being  optional. 
\  feature  peculiar  to  the  school  system  of  this 
state  is  that  of  consolidated  schools,  or  school.-,  in 
which  the  branches  prescribed  by  law   for  the 

COmniOn    Schools    are  taught     tree  of    expense,   ill 

connection  with  other  and  higher  branches,  for 
which  a  tuition  fee  is  charged.  This  method  has 
tended  to  popularize  the  common  schools  by 
keeping  them  before  that  class  of  the  people  who 
ordinarily  would  semi  their  children  to  distant 
localities  for  more  advanced  instruction.  Of 
such  schools.  I  7  I  were  iii  operation  in  1875. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
schools  in  the  state,  in  1875, was  3,942, of  which 
3,127  were  for  white  children.  770.  for  colored 
children. and  l">.  unclassified.  The  school  revenue 
was  as  follow-: 

the  state 1212,840.57 

counties 360,369.87 

"      other  sources 167,106.19 

Total $740,316.63 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows : 

For  teachers'  salaries 1582,918.11 

Building    ami   repairing 

school-houses 44,406.44 

-;iliiriesof  couuty  sup' 

intendents 16,384.64 

1  Itaer  expenses 59,649.79 

Total $703,358.98 


The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for  the 
same  year  are  the  following  : 

Number  of  children  between  6  and  18  years     426,fil2 
Number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  public  schools     199 

\  Average  attendance 136,805 

Number  of  teachers  white,  male 2,561 

"  "  "      female 823 

"  "  colored,  male 564 

"  "  "      female 217 

"  "         unclassified 4.5 


Total 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers. 


4,210 

• 


Xormitl  Instruction. —  By  the  law  of  March. 
187").  the  state  board  of  education  is  required  to 
establish  a  normal  school  or  schools ;  no  pupil 
must  be  admitted  therein  who  is  under  16  or 
over  30  years  of  age,  and  who  has  not  passed 
such  examination  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the 
board  of  education.  <  ity  superintendents,  or 
county  superintendents,  on  consultation  with  the 
directors  of  t  he  schoi  T<  listricts  of  t  heir  respective 
counties,  may  recommend  certain  pupils  of  the 
public  schools  for  admission  to  the  normal 
schools  :  and  the  pupils  so  recommended,  on 
passing  a  satisfactory  examination,  have  prece- 
dence over  all  other  applicants.  Separate  normal 
schools  for  white  and  colored  students  are  author- 
ized by  the  law.  The  Normal  University,  estab- 
lished under  this  law,  was  opened  Dec,  1..  1875, 
at  Nashville.  The  trustees  of  the  University  of 
Nashville  gave  the  use  of  their  college  buildings, 
grounds,  etc.  for  two  years,  and  also  the  income 
of  their  permanent  fund,  and  that  of  the  Mont- 
gomery Bell  Academy,  amounting  in  all  to 
$6,000  per  annum,  on  condition  that  the  academy 
should  be  made  a  model  and  training  Bchool  to 
the  proposed  university.  To  this  was  added  an 
annual  appropriation  of  $6,000,  for  two  years,  by 
the  agent  of  the  Pea  body  fund.  Normal  instruc- 
tion for  colored  students  is  afforded  in  the  Nash- 
ville Normal  and  Theological  Institute,  the 
Preedmen's  Normal  Institute,  at  Maryville.  Fisk 

University,  the  Central  Tennessee  College.  ;,t 
Nashville,  and  the  normal  and  training  school, 
at  Knoxville.     A  normal  school  for  the  training 

I  Of  Colored  teacher-  has    recently   been  established 

at  Jonesboro,  the  building  previously  occupied 

by  the  llolston  Male  Institute  having  been  pur- 
chased for  its  accommodation.  There  are.  be- 
sides, normal  classes  in  many  of  the  higher  in- 
stitutions of  learning  in  the  state. — Though  no 
provision  is  made  by  law  for  the  support  of  teach- 
ers' institutes,  \foey  have  been  Organised  in  sev- 
eral counties.  There  is  also  a  state  teachers'  as- 
sociation which  holds  annual  meetings. and  which 
has  already  exerted  ati  important  influence  upon 
the  progress  of  popular  education  in  the  state. 

S  condary  Instruction.-  -There  are  many  high 
schools  and  academies  in  the  state,  chiefly  in  the 
Cities    and    larger    towns;     Na.-hvillc.     .Memphis. 

Shelbyville,  Chattanooga,  Gallatin,  and  Mur- 
Ereesboro,each  containing  such  schools  or  depart- 
ment.-. There  are  many  other  secondary  schools 
in  the  state,  chiefly  private  schools  or  prepara- 
tory departments  of  colleges.  There  are.  also. 
several  business  colleges. 


TENNESSEE 


TEXAS 


815 


Superior  Instruction. — The  chief  colleges  and 
universities  of  the  state  are  enumerated  in  the 
following  table  : 


When 

Denomi- 
nation 

NAME 

Location 

found- 
ed 

Beach  Grove  College. . . 

BeachGrove 

1869 

Non  sect. 

McKenzie 

1847 

Cumb.  Pres. 

Central  Tennessee  Coll. 

Nashville 

1866 

Meth.  Epis. 

Christian  Brothers't'oll. 

Memphis 

1872 

B.  C. 

Cumberland  University 

Lebanon 

1842 

Cumb.  Pres. 

East  Tennessee  Univ..  .. 

Knoxville 

1840 

Non-sect. 

East  Tenu.  We 4.  Univ.. 

Athens 

1867 

Meth.  Epis. 

Nashville 

18G6 

Non-sect. 

Greeueville  and  Tuseu 

Greeneville 

1868 

Indep. 

Sweetwater 

1850 

M.E..  South 

Bristol 

1868 

Presb. 

Manchester  College  — 

Manchester 

T85G 

Non-sect. 

Maryville  College 

Maryville 

1842 

Presb. 

Mosheim  M.  and  F.Inst. 

Mosheim 

1870 

Luth. 

S.  W.  Baptist  Univ 

•Jackson 

1874 

Baptist 

S.  W.  Presb.  Univ 

Qarksville 

1875 

Presb. 

Stewart  College 

Clarksville 

1856 

Presb. 

University  of  Nashville. 

Nashville 

1785 

Non-sect. 

University  of  the  South 

Sewanee 

1858 

Pr<>t.  Epis. 

Vanderbilt  University. . 

Nashville 

1873 

M.  E.  South 

There  are  several  institutions  for  the  higher 
education  of  women  in  the  state  ;  of  which,  17 
reported,  in  1875,  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, 119  instructors,  and  1,467  students,  91 G 
of  whom  were  pursuing  collegiate  studies. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — The 
Tennessee  Agricultural  College  was  established, 
in  1869,  as  a  part  of  the  East  Tennessee  Uni- 
versity (q.  v.).  The  average  attendance  is  300. 
The  Nashville  Normal  and  Theological  Institute 
was  opened  by  the  American  Baptist  Home 
Mission  Society  in  1866.  It  is  specially  intended 
for  colored  pupils  of  both  sexes.  Theological  in- 
struction is  also  given  in  Vanderbilt  University, 
at  the  Central  Tennessee  College. at  Cumberland 
University,  at  Fisk  University,  and  at  Nashville 
Institute.  A  law  school  is  maintained  in  Vander- 
bilt University,  and  at  the  Cumberland  Univer- 
sity ;  and  a  medical  and  surgical  school,  in  con- 
nection with  the  University  of  Nashville  and 
Vanderbilt  University. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Tennessee  School 
for  the  Blind  was  established  at  Nashville  in 

1843,  by  an  annual  appropriation  of  81 ,500  for 
2  years.  This  was  increased  by  private  contri- 
butions ;  aud,  in  1846,  a  law  was  passed  making- 
two  annual  appropriations  of  $2,500.  In  1848, 
the  sum  of  $5,000  was  directed  to  be  paid  out  of 
the  state  treasury  for  two  years.  The  civil  war 
not  only  put  a  stop  to  further  progress,  but  al- 
most obliterated  the  school  by  entirely  destroying 
the  school  building.  In  1866,  however,  it  was 
re-established  by  the  general  assembly;  and,  by 
liberal  appropriations  since  then,  it  has  been 
placed  among  the  first  institutions  of  the  kind  in 
the  country.  It  has  a  library  of  1,000  volumes. 
The  Tennessee  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
is  located  at  Knoxville.     It  was  established  in 

1844,  and  was  maintained,  for  a  long  time,  chiefly 
by  voluntary  contributions.  It  is  now  chiefly  sup- 
ported by  an  annual  state  appropriation  of  $5,000, 
and  an  additional  allowance  for  each  indigent 
pupil  admitted.  It  can  accommodate  150  pupils. 


TEXAS,  one  of  the  southern  states  of  the 
American  Union,  originally  a  part  of  -Mexico, 
but  acknowledged  as  an  independent  republic  in 
L836.     It  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1845. 

Its  area  is  271.356  sq.  m.  ;  and  its  population, 
in  L870,  was  818,899,  of  whom  253,-175  were 
colored  persons. 

Educational  History. — Six  years  before  the 
admission  of  Texas  into  the  Union,  measures 
were  taken  to  establish  schools  by  setting 
apart  a  portion  of  the  public  lands  in  each 
county  for  school  purposes.  The  first  constitu- 
tion of  the  state  directed  the  legislature  to  pro- 
vide for  the  establishment  of  schools,  and  created 
for  their  maintenance  a  permanent  fund  by  con- 
firming all  previous  grants  of  land  and  funds. 
In  1858,  this  fund  was  further  increased  by  the 
sale  of  public  lands;  but  the  act  authorizing 
this  sale  was  subsequently  repealed.  The  con- 
vention of  1866  made  provision  for  the  appoint- 
ment or  election  of  a  board  of  education  and  a 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  ;  and  the 
new  constitution  of  the  state,  adopted  in  1869, 
directed  that  the  legislature  should  make  suitable 
provision  for  the  support  of  a  system  of  public 
schools,  "for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  state,  between  the  ages  of  6 
and  18  years."  It  also  provided  that  a  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  should  be  appointed 
by  the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate 
for  one  term  of  four  years,  and  afterwards  should 
be  elected  by  the  people.  Under  this  law.  a 
nomination  was  made  by  the  governor,  but  was 
not  agreed  to  by  the  senate.  The  school  bill, 
also,  was  rejected  by  the  same  body.  Under 
the  school  law  of  August  13..  1870,  each  organ- 
ized county  became  a  school-district,  and  the  5 
justices  of  the  peace  composing  the  county  court, 
were  constituted,  ex  officio,  a  board  of  school 
directors.  They  were  required  to  appoint  a 
board  of  school  trustees  and  a  board  of  exam- 
iners, in  each  county,  to  divide  the  county  into 
as  many  sub-districts  as  might  be  necessary, 
to  locate  school-houses,  and  to  levy  a  tax  not  ex- 
ceeding one  per  cent  on  all  taxable  property,  for 
the  purpose  of  building  school-houses.  The  in- 
action of  the  county  courts,  however,  led  to  the 
enactment  of  a  new  law,  April  24.,  1871,  by 
which  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
with  the  consent  of  the  governor,  was  charged 
with  the  appointment  of  35  supervisors  of  edu- 
cation, each  of  whom  was  intrusted  with  the 
control  of  a  district  composed  of  several  coun- 
ties. Each  supervisor  was  authorized  to  appoint 
a  board  of  school  directors  for  each  county  in 
his  district,  the  duties  of  such  boards  being  pre- 
scribed by  the  state  board  of  education.  The 
duty  of  subdividing  the  counties  into  school- 
districts  was  vested  in  the  supervisor.  This  law 
remained  in  force  till  1873.  when  anew  law  was 
substituted  which  contained  so  many  uncon- 
stitutional features  that  it  failed  to  receive  the 
governor's  approval.  In  1874,  the  law  was 
again  changed,  but  the  result  was  still  unsatis- 
factory ;  and,  August  19.,  1876,  an  entirely  new 
law  was  passed,  which  remains  in  force  at  the 


S16 


TEXAS 


present  time.  The  first  state  superintendent 
was  J.  C.  De  Gress,  appointed  in  April.  1871  ; 
his  successor  was  0.  N.  Hollingsworth,  who  was 
appointed  in  January,  1874,  for  4  years. 

School  System. — The  stale  board  of  education 
consists  of  the  governor,  comptroller,  and  secre- 
tary of  state.  The  governor  is,  ex  officio,  presi- 
dent of  the  board,  its  only  other  officer  being  a 
secretary  who  is  appointed  by  the  board,  "  if.  in 
their  judgment,  the  educational  interests  of  the 
state  require"  it,  at  an  annual  salary  of  $1,500. 
Upon  this  board  devolve  all  the  duties  usually 
performed  by  such  bodies,  as  well  as  those  dis- 
charged in  other  states  by  state  superintendents. 
In  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  schools,  this 
board  deals  directly  with  the  teachers  and  local 
school  officers,  except  in  the  disbursing  of  the 
school  moneys,  which  is  done  through  the  county 
treasurers.  Within  the  several  counties  of  the 
state,  school  communities  are  permitted  to  be 
organized  for  the  purpose  of  availing  themselves 
of  the  benefits  of  the  public-school  fund.  These 
communities  consist  of  any  number  of  parents 
and  guardians  of  children  to  be  educated.  They 
are  required  to  make  out  and  sign,  in  person,  a 
list  containing  the  names  and  ages  of  children  to 
be  instructed,  and  to  send  it  with  an  application 
to  the  county  judge.  This  officer,  on  satisfactory 
evidence  that  the  list  is  correct  and  the  applica- 
tion made  in    g I    faith,   must    sanction  "the 

establisliing  of  said  school  community,  and  des- 
ignate it  by  its  name  and  number."  Any  in- 
corporated city  or  town,  however,  may  have  ex- 
clusive control  of  the  public  schools  within 
its  limits,  provided  it  is  so  determined  by  a 
majority  vote  of  the  property  tax-payers,  in 
which  case  the  council  or  board  of  aldermen  is 
invested  with  exclusive  power  to  maintain,  reg- 
ulate, control,  and  govern  all  the  public  free 
schools  established  within  the  limits  of  said  city 
or  town.  Three  trustees  are  appointed  in  each 
school  community  by  the  county  judge,  whose 
duties  are  to  employ  teachers,  and  look  after 
the  general  interests  and  management  of  the 
schools  under  their  charge.  County  boards  of 
examiners  are  also  appointed  by  the  county 
judge  annually.  They  consist  of  "  three  well- 
educated  citizens  of  the  county,"  who  are  re- 
quired to  examine  applicants  for  the  position  of 
teacher,  the  certificate  resulting  from  such  exam- 
ination being  given  by  the  county  judge  on  rec- 
ommendation of  the  board  of  examiners.  The 
available  school  fund  is  declared  to  consist  of 
one-fourth  of  the  "occupation  and  ad  valorem 
taxes"  assessed  since  March  ."10.,  1870 ;  one-fourth 
<>t'  all  the  "ad  ralnrem  and  occupation  taxes" 
thai  may  hereafter  be  collected,  each  exclusive 

of  the  cost  of  collection  ;   all  poll  taxes  due  since 

March  30.,  1870,  or  collectable  thereafter;  the 

interest  arising  on  any  bonds  and  funds,  and  all 
i lie  interesl  derivable  from  the  sale  of  lands,  pre- 
viously set  apart  as  a  permanent  school  fund, 
and  all  conveyances,  devises,  and  bequests  of 
property,  made  by  any  one  for  the  benefit  of 

the  schools.      Separate   schools  are   provided  by 

law  for  white  and  colored  children,  the  available 


school  fund  being  divided  between  them  pro 
ruin.  Sectarianism  is  strictly  prohibited.  The 
selection  of  text-books  is  left  with  the  teachers, 
"  subject  to  the  approval  of  their  community 
trustees,  and  having  due  regard  to  the  conveni- 
ence of  the  parents  in  respect  to  books  already 
purchased."  The  daily  school  session  is  7  hours, 
but  may  be  extended  by  agreement  between  the 
teacher  and  trustees.  The  school  year  is  for  the"- 
same  reason  indefinite.  All  children  between 
the  ages  of  8  and  14  years  are  entitled  to  the 
benefits  of  the  public  schools. 

Educational  Condition.  —  During  the  year 
1875,  public  schools  were  maintained  in  139 
counties;  but  reports  were  received  from  only 
97.  In  the  latter,  there  were  2,924  schools,  and 
the  number  of  school-houses  built  during  the 
year  was  158.  Owing  to  the  vast  extent  of  ter- 
ritory, the  sparseness  of  the  population,  the  in- 
difference to  the  public  schools  in  some  parts  of 
the  state,  and  the  want  of  reports  from  school 
officers,  the  items  of  school  revenue  for  the  year 
I  875  are  not  accurately  reported.  Two  items  only 
are  given  by  the  state  superintendent  to  aid  in 
making  an  approximate  estimate  of  what  the 
receipts  should  be  : 

Amount  levied  by  boards  of  school  directors. $244,879 
Additional  amount  necessary  to  be  levied  to 

meet  outstanding  liabilities  clue  teachers 

for  the  year ' $50,598 

The  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund  has  also  dis- 
tributed to  six  public  schools  the  sum  of  $2,250. 
The  expenses  incurred  were  as  follows : 

For  teachers'  salaries $630,334 

"    sites,  and  building,  repairing, and  furnish- 
ing Bchool-hooses 59,358 

For  other  expenses 30,544 

Total .$726,236 

The  other  principal  items  of  school  statistics 
for  1875,  are  as  follows : 
Estimated  enrollment  of  school  children  (G  to 

18  years) 184,705 

"  average  attendance 125,224 

"         number  of  schools 3,898 

"  "        "teachers 4,030 

Actual  enrollment  in  97  counties 124, 56 7 

Average  attendance     "       "       84,415 

Number  of  teachers      "        "       3,100 

Number  of  Bchools       "       "       2,924 

Average  teachers'  salary  per  month $53 

Normal  Instruction. — No  system  for  the 
training  of  teachers  has  yet  been  devised  by  the 
state.  The  only  institution  which  furnishes  nor- 
mal instruction  is  Wiley  University,  at  Marshall, 
which  has  a  department  for  the  training  of  col- 
ored  teachers.     A  state  teachers'  institute  was 

organized  in  1^72.  at  the  close  of  the  educational 
Convention  held  that  year  at  Austin.  This  led 
to  the  organization  of  25  county  institutes  the 
same  year.  Since  that  time,  institutes  have  been 
held  occasionally. 

Secondary  Instruction. — In  1875, twelve  acad- 
emies and  seminaries  were  know  ato  exist  in  the 
State,  furnishing  employment  to  29  instructors, 
and  instruction  to  1,166  pupils.  Preparatory 
schools  existing  independently  of,  or  in  connec- 
tion with,  the  colleges  of  the  state,  reported,  during 
the  same  year,  an  attendance  of  1,350  students. 


TEXT-BOOKS 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS        817 


Superior  Instruction. — The  principal  colleges 
and  universities  of  the  state  are  enumerated  in 
the  following  table : 


When 

Religions 

NAME 

Location 

organ- 

denomi- 

ized 

nation 

Austin  College 

Huntsvillo 

1849 

Presb. 

Baylor  University. . . . 

Independence 

18-15 

Baptist 

Henderson  College. . . 

Henderson 

1871 

Non-sect. 

Waxahaehie 

1873 

Meth. 

St.  Joseph's  College.. 

Brownsville 

1868 

B.  ('. 

Salado 

1  Still 

Non-aect. 

Southwestern  Univ... 

Georgetown 

1840 

M.  E.  S. 

Trinity  University  . . . 

Tehuacana 

1870 

i  lumb.  Pr. 

Univ.  of  St.  Mary.... 

Galveston 

1856 

R.  C. 

Waco 

IStU 

Baptist 

Marshall 

1875 

M.  Epia. 

In  1875,  there  were  nine  institutions  in  the 
state  for  the  superior  instruction  of  women, 
three  of  which  conferred  degrees.  Among  the 
principal  institutions  of  this  kind,  are  the  An- 
drew Female  College  of  Huntsvillo,  the  Bryan 
Female  Seminary  of  Bryan,  the  Chapel  Hill 
Female  ( Jollege,  the  Lamar  Female  Seminary  of 
Paris,  the  Galveston  Female  High  School,  and 
the  Austin  Collegiate  Female  Institute,  the  Bay- 
lor Female  College  of  Independence,  the  Waco 
Female  College,  and  the  Nazareth  Convent  of 
Victoria. 

Scientific  and  Professional  Instruction. — The 
only  institution  for  instruction  of  this  kind, 
aside  from  that  furnished  by  special  depart- 
ments in  the  colleges  and  universities,  is  the 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Texas. 
which* was  established  a  few  years  since  at  Bry- 
an. Some  progress  was  made  toward  erecting 
.buildings  for  its  use;  but,  a  discovery  being  made 
of  defects  in  the  law  concerning  it,  work  was  en- 
tirely suspended  in  1871.  The  Texas  Medical 
College  and  Hospital  at  Galveston  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1871.  The  American  Dental  College  is 
situated  at  Austin.  It  wras  opened  in  1873.  In- 
struction in  theology  is  also  given  in  a  special 
department  of  Baylor  University. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Texas  Institution 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  opened  in  1857,  at 
Austin.  It  is  open  for  the  education  of  every 
deaf-mute  resident  of  the  state  between  the  ages 
of  10  and  20  years,  if  of  sound  mind,  good  char- 
acter, and  general  good  health.  Board  and  tui- 
tion are  furnished  gratuitously  by  the  state.  The 
term  of  instruction  is  seven  years,  the  branches 
taught  being  those  which  are  common  to  such 
institutions.  The  Texas  Institution  for  the  Edu- 
cation of  the  Blind  is  situated  at  Austin,  where 
it  was  founded  in  1856. 

TEXT-BOOKS,  for  educational  purposes, 
are  books  designed  to  be  used  by  pupils  in 
connection  with  the  instruction  given  by  the 
teacher.  Their  purpose  is  threefold  :  (1)  to  aid 
the  teacher,  by  affording  to  the  pupil  independ- 
ent sources  of  information  and  instruments  of 
study;  (2)  to  aid  the  pupil,  in  acquiring  habits 
of  self-reliance  in  study ;  and  (3)  to  enable  the 
pupil  to  learn  how  to  use  books,  as  a  means  of 
self-culture.  These  objects  dictate  the  mode  of 
constructing  school  text-books  ;  and  should  all 
be  carefully  kept  in  view  by  the  teacher  in  the 

59. 


selection  of  books,  so  that  they  may  be  suited  to 
the  mental  status  and  grade  of  culture  of  his 
pupils  in  regard  to  the  following  points:  (1)  lan- 
guage and  style  ;  (2)  arrangement  of  topics  and 
general  treatment  of  the  subject,  and  (3)  adapt- 
ability to  the  time  and  general  opportunities  of 
the  pupil. — The  object  of  using  text-books  is 
often  entirely  defeated  by  a  disregard  of  the  first 
of  these  points.  A  text-book  written  in  a  style 
beyond  the  capacity  of  the  pupil  is  not  only  use- 
less, but  positively  injurious  ;  since  the  pupil 
either  becomes  disgusted  with  the  study  and 
neglects  it  altogether,  or  he  commits  to  memory 
the  language  of  the  book,  under  the  impression 
that  he  is  acquiring  knowledge ;  and  thus  his 
mental  habits  are  seriously,  if  not  permanently, 
vitiated. — The  following  cautions  should  be  par- 
ticularly observed  by  teachers  in  the  use  of  text- 
books :  (1)  the  book  should  not  be  permitted  to 
supersede  the  teacher,  its  use  being  always  pre- 
ceded, accompanied,  and  supplemented  by  oral 
instruction  ;  (2)  it  should  never  be  paramount, 
in  the  pupil's  mind,  to  the  subject,  the  impression 
being  constantly  inculcated  by  the  teacher  that 
it  is  the  subject  that  is  studied,  and  that  the 
book  is  oidy  an  instrument  of  the  study,  or  an 
auxiliary  to  it ;  (3)  it  should  not  be  allowed  to 
supersede  the  necessity  of  acquiring  knowledge, 
as  far  as  possible,  by  personal  experience,  par- 
ticularly in  elementary  education.  In  advanced 
instruction,  it  will  always  be  found  that  those 
will  use  text-books  most  effectively  who  have  ac- 
quired the  most  knowledge  without  them.  (See 
Oral  Instruction.) 

THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS.— The  earli- 
est schools  of  this  character,  of  which  any  au- 
thentic account  exists,  were  the  Jewish  "schools  of 
the  prophets."  (See  Hebrews.)    Schools  for  in- 
struction in  Christian  theology  sprung  up  accord- 
ing to  ecclesiastical  tradition,  about  the  close  of 
the  apostolic  period.  At  the  close  of  the  2d  cent- 
ury, the  school  of  Alexandria  began  to  be  cele- 
brated throughout   the   Christian  world.    (See 
Alexandrian  School.)  Other  schools  of  the  kind, 
though  of   less  prominence,  existed  during  the 
period  of  the  ancient  church  at  Antioch,  Laodi- 
cea,  Nicodemia,  Athens,  Edessa,  Nisibis,  Seleu- 
cia,  Rome,  and  Carthage.    At  the  end  of  the  5th 
century,  nearly  all  of  the  schools  of  the  East  had 
greatly  declined,  or  had  become  extinct.   In  the 
West,  the  monasterium  clericorum,  founded  by 
Augustine,  at  Hippo,  was    the  beginning  of  a 
diocesan  seminary,  and  as  such  marks  a  consider- 
able progress  in  the  history  of  theological  schools. 
A  number  of  similar  institutions  arose  in  various 
countries  of  southern  Europe,  and  served  as  the 
chief  agency  for  training  candidates  for  the  sec- 
ular priesthood ;  while  the  convent  and  cloister 
schools  supplied  whatever  education  was  given  to 
persons  subjecting  themselves  to  monastic  vows. 
The  chief  study  in  the  theological  schools  of  this 
period  was  ecclesiastical  Latin,  Greek  and  He- 
brew   being    rarely    studied.      A   considerable 
improvement    begins    with    the    establishment 
of  universities,  after  the   middle   of  the  13th 
century.     The  appointment  of  faculties  of  theol- 


818 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS 


ogy  in  the  principal  universities  had  the  effect 
to  improve  greatly  the  general  education  of  the 
clergy;  but,  at  the  Bame  time,  it  reduced  to  com- 
parative unimportance  the  schools  of  the  bishops 
and  of  the  convents.  Nevertheless,  from  that 
period  to  the  present,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
has  continued  to  recognize  the  three  kinds  of 
theological  education  already  named.  Faculties 
of  catholic  theology  are  at  present  (1877)  con- 
nected with  s  universities  of  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary (  V  ienna,  <  Jratz.  Innspruck,  Prague.  Lemberg, 
Cracow,  Pesth,  and  A  grain)  ;  with  7  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire  (Breslau,  Bonn,  Munich,  Miinster, 
W  iirtzburg,  Tubinyen,  and  Freiburg);  with  1  in 
England  (the  new  Catholic  university  of  London, 
founded  in  1875) ;  with  1  in  Belgium  (the  free 
<  atholic  university  of  Louvain);  with  4  in  Fiance 
(the  new  free  ( 'atholic  universities  in  Paris.  An 
gers,  Lyons,  and  Lille)  ;  and  with  1  in  Portugal 
( I  !i  limbra).  In  France,  there  are,  moreover,  6  iso- 
lated faculties  under  control  of  the  government. 
At  the  Italian  and  Spanish  universities  the  theo- 
logical faculties  have  been  abolished.  Beside  these 
faculties  of  theology,  there  are  a  number  of  in- 
dependent theological  schools,  of  which  especially 
the  Collegia  Romano,  in  Rome,  attracts  students 
from  all  Roman  Catholic  countries.  Episcopal 
seminaries  in  which  theology  is  taught  are  con- 
nected with  nearly  all  episcopal  sees,  and  every 
older  of  monks  lias  one  or  several  theological 
schools  for  its  own  novices.  In  the  United  States. 
according  to  the  Report  of  the  <  'oinniissioner  of 
Education  for  L875,  the  Catholic  Church  had 
18  theological  seminaries,  or  theological  depart 
incuts  of  colleges.  A  faculty  of  Old  Catholic 
theology  has  been  established  in  connection  with 
the  university  of  Hern:  and.  in  1876.  the  ma- 
jority of  the  (.'atholic  faculty  at  the  university 
of  Bonn,  were  likewise  Old  Catholics.  (See  Ro- 
man <  'atholic  <  !hdbch.) 

Ill  the  Greek  Church,  the  standard  of  theolog- 
ical education  is  very  low,  not  only  among  the 
monks,  but  among  the  secular  clergy.  The  only 
faculties  of  theology  connected  with  complete 
universities,  are  at  Athens  (founded  in  L837)and 
at  Czernowitz  in  Austria  (founded  in  L875). 
None  of  the  Russian  universities  has  a  faculty  of 
Greek  theology,  which  is  taught  in  the  five  eccle- 
siastical academies  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
kasan,  Kiel,  and  Wilna,  and  in  the  seminaries 
connected  with  the  episcopal  sees.  Of  schools  of 
Greek  theology,  mostly  in  connection  with  the 
episcopal  sees,  there  arc.  moreover.  I  in  Austria. 
5  in  Hungary,  I  in  Greece,  8  in  Roumania,  1  in 
Servia,  I  in  Montenegro,  and  a  large  number  in 
Turkey. 

Theological  education  among  the  Protestants 
of  Europe  has  been  not  a  little  diversified  as  to 
method.  In  all  the  countries  in  which  great  uni- 
versities have  existed,  professorships  of  various 
branches  of  theology  have  been  maintained  since 
the  days  of  the  Reformation.  Hence,  the  clergy 
of  the  stale  churches  have  usually  gone  to  the 
universities  to  obtain  theological  instruction.  In 
the  I  German  Empire,  faculties  of  Protestanl  theol- 
ogy are  attached  to  the  universities  of   Berlin, 


Bonn,  Breslau,  Erlangen,  Giessen,  Greifswalch 
Gottingen.  Halle.  Heidelberg,  Jena.  Kiel,  Konigs- 
berg,  Leipsic,  Marburg.  Rostock,  Strasbourg,  and 
Tubingen.  In  Holland,  there  are  three,  at  Oron- 
ingen,  Leyden,  and  Utrecht;  in  Denmark  1.  at 
( lopenhagen  ;  in  Sweden  2,  at  Upsal  and  Lund; 
in  Norway  1 .  at  Christiania;  in  Russia  1.  at  Dor- 
pat  :  and  in  Switzerland  4,  at  Basel,  Zurich.  Bern. 
and  ( ieneva.  France  has  a  faculty  of  Protestant 
theology  supported  by  the  state,  at  Montauban. 
anil  a  free  theological  school  at  Paris  (founded 
in  1874)  :  and  Austria.  1  at  Vienna.  Switzer- 
land has  :S  theological  schools,  at  I  ausanne,  Neuf- 
chatel.  and  (ieneva.  <  lermany  leads  not  only  in 
the  number,  but  also  in  the  prominence  and  in- 
fluence of  the  theological  schools,  which,  to  a 
larger  extent  than  the  schools  of  any  other 
country,  are  visited  by  students  from  all  parts 
of  the  Protestant  world.  While  the  evangelical 
churches  in  the  United  States.  England,  and 
other  countries  readily  acknowledge  the  superior 
scholarship  of  German  theological  schools,  they 
deplore  the  departure  of  many  of  them  from  the 
creed  of  the  Reformation,  and  from  what  they 
regard  as  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity. In  England,  the  theological  instruction  given 
at  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  has 
teen  more  uniform  and  conservative,  but  far  less 
influential,  than  that  of  the  German  universi- 
ties. In  fact,  owing  to  the  peculiar  organization 
of  the  English  universities,  each  one  being  an 
awrecation  of  a  number  of  colleges,  there  has 
been  a  lack  of  concentration  and  control  in  refer- 
ence to  theological  study  which  has  tended  to 
keep  the  standard  very  low.  In  neither  of  the 
universities  named  has  there  been  an  organized 
theological  faculty  or  a  well-planned,  obligatory 
course  of  instruction.  As  in  literature  and 
science,  so  in  theology,  the  actual  teaching  has 
been  mostly  done  by  tutors.  There  have  been, 
in  both  universities,  professors  of  divinity  and 
Hebrew  since  the  Kith  century,  lmt  the  profeSS- 
ors,  as  such,  have  had  little  to  do  with  instruc- 
tion or  discipline.  Attendance  on  their  lectures 
was  not  obligatory, excepl  in  a  few  merely  formal 
instances,  lor  the  purpose  of  being  admitted  to 
holy  orders,  it  was  necessity  tor  Bachelors  of 
Arts,  to  attend  the  lectures  of  the  regius  pro- 
fessor of   divinity  for  a   short   time,  unless  they 

obtained  a  dispensation.    In  1 842, professorships 

of  ecclesiastical  history  and  of   pastoral  theo) 
were    established   at   Oxford.     The  university  of 
Dublin    was    organized    under    a    charter    trom 
Queen   Elizabeth,  very  much   after  the  model  of 

the  English  universities.    A  rectus  professorship 

of  divinity  was  founded   in  1  li<>7.  a  professorship 

of  Hebrew,  in  L 637,  and  a  king's  lectureship  in 

divinity,  in  L718.  In  1838,  a  professorship  of 
Biblical  Creek  was  added,  and.  in  1850.  a  pro- 
feSSOrship  of   ecclesiastical  history. 

The  fact  that  the  English  universities  ex- 
clude from  their  advantages  all  students  not 
members  of  the  Established  Church,  has  made 
it  necessary  for  the  various  sects  of  Misscnters 
that  desired  theological  instruction  for  their 
ministerial   candidates,   to   establish    institutions 


THEOLOGICAL   SCHOOLS 


THERMOMKTIIY 


819 


of  their  own.  This  lias  been  clone  by  the  In- 
dependents, the  Wesleyans,  the  Baptists,  and,  per- 
haps, some  other  religious  bodies.  In  nearly  all, 
if  not  all.  institutions  thus  established,  provision 
is  made  for  preliminary  classical  instruction.  The 
Scottish  universities,  with  the  exception  of  that 
of  Edinburgh,  were  founded  before  the  Reforma- 
tion. After  that  event,  a  scheme  of  theological 
education  was  proposed,  at  the  university  of  St. 
Andrews,  which  was  theoretically  a  great  im- 
provement upon  the  irregular  and  incomplete 
methods  of  theological  instruction  previously  pre- 
vailing in  the  universities  every-where.  St.  Mary's 
College  was  appointed  solely  to  the  teaching  of 
theology  and  the  languages  connected  with  it. 
The  course  of  study  was  to  be  completed  in  four 
years,  under  the  instruction  of  a  principal  and 
four  professors,  each  of  the  professors  having 
under  his  care  only  the  students  of  one  year. 
The  students  were  required  to  attend  the  lect- 
ures of  three  professors  every  day  during  the 
continuance  of  their  theological  course.  Although 
this  scheme  was  not  found  in  all  respects  practi- 
cable, yet  it  had  its  influence  upon  the  other 
Scottish  universities,  at  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and 
Edinburgh,  in  each  of  which,  several  professor- 
ships of  divinity  and  auxiliary  topics  have  been 
constantly  maintained,  with  some  effort  towards 
systematic  instruction.  After  the  disruption  of 
the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  the  Free 
( 'hurch  established  a  divinity  school  in  Edin- 
burgh, called  the  New  College  of  Free  Church. 

A  prime  object  recognized  in  the  foundation 
of  the  earliest  colleges  in  the  United  States, 
such  as  Harvard  and  Yale,  was  to  provide  general 
education  for  candidates  for  the  ministry.  No 
professors  of  divinity  were  appointed,  nor  were 
theological  topics  introduced  into  the  courses  of 
study  ;  but  the  presidents  of  the  colleges  were 
usually  ministers  of  distinguished  ability,  who 
were  expected,  by  their  presence  and  their 
preaching,  to  exert  a  wholesome  religious  influ- 
ence upon  their  students  generally,  and  to  be 
able  to  give  timely  and  special  counsel  to  any 
young  men  among  them  who  might  contemplate 
devoting  themselves  to  the  work  of  the  ministry. 
Dr.  Dwight,  at  Yale  College,  taught  theology  in 
his  Sunday  sermons  which  were  so  prepared  and 
arranged  as  to  form,  when  completed,  a  body  of 
divinity.  Some  candidates  for  the  ministry  went 
directly  from  the  college  into  ministerial  service, 
and  others,  without  having  attended  college  at 
all.  But  the  more  general  custom  was  for  minis- 
terial candidates  to  pursue  a  limited  course  of 
theological  reading  and  study,  under  the  di- 
rection of  some  influential  pastor. 

As  society  became  more  settled,  and  the 
wants  of  the  older  churches  became  better  de- 
fined, the  necessity  of  schools  specially  devoted 
to  theological  instruction  began  to  be  felt  almost 
simultaneously  in  several  denominations.  The 
first  actual  experiment  in  public  theological  in- 
struction was  commenced  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  .John 
M.  Mason  of  New  York,  in  1804.  Dr.  Mason 
had,  after  graduation  at  an  American  college,  and 
about  a  year  spent  in  the  private  study  of  theol- 


ogy, gone  to  Scotland  to  pursue  a  more  complete 
course  in  one  of  the  universities.  As  a  result, 
he,  subsequently,  when  a  pastor  in  New  York 
city,  felt  called  upon  to  devote  a  portion  of  his 
time  to  the  systematic  instruction  of  ministerial 
candidates,  in  the  original  languages  of  the  Bible. 
lie,  also,  delivered  lectures  on  the  standard 
topics  of  divinity.  For  years  he  carried  on  this 
course  of  instruction  almost  single  handed,  in 
fact  until  disabled  by  failing  health.  The  first 
regularly  organized  theological  seminary  in  the 
United  States  was  that  formed  by  the  Congre- 
gationalists  at  Andover,  Mass.,  in  1808.  A  foun- 
dation had  previously  existed  at  New  Brunswick, 
X.  •!.,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Reformed  I  hitch 
Church,  but  it  remained  for  a  long  time  unoc- 
cupied. In  1812,  the  Presbyterians  commenced 
their  theological  seminary  at  Princeton.  In  1  SI  7, 
the  General  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  was  founded  in  New  York. 
—  Since  the  dates  named,  most  of  the  larger 
Churches  of  the  United  States  have  founded 
theological  schools.  The  total  number  of  theo- 
logical departments  and  seminaries  in  the  United 
States,  according  to  the  Report  of  the  U.  S. 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1875,  was  123, 
having  (315  instructors  and  5,234  students. 

As  to  the  methods  pursued  in  the  theological 
schools  of  the  United  States,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  no  uniformity,  but  a  general  similarity,  pre- 
vails. In  nearly  all,  primary  attention  is  given 
to  the  study  of  Hebrew  and  New  Testament 
Greek,  as  the  foundation  of  an  enlightened 
Scriptural  exegesis.  In  the  departments  of  eccle- 
siastical history,  and  systematic  and  practical 
theology,  instruction  is  given  largely  by  lectures, 
with  references  to  text-books,  and  collateral 
reading.  In  all  the  fully-organized  seminaries, 
the  course  of  study  extends  through  three  years, 
and  is  planned  in  reference  to  the  attainments 
of  graduates  of  colleges,  although  partial-course 
students  are  admitted  on  specified  conditions. 

THERMOMETRY,  Educational.  Human 
thermometry  is  the  art  of  measuring  the  heat 
evolved  by  the  body,  and  the  science  of  calcu- 
lating thereby  a  person's  vitality  and  working 
power.  Physicians  now  use  thermometers  to 
ascertain  mathematically  the  existence  and  prog- 
ress of  disease,  instead  of  depending  upon  con- 
jecture, as  formerly.  The  same  may  also  be  done 
by  teachers,  in  order  to  appreciate  exactly  the 
working  capacity  of  their  pupils  ;  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  contagious  diseases  in  the  school,  and 
to  warn  ignorant  or  thoughtless  parents  of  the  be- 
ginning of  illness  in  their  children ;  and,  more- 
over, to  discover  the  existence  of  disease  when 
it  is  purposely  concealed.  The  means  of  doing 
this  is  afforded  by  thermometry  and  tliermog- 
raphy,  the  instruments  employed  being  a  ther- 
mometer and  a  thermograph,  to  indicate  and  re- 
cord the  degree  of  heat.  There  are  several  kinds 
of  thermometers.  That  is,  however,  of  special  value 
in  education,  the  scale  of  which  is  based  on  some 
physical  phenomenon,  as  the  melting  of  snow. 
In  the  physiological  thermometer,  the  health- 
point  is  marked  zero  or  norme,  as  seen  in  the 


820 


THERMOMETRY 


TRINITY  COLLEGE 


following  scheme  of  human  temperature  (taken 
on  the  physiological  scale). 

Onlv  two  alleged  cases. 


Above 
tue 

NORME 


The  Norme 


Below 

Tfft: 
NOKME 


I" 
6° 

5° 

4° 

3° 

2° 

1° 

0 

0.5° 

1° 

2° 

3°-4° 

4°-5° 


Generally  fatal. 

Often  fatal. 

High  fever. 

< 'onsiderable  fever. 

Moderate  fever. 

Suspicious. 

Standard  of  health 

Subnormal. 

Depression. 

Collapse. 

Algid  collapse. 

Fatal. 


There  are  different  instruments  adapted  to  dif- 
ferent thermometrical  researches  :  (1)  \&u&  physi- 
ological thermomeier,   which,  when  introduced 
into  a  natural  cavity,  as  the  mouth,  or  into  an 
artificial  one,  as  the  closed  axilla,  indicates  the 
rate   of  evolution  of  the  central  heat;  (2)  the 
surface  thermometer,  used  to  differentiate  the 
superficial  heat  of  two  bodies,  or  of  two  parts  of 
the  surface  of  the  same  body ;  (3)  the  tkermo- 
scope,  which,  in  a  few  seconds,  renders  evident 
differences  of  temperature  which  could  not  other- 
wise be  perceived  (unless  with  the  help  of  some 
wry  expensive  thermo-electric  apparatus  ;  (4)  the 
hand,  an  absolutely  inexpensive  apparatus,  but  of 
inestimable  value  to  those  who  have  early  ap- 
preciated the  importance  of  educating  the  senses. 
The  trained  hand  can  be  used  as  a  central  or  as 
a  surface   thermometer.      It  cannot,  of  coins,', 
give  its  findings    in    figures :  but  it  adds,  to  a 
pretty  accurate  idea  of  the  heat  evolved,  an  esti- 
mate of  the  depth  or  superficiality  of  the  in- 
flammation, of  the  tension  of  the  tissues,  and  of 
other  signs  that  are   like  commentaries  to   the 
usliuu  (feverish  burning).  The  hand  lias,  morever, 
above  every  instrument,  the  advantage  of  being 
used,  at  will,  for  the   most  informal  and  unsus- 
pected diagnosis,   in  greetings,  etc.;   and  when 
such  desultory  exploration  has  revealed  an  anom- 
alous degree  of  temperature,  the  thermometer 
may  be  used  fco  ascertain  the  exact   condition. — ■ 
Thermography  is  the  method  of  recording  the 
phenomena  of  ustion,m  the  order  most  favorable 
to  show  their  significance,   Normal thermography 
is  the  work  of  the  mother;  pathological  thermog- 
raphy, of  the  physician,  aided  by  the  mother  or 
nurse  ;  and  school  thermography,  of  the  teacher, 
who   thus   contributes   bis  share  to  the  natural 
history    of    his  pupils.  —Human  thermometry 
should  constitute  a  part  of  every  system  of  ped- 
agogy studied  in  the  normal  school ;  so  that  every 
teacher  may  conduct    his  school,  and    teach    his 
pupils,    On    this    matlicmatico  physiological  ba.-is. 
rtaining  constantly  the  power  of  endurance  of 
every  pupil  during   the  various  exercises;   for, 
since  mental  force  is  luu  converted  physical  £o 
it  is  measurable  by   the  expenditure  of  caloric 
found  necessary  for  the  various  intellectual  proc- 
i  in,  '/'■  mperature-  Variations  in 
Diseases  of  Children  (1871);   Prevention  of  the 
Spread  of  Contagious  Diseases  among  Children 
by    the    Indications  of  Thermometry   (London. 
L873);    Manual  of  Thermometry  for  Mothers, 
Curses,  Teachers,  etc.  (N.  Y .,  L873). 


THIEL  COLLEGE  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church,  at  Greenville,  La.,  is  under 
the  care  of  the  Pittsburgh  Synod.  It  was  found- 
ed by  Lewis  Thiel,  as  an  academy,  at  Philips- 
burg,  in  1866,  chartered  as  a  college,  in  1870, 
and  removed  to  its  present  site,  in  1871.  Its 
permanent  endowment  is  over  $60,000,  chiefly 
derived  from  the  benefactions  of  its  founder.  It 
has  a  library  of  nearly  4,000  volumes.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  Sin  per  annum.  It  has  an  academic  and 
a  collegiate  department.  A  ladies'  course  has  been 
also  established,  embracing  the  studies  of  the 
collegiate  department,  except  that  Creek  is  op- 
tional, and  French  may  be  taken  in  the  place  of 
German.  In  Ls7,"> — 6,  there  were  6  instructors 
and  70  students  (21  collegiate  and  49  academic). 
The  Lev.  Henry  \Y.  Roth,  A.M.,  is  (1877)  the 
president 

TOPICAL  METHOD.  See  Catechetical 
Method. 

TOUGALOO  UNIVERSITY. at  Tougal.o. 
Miss.,  near  Jackson,  was  founded  in  1869,  and 
chartered  in  L871.  It  was  especially  designed 
for  the  education  of  colored  youth  of  both  sex.  s, 
but  is  open  to  all.  The  expenses,  including  tui- 
tion, board,  etc..  are  less  than  $12  a  month.  A 
farm  of  five  hundred  acres  attached  to  the  uni- 
versity, is  cultivated  mainly  by  the  labor  of  stu- 
dents, who  thus  pay  a  portion  of  their  expenses. 
It  has  in  operation  a  normal,  an  intermediate, 
and  a  primary  department,  its  normal  depart- 
ment being  recognized  as  one  of  the  state  normal 
schools.  In  L875— 6,  there  were  &  instructors 
and  'l\l  students  (normal  and  intermediate, 
125  ;  primary,  92).  Prof.  L.  A.  Darling  is  (1877) 
the  president. 

TRAINING,  a  department  of  education,  in 
which  the  chief  element  is  exercise,  or  practice; 
the  object  being  to  imparl  practical  skill,  or 
facility  in  any  bodily  or  mental  operation.  No 
teaching  can  lie  effectual  that  is  not  supplemented 
by  training  ;  that  is  to  say,  not  only  is  the  under- 
standing of  the  pupil  to  be  addressed,  bu1  the 
principle  of  habit  to  lie  appealed  to.  (Sec  II  uut.) 
TRAINING  SCHOOLS.  See  Teachers' 
S  i:\iix  \  i;i  i  s. 

TRINITY  COLLEGE,  in  Hartford,  Ct., 
under  Protestant  Episcopal  control.  Mas  char- 
tered as  Washington  College  in  L823,  and 
opened  in  L824.  The  name  was  changed  in 
L845.     It   has  property  to  the  value  ol  over 

81, 1 ,000,  a   library  of  18,000  volumes,  and  a 

valuable  cabinet.  'I  here  is  a  large  number  of 
scholarships,  nearly  all  designed  to  aid  students 

in    preparing    for    the    ministry   of    the    church. 

Besides  the  classical  course,  in  which  the  studies 

are  all  prescribed,  there  arc  special  courses,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  <>f  B.  S.     In  187G — 7,  there 

were  15  instructors  and  L03  students.  The  pres- 
idents have  been  as  follows:  the  Rt.  Rev. Thomas 

C.  Brownell,  D.  D.,  L824— 31  ;  the  Lev.  N.  S. 
U  healon.l).  1)..  L831— 7;  the  Lev.  Silas  Totteii. 
D.D.,1837— 48;  the  Rt  Rev.  John  Williams, 
l».  I)..  L848     53;  the  Lev.  Daniel   R.  Goodwin, 

D.  D.,    L853     60  ;    Samuel    Eliot,   LL.  I>..  L861 
;  the  Rt.  Lev.  J.  B.  Kerfoot,  L864     6;  the 


TRINITY  COLLEGE 


TURKEY 


821 


Rev.  Abner  Jackson.  D.  D.,  1867—74,  who  was 
succeeded,  in  L874,  by  the  Rev.  T.  R.  Pynchon, 
I).  I).,  the  present  incumbent  (1877). 

TRINITY    COLLEGE,    at    Trinity,    Ran* 

dolph  Co.,  X.  C,  founded  in  1852,  is  under  the 
control  of  the  .Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South.  The  name  of  the  post-office  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  institution.  The  college  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  ($40  to  $60  per  annum)  and  funds 
contributed  by  the  North  Carolina  Conference. 
It  has  property  to  the  value  of  $45,000,  and 
libraries  containing  10,000  volumes.  The  chapel 
for  public  exercises  is  said  to  be  perfect  in  acous- 
tics, and  the  finest  auditorium  in  the  Southern 
states.  The  whole  course  of  instruction  is  em- 
braced in  eleven  schools:  Latin,  Civck,  mathe- 
matics, English  literature,  natural  science,  mental 
and  moral  philosophy,  modern  languages,  theol- 
ogy, engineering  and  architecture,  analytical 
chemistry,  and  law.  The  studies  of  any  school, 
or  any  special  study,  may  be  pursued  exclusively, 
if  desired.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  5  instructors 
and  140  students.  The  Rev.  B.  Craven,  I).  D., 
LL.  D.,  has  been  the  president  from  the  organi- 
zation of  the  college. 

TRINITY  UNIVERSITY,  at  Tehuacana, 
Tex.,  under  the  control  of  Cumberland  Presby- 
terians, was  organized  in  18G9,  and  chartered  in 
1870,  its  principal  design  being  to  furnish  an  edu- 
cated ministry.  It  has  an  endowment  of  $15,000, 
and  libraries  containing  about  3,000  volumes.  It 
comprises  a  collegiate,  a  preparatory,  and  a  com- 
',  mercial  course,  open  to  both  sexes.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  13  instructors  and  372  students  (197 
preparatory  and  175  collegiate).  The  Rev.  AV. 
E.  Beeson,  D.  D.,  is  (187G)  the  president. 

TRIVIUM.     See  Arts. 

TROTZENDORF,  Valentine  Friedland, 
a  distinguished  German  educator,  born  at  Trotz- 
endorf  in  Silesia,  in  1490 ;  died  in  1556.  His 
father's  name  was  Friedland,  which  he  changed 
into  the  name  of  his  birthplace.  After  studying 
the  classical  languages  at  Leipsic,  and  spending 
five  years  with  Luther,  he  entered,  in  1523, 
the  school  at  Goldberg  as  a  teacher,  and  ulti- 
mately became  its  rector,  in  which  position  he 
continued  till  within  two  years  of  his  death. 
Under  his  direction,  the  school  of  Goldberg  be- 
came one  of  the  most  famous  educational  insti- 
tutions of  the  age,  being  attended  by  scholars 
from  many  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  emi- 
nently a  classical  school,  German,  the  real  stud- 
ies, and  mathematics  occupying  a  subordinate 
place  in  the  curriculum.  Assistant  teachers 
were  seldom  employed,  teachers  for  the  lower 
classes  being  generally  selected  from  among  the 
students  in  the  upper  classes.  Biographies  of 
'i'rotzendorf  have  been  written  by  Pinzger  (Hei- 
delberg, 1825),  and  Loschke  (Breslau,  185G). — 
See  Barnard,  German  Teachers  a  hi/  Educators. 

TRUANT  LAWS,  legislative  enactments 
having  for  their  object  to  prevent  truancy  from 
school.  Such  laws,  particularly  in  large  cities, 
have  been  of  great  service,  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  compulsory  attendance  legislation. 
(See  Compulsory  Education.) 


TUFTS  COLLEGE,  in  Medford,  .Mass.. 
chartered  in  1852,  and  opened  in  L854,  is  under 
Qniversalist  control.    It  is  supported  by  tuition 

ices  ($70  a  year),  and  the  income  of  an  endow- 
ment of  over  $1,000,000.  The  library  contains 
over    16,000    volumes    and    5,000    pamphlets. 

There  are  also  good  collections  of  minerals, 
shells,  birds,  and  botanical  specimens.  There 
are  twenty-seven  scholarships  in  the  gift  of  the 
college,  fifteen  of  $60,  and  twelve  of  $100  each. 
It  has  a  classical  course  of  four  years,  a  course 
for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Philosophy,  also  of 
four  years,  and  an  engineering  course  of  three 
years.  A  divinity  school  was  organized  in  1867. 
The  theological  students  receive  tuition  and  the 
use  of  rooms  free.  In  I  875 — (J,  the  collegiate  de- 
partment had  10  professors,  1  instructor,  and  73 
students;  namely,  classical  course,  5G  ;  engineer- 
ing, 12  ;  philosophical,  2  ;  resident  graduates,  3. 
The  divinity  school  had  3  professors,  1  instruct- 
or, 3  lecturers,  and  23  students.  The  whole  num- 
ber of  alumni  of  the  college  was  225  ;  of  the 
divinity  school,  21.  The  presidents  have  been  as 
follows ;  the  Rev.  Uosea  Ballou,  2d,  D.  I)., 
i  1853—61;  the  Rev.  Alonzo  A.  Miner,  I).  P., 
LL.  I).,  18G2— 7G;  and  the  Rev.  Elmer  II. 
( !apen,  since  187G. 

TURKEY,  an  empire,  embracing  extensive 
territories  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  with  an 
aggregate  area  of  about  2,230,000  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  46,000,000.  The 
greater  part  of  the  population  of  the  whole  em- 
pire are  Mohammedans;  but,  in  European  Turkey 
Christianity  predominates.  The  chief  dependen- 
cies of  the  empire,  —  Servia,  Roumania,  and 
Egypt,  are  treated  of  in  special  articles  of  this 
work. 

Educational  History. — Up  to  1846,  public  in- 
struction was  wholly  left  to  the  several  religious 
denominations ;  but  since  then,  the  government 
has  made  some  efforts  to  promote  the  cause  of 
education,  and  especially  to  organize  a  school 
system  for  the  Mohammedan  population.  A 
radical  reform  was  attempted  by  means  of  a 
comprehensive  school  law,  issued  in  1869;  but 
most  of  the  provisions  have,  thus  far,  remained  a 
dead  letter.  The  Mohammedan  schools,  in  par- 
ticular, have  hardly  been  improved  in  any  way. 
The  schools  connected  with  the  Creek  churches 
have  received  some  good  teachers,  educated  at 
the  university  of  Athens,  or  in  the  academies  of 
Greece.  The  Armenian  schools  have  been  greatly 
benefited  by  the  educational  efforts  of  the  Prot- 
estant American  missionaries.  The  religious 
order  of  the  MekMtarists,  which  belongs  to  the 
United  Armenian  Church,  and  has  its  chief 
seats  at  Venice  and  Vienna,  has  done  much  for 
the  education  of  the  numerous  Armenian  pop- 
ulation; and  has. in  particular, educated  some  of 
the  best  Turkish  scholars  in  the  government 
employ.  French  and  Italian  missionaries  have, 
established  a  number  of  ( Jatholic  institutions  of 
different  grades.  The  Jews  of  Turkey,  with  the 
aid  of  wealthy  co-religionists  in  other  countries, 
have  also  increased  the  number  and  improved 
the  condition  of  their  schools ;  and  the  progress 


-'J     UNION  CHRISTIAN  COLLEGE 


UNION  UNIVERSITY 


of  the  Christian  and  Jewish  schools  has  given  a 
great  impulse  to  educational  progress  among  the 
ii  dive  Turks.  The  provisions  of  the  educational 
law  of  1869  are  as  follows:  Primary  instruc- 
tion is  made  obligatory  for  boys  from  0  to  11, 
and  for  girls  from  6*  to  10  years  of  age.  Every 
village  and  every  ward  of  a  town  is  required 
to  have  at  least  one  primary  school.  Primary 
schools  are  of  two  kinds,  —  common  primary  and 
superior  primary.  Whenever  the  number  of 
pupils  is  sufficient  to  warrant  it,  separate  schools 
are  to  be  established  for  Mohammedans  and  for 
Christians,  for  boys  and  for  girls.  Religious  in- 
struction in  the  Koran,  or  in  tlie  Christian  re- 
ligion, constitutes  a  part  of  the  regular  course 
The  school  system  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Imperial  Council  of  Education.  The  school 
authorities  in  the  provinces  and  departments 
are  composed  of  Mohammedans  and  of  persons 
of  other  religious  belief,  the  number  of  each  be- 
ing equal. 

Primary  Schools. — Primary  schools,  of  some 
kind,  are  quite  generally  met  with  in  towns,  and 
even  in  villages;  but  reliable  statistics  in  regard 
to  them  are  wanting.  The  city  of  Constantinople 
had,  according  to  the  latest  accounts,  454  primary 
schools. of  all  denominations,  with  33,000  pupils. 
The  total  number  of  superior  primary  schools 
in  Turkey  was  95,  with  about  7,600  pupils.  The 
establishment  of  normal  schools  was  also  pro- 
vided for  in  the  law  of  L869,  previous  to  which 
time  teachers  generally  received  their  education 
in  the  superior  primary,  or  iu  secondary  schools. 


Secondary,  Superior,  and  special  Schools. — 
The  law  of  lS(j()  also  provides  for  a  complete 
system  of  secondaiy  schools.  Of  these  there 
are  two  kinds,  —  preparatory  schools,  and  lye  e- 
uins.  Every  town  with  more  than  1,000  hoi 
is  required  to  have  a  preparatory  school ;  and 
the  chief  town  of  every  province,  a  lyceum.  The 
course  of  instruction  in  the  former  lasts  3  years; 
in  the  latter,  <>  years.  The  lyceum  has  a  gram- 
mar division  for  2  years,  and  a  superior  (4  years') 
division;  the  latter  is  again  divided  into  a  liter- 
ary and  a  scientific  section.  The  lyceum  at 
( ralata-Serai  is  under  the  direction  of  French 
scholars,  and  the  medium  of  instruction  is 
French.  Various  secondary  schools  have  also 
been  established  by  several  Christian  denomina- 
tions. A  university,  organized  after  the  model 
of  the  universities  of  continental  Europe,  and 
embracing,  for  the  present,  three  faculties 
(literature,  law,  and  natural  science  and  mathe- 
matics i.  was  opened, in  1870.  in  Constantinople. 
The  medium  of  instruction  is  the  Turkish  lan- 
guage; but  the  use  of  French  is  permitted. 
Constantinople  has  a  school  of  surveying  and 
architecture,  a  school  of  engineering  and  artillery, 
a  medical  school,  a  law  school,  a  military  school, 
and  a  school  of  military  surgery.  On  the  island 
of  Chalki,  there  is  a  naval  academy.  There  are 
numerous  schools  of  theology  in  connection  with 
the  mosques,  for  Mohammedans,  and.  in  connec- 
tion with  Episcopal  sees  and  monasteries,  for  the 
education  of  priests  of  the  Creek,  Catholic,  and 
Armenian  churches. 


UNION    CHRISTIAN    COLLEGE,     at 

Merom,  Ind.,  founded  in  1858,  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Christian  denomination.  It  has 
an  endowment  of  SIOU.OOO;  of  which  S-'U.OOO 
is  at  present  non-productive.  The  cost  of  tui- 
tion is  from  SIS  to  82  1  a  year.  Both  sexes  are 
admitted.  The  curriculum  embraces  an  academic 
course,  requiring  2  years,  a  scientific  course,  1 
years,  and  a  classical  course,  6  years.  A  prepara- 
tory school  is  also  connected  with  the  college. 
There  is  a  course  in  normal  instruction,  also  in 

music  and  book-keeping.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were 
9  instructors  and  I  .'ill  students.     The  presidents 

have  been:  Rev.  X.  Summerbell,  D.  D.,  L860 
—65;  Rev.  Thomas  Holmes,  P.  P..  L865 — T">; 
and  Rev.  T.  <'.  Smith.  M    A.,  sine  is;:.. 

UNION  UNIVERSITY,  in  the  state  of 
New  York,  incorporated  in  1st.'!,  comprises 
I  niou  College,  with  its  preparatory  classical  in- 
stitute ami  school  of  civil  engineering,  in  Sche- 
nectady, and  the  Medical  College,  the  Law  School, 
and  the  Dudley  Observatory,  in  Albany.  Union 
<•  >lle>;e  was  incorporated  in  L795,  and  was  so  I 
called  because  several  religious  denominations 
co-operated  in  its  establishment.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  tees  (from  $75  to  3100  a  yean  and 
'lie  income  of  endowments,  amounting  to  about 
$128,000.  It  has  a  library  of  18.000  volumes, 
.1  i  I    valuable    chemical    ami   philosophical   ap-  ' 


paratus  and  collections  in  natural  history. 
X  umerous  scholarships  have  been  founded  for 
the  benefit  of  indigent  students.  There  is  a 
classical,  a  scientific,  and  an  eclectic  course.  The 
engineering  school  was  founded  in  1845.  The 
extensive  garden  and  farm  of  the  college  afford 
facilities  for  instruction  in  agriculture.  Military 
drill  and  gymnastic  training  were  early  intro- 
duced.    The  Medical  College  was  established  in 

1838,  and  the  Law  School  in  1851.  The  Dudley 
Observatory,  incorporated  in  1852  and  inaugu- 
rated in  1856,  is  furnished  with  the  best  astro- 
nomical instruments,  and  hasa  meteorological  de- 
partment. The  number  of  instructors  and  stu- 
dents, in    L875 — ('),  was  as  follows:    Collegiate, 

18  instructors  and  I7.~>  students:  engineering 
School,  4  instructors  and  35  students:  medical 
college,  16  instructors  and  123  students:  law 
seh, ml.  6  instructors  and  '.»•'!  students:  total. 
•I  I  instructors  and  426  students.      The  following 

have  been  the  presidents  of  the  College  and  Uni- 
versity: the  Rev.  John  Blair  Smith.  D.  I)., 
1795— 9 ;  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Edwards,  D.  D., 
L799 — 1801  ;  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Maxcy,  D.  D., 
1802—4;  the  Rev.  Eliphalel  Nott,  D.  I>..  1804 
66 ;    the    Rev.   Lawrence   P.  Iliekok.  P.  P.. 

L866— 8  :  the  I  lev.  Charles  A.  Aiken.  P.  D., 
1869—71  :   and  the'  Kev.  Eliphalel   Nott    Potter, 

P.  P..  since  L871. 


UNITARIANS 


UNITED   BRETHREN   IN   CHRIST      823 


UNITARIANS    are  a  body  of    Christians 
■who  reject  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  assert 

the  absolute  unity  of  God.     They  deny  the  deity 
of  Christ  and  his  equality  with  Cud  the  Father 

but  do  not  reject  his  divinity,  or  any  exalted 
rank  consistent  with  his  subordination  to  God. 
They  reject  the  doctrine  of  total  depravity  and 
moral  inability,  and  of  the  necessity  of  a  vicarious 
atonement.  They  have  no  written  creed,  and  in- 
dividual Unitarians  differ  greatly  on  many 
points.  Arianism,  originating  in  the  4th  cent- 
ury, was  the  parent  of  Socinianism,  in  the  1  6th  ; 
and  from  the  latter.  Unitarian  ism  has  descended. 
Persecution  confined  Socinianism,  at  the  close  of 
the  17th  century,  to  Transylvania,  where  there 
are  now  over  100  congregations  of  Unitarians, 
with  nearly  (50,000  members.  They  have  a  col- 
lege at  Klausenburg.  They  are  governed  by  an 
ecclesiastical  council  and  a  bishop.  In  England, 
the  growth  of  the  denomination  warranted  the 
foundation,  in  1825,  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Unitarian  Association.  In  the  United  King- 
dom, there  are  now  not  far  from  400  congrega- 
tions. The  Unitarians  have  a  college  in  Lon- 
don, and  another  in  .Manchester.  The  American 
Unitarian  Association  was  also  organized  in 
1825.  It  was  incorporated  in  1817,  and  has  its 
headquarters  in  Boston.  The  National  ('(infer- 
ence of  Unitarian  and  other  Christian  Churches 
was  organized  in  1865.  In  the  United  States, 
the  Unitarians  separated  from  the  Congregation- 
alists.  They  have  about  350  or  3G0  congrega- 
tions throughout  the  country,  the  denomination 
being  most  uumerous  in  Massachusetts,  especially 
in  Boston  and  its  vicinity,  where  it  took  its  rise. 
Except  in  Transylvania,  the  Unitarians  have  a 
congregational  form  of  church  government.  In 
the  United  States,  the  denomination  has  always 
been  largely  constituted  from  the  most  highly 
educated  portion  of  the  community;  and  its 
members  have  been  noted  for  their  public 
spirit,  and  their  interest  in  educational  and 
benevolent  affairs.  The  Society  for  Promoting 
Theological  Education  (headquarters  in  Boston) 
wras  organized  in  1816,  and.  incorporated  in  1831. 
It  aims  to  enlarge  the  apparatus  of  theological 
instruction,  and  to  afford  assistance  to  merito- 
rious theological  students.  The  American  Uni- 
tarian Association  has  a  committee  on  theolog- 
ical education,  and  aids  young  men  in  preparing 
for  the  ministry.  The  Unitarian  Sunday-School 
Society  (Boston)  was  instituted  in  1S27.  Since 
the  early  years  of  the  century,  the  authorities  of 
Harvard  University  have  been  largely  Unita- 
rians, but  the  institution  has  never  been  under 
denominational  control.  The  Harvard  Divinity 
School  was  systematically  established  in  Is  Id. 
In  187G — 7.  it  had  4  professors,  5  other  instruct- 
ors, 23  students,  and  a  library  of  17.000  vol- 
umes. The  Meadville  Theological  School,  at 
Meadville,  Pa.,  was  chartered  in  1846,  and 
organized  in  1«47.  In  1870 — 7,  it  had  4  res- 
ident and  3  non-resident  professors,  12  students, 
and  a  library  of  12,000  volumes.  Unitarians 
have  a  share  likewise  in  tin'  control  of  Antioch 
'i liege,  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio. 


UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST. 
This  church  was  founded  by  Philipp  Wilhehn 
Otterbein,  a  minister  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church,  who  was  horn  dune  -I.,  L726,  at  Dillen- 
burg,  < ■'erniany,  and.  in  I  752.  came  to  the  United 
States,  being  one  of  the  six  young  men  who  ac- 
companied the  Rev.  Michael  Schlatter,  the 
pioneer  missionary  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church.  (See  REFORMED  Church.)  The  church 
which  owes  its  foundation  to  him,  originated  in 
no  doctrinal  disputes,  hut  was  the  result  of  the 
growth  of  vital  piety  in  individual  members. 
The  name  arose  from  the  circumstance  that,  at 
a  great  revival  meeting,  when  both  Otterbein 
and  Martin  Boehm,a  minister  of  the  Mcnnonites, 
were  preaching,  Otterbein  clasped  Boehm  in  his 
arms,  with  the  words,  "  We  are  brethren."  In 
1800,  the  words  "in  Christ"  were  added  to 
"  United  Brethren,-'  in  order  to  distinguish  the 
church  from  the  Moravians,  who  were  also 
called  United  Brethren.  The  church,  in  1876, 
had,  in  43  annual  conferences,  1.1)52  ministers 
and  143,881  members.  —  When  Otterbein,  in 
1774,  organized,  in  Baltimore,  an  independent 
church,  whose  doctrines  and  discipline,  with 
some  slight  modifications,  became  the  doctrines 
and  discipline  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ, 
one  of  the  articles  of  the  church  provided  for 
the  establishment  of  a  German  school.  The 
fathers  of  the  church  had,  for  a  long  time, 
serious  doubts  about  the  expediency  of  establish- 
ing denominational  institutions  for  higher  edu- 
cation ;  but,  in  1 845,  the  <  ieneral  Conference 
almost  unanimously  resolved  "  that  proper  meas- 
ures be  adopted  to  establish  an  institution  of 
learning."  In  1846,  the  Scioto  Annual  Con- 
ference appointed  a  committee  to  purchase  from 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  the  Blendon 
Young  Men's  Seminary,  at  Westerville,  O.,  and 
thus,  Otterbein  University  (q.  v.),  the  first  col- 
lege of  the  church,  was  established.  In  1847, 
the  Allegheny  Conference  resolved  to  establish 
an  institution  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Pa.,  or  Johns- 
town. It  was  finally  located  at  Mount  Pleas- 
ant ;  but,  in  1858,  the  buildings  were  sold,  and 
the  interests  transferred  to  Otterbein  University. 
The  seed  thus  planted  rapidly  took  root.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  institution  already  mentioned,  the 
following  have  since  been  established :  Harts- 
ville  University,  Hartsville,  Ind.  (1851)  ;  West- 
ern College,  Western,  Iowa  (1856);  Westfiekl 
College,  Westfiekl,  111.  (1865);  Green  Hill  Sem- 
inary, Poolsville,  Ind.  (1869);  Avalon  Academy, 
Avalon.  -Mo.  (1869);  Smithville  High  School, 
Smithville.  O.;  Roanoke  Classical  Seminary, 
Roanoke,  Ind.  (1869);  Lebanon  Yalley  College, 
Lebanon,  Pa.  (1866);  Lane  University.  Leconrp- 
ton.Kan.;  Philomath  College,  Philomath, Oregon; 
and  Elroy  Seminary,  Elroy.  Wis.  (1874).  The  ag- 
gregate number  of  students  in  these  institutions, 
during  the  year  1875 — 6,  was  over  1,000  males, 
of  whom  about  125  were  preparing  for  the 
ministry,  and  about  600  females;  the  whole 
number,  since  their  foundation,  is  about  15,000; 
and  the  total  number  of  graduates.  .'{00.  The 
aggregate  number  of  volumes  in  their  libraries 


824      UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST         UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH 


was  6,000;  the  endowment  funds,  collected  .and 
promised,  amounted  to  $300,000.  Co-education 
of  the  b  ixes  lias  been  the  uniform  rule  in  all  the 
institutions  of  the  church.  As  the  fathers  of 
the  church  had  an  impression  that  college  edu- 
cation had  a  tendency  to  make  men  indolent. 
they  connected  a  manual  labor  department  with 
two  or  more  of  the  institutions  ;  but  the  project 
was  soon  found  to  be  impracticable,  and  was, 
consequently,  abandoned.  -A  still  greater  op- 
position than  to  the  establishment  of  denomina- 
tional colleges  and  high  schools,  was,  for  a  long 
time,  made  to  the  establishment  of  theological 
schools.  The  opponents  of  these  schools  took 
the  ground  that  men  cannot  and  should  not  be 
"  trained  for  the  ministry,"  and  the  special 
schools  of  theology  were  represented  by  them  as 
"priest  factories."  This  feeling,  however,  has 
gradually  lost  ground,  and  has  now  almost  died 
away.  In  1S47,  the  Allegheny  Conference  re- 
solved that  thereafter  ••  a  good  theoretical  and 
practical  knowledge  of  English  grammar,  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  geography,  history  (profane 
and  ecclesiastical,  ancient  and  modern),  and 
theology  should  be  a  test  for  admission  into  the 
itinerancy."  Soon  after,  a'-  course  of  reading  for 
applicants  to  the  ministry"  was  provided;  and 
they  were  annually  examined  upon  this,  and  pro- 
moted and  ordained,  provided  their  progress 
would  permit.  This  course  was  enlarged  and  im- 
proved from  year  to  year,  and  is  still  the  policy 
of  the  church.  In  L865,  the  bishops,  in  their  report 
to  the  General  Conference,  suggested  that  some 
plan  superior,  if  possible,  to  the  present  "course 
of  reading"  and  imperfect  method  of  examina- 
tion, should  be  adopted,  and  enjoined  upon  the 
conferences.  The  committee  of  the  < ieneral  <  !on- 
ference  on  education  reported  in  favor  of  recom- 
mending to  the  trustees  of  Otterbein  University 
the  propriety  of  connecting  with  that  institution 
a  theological  department  as  soon  as  practicable: 
but,  as  this  plan  appeared  to  many  too  radical 
an  innovation,  the  General  Conference  com- 
promised "ii  a  recommendation  to  the  trust 
of  the  several  colleges  to  connect  with  these 
schools  biblical  classes,  embracing  the  course 
of  reading  recommended  in  the  discipline  of  the 
church.  In  L869,  the  General  Conference  ar- 
ranged for  a  board  of  education,  and  instructed 
this  board  lo  establish  a  Biblical  Institute.  In 
1871,  this  school  was  opened  at  Dayton,  0.,  un- 
der the  name  of  the  I  nion  Biblical  Seminary. 
The  sentiment  in  favor  of  a  theological  school 
increased  so  rapidly,  that  by  the  meeting  of  the 
Genera]  Conference,  in  L873,  every  one  of  the 
annual  conferences  had  endorsed  it. — A  board 
oi  education  was  appointed  in  L873.  h  is  to 
make  annual  reports  of  the  condition  of  the 
educational    work  of  the  church,  with   Mich 

ommendations  as  may  seem  besl  for  all  its  in- 
sts  The  United  Brethren  have  a  well- 
organized  Sabbath-school  department.  The  num- 
ber of  Sabbath  schools,  in  IsTti,  was  2,854, 
iiih  I  ('.:;. i.'t'.i  pupils,  officers,  and  teachers.  The 
denominational  book  concern  in  Dayton,  <>.. 
publishes  several  periodicals,  specially  adapted 


to  Sabbath  schools.  Nearly  every  conference 
is  connected  with  some  one  of  the  colleges; 
and  aids  in  its  maintenance.  A  collection  is 
annually  taken  up  in  each  church  for  gen- 
eral educational  purposes;  while  the  colleges, 
through  instrumentalities  of  their  own  appoint- 
ment, are  annually  adding  to  their  resources. 
The  number  of  students  in  attendance  is  in- 
i  creasing  :  the  ministers  are  making  better  prep- 
arations for  their  work  :  and  the  college  gradu- 
at  s  occupy  influential  positions  in  the  church. 
Much  of  the  credit  of  the  educational  progress 
of  the  church  is  due  to  the  Rev.  Lewis  Davis, 
D.  I).,  for  eighteen  years  president  of  Otterbein 
University,  and  now  (1877)  senior  professor  in 
the  Union  Biblical  Seminary. 

UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH, 
the  name  of  a  Protestant  state  church  in  Prus- 
sia and  most  of  the  Cerman  states.  It  was 
formed,  in  1M7.  by  the  union  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  churches;  and,  in  1^71, the  en- 
tire population  formerly  connected  with  those 
churches,  except  about  (10,000  Lutherans,  be- 
longed to  ir.  Although  the  church  has  now 
been  in  existence  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
there  is  still  a  very  great  diversity  in  the  views 
entertained  in  regard  to  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  Union.  A  large  portion  of  the  Luther- 
ans, in  particular,  look  upon  it  not  as  a  new 
church,  but  merely  as  an  administrative  con- 
federation of  the  existing  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed ehurt lies.  The  church  in  Prussia  was 
wholly  under  the  administration  of  consistories 
appointed  by  the  state  until  1*74,  when  the 
government  began  to  carry  into  effect  the  prin- 
ciple of  ecclesiastical  self-government,  by  circle. 
provincial,  and   national  synods. —  As  the  n  i 

nized  state  church  in  Prussia  and  other  German 
states,  the  United  Evangelical  Church  co-oper- 
ates with  the  government ,  to  a  very  large 
extent,  in  the  control  of  primary,  and,  to  some 
extent,  also,  in  that  of  secondary  schools.  (See 
Germany.)  The  faculties  of  Protestant  theol- 
ogy (see  Theological  Schools)  in  all  the  Ger- 
man  universities,  except  Rostock,  Leipsic,  and 
Erlangen,  are  in  official  connection  with  this 
church;  and  it  is  universally  admitted  that, 
through  them,  the  church  has  theological  learn- 
ing  at    its   command    not   surpassed   by  that    of 

other  church. —  Besides  the  theological  facul- 
ties, through  which  candidates  for  the  ministry 

ive  their  scientific  education,  the  church  has 
established  a  number  of   preachers'  seminaries, 

some  of  which  are  connected  with  the  theo- 
logical faculties,  while  others  are  independent  of 
them.-  The  church,  during  the  shorl  period  of  its 
existence,  has  displayed  aremarkablezealinthees- 
tablishmenl  of  reformatory  schools,  among  which 
the  Rauhes  11  md,  founded  by  J.  II.  Wichern,now 
a  member  of  the  Supreme  Ecclesiastical  Council 
of  Berlin, has  gained  a  world-wide  reputation, 

and  Served  as  a  model  for  numerous  other  insti- 
tutions in  and  out  of  Germany.  A  not  her  of  the  in- 

instil  nt  ions  which  owe  their  origin  to  i  his  church, 
is  that  of  the  Protestant  deaconesses,  founded  by 

Dr.  Fliedner,  in  Kaiserswerth,  who, though  chiefly 


UNITED  STATES 


825, 


devoted  to  the  nursing  of  the  sick,  arc  also  con- 
ducting a  number  of  reformatory,  industrial, 
and  missionary  schools.— In  Europe,  the  United 
Evangelical  Church  is  confined  to  Germanv; 
but,  in  L840,  a  branch  was  established  in  the 
United  States,  which,  in  1874,  bad  800  ministers 
and  40.000  communicants.  The  German  lan- 
guage is  still  exclusively  used  in  all  the  congre 
gations.  The  church  has  a  theological  seminary 
in  Warren  Co.,  Mo.,  and  another  educational 
institution  at  Elmhurst.  111. 

UNITED  STATES  of  America,  the  most 
powerful  nation  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  and 
the  largest  republic  in  the  world,  having  an  area 
of  more  than  3,600,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population, 
according  to  the  last  decennial  census,  in  1870, 
of  38,925,598,  consisting  of  33,592,124.")  whites, 
4,886.38"  colored  persons,  63.254  Chinese,  and 
383,712  Indians. 

Educational  History.  —  The  character  of  the 
early  colonists  of  North  America,  courageous, 
independent,  and  intolerant  of  oppression,  would 
of  itself  furnish  presumptive  evidence  that  the 
cause  of  education  in  the  New  World  was  not 
neglected.  Positive  evidence  on  this  point,  how- 
ever, is  not  wanting.  The  earliest  records  of  the 
colonies  attest  the  solicitude  of  the  settlers  for 
the  proper  instruction  of  their  children.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  the  New  England  colonics ; 
and  a  forcible  illustration  of  it  is  afforded  in  the 
early  school  legislation  of  Massachusetts,  partic- 
ularly in  its  famous  school  law  of  1  (147.  (See 
Massachusetts.)  A  comparison  of  this  law, 
which  enunciates,  as  an  important  principle,  the 
joint  obligation  of  the  family  and  the  state  to 
provide  an  education  for  the  young,  with  the 
school  legislation  of  the  foremost  European 
countries  in  the  18th  century,  entitles  Massa- 
chusetts to  a  place  in  the  front  rank  among  the 
enlightened  communities  of  that  period.  The 
history  of  some  of  the  other  colonies  presents 
facts  equally  interesting  and  creditable.  The 
most  striking  feature  of  the  colonial  school  sys- 
tems was  the  connection  of  the  school  with  the 
church,  the  clergyman,  in  many  cases,  being  the 
school-master.  The  Puritans,  the  Huguenots, 
the  Cavaliers,  the  Dutch  settlers,  and  others 
brought  this  principle  with  them  to  their  new 
homes ;  and  the  strength  of  their  religious  con- 
victions tended  to  perpetuate  it.  (For  a  fuller  ac- 
count of  the  educational  history  of  the  colonies, 
see  the  articles  on  the  thirteen  original  states.) — 
\\ 'hen  the  independence  of  the  United  States 
was  established,  education  was  not  among  the 
subjects  which  were  committed  to  the  control  of 
the  national  government;  but  each  individual 
state  engaged,  in  its  own  way,  in  the  work  of 
establishing  and  developing  an  educational  sys- 
tem. Massachusetts,  in  the  new  constitution  of 
1780,  and  Connecticut,  by  its  establishment  of 
a  school  fund,  in  17!<5.  re-asserted  the  principles 
which  had  been  proclaimed  in  the  17th  century, 
and  made  it  the  duty  of  legislatures  and  magis- 
trates to  cherish  the  interests  of  public  schools, 
grammar  schools,  colleges,  and  universities.  New 
Hampshire,  when  amending  its  constitution  iu 


L 784.  expressed  its  entire  concurrence  in  tin; 
constitution  of  Massachusetts  :  and  Vermont,  in' 
1  793,  declared  that  a  sufficient  number  of  schools 
should  he  maintained  in  every  town.  Rhode  Is-' 
land,  which  remained  under  the  colonial  charter 
until  L 840,  and  Maine,  which  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  in  L820,  have  since  indorsed  the  same 
principles;  so  that  the  people  of  New  England 
may  he  said  to  have  been  unanimous  in  their 
views  and  in  their  legislation  on  tin-  subject  of. 
public  education.  In  New  York,  the  progress  of 
the  common-school  system  was  not  so  rapid  as' 
in  New  England.  The  constitution  of  1777 
made  an  allusion  to  schools:  hut.  in  1785,  the 
legislature  created  the  Board  of  Resents  of  the 
University  of  the  State,  designed  to  promote  the 
establishment  of  academies  and  colleges;  and.  in 
1  795,  Governor  George  Clinton  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  common-school  system,  of  which 
Horace  Mann,  in  1845,  could  say.  "the  great 
state  of  New  York,  by  means  of  her  county 
superintendents,  state  normal  school. and  other- 
wise, is  carrying  forward  the  work  of  education 
more  rapidly  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union, 
or  any  other  country  in  the  world."'  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1790,  required  the  legislature  to  pro- 
vide for  the  establishment  of  schools  throughout 
the  state,  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  poor  might 
be  taught  gratis.  New  Jersey,  in  1816,  created 
a  school  fund,  but  a  general  system  of  state. 
county,  and  town  supervision  was  not  adopted 
until  J  846.  The  new  states  of  the  North- West 
and  on  the  Pacific  have  each  built  up  a  common- 
school  system  on  the  New  England  basis  :  and 
the  plan  includes,  in  every  state  except  Ohio,  a 
university  or  high  seminary  of  learning.  In  the 
southern  states  of  the  Union,  the  progress  of 
educational  institutions  has  been  less  satisfactory.- 
Thomas  Jefferson,  in  1779,  drafted  a  bill  pro-' 
viding  a  public-school  system  for  Virginia,  but 
it  was  not  adopted  til  1796,  and  then  with  a  pro- 
viso which  "completely  defeated  it."  The  con-' 
stitution  of  1851  applied  one  equal  moiety  of 
the  capitation  tax  upon  white  persons  to  the. 
purposes  of  education  in  primary  and  free 
schools  ;  but,  neither  in  Virginia,  nor  in  any  other 
Southern  state,  were  there  schools,  of  any  grade, 
which  could  compete,  in  number  or  efficiency, 
with  the  best  schools  of  the  North.  When  the 
civil  war  broke  out.  in  1861,  several  of  the 
Southern  states  were  still  entirely  without  any 
system  of  common  schools.  The  rapid  growth  of 
the  slave  population  for  which  no  education  was 
provided,  placed  the  Southern  states  among  the 
most  illiterate  countries  of  <  Christendom.  After 
the  close  of  the  civil  war.  school  systems  rapidly 
developed  in  that  section,  most  of  them  fully  rec- 
ognizing the  essential  principles  of  free  popular- 
education.  Virginia,  Tennessee.  Kentucky,  and 
Missouri  have  especially  made  progress  in  the 
organization  of  effective  systems  of  public  in- 
struction ;  while,  in  most  of  the  others,  consider- 
able progress  has  been  made.  —  At  the  time  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the  schools  of 
New  England  generally,  and  the  great  majority 
of  the  schools  in  the  other  original  states,  were 


826 


UNITED  STATES 


of  an  exclusively  Protestant  character  ;  and  the 
reading  of  the  authorized  version  of  the  Bible,  the 
singing  of  hymns,  the  saying  of  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
or  other  religious  services,  at  the  teacher's  dis- 
cretion, constituted  a  part  of  the  scholastic  ex- 
ercises. When  the  vast  influx  of  Irish  and  ( lerman 
immigrants  had  given  to  many  of  the  states  a 
numerous  Roman  Catholic  population,  two  ob- 
jections were  raised  to  the  prevailing  school  sys- 
tem. Protesting  against  Catholic  pupils' being 
obliged  to  listen  to  the  reading  of  a  sectarian  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  and  to  the  use  of  hymns  and 
forms  of  prayer  not  sanctioned  by  their  Church, 
and  arguing  that,  according  to  the  principles  of 
the  Catholic  <  'hurch,  religious  and  secular  instruc- 
tion should  go  hand  in  hand,  the  Catholics  asked 
for  a  division  of  the  school  fund,  and  thus  com- 
menced a  heated  controversy  which  is  not  yet 
ended.  (See  Denominational  Schools.)  This  agi- 
tation has,  on  the  one  hand,  led  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  all  religious  exercises  in  the  public 
.schools,  except  the  reading  of  the  Bible  without 
note  or  comment;  and  even  this  now  meets  with 
considerable  opposition,  and,  in  some  places,  has 
been  abolished.  (See  Bible.)  On  the  other  hand, 
the  expression  of  public  opinion  has  been  very 
decided  against  the  support  of  denominational 

acl Is  by  public  moneys,  and  in  favor  of  the 

continued  support  and  encouragement  of  the 
common-school  system  on  a  free  secular  basis. 

The  president  of  the  Cuited  States,  in  his  mes- 
sage to  Congress,  Deo.  7..  1875,  a  Lvised,  "  that  a 
Constitutional  amendment  be  submitted  to  the 
legislatures  of  the  several  states  for  ratification, 
making  it  the  duty  of  each  of  the  several  states, 
to  establish  and  forever  maintain  full  public 
schools,  adequate  to  the  education  of  all  the 
children  in  rudimentary  branches,  within  their 
respective  limits,  irrespective  of  sex,  color,  birth- 
place, or  religion;  forbidding  the  teaching,  in 
said  schools,  of  religious,  atheistic,  or  pagan  ten- 
ets, and  prohibiting  the  granting  of  any  school 
fund  or  school  taxes,  or  any  part  thereof,  either 
by  legislative,  municipal,  or  other  authority,  for 
tlu  benefit  or  in  aid,  directly  or  indirectly,  of 
any  religious  sect  or  denomination"  ;  but  this 
recommendation  was  not  acted  on.  Properly 
speaking,  the  I  Inited  States  has  no  public  school 

system,  the  function  performed  by  the  general 
government  having  always  been  that  of  fostering 
public  education  without  assuming  any  control 
of  it.     (See  Bure  vr  of  Education!) 

Congressional  Land  Ghrants. — The   earliest 
action  of  this   nature,  was  that  of  the  ordinance 

for  the  government  of  the  North-West  Ter- 
ritory, passed  in  17s.").  By  this  the  sixteenth 
section  (one  square  mile)  in  every  township 
was  set  apart  for  the  maintenance  of  common 
.schools,  this  action    being  accompanied  with  the 

declaration  that  "  religion,  morality,  and  knowl- 
edge being  necessary  to  good  government  and 
the  happiness  of  mankind, schools  and  the  means 

of  education  shall  be  forever  encouraged."    The 

i  bates  \\  Inch  have  received  the  L6th  section  under 

this  law,  are  Ohio.  Louisiana.  Indiana,  Missis- 
sippi,  Illinois,    Alabama,    .Maine,   Missouri.   Ar- 


kansas, Michigan,  Florida,  Iowa,  Texas,  and 
Wisconsin.  In  1787,  this  ordinance  was  re- 
newed, and  the  grant  was  increased  by  two  town- 
ships of  land  to  be  given  to  each  state  <-for  the 
purpose  of  a  university."  In  178'J,  after  the 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  this  or- 
dinance was  continued  ;  and,  accordingly,  every 
state  that  has  been  organized  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century,  has  received  at  least 
two  townships  for  the  encouragement  of  higher 
education,  while  Ohio  received  three — one  while 
in  its  territorial  condition,  and  two  as  a  state ; 
and  Florida  and  Wisconsin  each  received  four. 
In  1806,  the  first  appropriation  was  made  for 
the  education  of  the  Indians:  and,  from  that 
time  to  lsTO,  the  sum  expended  for  this  purpose 
has  been  $8,000,000.  In  1836,  the  surplus  fund 
in  the  United  States  Treasury,  amounting  to 
about  $L">,000.0oo  was  loaned  indefinitely  to  the 
older  states  for  educational  purposes;  and,  in 
many,  this  now  constitutes  a  permanent  school 
fund  (United  States  Deposit  Fund).  By  the 
act  of  1841,  sixteen  states  have  received  each 
500,000  acres  of  land,  as  follows  :  Alabama,  Ar- 
kansas, California,  Florida,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kan- 
sas, Louisiana,  .Michigan.  Minnesota.  .Mississippi, 
.Missouri,  Nebraska,  Nevada.  Oregon,  and  Wis- 
consin. A  large  portion  of  the  proceeds  of  the  s;de 
of  these  lands  was  devoted  to  common-school  pur- 
poses. From  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
down  to  L848,  each  state  admitted  into  the 
Union  has  received  the  Kith  section  for  the  sup- 
port of  common  schools.  In  that  year,  the  36th 
section  was  added  to  the  16th  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, the  territory  of  Oregon  being  the  til's?;  to 
receive  it.  Since  that  time,  each  new  territory 
and  state  has  received  two  sections.  Under  the 
acts  of  1*40.  ]8f>0,  and  i860,  a  part  of  the  public 
domain,  amounting  to  62,4'JS,413  acres  known 
as  "swamp  lands",  was  given  to  the  states  of 
Alabama.  Arkansas.  California,  Florida.  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Louisiana,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Mississippi.  Missouri,  Ohio,  and  Wisconsin.  A 
portion  of  the  proceeds  of  this  land,  also,  was 
devoted  to  the  cause  of  education.  The  land 
granted  by  the  general  government,  from  1785 
to  L862,  amounts  to  nearly  140,000,000  acres; 
the  proceeds  of  nearly  all  of  which  have  been 
devoted  to  school  purposes.     In  1862,  a  further 

giant     was    made,    each    state    receiving   30,000 

acres   tor  each  senator  and    representative   in 

Congress,  the  amount  derived  from  the  sale  of 
such  lands  to  be  converted  into  a  perpetual 
fund  for  the  maintenance  of  at  least  one  college 
in  each  state,  in  which  the  distinctive  objecl 
should  be.  "without  excluding  other  scientific 
and  classical  studies,  and  including  military 
tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  oi  learning  as  are 

related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  in 
such  manner  as  the  legislatures  of  the  states  may 

respectively  prescribe,  in  order  to  promote  the 

liberal  and  practical  education  of  the  industrial 
classes  in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  01 
life."  The  amount  of  land  subject  to  the  dis- 
posal of  the  states  by  this  law.  is  9,510,000 acres. 

Thirty-seven  states   have   thus    far   (1877)  taken 


UNITED  STATES 


827 


advantage  of  the  liberal  provisions  of  this  law  ; 
ami  many  institutions  have  been  opened,  in  must 
cases,  independently, but  in  some,  as  departments 

of  colleges  or  universities  existing  at  the  time. 
These  are  the  institutions  usually  known  as 
agricultural  colleges;  though  erroneously,  since 
the  law  for  their  foundation  does  not  exclude 
classical  studies,  but  expressly  declares  that  the 
intention  of  the  Government  is  to  promote  the 
"liberal"  as  well  as  practical  education  of  the  in- 
dustrial classes.    (See  Agricultural  Colleges.) 

Bureau  of  Education,  etc. — In  1867,  the  na- 
tional bureau  was  established  "for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  such  statistics  and  facts  as  shall  show  the 
condition  and  progress  of  education  in  the  several 
states  and  territories,  and  of  diffusing  such  in- 
formation respecting  the  organization  and  man- 
agement of  school  systems  and  methods  of  teach- 
ing as  shall  aid  the  people  of  the  United  States 
in  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  efficient 
school  systems,  and  otherwise  promote  the  cause 
of  education  throughout  the  country."  (See 
Bureau  of  Education.) — In  ls(>5,  the  Freed- 
men's  Bureau  was  established  by  the  government, 
for  the  purpose  of  watching  over  the  interests  of 
4,000,000  slaves  freed  by  the  proclamation  of 
emancipation,  and  preparing  them  for  citizen- 
ship. In  1869,  the  Bureau  was  abolished,  ex- 
cept the  educational  department,  which  was  con- 
tinued till  1870.  The  result  of  its  five  years' 
work  has  been  the  establishment  of  many  in- 
stitutions for  the  superior  instruction  of  the 
freedmen  in  the  Southern  States,  mention  of 
which  is  made  under  their  respective  titles.  The 
field  abandoned  by  it  has  since  been  occupied 
by  several  societies  and  associations,  chiefly  re- 
ligious.    (See  Freedmen's  Schools.) 

Free-School  Si/stems. — The  idea  of  providing 
public  instruction  for  all  children  at  the  expense 
of  the  community  is  by  no  means  novel,  for  we 
find  it  in  the  celebrated  school  law  of  Massachu- 
setts, already  referred  to  ;  but  the  complete  pre- 
dominance of  the  principle  is  a  fact  of  recent 
date.  In  1865,  rate-bills  were  in  use  in 
New  York,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Michigan;  but  a  vigorous  agitation 
against  this  system  ensued;  and,  in  1871, 
the  rate-bill  had  entirely  disappeard.  But 
while  free  common  schools  are  now  found 
throughout  the  American  Union,  and  the  citizens 
may  be  said  to  be  practically  unanimous  in  their 
support,  a  radical  difference  of  opinion  continues 
to  prevail  in  regard  to  the  extension  which 
should  be  given  to  the  application  of  the  system. 
While  in  many  states  secondary  and  even  su- 
perior schools  are  included  within  the  plan,  the 
restriction  of  state  support  to  elementary  schools 
has  many  supporters. — In  the  New  England 
states,  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Missouri.  Ohio, 
and  some  other  states,  the  township  has  always 
been  the  political  unit  upon  which  has  devolved 
the  obligation  to  make  provision  for  education  ; 
but.  in  most  of  the  states,  the  township,  for  a 
time,  almost  disappeared  as  an  element  in  the 
organization  of  the  school  system,  the  only  di- 
visions   being    (1)    the    county,    and    (2)    the 


school-districts  into  which  the  county  was  divid- 
ed. After  an  extended  trial  of  the  district 
system,  most  of  the  states  have  re-organized  their 
school  systems  on  the  township  plan.  The  town- 
ship schools  are  under  the  control  of  local  boards 
which  are  variously  styled  school  committees, 
school  visitors,  school  directors,  school  trustees, 
school  commissioners,  school  boards,  and  pru- 
dential committees.  These  boards  are  generally 
elected  by  the  people,  but  in  some  cases,  they  are 
appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  state.  Of 
late,  compulsory  education  laws  have  been  passed 
in  a  number  of  the  states  ;  but  while  the  principle 
appears  to  gain  favor,  it  is  found  to  be  difficult 
to  enforce  the  laws.  Twenty-three  states,  in 
1 875,  had  each  a  state  board  of  education  for 
the  general  regulation  of  their  public  school 
systems  :  and  all  the  states  and  territories  (Dela- 
ware, since  1875)  have  state  superintendents  of 
public  schools. — The  expenses  for  the  support  of 
the  public  schools  are  defrayed  (1)  from  state 
school  funds  (in  1875,  $81,486,158  in  the  states, 
and  $323,236  in  the  territories),  accumulated, 
for  the  most  part,  from  national  grants  of  lands 
and  from  appropriations  made,  from  time  to 
time,  by  the  state  legislatures ;  (2)  from  state 
school  taxes,  which  are  raised  in  a  majority  of 
the  states,  and  apportioned  among  the  school 
districts;  and  (3)  chiefly  from  local  taxes.  To 
these  regular  sources  of  income,  must  be  added 
another  which  occupies  an  important  position  in 
the  school  finances ;  that  is  (4)  donations.  The 
total  income  of  the  states,  according  to  the  report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1875,  was 
$87,527,278,  and  of  the  territories,  $1,121,672. 
There  is  an  immense  difference  in  the  amount 
of  expenditure  for  the  schools  of  different  states, 
ranging  from  $22  per  capita  of  the  school  popu- 
lation, in  some  states,  to  $1  in  Florida,  Virginia, 
South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Georgia.  In  the 
number  and  amount  of  gifts  for  the  promotion  of 
learning,  this  country  is  unequaled  by  any  other 
on  the  globe.  In  1875,  the  sum  total  of  donations 
reported  to  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  Wash- 
ington was  $4,126,562  ;  in  1874,  $6,053,304  ;  in 
1872,  811. '226.977.— The  total  school  population 
of  the  states  and  territories  amounted,  in  1875, 
to  14,007,522.  The  number  enrolled,  which  in 
the  public  schools  naturally  comprises  chiefly  the 
population  between  the  ages  of  5  or  6  and  15,  was 
8, 7  56, 659;  the  average  daily  attendance,  4,251. 808. 
rl  he  private  schools  in  the  states,  as  far  as  they 
were  heard  from,  reported  180,635  pupils.  In 
the  northern  and  western  states,  there  are  but 
few  native  American  children  who  do  not  attend 
school  during  any  part  of  their  lives;  and,  in  most 
of  these  states,  the  enrollment  of  children  (includ- 
ing those  of  private  schools)  exceeds  the  whole 
number  between  the  ages  of  5  and  1 5.  (For  detailed 
statistics,  see  School  Census.) — The  total  num- 
ber of  teachers  reported  in  1875,  was  249,262,  a 
large  majority  of  whom  were  females.  The 
necessity  of  schools  for  training  teachers  is 
of  comparatively  recent  recognition,  but  now 
the  number  of  normal  schools  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. (See  Teachers'  Seminaries.)  They  are  sup- 


828 


UNITED  STATES 


pigmented  especially  by  Teachers'  Institutes, 
which  have  become  a  prominent  and  universal 
feature  of  the  American  school  system.  The 
highest  average  monthly  compensation  of  male 
teachers  is  $113  (in  Massachusetts),  the  lowest 
$27  (in  Alabama);  the  highesl  compensation  of 
female  teachers  $100  (in  Arizona);  the  lowest  in 
.Maine,  $18.  Alabama,  Delaware,  Kentucky, 
Nevada,  and  Texas  report  the  same  payment 
of  salaries  for  male  and  female  teachers. 

Grades  of  Instruction.  —  The  division  of 
schools  into  the  three  grades  of  primary,  sec- 
ondary, and  superior  schools  does  not  fully  cor- 
respond, in  the  United  States,  to  that  usual  in 
most  of  the  European  states.  American  colleges 
and  universities, which  are  designated  as  superior 
schools,  correspond,  on  the  whole,  to  the  higher 
classes  of  the  gymnasium  rather  than  to  the 
university  of  continental  Europe.  (See  ( !ol- 
lege,  and  University.)  The  boundary  line 
between  secondary  and  primary  schools  is  not 
sharply  drawn;  and  the  difference  in  the  names 
applied  in  different  states  and  cities  to  the  sub- 
divisions of  elementary  schools  renders  an 
account  of  primary  and  secondary  instruction  of 
the  United  States  exceedingly  difficult.  In  New 
York  City,  the  elementary  schools  are  divided  in- 
to primary  and  grammar  departments.  In  Phila- 
delphia, the  schools  are  divided  into  four  grades 
or  departments, — primary,  secondary,  grammar, 
and  high.  In  Boston,  Cleveland,  and  Chicago, 
the  departments  of  the  schools  are  high,  grammar, 
and  primary  ;  in  Cincinnati,  they  are  known  as 
high,  i  uteri  lie  I  Lite,  and  district;  an  1  in  St.  Louis 
as  high,  normal,  ami  district.  In  nearly  all  tli  • 
cities,  the  several  departments  of  elementary  in- 
struction are  divided  into  grades;  and.  even 
in  the  smaller  towns, grading  is  quite  commonly 
adopted,  though  some  .states  reporl  tint  the  prog- 
ress of  th"  grading  system  is  but  slow.  The 
kindergarten  is  rapidly  gaining  favor  as  an  insti- 
tution for  preparing  young  children  for  the  pri- 
mary school;  and,  at  the  close  of  1 8 7 . > .  the  num- 
ber was  reported  as  95,  against  12  in  1873,  with 
2,80!)  pupils,  against  1.272  in  1873.— Within  the 
last  twenty  years,  the  public  high  school,  both  for 
boys  and  girls,  has  become  tic  favorite  method 
of  securing  secondary  instruction  ;  and,  in  the 
western  stales,  it  is  now  almost  the  exclusive 
method.  (See  limn  Schools.)  In  Michigan  and 
Indiana,  the  public  high  schools  already  have 
a  recognized  position  as  proper  feeders  of  the 
freshman  classes  in  the  universities  of  these  two 
states;  and  several  others  of  the  western  states 

are    taking   measures  to  adopt  the  same  system  ; 

while,  throughout   th  h  isti  rn  3tat  is,  the  public 

high     school     is    supplying     a    demand     which 

it  is  1 1  syond  the  power  of  the  endowed  or  tuition 
Bchools,  usually  known  as  academies, to  meet. 

In    New  Fork  and  Maine,  an  alliance   has   been 

effect  sd  ht ween  a  number  of  academies  and  the 

state  and    city  systems,  and  the  same  is   now  at- 
tempts! in  Texas.     The   total  number  of 
ondary  (endowed  or  tuition)  schools  reported  to 
the  I hn van  of  I'j  1  uca i  ion. at  Washington, in  L871, 
was  638,  with  80,227  pupils  ;  in  L873, 944,  with 


118,f>7<>  pupils:  in  1*7:1.  1,143  with  108,235  pu- 
pils. Of  the  1,143  institutions,  in  1875,  there 
were  21")  for  boys,  .'ill  for  girls,  and  617  for 
boys  and  girls  together.  The  number  of  prepara- 
tory schools  reported  in  L 875  was  102,with  12,954 
pupils.  The  schools  for  the  superior  instruction 
of  women  have  increased  with  a  rapidity  which 
is  one  of  the  most  marked  features  of  the  edu- 
cational progress  of  the  United  States.  The 
number  of  institutions  rose  from  33  in  1870  to 
222  in  l!^7"';  the  number  of  teachers,  from  37s 
to  2.-1(1")  :  the  number  of  pupils,  from  5,337  to 
23.795.  The  aggregate  number  of  graduates  in 
1875  was  17,379;  and  the  number  of  degrees 
conferred, 490. — The  number  of  universities  and 
colleges  is  also  rapidly  increasing,  being,  in 
L875,  3.">.">,  against  266  in  1S70.  The  number  of 
instructors,  in  the  same  time,  rose  from  2,823  to 
3,999;  and  of  pupils,  from  49,103  to  58,894.  An 
elevation  of  the  standard  for  admission  was 
proposed,  in  1873,  by  some  of  the  leading  col- 
leges, and  has  .-inee  made  considerable  progn  38. 
There  is.  at  the  same  time,  a  strong  disposition 
to  relinquish  the  rigid  uniformity  of  the  old 
college  curriculum,  and  to  allow  the  pupils  a 
greater  liberty  in  die  selection  of  their  studies. 
An  organization  for  holding  annual  intercol- 
legiate con  tots  in  oratory  was  formed,  in  L874, 
in  Illinois;  ami.  in  1875,  a  kindred  association 
was  organized  among  the  students  of  some  of 

the  eastern  colleges.    (See  COLLEGE.) 

Professional  and  Special  Schools. — A  lie! 
of  professional  school,-,  are  now  increasing  in  the 
United  States  with  great  rapidity.  In  1870, 
there  were  17  schools  of  science,  with  1.413  stu- 
dents; while,  in  L875,  there  were  74.  with  7,157 
student.-.  The  schools  of  theology,  in  the  same 
period,  increased,  from  80,  with  3,254  students,  to 
123.  with  5,234  students:  the  lawschools,  from 
28  to  13:  the  schools  of  medicine, from  63 to  106. 
There  were,  in  L875.  also  41  institutions  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  with  5,087  pupils:  29  institu- 
tions for  the  blind,  with  2,054  pupils;  154  or- 
phan asylums,  with  14,118  inmates:  17  soldiers' 
orphans' homes,  with  2,382  inmates;  12  infant 
asylums,  with  2,816  infants;  24  industrial 
schools,  with  5,268  inmates:  17  reform  schools, 
with  8,111  male  and  2,559  female  inmates. 
(For  a  fuller  account    of  these    institutions.  Bee 

the  articles  Agricultural  Colleges,  Blind, 
Education  ok  the,  Deaf-Mutes,  Industrial 
Schools,  Law  Schools.  Medical  Schools,  Or- 
phan Asylums,  Pharmaceutical  Schools,  Re- 
form  Schools,   SorENTDTTC  Sen .s.  and  Theo- 

logic \t.  Schools.) 

Educational  Periodicals. — A  list  of   all  the 
educational    periodicals    which     appeared    after 

1811  and  prior  to  1865,  is  given  in  Barnard's 
Journal  of  Education,  1865.  In  L876, 116  edu- 
cational periodicals  were  issued  indifferent  parts 
oi  the  Union. 

Literature. — One  of  the  most  valuable soun 
of  information    for  the   history  of  education  in 
America  is  Barnard's   American  Journal  cf 
Education  (begun  in  1856;  24thvol.,1876).  Since 
L867,  the  official  reports  published  by  the  U.  S, 


UXIY'KRSALISTS 


829 


Bureau  of  Education  present  the  material  for 

a  knowledge  of  the  educational  condition  of  the 
country  with  a  completeness  which  leaves  little  to 
be  desired,  and  are  worthy  of  a  comparison  with 
the  official  publications  of  any  country  of  Eu- 
rope. See  also  Oilman,  Education  in  America, 
177() — 1876,  in  North  American  Review,  1876; 
Lawrence,  Educational  Progress,  in  Harper's 
Monthly,  Nov.,  1875. — Among  foreign  works 
on  education  in  the  United  States  may  be  men- 
tioned the  report  made  to  the  English  government 
by  the  Rev.  James  Eraser,  who,  in  1865,spentsix 
months  in  studying  the  educational  institutions  of 
the  country ;  Lavaleye,  L' Instruction  du  peuple; 
Hippeau,  L 'Instruction  publique  aux  Etats 
Unis;  Wimmer,  Die  Kirche  und  die  Schule  in, 
Nbrd-Amer i kt i :  (I jeips.,  1853) ;  Schaff,  Amerika, 
die  politischen ,  socialen  and  kirchlich-religiSsen 
Zustande  (Berlin,  1854)  ;  Dulon,  Ueber  Schule, 
deutsche  Schide,  amerikanische  Schule  und 
deutsch-amerikanische  Schide  (Leips.,  1866)  ; 
Troschel,  Volkscharakter  und  Bildungsanstalr 
ten  der  Nbrdamerikaner  (Berlin,  1867);  Fran- 
cis Adams,  The  Free  School  System  of  the 
United  Stales  (London,  1875)  ;  Rigg,  National 
Education  (London,  1873). —  On  the  peculiar 
features  of  the  American  school  system,  see  A 
Statement  of  the  Theory  of  Education  in  the 
United  States  of  America  (Washington,  1874). 

UNIVERSALISTS  are  distinguished  from 
other  Christians  by  their  belief  in  the  final  sal- 
vation of  all  human  souls.  Rev.  John  Murray, 
who  came  from  England  in  1770,  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  denomination  in  this  coun- 
try ;  but  no  general  denominational  organization 
was  made  until  1785.  The  organization  and 
government  of  the  body  ai'e  essentially  congre- 
gational. Societies  and  churches  are  in  many 
respects  independent.  The  present  organized 
strength  of  the  denomination  is  exhibited  in  the 
following  summary  for  the  United  States  and 
Canada :  1  general  convention ;  22  state  con- 
ventions ;  69  associations ;  880  parishes,  em- 
bracing 41,029  families;  656  church  organiza- 
tions, having  32,947  members ;  640  Sunday- 
schools,  having  59,463  teachers  and  pupils  ;  756 
church  edifices,  with  a  property,  above  indebted- 
ness, of  $7,465,495  ;  and  706  ministers,  includ- 
ing licentiates  and  the  superannuated.  The 
early  preachers  of  the  denomination  were  not 
generally  men  of  liberal  education.  They  even 
looked  with  distrust  upon  colleges  and  divinity 
schools,  because  of  the  support  which  these  in- 
stitutions gave,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  religious 
doctrines,  which  Universalists  deemed  false  and 
pernicious  in  their  influence.  The  free-school 
system  of  instruction  received,  however,  the 
hearty  approval  of  the  growing  denomination,  as 
being  in  perfect  harmony  with  its  cherished  be- 
lief in  the  common  nature  and  common  destiny 
of  man.  Universal ists  have  ever,  therefore,  been 
steadfast  and  zealous  in  their  defense  and  sup- 
port of  common  schools.  Many  faithful  and 
laborious  school  superintendents  and  teachers 
are  found  among  the  clergy  and  educated  lay- 
men. They  would  retain  the  Bible  in  the  schools, 


but  would  be  unwilling  that  it  should  be  used  and 
interpreted  in  the  special  interestof  any  denomina- 
tion. They  would  have  education  ( hristian,  but 
not  narrowly  sectarian.  In  the  first  efforts  of 
Universalists  to  establish  schools  under  their 
control  and  patronage,  they  were  mainly  desirous 
of  founding  institutions  which,  while  they  should 
be  Christian. should  be  kept  free  from  obnoxious 
religious  teachings  and  hurtful  superstitions. 
They  detested  illiberality  and  bigotry,  and  were 
tardy,  perhaps,  in  comprehending  the  full  duty 
which,  in  the  matter  of  education,  a  Christian 
denomination  owes  alike  to  itself,  to  the  church, 
and  to  the  world.  In  later  years,  they  have 
manifested  much  interest  and  zeal  in  founding 
and  endowing  denominational  schools.  In  not  a 
few  cases,  schools  have  been  commenced  and 
continued  for  a  time,  and  then  closed  from  lack 
of  patronage  or  endowments.  Sometimes,  enter- 
prises begun  have  been  merged  in  others  that 
promised  a  higher  and  better  success.  As  the 
result  of  many  efforts,  —  some  abortive,  and 
others  partially  successful, — Universalists  have 
now  under  their  control,  seven  academies,  five 
colleges*  and  two  divinity  schools.  —  The  first 
successful  movement  to  found  an  institution  of 
learning,  was  made  in  the  state  of  Maine  in  1830, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Rev.Wm.  A.  Drew,  and 
the  Rev.  S.  Brimblecom,  men  of  high  culture,  and 
experienced  teachers.  It  resulted  in  the  incor- 
poration of  Westbrook  Seminary,  in  1831,  and 
in  the  opening  of  a  school  for  both  sexes,  under 
the  instruction  of  the  Rev.  S.  Brimblecom,  in 
1834.  After  many  struggles,  the  seminary  was 
permanently  established,  and  its  accommodations 
were  made  ample.  It  has  earned  and  enjoys  a  wide 
l-eputation.  The  female  department  is  collegiate 
in  character,  and  degrees  are  conferred  upon 
female  graduates  by  state  authority.  In  the  same 
year,  1831,  through  the  exertions  of  the  Rev. 
Stephen  R.  Smith,  Clinton  Liberal  Institute  was 
incorporated,  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and 
funds  were  raised  to  erect  a  suitable  building.  It 
was  opened  for  both  sexes  in  1832,  two  years  be- 
fore the  Westbrook  Seminary  was  put  in  opera- 
tion. It  offers  superior  opportunities  to  students. 
The  female  department  occupies  a  separate 
building.  Both  departments  have  been  effective 
in  educational  work.  Funds  have  recently  been 
raised  to  erect  a  large  edifice  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  both  sexes.  The  other  academies  of  the 
denomination  are:  in  Vermont,  the  Green  Mount- 
ain Perkins  Institute,  incorporated  in  1848,  and 
Goddard  Seminary,  chartered  in  1863  ;  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, Dean  Academy,  chartered  in  1865; 
in  Wisconsin,  Jefferson  Liberal  Institute,  incor- 
porated in  1866  ;  and.  in  Iowa,  Mitchell  Semi- 
nary, chartered  in  1871.  Males  and  females  are 
admitted  to  all.  The  denomination  has  no  acad- 
emy for  one  sex  only.  Goddard  Seminary 
has  a  very  pleasant  location.  The  school  build- 
ing is  large,  of  commanding  architecture,  and 
affords  excellent  accommodations  for  students. 
Dean  Academy  is,  in  its  buildings  and  ap- 
pointments, unsurpassed  by  any  institution  of 
its  grade  in  New  England.     Dr.  Uliver  Dean, 


830 


UNIYERSALISTS 


whose  name  it  bears,  left  a  large  bequest  for  its 
endowment. —  Tufts  College,  in  Massachusetts, 
chartered  in  1852,  and  organized  under  the  Rev. 
Hosea  Ballou,  2d,  1).  1).,  its  first  president,  in 
1854,  was  the  first  college  founded  by  Lnivers- 
alists.  Its  appointments  and  courses  of  study 
are  those  of  an  American  university.  Lombard 
University,  in  Illinois,  was  chartered  as  an  acad- 
emy, by  the  name  of  The  Illinois  Liberal  Insti- 
tute, in  1851.  It  was  opened  for  students  in 
1852.  received  college  powers  by  legislative  en- 
actment in  1853,  and  the  name  of  Lombard 
University,  with  university  powers,  in  L857. 
St.  Lawrence  University,  in  Canton,  X.  V..  was 
chartered  in  L856.  Its  collegiate  department 
was  opened  and  placed  under  the  charge  of  the 
Rev.J.S.  Lee,  I>.  I  >..  in  L859.  The  preparatory  de- 
partment was  given  up  in  1 864.  Bucntel  I  'ofleg  s, 
in  Akron,  Ohio  (assets  8:500,000)  the  Rev.  S.  II. 
McCollester,  I>.  I>..  president,  and  Smithson  Col- 
lege, in  Indiana  (assets  8100,000)  were  chartered 
in  1871.  They  have  elegant  and  commodious 
buildings,  with  superior  school  accommodations. 

— Before  theological  schools  were  instituted  by 
CTniversalistS,  young  men  desirous  of  entering 
the  ministry,  were  accustomed  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  instruction  and  libraries  of  influen- 
tial clergymen.  The  first  theological  school 
known  in  the  denomination,  was  the  enteqjrise 
of  a  single  individual,  and  was  temporary  in  its 
duration.  It  was  opened,  in  1845,  by  the  Rev. 
Thomas  J.  Sawyer.  D.  I>..  at  that  time  principal 
of  Clinton  Liberal  Institute.  It  was  continued 
by  him  till  1854,  during  which  time  about  25 
students  were  carried  through  systematic  courses 
of  theological  study,  and  inducted  into  the 
Christian  ministry.  Among  them,  are  some  of 
the  most  highly  esteemed  clergymenof  the  order. 
St.  Lawrence  Theological  School,  a  departmenl 
of  St.  Lawrence  University,  was  the  first  per- 
manently established  divinity  school.  It  was 
chartered  in  L856,and  opened  in  L858,  under  the 
charge  of  the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Fisher,  l>.  D.,  who 
still  continues  in  the  position.  It  has  a  good 
endowment, a  large  library.  •'{  professors,  and,  at 
the  present  time,  has  in  attendance  25  students. 
Tufts  Divinity  School,  connected  with  Tufts  Col- 
lege, was  chartered  in  L857,  and  organized  in  L868, 
the  Lev.  Thomas  .1.  Sawyer,  l>.  I).,  principal. 
It  has  4  regular  professors,  and  .'5  non-resident 
professors  or  lecturers;  the  present  attendance 
of  students,  is  .'!:;.  The  amount  of  property  de- 
voted to  denominational  schools, — including  acad- 
emies, colleges,  and  divinity  schools,  is  estimated 
,-it  82.385,000.  The  number  of  teachers  con- 
nected with  them,  is  99  :  and  the  number  of 
students.  1,036.  —  Sunday-schools  reported  as 
numbering  640    are,  as  a  rule,  maintained  in 

connection  with  all  the  churches,  and  a  deep  in- 
terest is  felt  and  manifested  in  them.  The  at- 
tendance of  pupils   is  generally  large,  and  the 

classification    Complete.        Instruction     is     made 

and  effective  by  the  use  of  catechisms 
adapted  to  pupils  of  different  ages,  uniform  les- 
son and  other  papers,  and  well  selected  libraries. 

State  and  other  Sunday-school  organizations,  the 


normal  training  of  teachers,  public  meetings, 
celebrations,  exhibitions,  and  concerts  manifest 
and  intensify  the  interest  felt  by  young  and  old 
in  this  class  of  schools,  which  are  regarded  as  an 
effective  means  of  imparting  religious  instruc- 
tion. There  is.  at  the  present  time,  no  organiza- 
tion called  an  education  society,  connected  with 
the  Iniversalist  body  of  (  hristians  :  but  each 
state  convention  is.  by  constitutional  provision, 
required  to  devote  special  attention  to  the  edu- 
cational interests  of  the  denomination,  within  its 
territorial  limits,  including  Sunday-schools  and 
the  best  methods  for  their  management ;  and  the 
trustees  of  the  General  Convention  are  directed 
to  present  in  their  annual  report  "a  general 
statement  as  to  the  condition  and  wants  of  the 
church,  with  respect  to  education  and  whatever 
else  concerns  its  interests,  with  such  suggestions 
as  they  may  deem  proper."  It  is  also  provided 
that  ••  every  school,  academy,  or  college,  main- 
tained at  its  expense,  or  conducted  under  the 
management  of  Universalists,  shall  send  a  copy 
of  its  annual  report  to  the  secretary  of  the  state 
wherein  it  is  situated,  and  to  the  secretary  of  its 
convention.  The  General  Convention  controls, 
also,  the  expenditure  of  the  income  from  the  BO- 
called  Murray  Centenary  Fund,  of  $120,000, 
which  is  appropriated  to  aid  in  tin-  education  of 
the  clergy,  and  for  other  purposes  connected 
w  ith  the  extension  and  upbuilding  of  the  (  hurth. 
The  amount  of  convention  aid  rendered  to  stu- 
dents in  1876,  was  $7,200.  The  denomination 
has  been  honored  by  the  services  of  teachers 
of  distinguished  ability,  great  experience,  and 
wide  reputation.  The  Rev.  T.  (  lowes,  I.L.  D., 
one  of  the  early  principals  of  Clinton  Liberal 
Institute,  was  a  superior  scholar,  and  noted  for 
critical  and  learned  research  :  the  Lev.  1>.  M. 
Knapen  is  the  author  of  a  work  on  mathematics, 
and  Prof.  George  Robert  Perkins,  LL.  1>..  the 
author  of  valuable  mathematical  text-books.  'I  he 
Rev.  II.  L«.  Maglathlin  is  known  as  the  editor  of 
the  Greenleaf  series  and  of  other  mathematical 
works.  The  Lev.  Otis  A.  Skinner.  I>.  D., second 
president  of  Lombard  University,  as  a  teacher, 
and  as  a  superintendent  of  schools,  and  for  emi- 
nent services  in  raising  funds  for  the  establish- 
ment of  Tufts  College,  is  held  in  grateful  re- 
membrance. Prof.  J.  V.  N.  Standish,  of  Lom- 
bard University,  is  widely  known  as  a  teacher 

of  mathematics,  and  as  a  conductor  of  teachers' 
institutes.    The  Lev.  J.  S.  Lee.  I ».  D..a  graduate 

of  Amherst  College,  in  1845,  has.  in  various  ca- 
pacities, given  28  years  to  educational  work  in 

the  Universalis!  denomination.  The  Lev.  .lames 
P.  West  on.  I>.l>.,  has,  also,  been  28  years  a  teacher 
in  denominational  schools.  The  Lev.  Alonzo  A. 
Miner.  I».  I>..  I.L.D..  is  distinguished  as  a  divine 

and  a    reformer,  as  well    as  a    veteran   educator. 

Be  opened,  and  successfully  taught  for  several 
years,  the  Unity  Scientific  Military  Academy,  and 

was  the  second  president  of  Tufts  (  'ollege.  retain- 
ing the  position  for  12  years.  As  a  member  of 
th.'  Massachusetts  Board  of  Elducation,  and  as  a 
lecturer,  he  has  also  rendered  valuable  service  to 
the  cause  of  education. 


UNIVERSITY 


831 


UNIVERSITY,   a  name  first  given,  in  the 
middle  ages,  to  institutions  for  superior  instruc- 
tion.    In  the  second  half  of  the  1 2th  century,  a 
free  union  of  students  of  medicine  was  formed 
in  Salerno  (1150),  and  another  of  students  of 
law  in  Bologna  (115.S).    The  students  had  equal 
rights   with    the   professors   in    these    unions; 
which   soon    attracted    such    crowds    that,   in 
Bologna,  the  studies  of  medicine  and  theology 
were  added;  and,  in  Salerno,  those  of  law  and 
philosophy.     This  was  the  origin  of  the  modern 
European   university.      At    the    university   of 
Bologna,  as  well  as  at  the  universities  of  Padua 
and  Naples,  which  were  early  established,  the 
study  of  law  remained    predominant,  ecclesias- 
tical and  secular  law  (decreta  and  leges)  being 
eagerly  studied  in  order  to  obtain  high  offices  in 
church  and  state. — In  Paris,  a  university  arose 
from  the  cathedral  school,  and,  as  the  chief  seat 
of  scholasticism,  soon  attained  the  rank  of  the 
foremost  university  of   western    Europe.     The 
formation  of  nations  and  of    faculties  exerted 
a  decisive  influence  upon  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  university.     As  scholars  from  all 
parts  of  the  Christian  world  flocked  to   Paris 
in  large  numbers,  and  the  government  of  the 
state  took  no  notice   of  them,  they  found  it 
necessary  to  form  national  groups  for  the  pur- 
pose of  self  government.   Thus,  the  four  nations 
of  the  Gallicans  (including  Spaniards.  Italians, 
Greeks,  and  Orientals),  the    Picards,  the  Nor- 
mans, and  the  English  (including  Germans  and 
Northmen)    were   formed.      The   formation  of 
special  faculties  was  caused  by  the  Mendicants' 
orders,  which  early  recognized  the  importance  of 
the  rising  university,  and,  as  teachers  of  theology 
and  ecclesiastical  law,  assumed,  in  regard  to  the 
nations,  an  independent  position.      In   conse- 
quence of  the  complications   which  were  pro- 
duced by  their  teaching,  the  professors  of  theol- 
ogy (about  1270),  and,  somewhat  later,  those  of 
medicine  and  of  ecclesiastical   law,  formed  a 
union,  and  in  this  way  organized  three  distinct 
faculties.     The  faculties  represented,  therefore, 
special  sciences  ;    while  the  four  nations,  as  a 
continuation   and   enlargement  of  the   former 
cathedral  school,  represented  the  tririnm  and  the 
quadrivium,  or  the  preparatory  sciences.     Fol- 
lowing, at  length,  the  example  of  the  other  facul- 
ties, the  nations  gradually  transformed  them- 
selves into  the  faculty  of  the  liberal  arts,  which, 
for  a  time,  occupied  a  position  inferior  to  that 
of  the   older    faculties.      These    developments 
made  the  university  of  Paris  the  great  literary 
ceuter  of  Europe  ;  and,  at  times,  it  was  attended 
by  more  than  20,000  students. — In   Germany, 
the  first  university  was  founded  by  the  emperor  ; 
Charles  IV.  at   Prague,  in  1348.     It  was  fol- 
lowed, in  the  course  of  the  14th  and  15th  cent- 
uries, by  many  others,  as  follows:  that  of  Vien- 
na (1365),  Heidelberg    (originally    founded  in 
1346,but  notopened  until  1386),  Cologne  (1388), 
Erfurt    (1392),    Wurtzburg,   Leipsic,    Rostock, 
Greifswalde,  Freiburg,  Treves,  Tubingen,   and 
Mayence.  The  German  universities,  which  owed 
their  establishment  to  the  liberality  of  princes, 


became  the  chief  nurseries  of  the  humanistic  stud- 
ies, and  thus  prepared  the  way  for  the  Reforma- 
tion in  the  16th  century.     The  new  high  schools 
were  called   universitates  (universities)  not  orig- 
inally as  universitates  literarum,  embracing  the 
universality  of  sciences,  but  as  universitates  ma- 
gislrorum  et  scholarium  (the  universal  union  of 
teachers  and  scholars).  They  were  not  regarded 
as  strictly   national   institutions,  but   rather  as 
high   schools    belonging  to    the  entire   Christian 
world.      Their   privileges,    therefore,  had  to  be 
sanctioned  by  the  Pope;  and  the  chancellor,  with- 
out whose  consent  no  academic  degree  was  valid, 
exercised  his  functions  in  the  name  of  the  I 'ope. 
In  regard  to   their  constitution,  the  universities 
were   entirely   independent    corporations.      The 
nations,  as  well  as  the  faculties,  had  their  own 
statutes,  seals,  and  treasuries.     At  the  head  of  a 
nation,  was  a  procurator  ;  at  the  head  of  the  en- 
tire university,  a  rector.     The  students  lived  in 
special  halls,  called  colleges  (in  Germany,  bursa?), 
in  which  they  were  provided  with  the  necessaries 
of  life,  supported  in  their  studies,  and  superin- 
tended in  their  daily  life.    Instruction  was  im- 
parted by  means  of  lectures  and  disputations. 
The  independence  of  the  universities  led  to  the 
organization  of  a  system  of  academic  degrees,  in- 
tended to  mark  the  various  steps  from  the  ma- 
turity of  the  student  to  the  qualification  of  the 
academic  teacher.     At  the  Italian  universities, 
the  students,  for  a  long  time,  chose  their  own 
professors ;  but,  gradually,  the  authorization  to 
teach  was  limited  to  those  who  had  been  duly 
licensed,  or  acquired  the  degree  of   licentiate. 
After  the  Reformation  in  the  1  6th  century,  the 
number  of  universities  in  Germany  rapidly  in- 
creased, as  every  prince  was  anxious  to  have  his 
own,  and  as  there  was,  moreover,  a  rivalry  be- 
tween the   Catholic,   Lutheran,   and   Reformed 
churches.     The   Protestant  universities,  having 
no  connection  with  the  Pope,  became  altogether 
national  institutions  ;  and,  gradually,  the  Cath- 
olic universities  were  likewise  regarded  by  the 
state  authorities  as  being  exclusively  subject  to 
state  jurisdiction.     In  the  case  of  the  faculties 
of  Catholic  theology  alone,  some  rights  of  super- 
intendence were  conceded  to  the  bishops  of  the 
country.     Though  stripped  of   their  former  in- 
dependence, the  universities  retained,  however, 
until  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution,  a  con- 
siderable number  of  privileges;  and  a  remnant  of 
academic  jurisdiction   has,   in   some   countries, 
maintained   itself    to   the   present   day.  —  The 
Latin  language  continued  for  a  long  time  to  be 
exclusively  used  in  the  lectures  of  the  university, 
but,  from  the  beginning  of  the  1  7th  century,  it 
gradually  gave  way  to  the  native  tongues.     By  i 
this  change,  the  universities  became  more  in-/ 
timately  associated  with  the  entire  literary  and 
educational  progress  of  the  European  countries, 
and  began  to  exert  a  more  direct  influence  upon 
primary  as  well  as  secondary  instruction. — AVhile 
the  European  universities  may  be  said  to  have 
been  the  leaders  in  the  wonderful  progress  which 
the  world's  literature,  in  all  its  departments,  has 
made  during  the  18th  and  19th  centuries,  their 


S32 


UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE 


course  of  studies  has  been  steadily  expanded. 
Though  the  mediaeval  division  into  four  facul- 
ties has  been  generally  retained,  the  number  of 
subjects  taught  in  each  faculty  has  been  greatly 
enlarged.  In  some  universities,  the  faculty  of 
arts  or  of  philosophy  has  been  subdivided  into 
two  sections  ;  in  some,  new  faculties  (of  political 
economy,  or  of  natural  sciences)  have  been  added 
to  these  four  traditional  ones  ;  in  some,  there 
are  two  distinct  theological  faculties  (one  Prot- 
estant and  one  Catholic)  ;  in  others,  the  theolog- 
ical faculty  has  been  abolished. — It  is  generally 
agreed  that,  in  the  present  century,  the  univer- 
sities of  <  lermanyhave  attained  the  highest  stage 
of  development.  Recently,  however,  the  Catholic 
<  'hurch  has  availed  herself  of  the  new  educational 
law  to  establish  a  number  of  free  Catholic  univer- 
sities which,  as  schools  of  superior  instruction, 
have  the  same  organization  as  those  in  other 
countries  of  Europe.  All  of  them  are  under  the 
sole  and  absolute  control  of  the  state  government, 
and  they  represent  the  highest  or  superior  stage 
of  the  system  of  instruction  which  the  state 
organizes  for  the  rising  generation.  The  uni- 
versity, as  a  Bchool  of  superior  instruction,  is 
sharply  distinguished  from  the  secondary  school, 
or  gymnasium.  The  state  requires  that  many 
classes  of  its  officers  should  have  spent  three  or 
tour  years  at  a  university;  and  admission  to  the 
university  is  made  contingent  upon  passing  a 
successful  examination  at  one  of  the  state  gym- 
nasia. (Sec  Germany.)  The  universities  of  Switz- 
erland, Austria,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  the 
Scandinavian  kingdoms,  Russia,  and  Greece, 
also  those  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  agree 
substantially  with  the  German  institutions, 
having  four  or  more  faculties,  and  being  schools 
of  superior  instruction.  Those  of  recent  origin, 
like  the  universities  of  Athens  and  Christiania, 
have  been  wholly  fashioned  after  German  mod- 
els. The  universities  in  the  British  isles,  and  in 
the  British  possessions,  materially  differ  from 
those  of  continental  Europe,  and  some  of  them 
confine  themselves  to  examinations  and  the  con- 
ferring  of   degrees.       (See    ENGLAND,    SCOTLAND, 

Ireland,  Cambridge,  London,  and  Oxford.)— 
The  universities  of  Trance  were  abolished  in 
1  7!).">;  and,  in  the  school  legislation  of  Napoleon  I., 
the  name  University  of  Erance  was  used  in  a 
different  sense,  being  applied  to  the  entire  sys- 
tem of  public  instruction.  (See  France.)  The 
states  of  Central  and  South  America  have  a 
number  of  institutions  called  universities,  but 
most  of  them  have  nothing  in  common  with  the 
universities  of  Europe  except  the  name.  In 
Turkey,  China,  Japan,  and  a  number  of  other 
countries,  efforts  Dave  recently  been  made  to 
organize,  or  reorganize,  schools  of  superior  in- 
struct ion  after  the  model  of  the  European  univer- 
sities; but  all  these  institutions  are  still  in  their 
infancy,  or,  at  least,  are  not  yet  worthy  of  a  i i- 

parison  with  universities.    In  the  United  States. 

tin-  term  university  is  generally  used  in  the  same 

sense  as  that  of  college.  (See  Colleges.)  Infor- 
mal ion  in  regard  to  the  universities  of  the  United 
States  is  given  in  the  special  articles  in  this  work 


on  important  institutions  of  that  class.  The 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  at  Baltimore,  which 
was  opened  in  1876,  is  to  be  conducted  after  the 
<  u'i'inan  plan.  The  establishment  of  a  National 
Ljiiversity,  at  Washington,  to  be,  in  the  fullest 
sense  of  the  word,  an  institution  for  superior  in- 
struction, has  been  for  several  years  agitated. 
An  account  of  the  universities  of  each  impor- 
tant country  of  the  world,  embracing  the  latest 
statistics,  is  given  in  the  articles  in  this  work 
ti] ion  the  several  countries.  The  articles  on  the 
different  classes  of  professional  schools  (Tdjeo- 
logical,  Law,  Medical.  Pharmaceutical,  etc.) 
refer  to  the  development  of  the  different  facul- 
i  ties. — See  Malden,  Origin  of  Universities  and 
Academic  Degrees  (London,  1  835j ;  II.  von  Sybel, 
Diedeuisclu  n  unddieauswdrtigi  n  UhiversUdtt  n 
(Bonn,  1868);  De  Vikiville,  llistoire  des  uui- 
versites  en  France  (Paris,  1847);  Barnard,  His- 
tcry  of  German  Universities,  translated  from 
K  w;i,  von  Raumer  (N.  Y.,  1859) ;  Schaff,  Ger- 
many,its  Universities  etc.  (Phila.,  1857);  Hart, 
German  Universities  (N.  Y.,  1874). 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  (London)  was 
opened  in  Oct.,  1828,  under  the  title  of  The 
University  of  London.  The  object  of  its  pro- 
moters was  to  found,  in  the  metropolis,  a  seat  of 
learning  where  all,  without  distinction  of  creed, 
might  obtain  a  liberal  education,  whilst  remain- 
ing under  the  care  of  their  parents  or  friends 
at  home.  No  religious  instruction  is  given  with- 
in  the  college  walls,  that  being  regarded  as  a 
home  matter,  for  which  parents  and  guardians 
must  hold  themselves  responsible;  and  thus  it 
has  been  found  possible  to  admit  on  terms  of 
perfect  equality  all  races  and  creeds. 

If  the  original  intention  had  been  adhered  to, 
the  college  would  have  resembled  a  Scotch  uni- 
versity, in  which  the  teaching  body  and  the  body 
that  grains  degrees  are  the  same;  but,  when. 
year  after  year,  the  application  to  the  govern- 
ment for  ;i  charter  giving  the  right  to  confer  de- 
grces,  was  resisted  by  the  older  universities,  and 

by  various  medical  bodies  in  the  metropolis,  a 

compromise  was  at  length  agreed  to,  in  1836.  By 
tin's  compromise,  the  institution  which  is  now 
known  as  University  College,  resigned  its  first 
title  of  University  of  London  in  favor  of  a  new- 
body  to  he  created  by  the  Crown, which  should 
confer  degrees  upon  students  coming  up  to  be 
examined  from  such  colleges,  in  town  and  coun- 
try, as  might,  from  time  to  time,  be  affiliated  to 
the  university.  The  close  connection  originally 
existing  between  University  College  and  the 
University  proper,  has  been  maintained,  about 
thirty-two  per  cent  of  the  2,665  degrees  held  by 

graduates  at  the  end  of  L873,  having  been  con- 
ferred on  students  from  the  college. 

In  University  College,  there  an  faculties  of 
arts,  of  laws,  of  science,  and  of  medicine,  with 
;m  engineering  department,  and  a  fine  arts  de- 
partment. These  are  served  by  about  II  profess- 
ors.  In  the  session  ending  midsummer,  187:"), 
there  were  olio  students  in  the  faculties  of  arts, 
of   laws,  and    of  science,  including   the    tin.'  arts 

and  the  engineering  departments, and  335 stu- 


UNIVERSITY  COLLI*  J  E 


UPPER  IOWA  UNIVERSITY     833 


deius  in  the  faculty  of  medicine.  In  1832,  a 
school  for  boys  was  established  in  connection 
with  the  college,  and  placed  under  the  head- 
mastership  of  the  late  professors  Key  and  Mai- 
den. In  this  school,  there  were,  in  1 HT4 — 5. 
700  pupils,  the  greatest  number  in  any  one  term 
that  session  being  589.  Among  the  professors 
in  the  college,  there  have  been  many  men  of 
high  eminence.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned 
Augustus  De  Morgan,  who,  for  34  years,  was 
professor  of  mathematics.  Many  of  his  pupil,-; 
afterwards,  at  Cambridge,  achieved  the  highest 
honors,  four,  at  least,  becoming  senior  wrang- 
lers, among  them,  Todhunter  and  Routh.  - 
The  entire  government  of  the  college  is  vested 
in  the  council,  a  body  of  24  gentlemen  who  are 
appointed  by  the  members  of  the  college  from 
themselves,  and  of  whom  (i  retire  every  year; 
but  the  senate,  which  consists  of  the  professor/3 
presided  over  by  a  member  of  council,  often 
exerts,  by  its  advice,  great  influence  upon  the 
decisions  of  the  council.  The  presidents  of  council 
have  been  successively  Lord  Brougham,  George 
Grote,  and  Lord  Belper. 

The  college,  as  yet,  has  received  no  help  from 
the  public  funds.  It  originate:!  entirely  in  the 
efforts  of  private  individuals.  Its  capital  was 
subscribed  in  £100  shares,  of  which,  in  1843, 
there  were  1,710,  the  number  of  subscribers  be- 
ing 1,072.  The  original  deed  of  settlement  pro- 
vided that  the  share-holders  might  receive  a 
dividend  not  exceeding  4  per  cent ;  but.  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  no  dividend  was  ever  paid,  and, 
in  1869,  an  act  of  parliament  was  obtained  which 
divested  the  college  of  its  proprietary  character, 
and  enlarged  its  powers  by  enabling  it  to  give 
instruction  in  the  tine  arts,  and  to  teach  women 
as  well  as  men.  The  subscribers,  or  those  to 
whom  they  have  transferred  or  bequeathed  their 
shares,  constitute,  with  the  fellows  and  life- 
governors,  the  members  of  the  college,  and,  at 
their  annual  meeting,  fill  the  vacancies  in  the 
council.  In  the  course  of  years,  many  of  the 
shares  had  been  ceded  or  forfeited,  and  lapsed 
shares  were  bestowed  upon  distinguished  grad- 
uates of  the  college,  styled  fellows,  or  upon  per- 
sons of  eminence  who  might  advantageously  be 
associated  in  the  government  of  the  college,  and 
who  were  styled  life-governors.  The  first  fellows 
were  chosen  in  1843  ;  the  fife-governors  are  of 
much  more  recent  origin,  having  been  appointed 
subsequently  to  the  act  of  parliament. 

The  fine  art  or  Slade  schools  (called  into  exist- 
ence by  the  munificent  bequest  of  Mr.  Felix 
Slade)  have  been  very  successful,  so  that  already 
the  accommodation  provided  is  not  sufficient. 
The  number  of  students, .  male  and  female,  in 
1874— 5,  was  220.  Ladies  are,  for  the  present, 
admitted  equally  with  gentlemen  to  the  classes 
of  political  economy,  jurisprudence,  Roman  law, 
and  geology.  A  ladies'  association,  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  council,  arranges  separate 
classes  also  for  ladies  (taught,  for  the  most  part, 
by  the  professors)  in  the  following  subjects : 
French,  German,  Greek,  mathematics,  Latin, 
Italian,  history,  hygiene,  English  literature,  phys- 
53 


ics,  and  chemistry.  In  1875 — G,  these  classes 
numbered  17.  and  were  attended  by  394  ladies. 
Very  few  of  tin-  professorships  are  endowed: 
hence,  many  of  the  professors,  having  to  rely 
solely  on  fees,  are  inadequately  paid.  A  royal 
commission,  two  years  ago,  recommended  that 
the  college  should  be  helped  by  government 
grants,  both  to  extend  its  appliances  for  the 
teaching  of  science,  and  to  augment  the  stipends 
of  the  science  professors. 

To  the  original  share  capital  of  the  colkge. 
many  donations  and  bequests  have  been  added. 
Down  to  1870.  the  expenditure  on  capital  ac- 
count amounted  to  £202,287.  The  income 
arising,  in  the  same  year,  from  endowments 
amounted  to  £2,97*,  appropriated,  for  the  most 
part,  to  special  purposes  (as  to  scholarships  and 
professorships).  Ihe  amount  received  in  fees, 
in  1874 — 5,  was  over  £27,000,  nearly  one-half 
from  the  school  for  boys.  These  figures  refer  to 
every  part  of  the  college  except  the  hospital. 

The  eastern  portion  of  the  buildings,  about 
400  feet  in  length,  was  erected  first.  In  the  center 
of  this,  is  a  handsome  Corinthian  portico,  with 
a  dome.  During  the  last  eight  years,  the  south 
wing,  which  is  occupied  by  the  school,  has  been 
commenced,  and  nearly  completed.  By  means 
of  the  Slade  bequest,  a  portion  of  the  north 
wing  has  also  been  built.  The  hospital,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  Cower  street,  completes  the  quad- 
rangle; it  was  opened  in  1834.  At  University 
Hall,  near  the  College,  are  rooms  for  30  students; 
this  is  connected  with  the  college,  but  under  dif- 
ferent management. —  See  Penny  Cyclopaedia, 
art.  University  College;  yearly  Reports  and  Cal- 
endars of  the  College;  Fifth  Report  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  Scientific  Instruction  (1874). 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.,  founded  in  1859,  is  under  Presby- 
terian control.  It  embraces  a  primary,  a  higher 
English,  a  classical  preparatory,  and  a  collegiate 
department.  Females  are  admitted  to  the  lower 
departments.  The  cost  of  tuition  ranges  from  $6 
to  $15  a  month;  but  there  is  an  extra  charge  for 
modern  languages,  book-keeping,  drawing,  and 
music.  In  1874—5,  there  were  7  instructors  and 
90  students.  The  principals  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: the  Rev.  Geo.  Burrows,  D.  I).;  the  Rev. 
Peter  V.  Veeder,  D.  D.;  the  Rev.  Wm.  Alexan- 
der, D.D.;  and  the  Rev.  James  Matthews,  D.  D., 
the  present  incumbent  (1877). 

UPPER  IOWA  UNIVERSITY,  at  Fay- 
ette, Iowa,  under  Methodist  Episcopal  control, 
was  opened  as  a  seminary  Jan.  1.,  1857,  and 
chartered  as  a  college  in  1 8G0.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an  endowment 
of  $15,000.  It  has  libraries  containing  about 
2,000  volumes.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  There 
are  six  departments  :  collegiate,  (with  a  classical 
and  a  scientific  course),  preparatory,  English, 
commercial,  of  music,  and  of  fine  arts.  In  1875 
— 6,  there  were  9  instructors  and  243  students 
(deducting  repetitions),  as  follows  :  collegiate, 
30;  preparatory,  56  ;  English,  115  ;  commercial, 
48;  music,  50;  painting,  1G.  The  presidents 
have  been    as    follows :   the  Rev.  William  II. 


834 


URB  A  N  A   U  N I V  ERSITT 


UTAH 


Poor,  A.  M.,  1856 — 7  ;  the  Rev.  Lucius  H.  Bug- 
bee,  D.  D.,  1857—60;  the  Rev.  William  Brush. 
1).  D.,  1860—9  ;  the  Rev.  Charles  N.  Stowers, 
A.  M.,  1869—70;  Byron  W.  McLain,  Ph.  1).. 
1870—2;  the  Rev.  Rhoderic  Norton,  A.M., 
1872—3;  the  Rev.  J.  W.  Bissell.  A.  M.  (vice- 
president)  1873—4;  and  the  Rev.  J.  AV.  Bis- 
sell. A.  M..  president,  since  1H74. 

URB  AN  A  UNIVERSITY,  at  Urbana. 
Ohio,  founded  in  1850,  is  under  Sweden  borgian 
control.  It  had  a  large  attendance  of  pupils  of 
both  sexes  during  the  first  ten  years.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  the  attendance  fell  off,  ami 
the  collegiate  department  was  discontinued.  The 
college  was  re-established,  anil  tihs  faculty  re- 
organized in  1871.  "The  Union  of  Revelation 
and  .Science  upon  the  basis  of  the  theology  given 
in  the  writings  of  Emmanuel  Swedenborg  is  the 
distinctive  principle  of  the  New  Church  Uni- 
versity." It  is  supported  chiefly  by  tuition  fees 
and  annual  contributions.  It  lias  an  invested 
fund  of  $10,000,  and  about  $20,000  subscribed 
toward  an  endowment  of  $50,000.  There  aiv 
extensive  botanical  collections,  a  cabinet  of  min- 
erals and  fossils,  apparatus,  and  libraries  contain- 
ing 5,000  volumes.  The  university  embraces 
three  departments :  the  grammar  school,  the 
college,  and  the  school  etf  theology.  The  school  jkw 
girls  is  to  be  re-organized  as  soon  as  the  means 
can  be  provided.  The  college  has  a  classical 
course  of  four  years,  and  a  scientific  course  of 
three  years.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  from  $36  to 
$80  a  year.  In  1.S75 — 6,  there  were  6  instruct- 
ors and  34  students  (17  collegiate  and  17  belong- 
ing to  the  grammar  school).  The  presidents  have 
been:  MiloG.  Williams.  A.  M.,  1  S.l.'i — 7;  the  Kev. 
Chauncey  Giles,  A.  M., 1858—69;  the  Rev.  Frank 
Sewall,  A.  M.,  since  1870. 

URSINUS  COLLEGE,  at  Freeland,  Mont- 
gomery Co.,  Pa.,  chartered  in  1<H(!9  and  opened  in 
1870,  is  under  the  patronage  of  the  Reformed 
(German)  Church.  The  post  office  is  College 
ville.  The  college  is  chiefly  supported  by  tuition 
fees  (from  $40  to  S  is  a  year)  and  contributions. 
The  institution  has  an  academic  or  preparatory 
department,  a  collegiate  department  (classical 
course  of  four  jean  and  scientific  course  of  3 
years), and  a  theological  department.  The  libraries 
contain  6,500  volumes,  In  1876 — 7,  there  wciv 
10  instructors  and  122  students  (15  theological, 
41  collegiate,  and  66  academic).  The  Rev.  J. 
11.  A.  Bamberger.  I).  I>..  is  (1877)  the  president. 

URUGUAY,  a  republic  of  .South  America, 
having  an  area  of  69,800  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  about  300,000.  The  state  religion 
is  the  Roman  Catholic,  to  which  almost  the 
whole  population  belongs,  but  other  creeds  are 
tolerated.      Uruguay    has    been   an  independent 

state  since  1 828. 
The  instruction   given    in    the    government 

schools,  which  are  tew  ,  is  of  a  very  inferior  kind. 
The  foreigners,  Germans.  French,  English,  and 
others,  bave  their  own  schools,  which  are  of  a 

much  higher  order.  A  female  school  exists  in 
connection  with  the  convent  of  the  order  of 
Saint  Francis  of   Sales,  in  Montevideo. 


Secondary  instruction  is  in  a  similarly  de- 
pressed state.  The  Colegio  of  Montevideo  forms 
a  part  of  tlw  Unirersidud  mayor  de  la  Bepublica. 
This  institution  has  from  5  to  7  professors,  who 
teach  Latin,  mathematics,  chemistry, law.  French. 
English,  navigation,  and  drawing.  Although 
the  majority  of  the  students  are  only  youth. 
numerous  degrees  of  LL.  1).  are  granted  every 
year.  The  university  is  free,  and  is  well  attended. 
There  is  also,  in  connection  with  the  university, 
a  free  primary  school  for  poor  children.  Another 
colegio  has  been  recently  established  in  La  Union, 
a  short  distance  from  Montevideo.—  See  St  mni>. 
Eneyclopadie,  art.  Siidamerika;  Wovsch,  Mil- 
tlieilungen  uher  das&oziale  mid  kirchticke  Leben 
in  Uruguay  (1864) ;  Yau"xant,  La  Bepvb/ica 
Oriental  del  Uruguay  (Montevideo,  1878). 

UTAH,  one  of  the  territories  of  the  United 
States,  forming  a  part  of  the  land  acquired,  in 
IMS,  from  Mexico.  Its  area  is  84,476 «q.  m.: 
and  its  population,  in  1870,  was  86,786,  of  whom 
1 1 8  were  colored  persons,  445,  Chinese,  and  1  ~\K 
civilized  Indians. 

Educational  History. — The  first  step  taken 
by  the  people  of  the  territory  for  the  promotion 
of  education,  was  an  act  passed  by  the  provi- 
sional government  in    1851,  incorporating  the 
1  Diversity  of  Deseret.  with  an  annual  appropria- 
tion of  $5,000.     This  contemplated  not  only  the 
founding  of  a  university,  but  the  establishment 
of  primary  schools  in  connection  with    it.     In 
1851,  the  chancellor  and  board  of  regents  of  the 
university  were  authorized  to  appoint  a  superin- 
tendent  of  primary  schools,  to  be  under  their 
supervision,  and  to  be  paid  by  them  a  salary  of 
l  ot  more  than   SI, "00.     Owing  to  limited  pat- 
ronage and   want  of   funds,  the  university  had 
only  a  nominal  existence  till  1867,  when  it  was 
re-organized,   and    conducted    as   a    commercial 
college.     At  the  time  of  the  organization  of  the 
territory,  in  1850,  the  liith  and  36th  sections  of 
land  in    each    township  were   set   apart  by  Con- 
gress for  educational  purposes  ;  and  $5,000  was 
appropriated   for  the  purchase  of  a  library  for 
the  use  of  the  inhabitants.     In  1852,  the  assem- 
bly petitioned   the  general  government  for   an 
appropriation  of  $24,000, for  the  use  of  schools; 
but  it  was   not   granted.     The  same  year,  Con- 
gress was  petitioned  to  make  for  this  territory  the 
same  donations  of  land,  to  settlers,  and  for  edu- 
cational purposes,  as  were  made  to  the  territory 
of  Oregon  in  1850.     This  also  was  refused.   The 
rejection  of  a  similar  petition  for  aid  in  establish- 
ing schools,  in  1854,  led  to  the  approval,  by  the 
territorial   governor  and  legislature,  of  an   act, 
which   made   it   the  duty  of  the  chancellor  and 
board  of  regents  of  the  university  to  appoint  a 
territorial  superintendent   of  common  schools, 
who  should   make   an  annual  report  to  the  re- 
gents   of    the    number    and     condition    of    the 
schools.      It    was  further   provided    that  county 
courts  should   divide    their   respective    counties 
into  school-districts,  each   of   which  should  elect 
.'{  trustees,  who  were    to  collect  a  tax  on  all   tax- 
able property  in  the  district,  at  such  rate  as  the 
voters  at    the   district  meeting  should  determine. 


UTAH 


835 


With  the  funds  thus  collected,  the  trustees  were 
to  establish  and  maintain  the  necessary  number 
of  schools,  and  make  an  annual  report  of  their 
olhcial  proceedings  to  the  boards  of  examination 
of  their  respective  counties.  The  duties  of  these 
boards,  which  were  appointed  by  the  county 
courts,  were  to  examine  teachers,  and  make  an 
annual  report  of  the  condition  and  statistics  of  the 
schools,  to  the  superintendent  of  common  schools. 
In  IS.");"),  the  sum  of  $2,500  was  directed  by  the 
governor  and  assembly  to  be  appropriated  for 
the  building  of  an  academy,  at  Salt  Lake  City  ; 
but  the  low  condition  of  the  finances  prevented 
its  accomplishment.  An  act  of  Congress,  grant- 
ing lands  for  schools  and  for  university  purposes, 
was  passed  in  18.")");  and,  to  make  it  effective,  the 
assembly,  in  1859,  passed  an  act  for  the  selection 
of  land  equal  to  two  townships,  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  university.  In  1864,  the  collection  of 
certain  moneys  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
schools  was  authorized  by  the  assembly ;  and 
this  was  followed,  in  1865,  by  an  act  "consol- 
idating and  amending  the  school  laws."  These 
two  acts  were  superseded,  in  1866,  when  a  new 
school  law  was  passed.  Congress  was  again  in- 
effectually petitioned,  in  1867,  for  a  donation,  to 
the  territory,  of  the  lands  included  in  the  recorded 
plots  of  the  several  cities,  towns,  and  villages  of 
the  territory,  to  aid  in  laying  the  foundation  of 
a  common-school  fund.  In  1868,  the  assembly 
passed  au  act  giving  greater  definiteness  to  the 
meaning  of  the  school  law.  The  same  year,  and 
again  in  1870,  attempts  were  made  to  obtain  aid 
from  Congress  for  educational  purposes,  but 
without  success.  In  1874,  the  assembly  passed 
an  act  appropriating  annually  §  15, 000,  for  two 
years,  for  school  purposes ;  and  this,  with  the 
various  enactments  extending  back  to  1866,  con- 
stituted the  school  law  of  the  territory  till  Feb- 
ruary 18.,  1876,  when  the  present  school  law 
was  approved.  The  first  superintendent  of 
common  schools  in  the  territory  was  Elias  Smith, 
who  was  appointed  under  the  act  of  October, 
1851.  His  successor  was  William  Willes,  ap- 
pointed in  1856.  In  1862,  R.  L.  Campbell  was 
appointed,  to  the  office  by  the  chancellor  and 
regents  of  the  university,  and  held  the  office  till 
1866,  when  he  was  elected  territorial  superin- 
tendent, which  office  he  held  till  his  death  in 
1874.  His  successor  was  0.  H.  Riggs,  the  pres- 
ent incumbent  (1877). 

School  System. — The  new  school  law,  enacted 
in  1876,  provides  for  the  election  of  a  territorial 
superintendent  of  district  schools  for  2  years, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  exercise  a  general  super- 
vision similar  to  that  usually  devolving  on  this 
officer.  He  is  required  to  call  a  convention,  to 
be  composed  of  himself,  the  county  superintend- 
ents, and  the  president  of  the  university,  for  the 
purpose,  of  determining  what  text-books  shall  be 
used  in  the  schools,  such  books  to  remain  un- 
changed, unless  for  sufficient  cause,  for  5  years 
from  the  time  of  their  adoption.  County  superin- 
tendents are  elected  at  the  same  time,  and  for 
the  same  term,  as  the  territorial  superintendent. 
1'hey  are  required  to  visit  the  schools  at  least 


twice  every  year,  examine  and  audit  accounts. 
apportion  the  school  money,  and  make  annual 
reports  to  the  territorial  superintendent.  District 
trustees,  three  in  number,  are  elected  biennially. 
Their  duties  are,  to  provide  xehool  houses,  to 
employ  teachers,  to  visit  the  schools  at  least  once 
during  each  term,  and  to  assess  and  collect  an- 
nually a  tax  of  one  fourth  of  one  per  cent  on  all 
taxable  property,  which  tax  may  be  increased. 
upon  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  residents  of  the 
district,  to  a  sum  not  exceeding  3  per  cent  per 
annum.  There  is  a  hoard  of  examination,  con- 
sisting of  3  persons,  appointed  annually  in  each 
county,  by  the  county  court,  for  the  purpose  of 
examining  teachers  and  granting  certificates. 
The  legislature  is  required  to  make  an  annual 
appropriation  of  $25,000,  of  "widen  $20,000  is  for 
the  district  schools,  and  $5,000  for  the  University 
of  Deseret,  provided  the  said  university  instruct, 
in  its  normal  department,  free  of  charge.  40  pu- 
pils, apportioned  equally  among  the  counties  of 
the  territory,  such  pupils  pledging  themselves  to 
teach  in  the  district  schools  of  their  respective 
counties,  if  required  by  the  county  superintend- 
ents, as  many  years  as  they  may  have  received 
free  tuition.  The  legal  school  age  is  from  6  to 
16  years.  The  school  year  varies  according  to 
the  district,  the  county  superintendents  and 
trustees  in  each  prescribing  its  length.  The 
studies  pursued  are  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  geography,  grammar,  book-keeping, 
history,  music,  and  drawing. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts,  in  1875,  was  236  ;  the  number 
of  schools,  296. 

The  receipts  for  the  support  of  schools,  for  the 

year  1875,  were  as  follows  : 

From  territorial  tax $15,000.00 

"     rate  bills  and  other  sources  95,532.70 

"     local  tax 20,207.28 

"     district  tax 49,508.87 


Total $180,308.85 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 
For  general  school  pur  poses..  $130,799.98 

"    buildings,  repairs,  etc 53,018.87 

Total $183,818.85 

The  school  statistics  for  the  same  year  are  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age  (4  to  10  years)  35,090 
"  "  "  enrolled  in  public  schools. .  19,278 
"       "         "  "  "  private  schools.     3,542 

Average  attendance  in  public  schools 13,402 

"  "  "  private  schools 2,437 

Number  of  teachers,  males  and  females 468 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers $17.3*7 

Normal  Instruction. — The  normal  department 
of  the  University  of  Deseret  was  established 
August  23.,  1875,  to  continue  one  year,  the  fund 
for  its  maintenance  being  derived  from  appro- 
priations made  by  the  county  courts.  Applicants 
for  admission  must  be  over  16  years  of  age, 
must  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  reading,  writing, 
spelling,  grammar,  geography,  and  arithmetic, 
and  some  natural  tact  for  imparting  instruction. 
The  course  of  study  gives  a  prominent  place 
throughout  to  the  theory  and  practice  of  teach- 
ing.     Ten   counties  are,  thus  far,  represented 


836      YANPERB1LT  UNIVERSITY 


YASSAR  COLLEGE 


among  the  students,  the  average  daily  attend- 
ance being  .'50.  The  first  teachers'  association 
was  organized  in  Salt  Lake  City  in  I860.  Since 
that  time,  teachers'  institutes  have  been  organ- 
ized in  several  counties,  but  they  have  not  yet 
been  permanently  established  bylaw.  The  Terri- 
torial Teachers'  Association,  of  which  the  terri- 
torial superintendent  is  president,  ex  officio,  was 
organized  in  1870. and  holds  semi-annual  sessions 
in  Salt  Lake  City.  A  territorial  normal  in- 
stitute was  convened  by  the  superintendent  in 
the  University  of  Deseret,  in  August,  1ST"),  at 
which  special  attention  was  directed  to  the  best 
methods  of  imparting  instruction. 

Secondary  Instruction.— 'We  number  of  in- 
stitutions which  afford  anything  beyond  element- 
ary instruction  is  very  limited.  A  number  of 
select  ami  mission  schools  and  academies  exist 
in  the  territory.  Of  these,  the  mission  and 
denominational  schools  give  instruction  annually 
to  about  1,250  pupils.  The  .Methodists  have 
six,  —  one  each  in  Salt  Lake  City,  Ogden, 
Tooele  <  !ity,  Provo,  Xephi,  and  Beaver.  The 
Episcopalians  have  one  in  Salt  Lake  City,  one 
at  Ogden,  and  one  at  Logan.  The  Presbyterians 
have  one  each  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Mt.  Pleasant, 
and  Bingham.  The  Catholics  have  one  at  Salt 
Lake  City.     A  commercial  college  was  opened 


in  the  winter  of  1 S T  ."> .  in  Salt  Like  City.  The 
total  number  of  Latter  Pay  Saint  Sunday- 
schools,  in  1 876,  was  1 62,  with  2,588  teachers  and 
2(1,411  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  University  of  Des- 
eret is  the  only  institution  in  the  territory 
established  for  the  purpose  of  affording  oppor- 
tunity for  higher  education.  It  is  non-sectarian, 
and  provides  3  courses, — a  preliminary,  a  scien- 
tific, and  a  classical  preparatory.  It  has  a  well 
supplied  laboratory,  a  cabinet  of  several  hundred 
specimens,  valuable  mathematical,  philosophical, 
and  chemical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of  3,000 
volumes.  Youth  of  both  sexes,  who  are  unable 
to  bear  the  cost  of  tuition,  are  admitted  free  of 
charge,  on  application  to  the  president.  In 
|  I87f>,  the  number  of  instructors  was  4,  and 
the  Dumber  of  students  2!)4, — 171  male,  and 
128  female.  The  Timpanogos  branch  of  tin1 
university  was  established  at  Provo  City,  in 
1870.  It  was  suspended  in  1875;  but  was  re- 
organized the  same  year  under  the  name  of  the 
Brigham  Young  Academy,  the  building  and 
grounds,  valued  at  $15,000, having  been  donated 
to  the  county  by  Brigham  Young.  It  was  opened 
in  January,  l's7<i.  with  70  students,  since  in- 
creased to  1 25.  This  is  the  only  school  in  the  terri- 
tory in  which  instruction  in  theology  is  afforded. 


VANDERBILT  UNIVERSITY,  at  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church,  South.  It  was  chartered 
in  1872  as  The  Central  University  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  South ;  the  name  was 
changed,  in  1873.  in  honor  of  Cornelius  Vander- 
bilt,  of  New  York,  who  gave  the  institution 
$500,000,  to  which  he  afterward  added  $200,000. 
The  university  was  opened  in  October,  1875. 
The  grounds  and  buildings  cost  $400,000.  The 
site  is  at  the  west  end  of  the  city,  half  a  mile 
from  the  corporation  line.  The  library  contains 
6,000  volumes.  There  are  cabinets  of  fossils, 
minerals,  and  rocks,  an  astronomical  observatory, 
and  valuable  philosophical  and  chemical  appara- 
tus. The  university  is  organized  with  four  dis- 
tinct departments,  as  follows:  (1)  the  depart- 
ment of  philosophy,  science,  and  literature; 
(2)  the  Biblical  department;  (3)  the  law  depart- 
ment;  (4)  the  medical  department.  The  first 
department  comprises  10  schools;  namely,  Latin, 
(ireek,  modern  languages  and  English,  moral 
philosophy,  philosophy  and  criticism,  mathemat- 
ics, physics  and  astronomy,  chemistry,  natural 
history  and  geology,  and  engineering.  The  usual 
degrees  are  conferred.  The  annual  tuition  fees 
are  as  follows  :  Academic  courses,  870  ;  Biblical 
department,  free:  law,  SI 20;  medical,  $65. 
There  are  several  scholarships  entitling  the  hold- 
ers to  free  tuition,  and  fellowships  are  to  be 
established.  In  1875 — G,  there  were  12 < >  instruct- 
ors (academic  department,  10;  Biblical.  .'! ; 
law,  3;  medical,  10),  and  307  students,  including 
52  in  theology,  25  in  law,  and  115  in   medicine. 


Landon  C,  Carland,  LL.  D.,  has  been  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  since  its  organization. 

VASSAR  COLLEGE  (for  women),  at 
Poughkeepsie.  N.  Y.,  was  chartered  in  1861, 
and  opened  in  1865.  It  was  named  after  Mat- 
thew Yassar,  of  Poughkeepsie.  its  founder, 
whose  gifts  to  it  amount  to  about  8778.000.  It 
is  not  denominational.  The  name  was  Vassar 
Female  College  till  1867.  The  buildings  are 
situated  on  a  farm  of  about  200  acres,  two  miles 
east  of  the  city.  The  unproductive  property  is 
valued  (duly  L,  1876)  at  $681,286  (real  estate. 
$515,311  ;  personal  property,  $165,  975);  the 
amount  of  productive  funds  (for  library,  cab- 
inets, lectures,  aid  of  students,  and  repairs),  at 
7  per  cent,  is  $281 ,000.  The  salaries  and  other 
current  expenses  are  paid  from  students'  fees. 
The  charge  for  board  is  $300  per  annum  ;  for 
tuition,  8100.  Liberal  aid  is  afforded,  either  in 
gifts  or  loans,  to  students  of  high  character  and 
superior  scholarship  in  the  regular  course.  The 
college  has  valuable  apparatus  and  cabinets,  an 
art  gallery,  an  astronomical  observatory,  and 
a  library  of  over  10,000  volumes.  The  regular 
course  is  for  four  years.  All  applicants  for  ad- 
mission must  beat  least  1  6  years  of  age.  The 
curriculum  embraces  Latin,  (ireek,  French,  Oer- 
man,  mathematics,  botany,  zoology,  mineralogy, 
geology,  astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  physiol- 
ogy, English  literature,  rhetoric,  history,  mental 
philosophy, moral  philosophy,  etc.  The  arts  taught 
in  the  college  are  vocal  and  instrumental  music, 
drawing,  painting,  and  modeling  in  clay  or  wax. 
Students  sufficiently  mature  and  advanced  may 


VENEZUELA 


VENTILATION 


837 


take  eclectic  courses.  Those  who  complete  the 
regular  course  receive  the  first  or  baccalaureate 
degree  in  arts.  A  candidate  for  the  second  de- 
gree in  arts  must  pass  an  examination  in  studies 
which  have  been  approved  by  the  faculty  as 
equivalent  to  a  post-graduate  course  of  two  full 
years.  There  is  also  a  preparatory  department.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  29  instructors  (7  males)  and 
370  students,  of  whom  205  were  of  the  collegiate 
grade  (2  resident  graduates,  183  pursuing  the 
regular  course,  and  20,  special  courses).  The 
presidents  have  been  Milo  P.  Jewett,  1  jL.  J  >., 
1861 — 4;  and  John  II.  Raymond,  LL.  I).,  since 
1864. 

VENEZUELA,  a  republic  of  South  Amer- 
ica, having  an  area  of  368.000  square  miles,  and 
a  population  of  about  1.500.000.  The  religion 
of  the  people  is  the  Roman  ( Jatholic,  but  others 
are  tolerated. 

The  education  of  the  lower  classes  is  very 
much  neglected.  Primary  instruction  is  left  to 
the  care  of  the  provincial  deputations ;  but, 
owing  to  their  indifference,  the  law  requiring 
every  voter  to  be  able  to  read  and  write,  is  in- 
operative. The  number  of  primary  schools  was 
reported,  in  1875,  as  541 .  of  which  only  141  were 
government  schools.  The  attendance  at  the  for- 
mer was  7,064;  at  the  latter.  11.017.  The  new 
constitution  of  1876  provides  that  all  moneys 
formerly  appropriated  for  ecclesiastical  purposes, 
shall  henceforth  be  devoted  to  education.  It  also 
provides  that  no  minister  or  priest,  of  any  de- 
nomination whatever,  shall  be  employed  as  a 
teacher  in  the  public  schools.  The  education  of 
girls  was  for  a  long  tune  entirely  neglected  by 
the  government.  Recently,  however,  the  govern- 
ment has  paid  considerable  attention  to  this 
subject.  A  higher  female  school  has  been  estab- 
lished; and,  in  1870,  a  junta  inspectora  was  ap- 
pointed in  Caracas,  preparatory  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  national  female  college. 

Secondary  as  well  as  superior  instruction  is 
in  a  much  more  satisfactory  condition,  owing  to 
the  labors  of  the  Jesuits,  who,  upon  their  expul- 
sion, left  a  prosperous  college  in  Maracaybo,  in 
which  the  .Spanish  language,  the  ancient  lan- 
guages, poetry,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy  were 
taught.  The  university  of  ( laracas  was  founded,  in 
1 696,  as  a  colegio,  anil  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  uni- 
versity in  1722.  For  a  long  time,  the  colegio 
of  Merida.  which  served  as  a  university  during 
the  18th  century,  competed  successfully  with 
the  university  of  Caracas.  At  present,  both  of 
these  institutions,  as  well  as  the  medical  school 
of  Caracas,  are  under  the  control  of  the  state. 
The  university  of  Caracas  had.  in  1874,  19  pro* 
fessors  and  165  students;  and  that  of  Merida,  12 
professors  and  about.  1  50  students.  The  revenue 
of  the  endowment  fund  of  the  university  of 
Caracas  amounts  to  about  $30,000. — Secondary 
instruction  is  imparted  in  13  colegios  naeionales, 
the  total  endowment  funds  of  which  amount  to 
about  $260,000.  Law  is  taught  at  Barcelona ; 
and,  at  Maracaybo,  law,  anatomy,  physiology, 
and  navigation.  Besides  the  government  schools, 
there  are  also  the  following  private  institutions! 


A  colegio  fur  poor  students,  in  Caracas;  the 
Colegio  de  la  Independencia,  in  the  same  city; 
the  Colegio  de  la  Fratemidad,  in  La  Guayra; 

an  elementary  school  for  art  and  science,  and  a 
school  for  drawing  and  painting,  in  Caracas. — 
See  Sohmid,  Ehicyclopadie,  art.  ISudamerica. 

VENTILATION.  I  'robably  no  subject  con- 
nected with  the  improvement  of  schools  has,  of 
late  years,  been  more  fully  and  earnestly  dis- 
cussed than  that  of  ventilation.  Unfortunately, 
however,  the  results  reached  have  by  no  means 
corresponded  in  importance  to  the*  length  or 
vigor  of  the  discussion.  Notwithstanding  the  mi- 
nute and  elaborate  experiments  made  by  modern 
science  on  this  subject,  it  is  hardly  too  much  to 
say  that  the  only  point  of  agreement  is,  that 
ample  ventilation  is  of  paramount  importance 
in  the  economy  of  the  school  room.  Any  recom- 
mendation of  particular  methods  of  effecting 
this,  or  any  appeal  to  statistics  or  experimental 
details,  becomes  at  once  the  occasion  for  fresh 
dispute.  The  subject  will  be  considered  here  under 
the  following  heads:  (I)  The  conditions  favor- 
able to  proper  ventilation;  (11)  The  methods 
employed  to  utilize  those  conditions;  (III)  Some 
of  the  ways  in  which  ventilation  is  prevented. 

I.  Under  this  head,  Avill  be  considered  (1)  the 
sources  from  which  a  proper  supply  of  fresh  air 
for  the  school  room  is  to  be  obtained,  and  the 
quality  of  the  air  so  obtained  ;  and  (2)  the  de- 
termination of  the  quantity  needed  by  each  pu- 
pil for  purposes  of  respiration.     That  the  great 
reservoir  of  the  outer  air  which  surrounds  the 
school  room  is  the  only  proper  source  of  supply 
for  the  lungs  of  its  inmates,  requires  no  demon- 
stration ;  the   only  question    being   that   which 
concerns  its  purity.  The  direct  and  intimate  con- 
nection which  has  been  ascertained  to  exist  be- 
tween  the  air  which  we  breathe  and  the  blood, 
has    been    found   to  extend  to  the  brain,  and 
healthful  intellectual  activity  and  pure  air  are 
now  almost  convertible  terms.  Whatever  causes, 
therefore,   tend  to  vitiate  the  air  surrounding 
the  school  building  should  be  carefully  eliminated. 
(Concerning  the  proper  site  of  the  school  build- 
ing, as  regarded  from  a  sanitary  stand- point,  see 
Bygtene,   School.)      Another   cause   which,   in 
certain  sites,  and,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
in  any  site,  may  affect  the  quality  of  the  air  in- 
troduced   into   the  school   room,  is  the  height 
above  the  ground  from  which  it  is  drawn.     The 
danger  to  be  apprehended  from  malarial  fever, 
one  of  the  most   insidious  foes  of  the   human 
race  detected  by  modern  sanitary  science,  has 
led  recent  writers  on   the  subject  of  ventilation 
to  recommend  that   the- inlet  for  fresh  air  be 
placed   as    high    as    possible,  so   that  the  lower 
Stratum  of  air — that  near  the  ground  or  from  tin* 
cellar — be  not  admitted. —  Much  of  the  difficulty 
which    attaches    to   the    subject    of    ventilation, 
arises  from  the  fact  that  medical  men  who  have 
given  special  attention  to  the  matter,  are  by  no 
means   agreed   as  to  the   amount  of   pure   air 
needed  by  each  person  for  purpases  of  respira- 
tion ;  their  estimates   of  the    number  of  cubic 
feet   of   space   required   by   each    pupil  in  the 


838 


VENTILATION 


school  room  where  the  ventilation  is  ample,  vary- 
ing from  300  to  1,200.  From  a  comparative 
examination  of  various  estimates,  it  appears  that 
the  average  amount  of  fresh  air  required  by  each 
individual  hourly  is  at  least  1,000  cubic  feet.  In 
school  rooms  provided  with  adequate  means  of 
ventilation,  this  requires,  according  to  most  sani- 
tarians, at  least  .'ion  cubic  feet  of  space  for  each 
pupil.  This,  though  hardly  above  the  minimum, 
exceeds,  probably,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  the 
most  liberal  allowance  made  by  those  school 
officers  who  pride  themselves  on  their  generosity 
in  this  respect.  Usually,  the  allowance  is  less 
than  110  cubic  feet.  The  quantity  of  air,  also, 
admitted  by  the  ventilating  apparatus,  bears  a 
constant  relation  to  the  size  of  the  room.  Hays 
Dr.  A.  N.  Bell  on  this  point,  "The  smaller 
the  space,  the  greater  the  necessity  for,  and  the 
larger  the  opening  required  for,  the  admission 
of  fresh  air.  *  *  *  It  has  been  calculated  that, 
with  ordinary  exposure,  an  open  space  equal  to 
5  inches  in  tlie  square,  will  admit  the  passage  of 
2,000  cubic  feet  hourly;  this,  of  course,  implies 
that  there  should  be  an  equal  amount  of  open 
apace  for  the  escape  of  the  air  displaced.". 

II.  In  considering  the  different  methods  of 
ventilation,  attention  should,  at  the  same  time, 
be  given  to  the  method  of  warming  the  school- 
room  ;  since  the  two  subjects  are  almost  in- 
separably connected.  The  entrance  of  warm  air 
into  a  room  for  breathing  purposes,  is  inevitably 
attended  by.  and  naturally  suggests,  a  corre- 
sponding exit  of  vitiated  ai)',  and  points  unmis- 
takably to  the  resulting  current  as  the  most  effi- 
cient means  for  ventilation.  If  the  question 
were  merely  that  of  determining  the  easiest  way 
of  replacing  a  certain  amount  of  impure,  by  a 
corresponding  amount  of  pure,  air,  the  problem 
would  be  on:'  of  easy  solution  ;  since  the  differ- 
ence of  temperature  which  generally  exists  be- 
tween the  outer  air  and  that  of  the  school  room 
furnishes  the  condition  most  favorable  to  venti- 
lation, the  only  agent  needed  being  a  connec- 
tion between  the  two,  which  is  readily  supplied 
by  an  open  door  or  window.  In  summer,  this 
method,  which  may  be  called  the  natural  one.  i> 
in  almost  universal  use,  and  is  accompanied  gen- 
erally with  satisfactory  results.  In  winter,  how- 
ever, the  violent  displacement  of  one  atmosphere 
by  the  other,  which  results  from  the  greater  dif- 
ference in  their  temperature,  and  which  immedi- 
ately begins  when  a  connection  is  made  between 
them,  makes  itself  felt  in  the  shape  of  dangerous 
drafts.  The  problem  for  the  inventor,  therefore, 
is  how  to  pro  luc  !  this  change  of  air  without  any 
perceptible  draft;  and  to  this  additional  con- 
dition, is  to  be  attributed  the  practical  failure  of 
so  many  ingenious  devices  which,  in  theory, are 
admirable.  One  of  the  simplest  and  most  effective 
methods  of  ventilation  is  used  in  connection 
with  the  method  of  warming  described  under 
the  head  <>f    school   hygiene.     (See    Bygiene, 

School.)  It  consists  of  a  chimney  with  two 
Hues,  one  for  the  tire,  the  other  for  ventilation. 
The  latter  is  separated  from  the  former  by  a  par- 
tition of  metal  which  becomes  heated  by  the  air 


from  the  fire.  and.  by  warming  the  column  of 
air  in  the  ventilating  flue,  causes  it  to  ascend. 
tending  thus  to  produce  a  vacuum,  which  the 
vitiated  air  of  the  room  flows  in  to  fill.  The 
ventilating  flue  has  two  registers,  one  near 
the  floor,  the  other  near  the  ceiling,  both  of 
which  can  be  controlled  at  pleasure.  A  more 
economical  method  consists  in  making  a  ven- 
tilating flue  only,  but  making  it  sufficiently 
large  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  stove  pipe 
along  its  middle  line,  while  leaving  considerable 
air  space  around  the  latter.  By  extending  the 
stove  pipe  to  the  top  of  the  house,  the  heat  of 
the  stove  is  used,  as  in  the  previous  case.    If  the 

j  room  is  warmed  by  an  open  tire,  the  increase  in 
the  amount  of  fuel  used  should  be  charged  to 
the  account  of  ventilation,  and  the  additional 
expense  incurred  should  not  be  regarded  as  a 
violation  of  the  laws  of  economy,  but  rather  as 
an   observance  of   the   provisions  of   that  true 

;  economy  which  does  not  look  for  immediate  and 
petty  results,  but  is  fundamental  in  its  action, 
and  conducive  to  the  permanent  benefit  of  teacher 
and  pupil.  For  combined  ventilating  and  warm- 
ing purposes,  in  small  school  rooms,  the  open 
grate  tire  has  many  advantages  ;  but.  of  course. 
it  should  be  carefully  screened.  For  more  elab- 
orate methods  of  ventilation,  with  modifications 
to  suit  circumstances,  see  the  works  quoted  at 
the  end  of  this  article,  in  which  the  subject  is 
exhaustively  treated. 

III.  The  great  importance  of  effective  ventila- 
tion, to  which  it  is  exceedingly  probable  that 
the  public  mind  is  not  yet  sufficiently  aroused. 
and  the  practical  difficulty  which  attends  it 
when  any  but  the  simplest  means  ami  appliances 
are  used,  render  it  necessary  to  make  some 
mention  of  the  ways  in  which  proper  ventilation 
is  thwarted,  even  when  it  is  apparently  provided 
for.  These  are  principally  two:  (1)  a  ventilating 
apparatus,  originally  inadequate  in  size,  or,  if 

a  [equate,  the  ineffective  working  of  it,  through 
frequent  derangement  ;  (2)  the  overcrowding 
of  the  school  room  after  the  originally  liberal 
estimates  for  air  supply,  based  on  a  smaller 
number  of  pupils,  have  been  made.  Insufficient 
apparatus,  from  either  the  first  or  second  cause 
mentioned  above,  is  one  of  the  commonest  dilfi- 
culties  with  which  intelligent  school  officers 
have  to  contend;  so  easy  is  it  for  any  one.  in  the 
absence  of  decidedly  bad  results,  to  lose  sight  of 
the  essential  conditions  of  a  healthy  school  room, 
and  so  clamorous  is  the  tax  payer  usually  for 
smaller  demands  upon  his  purse.  In  the  com- 
promises which  generally  follow  these  contests 
between  the  pocket  and  the  lungs.it  is  too  often 
found  that  the  greater  concessions  have  been 
made  by  the  latter.  In  the  second  case — that  of 
overcrowding  the  same  deleterious  effects  fol- 
low, insufficient  air  space  being  the  evil  in  both. 
Even  intelligent  teachers  are.  in  this  way,  fre- 
quently deceived.  The  number  of  pupils  is  in- 
creased bo  gradually  that  the  evil  is  for  a  long 
time  unsuspected,  and  not  till  its  effects  have 
declared  themselves  in  some  unmistakable,  and 
perhaps  fatal,  manner,  is  attention  called  to  the 


VKUMONT 


S39 


probable  cause. — As  has  been  said,  the  air  pro- 
vided for  breathing  purposes  should  be  drawn 
from  out-of-doors,  at  a  height  above  the  ground 
sufficient  to  preclude  all  danger  from  exhalations, 
.and  should  be  introduced  into  the  room  at  the 
opposite  end  from  that  at  which  the  impure  air 
passes  out,  and  at  the  top  of  the  room,  but  in 
such  a  way  as  to  prevent  drafts.  This  is  best 
done  by  providing  a  number  of  small  apertures, 
the  air  from  which  passes  through  the  vitiated 
air  of  the  room  in  numerous  small  currents 
which  are  imperceptible,  and  which  cause  the 
fresh  air  to  be  evenly  diffused.  If  warmed  by  a 
cellar  furnace,  it  should  not  be  introduced  into 
the  room  by  floor  registers,  since  these  are  always, 
more  or  less,  traps  for  dust,  which  thus,  in  some 
shape,  is  liable  to  be  taken  into  the  lungs.  The 
ventilating  apparatus  should  not  only  be  suf- 
ficiently large  at  the  outset,  but  should  be  thor- 
oughly tested  before  it  is  introduced,  so  as  to  as- 
certain whether  its  working  sustains  the  theory 
of  its  construction,  and  should  be  carefully  exam- 
ined, from  time  to  time,  with  the  view  to  secure 
its  constant  efficiency. — See  G.  Wilson*,  A  Hand- 
book of  Hygiene  and  Sanitary  Science  (London, 
1873);  Parker,  A  Manual  of  Practical  Hygien,e 
(4th  ed.,  London,  1873);  Morin,  On  Warming 
and  Ventilation  of  Occupied  Buildings,  in  re- 
ports of  Smithsonian  Institution  (1873 — 4); 
Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintend- 
ence of  the  National  Educational  Association, 
at  Washington,  January  27.  and  28.,  1875; 
Buissox,  Rapport  sur  I' instruction  primaire  a 
le.cposition  universelle  de  Vienne  (Paris,  1875); 
The  School  Board  Chronicle  (London.  March 
and  May,  1875);  Robson,  School  Architecture 
(London,  1874). 

VERMONT,  one  of  the  New  England  states 
of  the  American  Union,  into  which  it  was  ad- 
mitted in  1791.  Its  area  is  10,212  sq. m.;  audits 
population,  in  1870,  was  330,551. 

Educational  History. — In  1761,  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  French  from  the  valley  of  Lake 
Champlain  and  from  Canada  had  given  a  feeling 
of  security  to  the  settlers,  Vermont  began  to  be 
rapidly  filled  with  immigrants.  In  1777,  it  was 
declared  to  be  an  independent  state  ;  a  constitu- 
tion was  adopted,  in  1778,  and  a  government  or- 
ganized. Some  of  the  towns  had  already  estab- 
lished schools.  Previous  to  1763,  the  people  of 
Pennington  had  raised  a  school  tax  ;  and,  October 
5.,  in  that  year,  the  town  granted  money  to  each 
of  the  three  school-districts  to  aid  in  building 
school-houses.  The  first  constitution  of  Vermont 
declared  that  a  school  or  schools  should  be  estab- 
lished in  each  town,  by  the  legislature,  for  the 
instruction  of  youth.  The  first  law  of  the  state 
relating  to  schools  was  enacted  October  22.,  1 782, 
by  which  towns  were  empowered  to  form  school- 
districts,  and  to  elect  trustees.  The  districts  were 
authorized  to  choose  officers,  to  hold  property, 
to  establish  schools,  build  school- houses,  etc. 
From  this  beginning,  the  school  system  has  been 
gradually  developed,  without  radical  change  at 
any  time.  By  the  first  school  law,  the  action 
<>':  the  towns  in  regard  to  the  school  was,  in  great 


measure,  optional;  but,  as  the  government  became 
settled  in  its  methods,  and  the  number  of  the 
towns  was  increased,  the  legislature  adopted  a 
different  tone,  and,  in  1797,  commanded  the 
towns  to  support  schools,  and  later,  in  1821,  pro- 
vided that  the  grand  jury  of  each  county  should 
inquire  annually,  whether  the  several  towns  in 
the  county  had  raised  and  properly  expended 
the  state  school  tax  ;  and  every  delinquent  town 
was  made  liable  to  fine, — a  provision  which  now 
applies  to  all  the  public  money.  The  early  legis- 
lation on  the  subject  of  schools  gave  to  the  town 
power  to  divide  its  territory  into  school-districts 
and  to  alter  the  same;  but  otherwise  the  district 
was  independent  of  the  town,  and  it  has  since 
come  under  the  supervision  and  control  of  the 
town  only  by  a  slow  process.  The  first  step  in  this 
direction  was  a  requirement  that  the  town,  in 
the  annual  division  of  the  public  money,  should 
withhold  the  share  otherwise  due,  from  a  district 
that  had  not  supported  a  school  during  the  pre- 
vious year.  Next,  came  the  provision,  introduced 
in  1827,  that  persons  employed  as  teachers  must 
be  licensed  by  town  officers.  The  provisions  re- 
quiring the  selectmen  of  the  town,  in  certain 
cases,  to  set  up  a  school,  and  even  to  build  a 
school-house,  in  and  for  a  district,  and  to  assess 
and  cause  to  be  collected  a  tax  on  the  inhabitants 
contained  in  the  grand  list  of  the  district,  in  or- 
der to  pay  for  the  same,  left  but  a  single  step 
further  in  that  direction.  This  was  taken  in  the 
law  of  1870,  which  permitted  the  towns  to 
abolish  the  districts,  and  to  intrust  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools  to  a  committee  chosen  by 
the  town.  Under  the  first  school  law,  the  dis- 
tricts had  power  to  raise  money  by  a  tax  on  the 
grand  list  or  on  the  scholar ;  consequently,  the 
question,  shall  the  school,  after  expending  the 
public  money,  be  supported  wholly  by  a  tax 
based  on  the  grand  list,  and  thus  be  wholly  free, 
annually  arose  for  decision  in  every  school- 
district  in  the  state.  This  question,  probably, 
has  been  more  widely  and  fully  discussed,  through 
i  a  long  period,  than  any  other  before  the  people 
'■  of  Vermont;  and  the  history  of  the  legislation  on 
|  the  subject  is  proportionally  important.  The  law 
I  of  1782  gave  to  the  prudential  committee  of  the 
district  power  to  assess  a  tax,  according  to  the 
grand  list  of  the  district,  sufficient  to  pay  one- 
half  of  all  the  school  expenses,  and  to  the  district 
the  power  to  vote  the  other  half  on  the  basis  of 
the  grand  list,  or  on  the  scholar.  The  revised 
school  law  of  1797  provided  that  the  district 
might  vote  the  entire  sum  on  either  basis.  In 
1827,  however,  the  power  of  the  district  to  raise 
money  on  the  scholar  to  build  and  repair  school- 
houses,  and,  in  1850.  the  power  to  raise  money 
in  a  similar  way  to  pay  the  wages  of  teachers, 
were  revoked  ;  and,  in  18(54,  it  was  enacted  that 
'•All  expenses  incurred  by  school  districts  for  the 
support  of  schools  shall  be  defrayed  by  a  tax 
upon  the  grand  list  of  the  district."  The  deter- 
mination of  the  people,  after  eighty-two  years  of 
discussion,  was,  that  the  public  schools  should  be 
j  wholly  free.  In  the  law  of  1782,  no  enumeration 
!  of  studies  to  be  pursued  in  the  common  schools 


840 


VERMONT 


was  made.  In  1797,  English  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic  were  specified  as  subjects  to  be 
taught;  in  1827.  orthography,  English  grammar, 
geography,  history  of  the  United  States,  and 
good  behavior  were  added.  Until  1841,  no  legal 
provision  existed  for  the  maintenance  of  more, 
or  other,  than  one  common  school  in  each  school- 
district.  Instruction  of  the  grade  between  that 
furnished  by  the  common  school  and  that  fur- 
nished by  the  college,  was  provided  for  only  in 
private  schools,  which  existed  at  that  time  in  all 
parts  of  the  state.  ( 'ontiguous  districts,  retain- 
ing their  separate  organization,  privileges,  and 
duties  in  reference  to  supporting  each  a  school 
for  the  smaller  children,  were  allowed  to  unite, 
and  constitute  one  school-district,  for  the  purpose 
of  maintaining  a  school  for  the  larger  children. 
Three  years  later,  districts  having  more  children 
than  could  be  well  provided  for  in  one  school,  were 
authorized  to  establish  any  required  number  and 
grade  of  schools.  Later  still,  towns  were  empow- 
ered to  establish  districts  for  the  support  of  high 
schools, and  towns  adopting  the  town  system  were 
permitted  to  establish  schools  of  any  needei  I  grade. 
The  growth  of  high  and  graded  schools,  during 
the  last  thirty-four  years,  is  the  most  important 
feature  in  the  recent  educational  history  of 
Vermont.  Within  that  period,  public  schools, 
free  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  or  district 
supporting  them,  in  which  instruction  in  the 
higher  branches  of  learning  is  regularly  provided 
for  and  given,  have  been  established  in  at  least 
twenty-seven  towns  ;  while,  in  more  than  a  seine 
of  others,  schools  of  two  or  three  departments 
are  regularly  supported.  While,  before  that  time, 
no  student  could  be  prepared  for  college  in 
a  public  school,  to-day  as  many  students  are 
preparing  for  college  in  the  public  schools  as  in 
the  private  schools. — The  supervision  of  schools 
by  the  town  is  involved  in  the  requirement  that 
public  money  be  distributed  to  such  districts 
only  as  support  schools  ;  and  supervision  by  the 
state  is  very  clearly  implied  in  the  requirement 
that  the  grand  jury  in  each  county  shall  ascer- 
tain whether  the  several  towns  of  the  county 
have  raised  and  properly  expended  the  slate 
school  tax.  In  1827,  it  was  enacted,  "  that  each 
town  in  this  state  shall  choose  a  superintending 
committee  who  shall  have  the  general  charge  of 
all  the  public  schools  in  said  town."  The  law 
further  made  it  the  duty  of  said  committee  to 
require  full  and  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  good 
moral  character  of  all  instructors  employed  in 
said  town,  and  to  satisfy  themselves,  by  personal 
examination,  of  their  qualifications  for  teaching, 
and  their  capacity  for  the  government  of  schools: 
and  declared  that  no  instructor  should  be  entitled 
to  any  compensation  I'm-  teaching  in  the  public 
schools,  unless  he  hail  obtained  frmn  the  superin- 
tending committee,  or  a  majority  of  them,  a  cer- 
I  ih'cate  of  qualification.  The  superintending  com- 
mittee were  required  to  visit  the  schools  and  to 

make  Careful  examination    thereof,  to  determine 

the  class  hooks  to  be  used  in   the  several  schools. 

i  1  to  make  returns    to    the   secretary   of  state. 

rhe  law  requiring  the  election  of  a   superintend- 


ing committee  was  repealed  in  1833,  but  was 
revived  in  1 845  by  an  act  which  provided  for  the 
election  of  town  superintendents,  with  powers 
and  duties  very  similar  to  those  already  described. 
— The  school  law  of  1827  required  the  secre- 
tary of  state  to  collect  school  statistics  from  the 
towns ;  and  the  same  law  provided  that  there 
should  be  annually  chosen  by  the  legislature  a 
board  of  commissioners,  consisting  of  five  per- 
sons, to  be  denominated  the  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Common  Schools.  The  board  of  com- 
missioners were  to  meet  at  least  once  a  year.  They 
were  to  prepare  a  list  of  text-books,  and  to  ad- 
vise the  superintending  committees  to  select 
from  the  same  for  the  use  of  the  schools;  to  ex- 
amine the  effect  of  the  school  laws  of  the  state, 
and  if,  in  their  opinion,  alterations  in  said  laws 
were  necessary,  to  specify  the  same,  in  their  an- 
nual report  to  the  legislature.  The  board  of 
commissioners  made  a  report  in  1828;  and,  in 
I  *:{.'},  all  laws  concerning  the  supervision  of 
schools  were  repealed.-  V\  ith  the  restoration  of 
town  supervision,  in  1845,  came  the  restoration 
of  state  supervision  by  a  state  superintendent  of 
common  schools,  annually  elected  by  the  general 
assembly,  whose  duties  were  essentially  the  same 
as  those  of  the  secretary  of  state  and  board  of 
commissioners  under  the  law  of  1827, except  that 
he  was  not  required  to  recommend  text-books. 
Six  annual  elections  of  state  superindendeiit, and 
six  annual  reports  by  that  officer,  followed  the 
enactment  of  this  law  ;  but,  in  1851,  the  general 
assembly  refused  to  choose  a  superintendent,  and 
thus,  through  legislative  neglect,  state  super- 
vision of  the  schools  ceased.  It  was  revived,  how- 
ever, under  a  new  law,  in  1856,  which  provided 
for  a  board  of  education.  To  this  board  were  in- 
trusted substantially  the  same  powers  as  those 
granted  to  the  earlier  board  of  commissioners, 
with  the  added  power  of  appointing  a  secretary. 
This  officer  was  to  keep  a  record  of  the  official 
proceedings  of  the  board,  to  hold  teachers'  in- 
stitutes, to  visit  all  parts  of  the  state  and  deliver 
lectures  on  subjects  pertaining  to  education,  to 
confer  with  town  superintendents  and  visit 
schools  with  them,  to  collect  statistics,  and  to  re- 
port annually.  Afterward,  the  supervision  of  the 
normal  schools,  provided  for  in  1866,  was  com- 
mitted to  the  board  of  education  and  their 
secretary.  The  control  and  supervision  of  the 
schools  by  a  board  of  education  continued  till 
1874,  when  it  was  replaced  by  the  present 
system.  'I  he  state  superintendents  have  been  as 
follows:    Hinder   the  title  of  Superintendent  of 

Common  Schools)  Horace  Eaton,  L845 — 50; 
Chariest;,  liurnham.  L850 —  51;  (as  Secretary  of 
the  Board  of  Education)  J.S-.  Adams.  1856-  67; 
A.  K.  Rankin.  1S(17— 70;  John  II.  French, 
1870  71:  las  Superintendent  of  Education) 
Edward  Conant,  elected  in  1874. 
School  System.     The  supervision  and  control 

of  the  public  schools  of  the  state  are  Committed  to 

a  superintendent  of  education,  who  is  elected 
biennially  by  the   legislature.      Mis  duties  are 

those  discharged  1  >y  the  secretary  of  the  board  ot 
education  previous  to  1874.     Toum superintend- 


VERMONT 


841 


ents  are  chosen  annually  by  the  people.  They 
are  required  to  visit  the  schools  at  least  once  a 
year,  to  hold  two  examinations  of  teachers  cadi 
year,  to  grant  certificates,  and  to  report  to  the 
state  superintendent  once  a  year.  Each  district 
has  a  moderator,  a  clerk,  a  collector  of  taxes,  a 
treasurer,  one  or  three  auditors,  and  a  prudential 
committee,  consisting  of  one  or  three  voters  re- 
siding in  the  district.  These  are  all  elected  an- 
nually. The  public  money  belongs  to  the 
towns,  and  is  by  them  distributed  to  the  dis- 
tricts, where  these  exist.  It  is  derived  from 
lands  reserved  for  the  use  of  schools  in  the  orig- 
inal grants  of  the  townships,  from  gifts  to  the 
towns,  from  the  income  derived  from  the  United 
States  deposit  fund,  which  is  apportioned  to  the 
several  towns  according  to  their  population,  and 
from  taxation.  Each  town  using  the  district  sys- 
tem, is  required  to  appropriate  annually  as  public 
money  for  the  use  of  schools,  such  a  sum  as 
would  be  raised  by  a  tax  of  nine  cents  on  each 
dollar  of  the  grand  list  of  the  town,  increased  by 
one  half  the  income  from  the  United  States  de- 
posit fund.  Towns  using  the  town  system,  are 
required  to  appropriate  as  public  money  all  in- 
come for  school  purposes,  derived  from  any  of 
the  sources  mentioned  above,  except  taxation  ; 
and,  in  these  towns,  the  selectmen  may  appropriate 
for  the  support  of  schools  sums  not  exceed- 
ing the  amount  that  would  be  raised  by  a  tax  of 
fifty  cents  on  a  dollar  of  the  grand  list  of  the 
.  town.  All  other  moneys  raised  for  school  pur- 
poses must  be  voted  by  the  towns  or  by  the  dis- 
tricts- Vermont  has  no  state  school  fund.  Each 
town  is  required  to  support  a  school  or  schools, 
the  organization  of  which  according  to  the  town 
or  district  system,  is  optional.  The  school-dis- 
trict being  the  creation  of  the  town,  is  subject, 
in  every  respect,  to  town  control.  The  public 
schools  are  free  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns 
or  districts  supporting  them,  and  ample  facilities 
are  furnished  for  the  establishment  and  support 
of  graded  and  high  schools.  The  studies  pursued 
by  law  in  the  common  schools,  are  reading,  spell- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, the  history  and  constitution  of  the  United 
States  and  of  Vermont,  and  good  behavior.  The 
legal  school  age  is  from  5  to  20  years ;  the 
school  year,  5  months  or  more.  For  children 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  1 4  years,  and  for  a 
period  of  3  months,  education  is  compulsory  ; 
and  no  child  of  this  age,  who  has  resided  a  year 
in  the  state  can,  without  violation  of  the  law,  be 
employed  in  any  mill  or  factory,  unless  he  has 
attended  a  public  school  for  3  months  during 
the  preceding  year. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
organized  school-districts,  in  1874,  was  2,224  ; 
the  number  of  fractional  districts,  530 ;  the 
number  of  common  schools,  2,782.  The  amount 
of  money  received  during  the  school  year  ending 
March  31.,  187(>,  was  as  follows: 

Prom  local  tax $425,958.69 

"     permanent  fund 14,193.33 

"      oilier  sources 40,000.05 

Total $480,158.07 


The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 

For  salaries  of  teachers $437,471.27 

"    sites,   buildings,   and  fur- 
niture      07,010.83 

"    fuel  and  incidentals 60,562.47 


Total $505,044.57 

The  other  chief  items  of  school  statistics  are  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 92,577 

"       "         "       enrolled  in  coinmoii  schools  71,325 

Average  daily  attendance 39,474 

Number  of  teachers,  males 005 

females 3,448 

Total .TT7TT   4,113 

Normal  Instruction. — There  are  three  normal 
schools  in  the  state  — at  Castleton,  Randolph, 
and  Johnson.  Their  financial  management,  and 
the  employing  of  teachers  for  them,  is  committed 
to  local  boards  of  trustees.  The  arrangement  of 
courses  of  study  is  intrusted  to  the  respective 
boards  of  trustees  and  the  superintendent  of  edu- 
cation. The  graduation  of  students  is  controlled 
by  a  board  of  examiners,  and  the  teachers  em- 
ployed must  be  nominated  and  approved  by 
the  state  superintendent.  The  graduates  from 
these  schools  are  licensed  to  teach  in  the  state  for  a 
term  of  years.  An  annual  appropriation  of 
S  1 .500  is  made  by  the  state  to  each  school. — The 
Chittenden  County  Teachers'  Association,  organ- 
ized in  1847,  and  the  Vermont  State  Teachersr 
Association,  organized  in  1848,  hold  annual 
meetings. 

Secondary  and  Denominational  Instruction. 
— In  a  few  of  the  large  towns,  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics have  established  schools  for  the  separate  edu- 
cation of  their  children,  and  movements  tending 
to  the  same  end,  are  said  to  be  in  progress  in  other 
towns.  Private  schools,  incorporated  as  academies, 
grammar  schools,  seminaries,  etc.,  exist  in  all 
parts  of  the  state.  The  number  of  incorporated 
academies,  county  grammar  schools,  and  academic 
departments  of  graded  schools  is  about  100. 
The  number  of  pupils  pursuing  higher  studies, 
was  reported,  in  1875,  as  7,334. 

Superior  Instruction. — Three  institutions  of 
this  grade  exist  in  the  state  as  follows  : 


. . 

NAME 

Location 

When 
found- 
ed 

Denomi- 
nation 

University  of  Vermont.. 

Middlebury 

Northfield 

Burlington 

1800 
1834 
1791 

Cong. 
Pr.  Epis. 
Non-sect. 

The  Vermont  Methodist  Seminary  and  Fe- 
male College,  at  Montpelier,  is  the  only  institu- 
tion in  the  state  exclusively  devoted  to  the  su- 
perior instruction  of  women.  The  value  of  its 
property  is  estimated  at  $80,000.  In  1875,  it 
hail  8  instructors  and  1GG  students.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Vermont  also  furnishes  instruction  to 
women  on  the  same  conditions  as  to  men. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — The 
agricultural  and  scientific  department  of  the 
University  of  Vermont  constitutes  the  State 
Agricultural  College,  established  in  1865.  It  has 
three  regular  courses, — one  in  theoretical  and  ap- 
plied chemistry,  one  in  civil  engineering,  and  one 
in   metallurgy  and  mining  engineering.  There  is, 


842 


VERMONT  UNIVERSITY 


VIRGINIA 


also,  a  literary  and  scientific  course,  and  a  labo- 
ratory course,  the  latter  for  students  in  the  med- 
ical department,  and  for  teachers  in  academies 
who  are  required  to  give  instruction  in  chemistry. 
In  1875,  the  number  of  instructors  was  7,  and 
the  number  of  students,  20.  Instruction  in  sci- 
ence is  also  given  in  the  scientific  department  of 
Norwich  University,  and  instruction  in  medi- 
cine, in  the  department  for  that  purpose  in  the 
University  of  Vermont. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Home  for  Destitute 
Children,  at  Burlington,  was  founded  in  1865, 
its  origin  being  a  small  private  asylum,  opened 
at  that  time  for  seven  indigent  children.  In 
L8  17,  a  permanent  fund  of  nearly  $50,000,  was 
raised  by  subscription,  and,  in  1875,  a  new 
building  was  dedicated  and  opened. 

VERMONT,  University  of,  at  Burling- 
ton, Vt.,  was  chartered  in  1791,  and  opened  in 
1800.  In  1865,  the  congressional  land  grant  to 
the  state,  for  the  support  of  an  agricultural  and 
mechanical  college,  was  transferred  to  it,  and  it 
was  incorporated  as  the  University  of  Vermont 
and  State  Agricultural  College.  A  medical  de- 
partment  was  organized  in  1809.  It  is  supported 
partly  by  endowments  and  partly  by  tuition  fees 
[570  per  annum  in  the  medical  and  815  in  the 
other  departments).  The  university  has  a  library 
of  17,000  volumes  and  a  valuable  cabinet  of 
natural  history.  In  the  academic  department. 
there  is,  besides  the  classical  course,  a  literary- 
scientific  course,  embracing  Latin,  the  modern 
languages,  and  various  branches  of  science,  phys 
ical,  political, mental. and  moral.  In  the  agricult- 
ural and  scientific  department,  there  are  courses 
in  agriculture,  in  chemistry,  in  civil  engineering, 
and  in  metallurgy  and  mining  engineering.  In 
each  department,  special  courses  may  be  pur- 
sued by  those  not  candidates  for  a  degree.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted  fco  the  academic  and  scien- 
tific departments.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  21  in- 
structors I  I  2  in  the  medical  department)  and  1  68 
students  (76  medical).  The  presidents  of  the 
university  have  been  as  follows  :  the  Rev.  Daniel 
Clarke  Sanders.  D.  1>.,  1800—14  ;  the  Rev.  Sam- 
uel Austin,  D.  I).,  1815—21;  the  Rev.  Daniel 
llaskel.  A.  M.,  L821— 4;  the  Rev.  Willard  Pres- 
ton, D.  1).,  1825—6;  the  Rev.  James  Marsh, 
!>.[).,  L826— 33;  the  Rev.  John  Wheeler,  D.  D., 
18:53 — 19;  the  Rev.  Worthington  Smith,  D.  D., 
1849—55;  the  Rev.  Calvin  Pease,  D.  I).,  1855 
—61  ;  the  Rev.  Joseph  Torrey,  D.  D.,  1862—6; 
James  Burrill  Angell,  LL.D.,  1866—71;  and 
Matthew  Henry  Buekham,  A.  M..  since  1871. 

VILLANOVA,  Augustinian  College  of 
St.  Thomas  of,  commonly  called  Villanova 
Oollege,  at  Villanova,  Delaware  Uo..  Pa.,  was 
(bunded  in  1  842, and  chartered  in  1848.  It  is  a 
Roman  Catholic  institution,  conducted  by  Her- 
mits of  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine.  It  is  supported 
by  the  fees  of  students,  the  regular  charge  for 
tuition,  board,  etc.  being  $150  per  session  of 
the  months.  The  libraries  contain  8,000  vol- 
umes. In  the  classical  department,  the  studies 
necessary  for  graduation  embrace  a  period  of 
seven  years,  three  of   which   are  devoted  to  the 


preparatory  classes,  and  four,  to  the  collegiate. 
The  scientific  course  requires  six  years.  There 
is  a  commercial  course  of  two  years.  The  the- 
ological department  has  a  four  years'  course.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  17  instructors  (2  theological) 
and  79  students  (13  theological).  '1  he  presidents 
have  been  as  follows:  (I)  Patricius  Eugene 
.Moriarty.  O.S.A.;  (2)  Jno.  P.  O'Pwyer.  U.S.A.; 
(3)  Win.  Harnett,  U.S.A.;  (4)  Ambrose  A.  Mul- 
len, ( ).  S.  A. ;  (5)  Patrick  A.  Stanton,  U.  S.  A.; 
(6)  Thomas  ( J al berry,  U.S.A.;  (7)  the  Very  Rev. 
Thomas  C.  Middle  ton,  D.D.,  U.S.A..  the  present 
incumbent  (1817). 

VIRGINIA^the  oldest  of  the  thirteen  orig- 
inal states  of  the  American  Union,  having  an 
area  of  about  45.000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population, 
according  to  the  federal  census  of  1870,  of 
1,225, KJ3,  of  whom  712,069  were  whites,  and 
512,841  colored  persons. 

Educational  History, — The  history  of  educa- 
tion in  Virginia  may  be  divided  into  periods 
marked  by  the  great  political  epochs  of  the  state: 
(1)  From  1607  to  1776;  (II)  From  1776  to  1865; 
(III)  From  1865  to  the  present  time. 

I.  From  1607  to  1776. — Among  the  first  cares 
of  the  Virginia  colony  was  the  provision  for 
education.  As  early  as  1619,  some  provision  was 
made  for  a  college,  and  for  a  free  preparatory 
school;  but  the  massacre  of  1622  destroyed 
these  nasi  cut  institutions,  and  left  education 
without  any  organized  form  until  the  creation 
of  the  College  of  William  and  .Mary,  in  1693. 
During  the  first  three  quarters  of  the  18th 
century,  this  college  served  well  its  objects, 
whilst  the  lower  branches  were  taught  by  clergy- 
men, parents,  and  chance  teachers.  The  germs 
of  Washington  College  and  Hampden  Sidney 
College  were  planted  near  the  close  of  this  pe- 
riod. Some  abortive  efforts  were  made  to  edu- 
cate Indians  and  negroes. 

II.  From  L776  to  1865. — The  education  of 
the  people  was  an  object  of  solicitude  with  the 
Virginia  legislature,  even  during  the  Revolution- 
ary war,  as  was  evinced  by  the  report  of  an  able 
committee,  with  Mr.  Jefferson  at  its  head,  in 
favor  of  a  scheme  of  public  instruction.  The 
plan  reported  was  finally  adopted  in  1796,  with, 
however,  an  important  modification,  which,  by 
changing  it  from  a  mandatory  state  system  to  an 
optional  county  system,  occasioned  its  failure. 
'I  he  next  public  movement  was  the  creation  of  a 
literary  fund  in  1810,  the  interest  of  which  was 
at  6rel  devoted  exclusively  to  the  education  of 
the  poor.  This  fund  grew  by  the  addition  of 
lines,  forfeitures,  and  escheats,  until,  by  the  end 
of  the  period,  it  amounted  to  two  millions  of 
dollars,  and  yielded  an  annual  revenue  of  about 
$100,000,  of  which  $80,000  was  apportioned 
among  the  counties  for  paying  the  tuition  of 
th<'  poor  children,  chiefly  in  private  schools, 
and  the  remainder  was  ultimately  given  to 
the  State  University  and  the  Military  Institute. 
— School  commissioners  wire  appointed  in  every 
county,  to  determine  what  children  were  entitled 
to  the  benefit  of  the  public  money,  and  to  pay 
their  tuition  fees  at   a  certain    fixed    rate,  which 


VIRUINTA 


843 


varied  at  different  times  from  4  to  8  cents  a  day.  i 
Multitudes  of  children  —  sometimes  more  than 
.'50,000  in  one  year  —  were  thus  sent  to  school,  I 
who  otherwise  would  have  had  no  opportunity 
of  receiving  the  simplest  elements  of  education. 
But  badly  qualified  teachers  were  often  em- 
ployed, the  poor  experienced  a  feeling  of  humil- 
iation, ignorance  was  but  slightly  diminished, 
and  the  working  of  the  system  was  so  unsatis- 
factory that,  every  few  years,  efforts  were  made 
to  provide  something  better.  In  1829,  an  act 
was  passed  by  the  legislature,  looking  to  a  com- 
bination of  private  and  public  means  for  the 
maintenance  of  schools  free  to  all.  To  this  end. 
the  school  commissioners  in  any  county  were 
authorized  to  district  the  county,  and  to  offer  to 
contribute  two -fifths  toward  the  cost  of  the 
building  of  a  school-house  in  each  district,  and 
one  hundred  dollars  towards  maintaining  a 
teacher,  if  the  people  would  do  the  rest  by  vol- 
untary contribution.  In  a  few  counties,  the  ex- 
periment was  tried  vigorously,  but  not  with 
much  success  anywhere.  —  Soon  after  the  census 
of  1840  had  revealed,  for  the  first  time,  the  large 
proportion  of  illiteracy  existing  among  the 
whites,  a  strong  and  well-nigh  successful  move- 
ment was  made  to  establish  a  state  system  of 
public  free  schools;  but,  in  passing  through  the 
legislature,  the  scheme  was  marred,  as  Jefferson's 
had  been  before  it,  by  giving  it  the  shape  of  sim- 
ply authorizing  any  county  to  adopt  a  free 
school  system  for  itself.  This  act  was  passed  in 
1 846,  and  nine  counties  by  popular  vote  adopted 
the  system;  but,  owing  to  defects,  it  was  not 
satisfactory  anywhere.  The  "Pauper  System'' 
still  prevailed  until  the  revenues  of  the  Literary 
Fund  were  applied  to  the  military  defense  of  the 
state.  —  Unsatisfactory  as  was  the  condition  of 
primary  education  during  this  period,  the  higher 
branches,  on  the  other  hand,  were  studied  by  an 
unusually  large  proportion  of  the  Virginian 
youth.  Many  young  men  sought  a  liberal  edu- 
cation at  Harvard  and  Yale,  and  especially  at 
Princeton  College,  while  some  crossed  the  ocean. 
William  and  Mary.  Hampden  Sidney,  and 
AVashington  colleges  supplied  the  means  of  ad- 
vanced education  in  the  state  previous  to  the 
opening  of  the  State  University,  in  1825.  Sub- 
sequently were  added  Randolph  Macon,  Emory 
and  Heury,  Richmond,  and  Roanoke  colleges  — 
of  which  a  more  particular  account  is  given  else- 
where. A  constantly  increasing  number  of  sec- 
ondary schools  existed  in  the  state,  and  some 
of  them  were  conducted  by  highly  educated 
men.  —  In  1838,  an  institution  was  founded  by 
the  state  for  the  instruction  and  maintenance  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the  blind,  and  was  en- 
dowed with  an  annuity  of  835,000.  The  only 
special -provision  for  female  education  consisted 
of  private  and  denominational  academies. 

III.  From  1865  to  1875.  —  At  the  close  of 
the  civil  war.  in  1865,  schools  of  all  grades  were 
prostrate  within  the  territory  remaining  to  Vir- 
ginia; but  immediate  efforts  were  made  to  revive 
them  and  the  census  showed  that  the  general 
school  attendance  in  1870  was  not  greatly  below 


that  of  I860.  By  this  time, however,  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  pupils  were  colored,  owing  to  the 
establishment  of  colored  schools  by  northern  so- 
cieties and  by  the  Kreedmen's  Bureau.  Increased 
poverty  and  the  failure  of  revenue  from  the 
literary  Fund  occasioned  the  falling  off  of  at- 
tendance among  the  whites.  —  In  1869.  the  new 
state  constitution  prepared  by  the  convention  of 
1867—8,  assembled  under  the  Congressional 
Reconstruction  Acts,  became  the  organic  law  of 
the  state.  This  constitution  provided  for  a 
system  of  public  free  schools  to  be  supported  by 
taxation,  state  and  local,  and  by  the  interest 
derived  from  the  Literary  Fund.  The  system 
was  to  be  administered  impartially  as  between 
the  races,  and  to  be  in  full  operation  by  1876. 
The  first  legislature  which  met  after  the  adop- 
tion of  the  constitution  promptly  took  up  the 
subject,  chose  a  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  and,  on  the  11th  of  July,  1870, 
passed  a  complete  school  law,  embodying  a 
thorough  and  effective  public  free-school  system, 
which  was  immediately  put  into  successful  oper- 
ation, and  has  grown  stea'  ily  in  strength  and 
usefulness.  —  Before  the  establishment  of  the 
public-school  system  in  Virginia,  we  ascertain, 
from  the  census  of  I860  ;md  other  sources,  that 
there  were  about  67,000  children  attending  school 
in  the  present  limits  of  Virginia,  of  whom  31,500 
were  pau]  er  children,  whose  instruction  was  paid 
for  out  of  a  portion  of  the  interest  of  the  Liter- 
ary Fund.  The  entire  amount  expended  on 
these  pauper  children  was  $80,000,  so  that  the 
instruction  received  was  very  rudimentary.  There 
has  been  no  great  change  in  the  aggregate  of 
population  of  the  counties  now  constituting  Vir- 
ginia since  1850.  It  may,  therefore,  be  instructive 
to  observe  the  school  attendance  in  all  schools: 
public  and  private,  at  different  periods: 

In  1850    51,808  (U.  S.  Census) 

"   1860 67,024  " 

"    1*70 58,974 

"   1875 207,771  (Va.  School  Returns) 

Of  these,  the  colored   pupils  were  about  10,000 
in  1870,  and  58,760  in  1875.  — 

Almost  immediately  on  the  establishment  of 
the  public-school  system,  in  1870,  the  number 
of  pupils  attending  the  public  schools  alone  was 
more  than  twice  as  great  as  the  total  number 
which  had,  at  any  time  previous,  been  found  in 
schools  of  all  sorts;  and,  besides  this,  there  were 
over  20,000  children  attendingthe  privateschools. 
While,  in  1870,  according  to  the  U.  S.  census, 
taken  for  1869 — 70,  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled 
in  schools  of  all  sorts  was  58.974;  in  1870 — 71, 
the  total  number  was  157,841.  or  an  increase  of 
nearly  100,000  in  one  year.  The  enrollment  of 
whites  was  more  than  doubled,  while  the  colored 
pupils  increased  fourfold.  Excepting  one  year, 
there  was  a  gain  in  the  public  schools  every  year, 
for  the  first  five  years,  in  the  attendance  of  both 
white  and  colored  pupils.  The  number  of  whites 
increased  from  89, 734,  in  1871,  to  129,545,  iu 
1875:  that  of  the  colored  pupils,  from  38,554, 
in  1871,  to  54,941,  in  1*75.  —  About  825,000, 
more  or  less  has  been  annually  distributed  in  the 


844 


VIRGINIA 


state  from  the  Peabody  fund.  The  object  and 
conditions  of  distribution  are  the  same  in  Vir- 
ginia as  in  the  other  Southern  States.  The  money 
has  been  exceedingly  useful,  far  more  than  would 
have  been  the  same  amount  forming  part  of  the 
ordinary  local  funds.  There  has  been  but  one 
state  superintendent  in  Virginia,  — -  William 
II.  Ruffner,  LL.D.,  elected  in  1&70,  and  still  in 
office  (1877). 

School  System.  —  The  system  is  administered 
by  a  state  board  of  education,  a  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  county  and  city 
superintendents  of  schools,  and  district  trustees. 
The  board  of  education  consists  of  the  gov- 
ernor, the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
and  the  attorney-general.  Tt  controls  the  state 
school  fund,  appoints  and  removes  county  and 
city  superintendents,  and  also  district  trustees. 
the  latter  absolutely,  and  the  former  subject 
to  confirmation  by  the  senate.  The  city  school 
trustees  are  appointed  by  the  city  councils,  but 
are  removable  by  the  state  board.  There  are  no 
popular  votes  in  reference  to  either  school  offi- 
cers or  taxation.  The  state  board  is  the  final 
tribunal  for  the  decision  of  all  appeals  from  the 
action  of  the  state  superintendent.  It  is  also 
charged  with  regulating  uniformity  of  text- 
books, and  all  other  matters  of  detail  not  ex- 
pressly provided  for  by  the  law.  The  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  is  elected  by  the 
legislature  for  four  years,  and  receives  a  salary 
Of  $2,000,  and  8500  additional  for  traveling  ex- 
penses, lie  is  provided  with  an  office  in  the 
state  capitol,  and  has  two  clerks,  lie  is  the  chief 
executive  officer  of  the  school  system.  His  duties 
are  to  see  to  the  enforcement  of  the  school  laws 
and  regulations,  and  to  promote  an  educational 
spirit  among  the  people,  to  interpret  the  school 
laws,  to  decide  appeals  from  the  action  of  the 
comity  superintendents,  to  instruct  and  super- 
vise the  school  officers,  to  provide  blanks,  to  ap- 
portion state  school  funds,  to  make  tours  of  in- 
spection, to  require  reports  of  local  officers,  and 
to  make  an  annual  report,  which  goes  to  the 
legislature  through  the  board  of  education,  and 
is  printed  at  state  expense.  '  ounty  and  city 
superintendents  are  appointed  for  four  years; 
their  pay  is  graduated  according  to  population 
and  number  of  schools,  but  outside  of  the  cities 
no  superintendent  can  receive  less  than  $200 
a  year;  which  is  drawn  entirely  from  state 
funds.  They  are  charged  with  the  usual  duties 
of  such  officers  in  the  most  approved  school 
systems.  There  are  three,  district  school 
trustees  in  each  magisterial  district   (which  cor- 

res] Is     to     the     township     in    other    states). 

Besidea   the  district    boards,    there    is   a   county 

school  board,  compose  I  of  all  the  district  trustees, 

with    the   county   superintendent    as    president 

The  county  board  annually  examines  the  records 

and  vouchers  of  the  district  boards,  and  furnishes 

to    the  Supervisors  of   the  county   estimates  for 

the  amounts  wanted  for  school  purposes.  Teach- 
ers are  examined  and  licensed  by  the  count) 
Superintendent,  ami  appointed  by  the  district 
boards  under  written  contracts,  Thesix  primary 


branches,  reading,  spelling,  writing,  arithmetic, 
grammar,  and  geography,  are  required  to  be 
taught  in  all  the  public  schools, and  other  branches 
are  allowed  in  the  rural  districts  under  restric- 
tions. The  law  imposes  no  restriction  on  studies 
or  the  general  management  in  the  larger  cities, 
the  subject  being  regulated  by  the  city  school 
boards.  The  schools  are  free  to  all  children  be- 
tween 5  and  '21  years  of  age,  residing  in  the  dis- 
trict, without  charge  for  tuition,  except  that  a 
monthly  charge  of  S'2.50  may  be  made  for  the 
higher  branches,  which  are  taught,  under  pre- 
scribed regulations,  in  some  of  the  schools.  Kqual 
educational  privileges  are  secured  by  law  to  white 
and  colored  children,  but  they  must  be  taught 
in  separate  schools.  The  minimum  school  term 
is  5  months,  and  15  is  the  minimum  number  of 
pupils  prescribed  to  constitute  a  school.  School- 
houses  are  provided  and  furnished  at  the  expense 
of  the  district.  School  funds  are  derived  from  the 
state, the  county, and  the  district.  The  state  funds 
embrace  the  interest  on  the  Literary  Fund,  a 
capitation  tax  of  one  dollar  on  every  male  citizen, 
and  a  tax  of  one  mill  on  every  dollar's  worth 
of  property  in  the  slate.  Out  of  the  state  funds 
are  paid  the  expenses  of  flu-  central  office,  and  a 
portion  of  the  salaries  of  the  county  and  city 
.superintendents;  the  rest  is  apportioned  among 
the  counties  and  cities  to  lie  used  exclusively  for 
the  payment  of  teachers,  except  that  the  county 
superintendent's  salary  may  be  supplemented 
from  this  source  in  an  amount  not  exceeding 
that  received  from  the  state.  District  funds 
(where  they  do  not  exceed  a  property  levy  of  •"> 
cents  on  the  $]  00)  are  used  exclusively  for  school  - 
houses,  furniture,  incidental  expenses,  and  for 
buying  books  for  indigent  children.  Local  funds 
are  raised  by  the  supervisors  on  the  presentation 

of  estimates  from  the  school  boards,  but  the 
estimates  may  be  cut  down  by  the  supervisors. 
Cities  having  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  are 
allowed  to  manage  their  own  school  affairs  in 
mosi  respects. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  whole  number 
of  school-districts  in  the  state  is  458;  of  public 
schools,  4,185.  The  graded  system  has  been 
adopted  in  all  the  cities  and  towns,  and  in  many 
thickly-settled  country  places;  so  that,  in  1  BtS, 
there  were  L55  of  such  organizations,  each  hav- 
ing from  '2  to  l.'i  teachers.  Some  of  the  higher 
branches  are  usually  taught  in  the  upper  grades. 
The  schools  are,  with  some  exceptions,  for  both 
sexes. 

The  most  important  school  statistics  (for  1  ^  7  •> 

arc  the  following: 

Whole  number.  <>f  pupils  enrolled 184,486 

iu.nverage  attendance.  108..!i27 

Percentage  of  school  population  enrolled. 38.2 

No.  of  teachers  in  (nil 'lie  schools 4,262 

Average  number  of  months  schools  were  taught    6.59 

Value  ol  publics-school  pronei tv  (757.181 

Entire  expenditure  fur  public  education . . . .  SI  .<* - 1 

Vverage  monthly  Balary  of  teachers $:!i>.  W 

Whole  no.ofpupils  in  public  and  private  Bchools207,-77l 
■■    leathers "         5.5S1 

tfm'mal  In  sir  ucfidn.  —Legal  provision  has  not 
vet    been    made   for  normal    instruction.      There 


VIRGINIA 


845 


are  three  colored  normal  schools  supported  by 
foreign  means;  and  normal  courses  are  supplied 
by  some  of  the  colleges.  This  is  .the  case  in 
Roanoke  College,  at  Salem,  and  (for  females)  in 
llollins  Institute,  and  Marion  Female  College. 
The  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Insti- 
tute is  accomplishing  an  important  work,  in  the: 
education  of  colored  teachers.  In  1ST"),  it  had 
18  instructors  and  243  students. —  Teachers'  in- 
stitutes are  held  in  most  of  the  counties  of  the 
state  ;  and  the  larger  of  these  receive  assistance 
from  the  Peabody  fund. 

Secondary  Instruction.  —  Three  cities  have 
public  high  schools,  separated  from  the  lower 
grades,  and  organized  somewhat  differently.  But, 
commonly  the  higher  branches  form  a  mere  con- 
tinuation of  the  lower,  and  are  somewhat  inter- 
woven with  them;  and,  as  a  means  of  supple- 
menting the  public  funds,  a  law,  passed  in  1874, 
allows  a  tuition  fee  to  be  charged  of  $2.50  per 
month,  which  is  the  only  fee  allowed  in  con- 
nection with  the  public-school  system.  Efforts 
are  making  to  define  the  limits  of  secondary 
education,  both  public  and  private. 

Private  and  Corporate  Schools. — Taking  all 
grades  of  education,  about  25,000,  or  less  than 
one-eighth  of  the  school-going  population,  are 
now  educated  outside  of  the  state  schools.  The 
number  of  private  schools  (exclusively  primary) 
is  about  G50.  They  are  chiefly  alphabet  schools, 
or  those  intended  for  children  of  from  five  to 
ten  years  of  age.  There  are  also  from  160  to  175 
private  schools,  called  academies  or  classical 
schools,  nearly  every  one  of  which  has  a  primary 
department  in  which  a  majority  of  the  pupils  arc 
found.  A  few  schools  (including  some  orphan 
asylums)  are  supported  by  church  contributions, 
the  most  of  which  are  Catholic  or  Episcopal.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  academies,  particularly 
those  for  girls,  are  under  some  special  denomi- 
national influence.  Superior  teachers  are  often 
found  in  these  schools,  both  for  females  and  for 
males.  Female  incorporated  academies  are 
more  numerous,  and  generally  better  provided 
for  than  those  for  males,  and  some  of  them  are 
called  colleges.  But  as  respects  college  education 
proper,  there  has  been  no  provision  made  for 
girls  from  either  private  or  public  means,  to  be 
compared  with  that  made  for  boys.  The  higher 
branches  are  taught,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
in  about  seventy  female  schools,  twenty  of 
which  are  incorporated.  There  are  about  sixty 
private  male  schools  for  secondary  instruction, 
only  six  of  which  are  incorporated.  Some  of  the 
corporate  academies  have  small  endowments,  but 
the  great  majority  of  the  schools  are  wholly  de- 
pendent on  tuition  fees  and  board  bills.  Besides 
the  academies  for  one  or  the  other  sex,  there  are 
about  40  in  which  girls  and  boys  are  taught  to- 
gether. There  is  a  very  small  number  of  elee- 
mosynary boarding-schools,  supported  by  the  an- 
nual interest  of  funds  given  by  benevolent  indi- 
viduals. The  number  of  pupils  in  private 
schools,  both  primary  and  secondary,  in  1 875, 
was  23,285,  of  whom  19,4(J(J  were  white,  and 
3,819.  colored  children. 


Superior  Instruction* — The  important  insti- 
tutions of  this  grade  are  enumerated  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  : 


NAME 


Emory  &  Henry  Coll.. 

Hampden  Sidney  Coll. 

Randolph  Macon  Coll. 

Richmond  College. . . 

Roanoke  College 

I  University  of  Virginia 

Washington  &  Lee  Un. 
!  William  &  Mary  Coll. . 


Location 


When 

Religious 

found- 

denomi- 

ed 

nation 

1838 

M    E.  8. 

1775 

Presb. 

1832 

M    R.  S. 

1841 

Eaptist 

1853 

Luth. 

1819 

Non  sect. 

1749 

Non  sect. 

1693 

Non  sect. 

Emory 

Haiup.  Sidney 

Ashland 

Richmond 

Salem 

Charlottesville 

Lexington 

Williamsburg 

For  further  information  in  regard  to  these  institu- 
tions, see  under  their  respective  titles.) 

There  were  9  institutions  for  the  superior  in- 
struction of  women  that  reported  to  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  in  1875,  as  follows: 
Albemarle  Female  Institute  (non-sectarian),  at 
Charlottesville;  Farmville  College  (Meth.  Epis. 
S.),at  Farmville;  llollins  Institute  (Baptist),  at 
Botetourt  Springs;  Marion  Female  Institute 
(Evangelical  Lutheran),  at  Marion;  Martha. 
Washington  College  (Meth.  Epis.),  at  Abingdon; 
Petersburg  Female  College  (Methodist),  at  Pe- 
tersburg ;  Southern  Female  College  (non- sec- 
tarian), at  Petersburg;  Virginia  Female  Institute 
(non-sectarian) ,  at  Staunton ;  and  Wesleyan 
Female  Institute  (Meth.  Epis.  S.).  at  Staunton. 
Most  of  these  institutions  are  authorized  to 
confer  degrees. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — The 
institutions  which  afford  instruction  in  science, 
theology,  law,  and  medicine,  are  enumerated 
below : 

Schools  of  Science. 


Namk 

Location 

1S70 

1870 

1872 
1839 

CO 

u 
o 

c 
20 

7 
18 

O   P 

.  a> 
o  "O 

w 

Hampton  Normal  and  Agri- 
New  Market  Polytechnic  In- 

Hampton 

New  Market 

Blacksburg 
Lexington 

208 

Virginia    Agricultural    and 

Mechanical  College 

Virginia  Military  Institute. 

222 
221 

The  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  In- 
stitute is  a  manual  labor  school,  and  a  reproduc- 
tion of  the  Lahainaluna  School  in  the  Sand- 
wich Islands.  It  is  intended  for  colored  stu- 
dents of  both  sexes.  The  boys  are  taught 
(besides  the  ordinary  elementary  and  academic 
branches)  farm  work  and  carpenter  work,  and 
the  girls,  sewing  and  domestic  work.  It  was 
established  by  northern  people,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  and  has  received 
probably  .$500,000  from  sources  beyond  the 
state.  The  Virginia  Agricultural  and  Mechan- 
ical College  was  opened  in  1872,  and  is  sup- 
ported almost  exclusively  by  the  proceeds 
of  two-thirds  of  the"  land  scrip  donated  by 
Congress,  the  other  third  having  been  as- 
signed to  the  colored  school  at  Hampton — the 
entire  proceeds  of  the  scrip  amounting  to 
about  $30,000.  The  state  legislature  has  given 
945,000  for  buildings,  and  $20,000  was  paid  by 


«46 


VIRGINIA 


VJRGINIA  UNIVERSITY 


the  county  where  it  is  located  ( Montgomery). 
The  scheme  of  the  college  fixes  it  at  about  the 
grade  of  a  high  school,  with  special  scientific 
and  practical  developments.  It  has  a  three 
years'  curriculum,  bifurcating  after  the  first  year 
into  a  special  agricultural  and  a  special  mechan- 
ical course,  each  of  two  years.  The  Virginia 
Military  Institute  was  opened  at  Lexington,  in 
183!),  on  a  plan  similar  to  that  of  West  Point, 
and  at  once  became  popular.  The  annuity, 
originally  $6,000,  was  subsequently  increased  :o 
$15,000;  and  the  number  of  cadets,  before  tne 
war  was  about  250  (50  of  them  being  state 
cadets).  The  buildings  were  burned  in  1804; 
but  since  the  war  they  have  been  restored,  and 
the  institution  has  been  more  flourishing  than 
ever.  The  academic  staff  consists  of  1 1  profess- 
ors and  9  assistants,  the  course  of  study,  which 
is  chiefly  of  a  military  and  scientific  character, 
being  arranged  for  four  years.  Instruction  in 
industrial  chemistry,  civil  and  mining  engineer- 
ing, and  agriculture,  is  also  given  in  special  de- 
partments of  the  University  of  Virginia,  and  in 
civil  and  mining  engineering  in  Washington  and 
Lae  University. 

Schools  OP  Tiii:oi,ooy. 


Name 


Richmond  Institute. . 
St.. tohu's  Theol.  Sem. 
Theol.  Sem.  of  the  Ev. 

Lutli.  Church 

Theol.    Sem.    of    the 

Prot.  Epis.  Church. 
Union  Theol.  Sem.  of 

the  Gen.  Assembly. 

The  Richmond 


Location 


Richmond 

Norfolk 

Salem 
Fairfax  Co. 


When  i  Religions 

found- 1  denomi- 

ed     I    nation 


1868  iBaptist 
—     R.  C. 


1831 
1823 


1824 


Luth. 
Pr.  Epis. 
Presb. 


Hampden  Sidney 

Institute  was  established  for 
the  purpose  of  preparing  colored  young  men  for 
the  ministry,  or  for  teaching.  The  qualifications 
for  admission  are  a  good  moral  character  and  fair 
intellectual  ability.  The  number  of  instructors, 
in  187"),  was  3;  the  number  of  students,  45. 
The  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church,  in  1875,  had  3  instructors 
and  1 1  students;  the  Theological  Seminary  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  during  the 
same  year,  had  5  instructors  and  51  students;  and 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Pres- 
byterian General  Assembly,  4  instructors  and  74 
students. —  Law  is  taught  in  the  Law  School  of 
the  University  of  Virginia,  and  the  School  of 
Law  and  Equity  of  Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity. In  the  former,  the  number  of  instruct- 
ors, in  1875,  was  2  ;  the  number  of  students,  93; 
in  the  latter.  2  instructors  and  17  students. — 
The  Medical  College  of  Virginia,  at  Richmond, 
is  the  only  medical  school  in  the  state  not  con- 
nected with  a  college  or  university.  It  was 
founded  in  1851,  and,  in  1875,  had  18  profess- 
ors and  instructors  and  37  students.  The 
course  of  study  covers  2  years.  Instruction  in 
medicine  is  also  given  in  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Virginia,  which  pro- 
vides a  course  of  a  year,  and,  in  1875, numbered 
50  students  and    5   professors.     The  equipment 

tri  the  latter  department  for  medical  instruction 


|  is  very  complete,  and.  in  some  respects,  its  facil- 
ities for  this  purpose  are  unequalled. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Institution  for  the 
Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  the 
Blind,  was  opened  in  1838,  at  Staunton.  In- 
struction is  given  in  the  elementary  branches  of 
an  English  education,  and  in  several  trades  and 
mechanical  pursuits.  There  were  7  instructors 
and  100  pupils  in  the  deaf-mute  department,  in 
1 875  ;  and  in  the  department  for  the  blind,  8 
instructors  and  employes,  and  42  pupils.  The 
Miller  Manual  Labor  School  had  not  been 
opened  up  to  the  summer  of  1870  ;  but  it  has 
an  endowment  of  81.000.000  left  for  its  founda- 
tion by  the  will  of  Samuel  Miller,  of  Lynch- 
burg, who  died  in  1809.  leaving  also  the  sum  of 
$300,000  for  founding  and  maintaining  an 
orphan  asylum  at  Lynchburg,  and  §100,000  to 
the  University  of  Virginia  for  an  agricultural 
department.  The  Manual  Labor  School,  in  the 
county  of  Albemarle,  is  for  the  benefit  of  the 
poor  orphan  white  children  of  that  county. 

Educational  Literature. —  The  Educational 
Journal  (monthly)  is  published  jointly  by  the 
state  association  of  teachers  and  the  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  12  pages  of  which 
are  official,  and  paid  for  out  of  the  school  funds. 
A  copy  of  the  journal  is  sent  to  each  county 
superintendent,  and  also  to  the  clerk  of  each 
district  school  board. 

VIRGINIA,  University  of,  in  Albemarle 
Co.,  Va.,  a  mile  and    a   half  west  of  Charlottes- 
ville, was  chartered  in  1819  and  opened  in  1824. 
It  owes  its  organization,  plan  of  government,  and 
system  of  instruction  to  'I  homas  Jefferson.    It  is 
partly  supported  by  an  annual  state  appropri- 
ation of  $30,000.  and  partly  by  tuition  fees.    In 
consideration  of  the  appropriation,  the  university 
receives,  free  of  tuition  in  the  academic  schools, 
students  from  the  state  over  1 8  years  of  age  who 
have  a  suitable  preparation.   The  tuition  fees  are 
ordinarily  from    §75  to  §110  per  year.   The  uni- 
versity library  contains  30.000  volumes.    Appli- 
cants for  admission  must  be  at  least  16  years  of 
age.     In  establishing  the  university  of  Virginia 
Mr.  Jefferson,  for  the    first   time   in    America, 
threw  open  the  doors  of  a  University,  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  name,  providing,  as  amply  as  the 
available  means  would  permit,  for  thorough  in- 
struction in  independent  schools,  in  all  the  chief 
branches  of  learning.     Every  student  may  select 
the  schools  he  will  attend,  but  in  the  academic 
department  he  is  required,  as  a  rule,  to  attend  at 
least    three.     The   professors  are  paid  in  part  by 
salaries,  and  in  part  by  tuition  fees  from  pu- 
pils  who    attend    their    several    schools.      The 
schools    in  operation   are  as  follows:  1.   Latin; 
2,  Creek:  3,  modem  languages:  4,  moral  philos- 
ophy; 6,  history,  general  literature,  and  rhetoric: 
6,  mathematics;  7.  natural  philosophy  (including 
mineralogy  and  geology)  ;  B,  general  and  applied 
chemistry  ;  '.'.  applied  mathematics,  engineering, 
and  architecture  ;  10,  analytical  and  agricultural 
chemistry;  11,  natural  history,  experimental  and 
practical  agriculture;  12,  comparative  anatomy, 
physiology,  and  surgery;  1 3,  anatomy  and  materia 


VOICE 


8-17 


medica;  14,  medical  jurisprudence,  obstetrics, 
and  the  practice  of  medicine;  15,  chemistry  and 
pharmacy;  16,  common  and  statute  law;  17, 
equity,  mercantile,  international,  constitutional 
and  civil  law,  and  government.  The  academic 
degrees  conferred  by  the  university  are  those 
of  (I)  Proficient,  for  satisfactory  attainments 
in  certain  subjects  of  study;  (2)  Graduate  in  a 
school;  (3j  Bachelor  of  Letters;  (4.)  Bachelor  of 
Science;  (5)  Bachelor  of  Arts;  and  ((>)  Master  of 
Arts.  The  professional  degrees  are  Bachelor  of 
Law,  Doctor  of  Medicine,  Civil  Engineer,  Mining 
Engineer,  and  Civil  and  Mining  Engineer.  No 
fixed  time  is  required  for  the  attainment  of  a 
degree;  but,  in  some  of  the  principal  schools,  the 
course  commonly  occupies  three  years.  In  1875 
— G,  there  were  17  instructors  and  330  students. 
.Tames  F.  Harrison,  M.D.,  is  (1877)  the  chair- 
man of  the  faculty. 

VOICE,  Culture  of  the.  The  human  voice 
may  be  considered  as  the  audible  expression  of 
the  mental  and  physical  characteristics  of  its  pos- 
sessor; and,  therefore,  no  means  employed  in  the 
varied  processes  of  education  are  of  more  impor- 
tance than  those  that  have  regard  to  its  culture. 
Its  powers  are  often  widely  misunderstood  and 
misapplied,  sometimes  abused  and  destroyed. 
In  the  very  beginning  of  education,  large  num- 
bers of  boys,  in  addition  to  marked  inherited 
peculiarities,  such  as  defective  ears,  weak  lungs, 
asthmatic  and  husky  bronchial  tubes,  contracted 
chests,  elongated  palates,  and  inflamed,  swollen 
tonsils,  are  permitted  to  indulge  in  the  perni- 
cious habit  of  loud  shouting  and  hurrahing,  and 
in  the  baleful  and  distressing  use  of  the  chest 
tones,  so  frequently  heard  in  the  singing  of  male 
pupils.  Every  boy  should  be  made  to  under- 
stand that  if  he  thus  abuses  his  voice,  he  must  not 
expect  to  overcome  his  constitutional  defects,  or 
retain  a  tone  which,  even  by  assiduous  practice, 
will  become  agreeable  to  his  audience,  in  read- 
ing, declamation,  or  vocal  music.  Girls,  while  in 
many  instances  they  have  all  the  inherited  dis- 
advantages above  referred  to,  present,  through 
their  more  delicate  organization  and  guarded 
habits,  far  more  promising  material  for  the  pro- 
duction of  purely  musical  effects.  Parents  and 
teachers  may  well  take  warning,  also,  in  the 
education  of  either  boys  or  girls,  against  a  long- 
continued  strain  upon  their  vocal  chords.  Many 
a  young  voice  has  been  completely  ruined 
by  this  untimely  forcing  of  the  powers  of  the 
youthful  candidate  for  declamatory  or  musical 
honors.  A  child  five  years  of  age,  for  example, 
is  placed  on  a  chair,  to  amuse  a  large  audience, 
by  speaking  or  singing  in  a  forced  utterance, 
and  with  an  unnaturally  loud  chest  tone,  entirely 
beyond  its  years,  or  powers  of  endurance.  Such 
a  tax  upon  its  vocal  chords,  if  long  continued, 
is  exceedingly  injurious.  The  medium  or  fal- 
setto tone,  that  most  mellow,  most  musical,  most 
sweet  and  expressive  part  of  the  female  voice,  or 
of  the  unchanged  voice  of  the  boy,  gradually  de- 
teriorates, and  is  finally  lost  by  this  injurious 
process.  The  remedy  for  this  destruction  lies 
in  the  early  protection  of  the  health,  and  in  the 


careful  use  of  the  young  voice,  at  home,  in 
school,  in  the  church,  and  wherever  there  is  any 
danger  of  this  overstraining  of  its  powers.  The 
vocal  exercises  should  be  within  a  limited  com- 
pass, —  neither  too  high  nor  too  low.  All  for- 
cing of  the  voice  should  be  positively  forbidden 
and  avoided;  and  each  lesson  should  come  to  a 
close  without  fatigue.  An  easy  and  systematic 
mode  of  breathing  should  be  an  early  acquisi- 
tion, since  it  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  success 
in  singing,  as  well  as  in  speaking.  Tone,  of  itself, 
being  nothing  more  nor  less  than  breath,  or  air 
in  motion  through  contact  with  a  sonorous  body, 
it  is  important  to  know,  to  some  degree  at  least, 
the  character  of  the  organs  which  enter  into 
the  production  of  vocal  tone.  All  cultivated 
speakers  and  singers  are  conscious  of  a  thorough 
employment  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  and  of 
those  of  the  diaphragm,  in  order  to  secure  com- 
plete control  of  the  breath.  Inhaling,  however, 
may  be  carried  to  excess,  a  result  well  known  to 
professional  dramatic  vocalists,  who  often  pro- 
tect themselves  against  rupture  by  wearing 
shoulder  braces,  trusses,  and  abdominal  sup- 
porters. Exhaling  involves  that  careful  use  of 
the  diaphragm,  which  keeps  the  intercostal 
nerves  and  muscles  in  a  state  of  tension,  in  or- 
der that  the  lungs  may  have  their  fullest  play. 
To  know  when  and  where  to  inhale  and  to 
exhale,  is  as  necessary  to  the  speaker,  in  his 
written  or  extern paraneously  delivered  sen- 
tences, as  it  is  to  the  singer,  in  the  enuncia- 
tion of  his  musical  phrases;  and,  in  such  case, 
it  assumes  the  dignity  of  consummate  art,  — 
an  indispensable  and  prime  necessity  to  the  con- 
scientious interpreter  of  either  classic  language 
or  classic  music.  Without  ease,  sustained  repose, 
and  a  method  made  effective  through  long  habit, 
in  the  management  of  the  breath,  all  subsequent 
attention  to  details  in  the  art  of  speaking  or 
singing  is  measurably  lost.  Demosthenes,  with 
pebbles  in  his  mouth,  declaiming  to  the  winds 
and  waves  on  the  sea-shore,  and  Braham,  lifting 
up  his  voice  amid  the  hills  and  forests  of  North- 
umberland, may  profitably  be  remembered  and 
imitated  by  all  students  who  desire  to  remedy 
defects,  anil  to  acquire  new  breathing  power.  — 
A  graceful  attitude,  and  thorough  skill  in  the 
proper  use  of  the  breath  being  gained,  the  close 
sympathy  always  existing  between  the  bronchial 
tubes  and  the  stomach  next  demands  attention. 
A  rapid  and  complete  digestion  is  esteemed  by 
all  intelligent  persons  the  greatest  of  physical 
blessings;  and  to  no  one  is  it  a  more  necessary 
condition  of  success  than  to  the  public  speaker 
or  singer.  So  important  is  this  to  the  pro- 
fessional vocalist,  that  those  times,  in  the  daily 
routine  of  duty,  which  find  the  lungs  and 
bronchial  tubes  freest  from  the  oppression  aris- 
ing from  sympathy  with  the  stomach,  in  its 
process  of  digestion,  should  be  selected  for  prac- 
tice. Proceeding  upward  toward  the  organs  of 
articulation,  we  arrive  at  the  trachea,  or  wind- 
pipe, the  larynx,  and  the  pharynx.  Tt  is  a  pro- 
lific subject  of  discussion  among  speakers  and 
singers,  wdiether  the  character  of  the  tone  de 


848 


VOICE 


pjnds  as  much  upon  the  size  of  the  lungs,  the 
bronchial  tubes,  the  windpipe,  the  larynx,  and 
the  pharynx,  as  it  does  upon  the  condition  of 
the  muscles  and  nerves,  and  more  remotely  still 
upon  the  general  organization,  temperament, 
will,  and  endurance  of  the  speaker  or  singer.  It 
is  surprising  to  notice  the  compass  and  the 
variety  of  tone  which  the  larynx  can  produce, 
by  using  the  vowels  alone.  Beginning  with  the 
lowest  sounds  of  the  base  voice,  and  ascending 
in  regular  order  through  its  limits,  of  one  and  a 
half  or  two  octaves;  through  the  compass  of 
the  baritone,  with  a  similar  register,  though 
somewhat  higher  in  pitch;  and,  successively, 
through  the  registers  assigned  to  the  tenor, 
contralto,  mezzo-soprano,  and  soprano  voices, 
there  is  embraced  a  compass  of  four  octaves  of 
available  tones,  susceptible  of  cultivation  to  an 
almost  infinite  degree  of  excellence.  Base  voices 
routine  themselves  mainly  to  the  use  of  the 
chest  tones  throughout  their  entire  register;  but 
J  he  barytones  by  a  prudent  use  of  the  somber 
tone,  and  of  the  medium  register, greatly  increase 
the  pure  quality  and  flexibility  of  the  higher 
portions  of  their  voices.  For  the  orator  or 
tleclaimer,  there  is  no  quality  of  tone  compar- 
able to  that  of  the  orotund  base  or  barytone 
voice ;  and,  in  the  oratorio  and  opera,  it  is  as- 
signed to  characters  of  inherent  dignity  and 
force.  The  tenor  voice,  undoubtedly,  demands 
a  combination  of  native  and  acquired  qualities, 
which,  in  some  countries,  are  exceedingly  rare. 
In  its  uncultivated  state  it  is  thin,  reedy,  and 
somewhat  nasal ;  but  steady,  persevering  prac- 
tice upon  the  open  vowels  ah,  oh,  and  oo,  soon 
corrects  this  defect,  and  renders  the  tenor,  of  all 
male  voices,  the  most  tender  and  expressive. 
(j  reat  care  shouli  1  be  exercised  by  tenor  voices,  lest 
the  clear  timbre  of  the  chest  tone  be  carried  too 
high,  thereby  crushing  out  the  delicacy  of  the 
real  medium  register,  which  is  the  most  flexible 
and  available  part  of  the  tenor  voice.  The 
contralto,  mezzo-soprano,  and  soprano  voices  en- 
counter a  similar  difficulty,  at  the  very  outset  of 
their  practice,  in  combining  the  chest  with  the 
falsetto  or  medium  voice.  While  this  difficulty 
occurs  in  the  higher  register  of  the  male  voice, 
it  is  found  in  the  lower  register  of  the  female 
voice,  and  presents  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
cultivation,  which  nothing  but  long  and  per- 
sistent practice  can  overcome,  though  the  strain 
upon  the  nervous  system  is  far  less  than 
that  experienced  by  the  male  voice.  The 
contralto  yields  to  no  other  female  voice  in 
depth  and  richness  of  tone,  as  is  clearly  evident 
after  listening  to  singers  like  D'Angri  and  Al- 
boni.  Naturally  not  so  flexible  as  the  soprano 
or  mezzo-soprano,  it  is  yet  endowed  with  a  won- 
derful power  in  causing  effects  replete  with  the 
most  anient  passion,  and  with  the  most  noble 
womanly  feeling.  There  is  a  great  temptation 
to  abuse  the  lower  register  of  the  contralto 
voice  by  indulging  in  the  disagreeable  habit  of 
forcing  the  chest  tones  to  a  point  bordering 
upon  masculineness.  if  not  positive  coarseness. 
The    practice  of  descending  runs,  diatonic  and 


chromatic,  using  the  medium,  veiled,  or  somber 
tone,  will  gradually  change  this  objectionable 
habit.  There  are  not  wanting  cases,  either,  of 
contralto  voices  which  have  been  destroyed  by 
attempts  to  cultivate  the  tone  and  compass  of 
the  soprano, — a  process  absurd  and  unnatural 
to  the  last  degree.  Notwithstanding  the  efforts 
of  some  late  authors  to  ignore  the  division  of 
the  female  voice  into  at  least  three  different 
registers,  namely,  the  chest,  the  medium  or  fal- 
setto, and  the  head  ;  these  registers  are  now  gen- 
erally recognized  by  the  highest  and  most 
competent  authorities.  Elaborate  methods  and 
studies  for  the  development  of  the  contralto, 
mezzo-soprano,  and  soprano  voices  have  been 
devised  with  these  three  divisions  constantly 
in  view.  Home  even  assert  that  there  are  live 
distinct  registers,  requiring  as  many  different 
modes  of  producing  the  tone, — a  condition  of 
the  larynx  and  pharynx  suggesting  an  expert- 
ness  in  the  management  of  the  voice  which  may 
well  be  deemed  bewildering.  It  is,  however,  too 
certain  to  admit  of  a  doubt,  that  the  voices  of 
the  most  accomplished  female  vocalists  living 
have  been  trained  by  recognizing  this  division 
into  the  chest,  medium  or  falsetto,  and  head 
registers,  and  are.  moreover,  preserved  in  their 
wonted  availability  by  adhering  to  the  same 
method.  Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  phar- 
ynx, or  arched  chamber  immediately  back  of  the 
palate,  a  most  important  modifier  of  the  voice 
in  its  passage  from  the  larynx,  aud  the  expan- 
sion and  contraction  of  which  gives  greater  or 
less  volume  of  tone,  especially  if  the  root  of  the 
tongue  be  not  artificially  enlarged,  so  as  to 
produce  an  impure  (hroaliness  of  tone,  frequent- 
ly heard  in  voices  imperfectly  cultivated  and 
badly  managed.  To  know  the  important  in- 
fluence of  a  healthy  pharynx  under  complete 
control,  it  is  only  necessary  to  compare  the  voice 
of  one  possessing  it.  with  that  of  a  vocalist  suffer- 
ing with  a  cold  in  the  head,  or  with  a  catarrhal 
affection  ami  swollen  tonsils.  The  difference  in 
the  clearness  of  the  vibrations,  and  in  the  dif- 
fusive character  of  the  tone,  is  very  perceptible 
and  marked. — A  clear  knowledge  of  the  organs 
which  are  employed  in  producing  a  vocal  tone, 
and  of  the  proper  combination  of  the  registers 
to  secure  power,  purity,  and  equality  throughout 
the  entire  vocal  compass  being  gained,  the  organs 
of  articulation  present  themselves  for  particular 
consideration;  and  this  leads  directly  to  the  sub- 
ject of  musical  elocution.  System  and  facility 
in  breathing,  the  employment  of  all  the  proper 
organs,  in  their  healthy  condition,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  pure  tone,  expertness  in  reading 
music,  and  the  minutest  attention  to  attitude 
and  gesture,  will  all  fail  to  produce  an  impression 
worth  remembering,  unless  a  true  conception  of 
the  meaning  of  the  words  and  music,  a  bold 
enunciation,  a  distinct  articulation,  a  well- 
rounded  phrasing,  ami  an  accurate  intonation 
be  added  to  the  acquirements  of  the  finished 
vocalist.  Conception  relates  to  both  words  and 
music.  If  it  be  necessary  for  the  speaker  to 
study  well  the  signification  of  words,  in  order  to 


VOM'K 


849 


get  at  the  true  meaning  of  the  poet,  it  is  even 
more  necessary  for  the  singer  lo  do  so,  since  the 
effect  of  melody  and  harmony  upon  all  per- 
sons, is  such  as  to  deprive  them,  measurably, 
of  the  power,  for  the  time  being,  of  judging  of 
the  signification  of  words.  '1  he  singer  who  rests 
upon  the  simple  effect  of  his  melody,  is  certainly 
as  weak  as  the  speaker  who  relies  upon  his  man- 
ner of  uttering  tine  language,  rather  than  upon 
the  strength  of  the  ideas  involved.  A  true  con- 
ception, it  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  is  the 
rarest  of  possessions  among  modern  vocalists. 
Pronunciation,  in  its  musical  connection,  not- 
only  implies  that  enunciation,  or  careful  throw- 
ing out  of  each  syllable  a. id  word  which  good 
speech  and  declamation  require,  but  also  that 
which,  not  particularly  recognizing  the  inflec- 
tions of  reading  or  declamation,  is  entirely  ab- 
sorbed in  the  far  more  permeating  channel  of 
sound,  a  melody  or  recitative  song  according  to 
a  given  key  or  scale.  Dr.  Hush  alludes  to  this  as 
the  special  advantage  which  the  singer  has  over 
the  speaker.  Slowness  and  quickness  of  utter- 
ance are  also  controlled,  to  so  great  a  degree,  in 
music,  by  the  relations  of  the  notes,  the  bar,  the 
fractional  measure-marks,  and  words  indicating 
varieties  of  movement,  that  there  is  left  less  lib- 
erty to  the  singer  than  to  the  speaker,  in  many 
lvspects.  But  such  curtailment  of  liberty  (which 
liberty,  by  the  way,  is  often  a  clog  to  inex- 
perienced speakers),  and, by  consequence, greater 
concentration  upon  the  characteristics  of  the 
melody,  only  tie  the  singer  to  a  more  vivid  con- 
ception of  the  subject,  and  to  a  more  distinct 
pronunciation  of  the  words.  For  the  correction 
of  marked  inelegancies of  pronunciation,  whether 
of  foreign  or  native  growth,  no  means  are  so 
effective  as  the  careful  study  of  the  classic  lan- 
guages, together  with  the  study  of  the  principal 
modern  languages  taught  by  native  professors. 
Of  these  latter,  the  Italian  is  most  musical  in  it- 
self, and,  therefore,  is  most  useful  to  the  musical 
student,  whose  pronunciation  of  his  native  lan- 
guage, particularly  if  he  be  English  or  German, 
will  be  vastly  improved  by  often  reading  and 
singing  in  the  most  euphonious  of  modern  lan- 
guages. Of  distinct  articulation,  it  may  in  gen- 
eral be  said,  that  the  vowels  only  are  sung,  while 
the  consonants  are  articulated  ;  in  other  words, 
that  the  vowels  are  sung,  and  the  consonants  are 
spoken.  In  vocalizing  alone,  the  larynx,  obedient 
to  the  mind  and  will,  performs  unassisted,  save 
by  the  lungs,  trachea,  pharynx,  and  diaphragm, 
all  those  changes  which  promote  power,  purity, 
sweetness,  and  flexibility  of  tone.  Some  slight 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  jaws,  tongue,  and 
lips  are  necessary  in  vocalizing  with  all,  ee,  oh, 
and  oo  ;  but  only  the  consonants,  as  initial,  in- 
termediate, or  final  letters,  require  a  constant 
and  vigorous  use  of  the  tongue,  teeth,  and  lips, 
which  are  the  chief  agents  in  acquiring  an  effect- 
ive articulation.  Full  respirations  should  be 
the  rule,  and  partial  respirations  the  exception. 
In  plain  music,  where  one  or  two  notes  are  ap- 
propriated to  a  syllable,  the  article  should  not 
be  separated  from  the  noun  or  qualifying  adjee- 
54 


tive.  nor  the  adjective  from  the  noun,  by  a  sepa- 
rate breathing;  nor  should  the  syllables  of  a  word 
be  separated.     Long  diatonic  or  chromatic  runs, 
arpeggios,  trills,  and  cadenzas,  must,  however,  be 
executed    with   an    unbroken    continuity  of  the 
musical  phrase.    The  orotund  basso  or  barytone, 
as  well  as  the  rich  and  deep  contralto,  require  to 
be  particular  in  their  articulation,  in  order  to  be 
heard,  since  the  very  fullness  of  their  voices  pro- 
duces a  resonance    not   easily   overcome   in  huge 
assembly  rooms.     Good  phrasing  implies  good 
singing;  such  a  knowledge  of  the  composer's  idea 
on  the  part  of  the  singer,  as  shall  not  mar,  to  say 
the  least,  either  the  poetic  or  musical  symmetry 
of  what  is  sung.     The  singer  should  be  able  to 
analyze  the   phrases  he  sings,  in  order  that,  in 
melodic  and  harmonic  construction,  he  may  dis- 
cover where   they  begin,  how  they  progress,  and 
where  they  end.     But,  if  he  cannot  do  this,  he 
should  be  able,  intuitively  to  grasp  a  musical 
passage    to    the    fullest    extent   of    its    melodic 
proportions,    and    spontaneously   to   present    it 
with  such  accessories  as  shall  make  it  appear  his 
own.     All  the  bright  coloring  which  may  be  im- 
parted by  a  vivid  conception,  a  good  pronuncia- 
tion and  articulation,  will  be  seriously  dimmed 
by  defective   phrasing.     Last,  but  by  no  means 
least,  there   must  be   the  accurate    intonation 
which  is  the  result  of  a  correct  ear.     Some  per- 
rons do  not  hear  correctly,  concords  becoming  to 
them  discords.     Whether  it  be  a  local  difficulty 
of  the  tympanum,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  a 
rigidity  of  the  entire  organization  and  sluggish- 
ness of  temperament,  the  fact  is  obvious  that 
defective  ears  are  by  no  means  uncommon  ;  and, 
of  course,  to  imitate  musical  sounds  with  the 
voice,  in  such  cases,   is  an  impossibility.      The 
commonness  of  the  defect  increases,  as  we  pro- 
ceed low  in  the  scale  of  social  being,  particularly 
where,  in  addition  to   poverty  and  moral  degra- 
dation, there  is  superadded  the  prolific  cause,  ab- 
sence of  youthful  opportunities  of  hearing  music 
well  sung  or  played.     Could  all  classes,  without 
exception,  be  gladdened,  when  young,  by  hear- 
ing music  correctly  sung  ami  played,  the  num- 
ber of  those  who  pass  through  life  unmoved  "  by 
the  concord  of  sweet  sounds,"  would  be  much 
diminished.  It  is  important,  also,  that  the  sounds 
heard  by  children,  be  correct  both  as  to  melody 
and  rhythm,  if  it  be  expected  that  such  children, 
when  grown,  shall  have  a  so-called  good  ear  for 
music.      In   remarking   upon   articulation,   the 
value  of  the  vowel  sounds  ah,  ee,  oh,  and  oo  was 
noticed  ;  and  it  is  known  that  a  thorough  scale, 
and  rhythmical  use  of  these,  combined  with  all 
the  consonants  as  initial  and   final  letters,  will 
not  only  develop  a  more  distinct  articulation, 
but  also  a  purer,  more  effective,  and  manageable 
tone.     For  standard  authorities,  on  this  subject, 
see   Rush,   Philosophy   of   the    Human    Voice 
( Phila..  1 833) ;  Edouard  Fourniere,  Physiologie 
deia  Voir,  etde  la  Parole  (Paris,  1866);  Emanuel 
Garcia,  £cole  du  Chant  (London);  Bassini,  Art 
of  Singing  (Boston,  1856)  ;  New  Method  (Bos- 
ton, 1869)';  Emma  Seiler,  The  Voice  in  Singing 
Phila.,  1868). 


850 


WABASH  COLLEGE 


WASHINGTON  AND  LEE  UNIVERSITY 


"WABASH  COLLEGE,  at  Orawfordsville, 
Intl.,  chartered  in  1833,  is  under  Presbyterian 

control.  It  has  productive  funds  to  the  amount 
of  $240,000,  and  libraries  containing  17.000 
volumes.  It  has  an  English  and  commercial,  a 
preparatory,  and  a  collegiate  department,  the 
Latter  with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  from  824  to  !i?30  a  year. 
There  are  several  scholarships.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  12  instructors  and  220  students  (104 
collegiate.  64  preparatory,  and  52  English  and 
commercial).  The  Rev.  Joseph  F.  Turtle,  D.  D., 
is  (1877)  the  president. 

WACO  UNIVERSITY,  at  Waco,  Tex., 
founded  in  1861,  is  under  Baptist  control,  lb 
has  a  small  endowment,  but  is  supported  chiefly 
by  tuition  fees,  the  regular  charge  ranging  from 
$15  to  82.">  per  term  of  five  months.  The  libra- 
ries contain  about  2,500  volumes.  It  has  a  pre- 
paratory department,  a  collegiate  department 
for  females,  and  a  classical  and  a  scientific  col- 
legiate course  for  males.  In  1875 — 6,  there 
were  1 1  instructors  and  279  students  (157  males 
and  122  females).  The  Rev.  Rufus  C.  Burle- 
son, I).  I).,  is  (1877)  the  president. 

WAKE  FOREST  COLLEGE,  in  Wake 
Co..  N.  0.,  founded  in  1834,  is  under  Baptist 
control.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  [$35 
per  term  of  five  months)  and  the  income  of  an 
endowment  of  $25,000.  The  libraries  contain 
about  8.000  volumes.  The  course  of  study  com- 
prises six  schools — Latin,  Greek,  modern  lan- 
guages, mathematics,  natural  science,  and  moral 
philosophy.  There  is  also  a  preparatory  and  a 
commercial  course.  In  1875 — (J.  there  were  5  pr<  >- 
lessors  and  91  students.  The  presidents  have 
been:  the  Rev.  Sand.  Wait,  D.D.;  the  Rev.  Wm. 
Hooper,  LL.D.;  the  Rev.  John  B.  White;  and 
the  Rev.  W.  M.  Wingate,  I).  1).,  the  present  in- 
cumbent (1877). 

WASHINGTON.  See  District  of  Coli'miu  \. 

WASHINGTON  COLLEGE,  at  Wash- 
ington, Alameda  Co.,  Gal., founded  in  1872,  for 
the  education  of  both  sexes,  is  a  non-sectarian 
institution.  It  has  a  preparatory,  and  an  academic 
department  with  a  four  years'  course.  French, 
Spanish,  ( iennan,  <  J  reek,  and  Latin,  instrumental 
and  vocal  music,  painting,  drawing,  etc.  are  op- 
tional studies.  The  institution  is  supported  by 
the  fees  of  students,  the  charge  for  tuition  being 

from  $50  to  $80  a  year.  In  L875— 6,  there  were 
1  0  instructors   and    L76  students.      Silas  S.  llar- 

ii i< id.  A.  M..  has  been  the  principal  since  the 
opening  of  the  college. 

WASHINGTON  COLLEGE,  at  (luster- 
town.  Md.,  founded  in  L782,  is  a  non-sectarian 
institution.  There  is  a  preparatory  and  a  col- 
legiate department.  The  COSt  of  tuition,  except 
to  holders  of  scholarships,  ranges  from  $40  to 
$60  a  year.  The  library  contains  aboul  L,300 
volumes.  In  L875  6,  there  wrere  3  instructors 
and   'M   students    (10   preparatory   and    27   col- 


legiate). The  presidents  have  been  the-  Rev.  Dr. 
W  m.  Smith,  the  Rev.  l'r.  Colin  Ferguson.  Dr. 
Clowes,  The  Rev.  Dr.  Waters,  R.  W.  Ringold, 
the  Rev.  A.  J.  Sutton.  R.  ( '.  Berkeley ,  and  Wm. 
J.  Rivers,  the  latter  since  L873. 

WASHINGTON  AND  JEFFERSON 
COLLEGE,  at  Washington.  1 'a.,  under  Pres- 
byterian control,  was  formed,  in  1865,  by 
the  consolidation  of  Jefferson  College  (at  Can- 
onsburg,  chartered  in  1802),  and  Washington 
College  (chartered  in  1806).  The  former  grew 
outof  the  ( 'anonsbuig  Academy, opened  in  I  7!'l : 
the  latter  had  its  origin  in  the  Washington 
Academy,  chartered  in  1 7 S 7 .  and  opened  in 
1789.  The  consolidated  institution  has  an  en- 
dowment of  .8220.000.  a  cabinet,  and  libraries 
containing  9,000  volumes.  Tuition  to  holders 
of  scholarships  is  free  ;  to  others  the  fee  is  $2  I 
a  year.  There  is  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate 
department,  the  latter  having  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course.  In  L875 — ti.  there  were  8  pro- 
fessors and  175  students  (140  collegiate  and  35 
preparatory).  The  presidents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: the  Rev.  Jonathan  Edwards,  1).  D.,  LL.  1  >.. 
18G6— 9;  the  Rev.  Sand.  J.  Wilson.D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
[pro  inn.).  l's<>!' :  the  Rev.  James  J.  Brownson, 
D.D.  (protem.),  1870;  and  the  Rev.  Geo.  P. 
Hays,  D.  D..  since  1870. 

WASHINGTON  AND  LEE  UNIVER- 
SITY, at  Lexington,  Ya.,  was  chartered  in  1782. 
Its  germ  was  a  mathematical  and  classical  school, 
called  the  Augusta  Academy,  established,  in 
1749,  near  the  site  of  Greenville,  Augusta  Co. 
In  177(1.  the  name  was  changed  to  Liberty  Hall. 
After  several  removals,  it  was  located  near  Lex- 
ington, in  1785  ;  and.  in  1803,  it  was  finally  re- 
moved to  its  present  site,  within  the  limits  of 
the  town.  The  first  commencement  was  held 
in  L785.  In  1796,  Washington  donated  to  the 
institution  the  100  shares  of  stock  in  the  old 
James  River  Company,  which  the  legislature 
had  given  him.  and  the  name  was  changed  to 
Washington  College.  In  L803,  the  Cincinnati 
Society  appropriated  their  funds,  nearly  $25,000, 
to  the  college.  During  the  civil  war.  the  insti- 
tution was  suspended.  Soon  after  the  death 
of  Gen.  Lee.  in  1S70,  the  present  name  was 
adopted.  The  university  is  supported  by  tui- 
tion fees  (generally  $70,  a  year,  in  the  aca- 
demic departments,  and  $85,  in  the  professional 
departments),  and  the  income  of  endowments 
amounting  to  $200,000.  It  has  a  library  of 
12.001)  volumes,  mineralogical,  geological,  and 
zoological  cabinets,  and  valuable  philosophical 
and  chemical  apparatus.  The  distinguishing 
features  of  the  university  are  :  (1)  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  course  of  study  into  distinct  elect- 
ive schools  or  departments;  (2)  The  adaptation 
of  the  several  departments  to  certain  courses  of 
study,  to  each  of  which  is  attached  a  correspond- 
ina  degree.    No  degrees  are  conferred  in  course; 

but  all  are  based  upon   actual    attainments    m   a 


WAS HINGTON  TERRITORY 


WAY  LA  NO 


851 


completed  course  of  study.  'I  he  full  course  for 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy  is  .">  years  ;  for  Bache- 
lor of  Science  and  Arts,  and  Civil  and  Mining 
Kngineer,  4  years.  In  1876,  there  were  lo  in- 
structors and  196  students.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Win.  Graham,  A.M., 
L782  -96;  Samuel  L.  Campbell.  M.  !>..  IT!) 6— 9; 
George  A.  Baxter,  D.  1>..  L799— 1829 ;  Louis 
Marshall.  M.  1)..  1830-34;  Henry  Vethake, 
LL.D.,1834— 6;  Henry  Ruffner,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
1836—48;  George  Junkin,  D.  D.,  1848— 60  ; 
(Jen.  Robert  E.  Lee,  1865 — TO;  and  Gen.  G. 
W.  Custis  Lee,  since  1ST1. 

WASHINGTON  TERRITORY,  one  of 
the  north-western  territories  of  the  United 
States,  originally  a  part  of  Oregon,  but  organ- 
ized as  an  independent  territory  in  1853.  It; 
area  is  69,994  sq.  m.  ;  its  population,  in  1870, 
was  37,432,  of  whom  22,19.")  were  whites,  20T 
were  colored  persons,  234,  Chinese,  and  14, TOG, 
Indians. 

Educational  History. — The  first  educational 
act  of  the  territorial  assembly  was  in  1862,  when 
the  University  of  the  Territory  of  Washington 
was  established,  two  townships  of  the  public 
lands  having  been  previously  set  apart  by  Con- 
gress for  its  endowment.  Special  legislation  for 
the  advancement  of  school  interests  has,  from 
time  to  time,  taken  place,  but  no  law  securing 
uniformity  in  the  administration  of  the  schools 
was  enacted  till  18T2,  when  the  foundation  of 
the  present  school  system  was  laid  by  the  enact- 
ment of  a  general  law.  The  first  territorial 
superintendent  was  Nelson  Rounds,  who  wai 
appointed  in  18T2.  His  successor  was  J.  P. 
Judson.the  present  incumbent  (18TG),  appointed 
in  18T4. 

School  System. — A  territorial  superb  dew  leu  I 
of  common  schools  is  appointed  biennially  by 
the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  council. 
His  duties  are  those  usually  devolving  upon 
general  superintendents.  County  superintendents 
are  also  elected  biennially.  They  are  required 
to  possess  the  qualifications  of  a  teacher,  beforj 
being  eligible.  Three  school  directors,  in  each 
district,  are  elected,  one  each  year.  They  make 
out  tax  lists  for  assessments,  build  school-houses, 
employ  teachers,  and  visit  the  schools  twice  each 
session.  The  permanent  school  fund  is  prospect- 
ive only,  being  derivable  from  school  lands  which 
cannot  be  sold  till  the  territory  becomes  a  state. 
The  schools  are  maintained  by  an  annual  four- 
mill  tax  on  every  dollar  of  taxable  property,  a 
county  tax  of  not  more  than  eight  mills,  a  dis- 
trict tax  of  three  mills,  fines  under  criminal 
statutes,  and  private  contributions.  Districts, 
also,  may  levy  a  tax  of  ten  mills  for  building 
and  repairing  school-houses.  Sectarian  instruc- 
tion in  the  common  schools  is  forbidden  by  law. 
The  school  month  consists  of  4  weeks  of  6  days 
each ;  the  school  age  is  from  4  to  21  years. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts,  in  18T5,  was  267;  and  the  num- 
ber of  districts  in  which  schools  were  kept  was 
219.  The  amount  of  school  moneys  for  distribu- 
tion, in  the  same  year,  was  $53,557. 


The  principal  items  of  school  statistics,  for 
1874 — 5,  are  as  follows: 

Number  of  children  <>f  school  age 8,350 

"        "         enrolled  in  Bchuol*.  6,699 

"   teacheys 220 

The  principal  schools  are  at  Olynipia,  Port 
Townsend,  Vancouver,  Seattle,  and  Tacoma. 
Teachers'  institutes  have  been  held  in  some 
counties,  and  a  teachers'  association  has  been 
organized.  '1  he  university  at  Seattle  provides  a 
preparatory,  an  academic,  and  a  collegiate  de- 
partment, to  all  of  which  both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted. Holy  Angel's  College  (q.  v.),  at  Van- 
couver, is  controlled  by  the  Roman  Catholics.  It 
has  two  courses, — a  preparatory,  and  a  collegiate. 

WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY,  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  was  incorporated  in  1853  and  for- 
mally inaugurated  in  1857.  The  charter  provides 
that  the  institution  shall  be  non-sectarian.  It  is 
supported  by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
$500,000,  and  by  tuition  fees  ranging  from  $50 
to  $160  a  year.  There  are  several  scholarships, 
entitling  the  holders  to  free  tuition.  Ihe  uni- 
versity comprehends  five  departments :  the 
academy,  Mary  Institute  (founded  in  1859).  the 
college  (organized  in  1859),  the  polytechnic 
school  (185T),  and  the  law  school  (1867).  The 
course  of  instruction  in  the  academy  extends 
through  five  years,  and  includes  those  studies 
which  are  preparatory  to  the  College  and  the 
Polytechnic  School  of  the  LIniversity.  It  has 
also  a  primary  and  a  commercial  class.  Mary 
Institute  is  a  female  seminary.  Its  grounds  and 
buildings  are  distinct  from  those  of  the  other 
departments ;  but  the  chancellor  exercises  a 
general  supervision ;  and  instruction  in  the 
languages,  the  higher  mathematics,  and  the  nat- 
ural  sciences  is  in  part  given  by  the  professors  of 
the  college  and  the  polytechnic  school.  rl  he  in- 
stitute affords  various  grades  of  instruction  from 
primary  to  collegiate.  The  course  in  the  college 
(4  yrs.)  leads  to  the  degree  of  A.  B.  The  poly- 
technic school  (O'Fallon  Polytechnic  Institute) 
has  six  regular  courses  of  study  (4  yrs.  each),  as 
follows:  (1)  civil  engineering;  (2)  mechanical  en- 
gineering; (3)  chemistry;  (4)  mining  and  metal- 
lurgy; (5)  building  and  architecture;  (6)  a 
general  course.  The  Polytechnic  Institute  also 
carries  on  a  free  evening  school  for  instruc- 
tion in  the  elements  of  technology,  under  the 
immediate  supervision  and  control  of  the  board 
of  directors  of  the  public  schools  of  the  city. 
The  law  school  (St.  Louis  Law  School)  has  a 
library  of  over  2  500  volumes.  The  university 
library  contains  3,000  volumes.  In  1875 — 6.  the 
number  of  instructors  in  all  the  departments  was 
G5 ;  of  students,  902.  The  chancellors  of  the 
university  have  been  Joseph  Gibson  Hoyt,  1859 
— 63 ;  Wm.  Chauvenet,  1863 — Tl  ;  and  Wm. 
Greenleaf  Eliot,  I).  1).,  since  1871. 

WAYLAND,  Francis,  an  American  clergy- 
man and  educator,  born  in  New  York,  March  11., 
1796  ;  died  in  Providence,  R.I.,  Sept.  30.,  1865. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1813,  studied 
medicine,  and  was  licensed  to  practice;  but,  mean- 
while, his  purpose  was  changed ;  and,  in  1816, 


852 


WAV  LAN  I) 


WEBSTER 


he  entered  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary. 
The  instructions  of  Prof.  Moses  Stuart  enkindled 
id  bis  miml  an  intense  enthusiasm  for  study;  but 

poverty  compelled  trim  to  leave  the  institution. 
During  the  next  four  years,  he  was  a  tutor  in 
Union  College';  and,  in  1 821 ,  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Haptist  Church,  in  Boston.  In  1826, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  history  in  Union  College,  and,  early  in 
1*27,  was  chosen  president  of  Brown  University, 
and  entered  on  what  was  to  be  the  work  of  bis 
life.  The  college  was  in  a  depressed  state.  The 
funds  were  inconsiderable;  there  was  scarcely 
library,  cabinet,  or  apparatus;  and  the  standard 
of  character,  discipline,  and  scholarship  was  low. 
The  new  president  sought,  first  of  all,  to  raise 
the  standard.  In  the  recitation  room,  he  intro- 
duced thoroughness,  exactness,  self-dependence, 
and  freedom  of  inquiry,  lie  aimed  to  teach,  not 
the  text-book,  but  the  subject.  He  encouraged 
questions  germane  to  the  topic.  Finding  that 
the  text  books  in  us' were  inadequate,  lie  taught 
by  lectures,  till  in  time  be  created  text-books  in 
the  different  branches.  He  next  sought  to  in- 
crease the  material  means  of  instruction.  A  fund 
of  825,000  was  raised  for  the  increase  of  the 
library  and  the  apparatus  ;  a  library  building,  a 
laboratory,  and  a  house  for  the  president  were 
erected  ;  the  library  was  also  increased  by  special 
Subscriptions  Outside  of  the  fund;  and  several  new 
departments  of  instruction  were  created.  Yet, 
with  the  lapse  of  time,  the  conviction  grew  in 
the  mind  of  the  president  that  the  college  was 
not  fulfilling  its  destiny.  His  dissatisfaction 
with  the  American  college  was  expressed  in  his 
little  book,  Thoughts  on  the  Present  Collegiate 
System  in  the  Untied  States  (1842);  but  no  j 
remedy  was  suggested.  Gradually,  his  mind 
worked  itself  clear;  and,  in  1850,  his  Report  to 
the  Corporation  of  Brown  University  indicat- 
ed both  the  evil  and  the  remedy.  The  Amer-  j 
ican  colleges  were  not  meeting  the  demands  of 
the  American  people.  They  were  molded  by 
the  traditions  of  the  middle  ages  rather  than  by 
the  wants  of  the  19th  century.  They  were 
offering  an  education  suited  only  to  a  limited 
class,  to  the  members  of  the  learned  professions,  | 
especially  the  ministry,  and  were  ignoring  the 
large  and  increasing  industrial  classes.  They 
were  setting  at  naught  the  diversity  of  character 
and  needs  on  the  part  of  young  men.  They 
were  crowding  a  vast  number  of  studies  into  a  1 
limited  period  of  time,  and  were  precluding  the 
hope  of  high  attainments  in  any  department. 
The  president  proposed  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  the 
college,  by  offering  its  advantages  to  every  class, 
welcoming  the  farmer,  the  mechanic,  the  artisan, 
and  not  compelling  any  one  to  pursue  classical 
studies  against  his  will.  He  desired  also  to  afford 
the  student  the  means  of  attaining  high  excellence 
in  whatever  department  he  entered.  The  prin- 
ciples of  the  Report  were  carried  into  practice, 

not  indeed  as  completely  as  the  president  de- 
sired, but  far  enough  to  afford  marked  and  satis- 
factory results.  i>r.  Waylands  news  of  theo- 
logical  education   were  similarly  practical    and  , 


liberal. — The  labors  attending  the  re  organization 
of  the  university  had  been  exhausting  in  the 
extreme:  and,  in  1855,  Dr.  Way  land  felt  com- 
pelled to  resign  the  presidency.  In  1857 — 8.  In- 
acted  for  sixteen  months  as  pastor  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church  in  Providence.  The  remainder 
of  his  life  he  passed  in  retirement,  in  study,  and 
in  such  benevolent  and  religious  labors  as  his 
strength  allowed.  In  addition  to  the  works 
named  above,  he  published  Mont/  Sri,  ,,<:>'  I  1  835j; 
Politicttl  Economy  (1837)  ;  Limitations  of  Hu- 
man Responsibility  (1838);  Intellectual  Philos- 
ophy (1854),  and  many  other  volumes,  besides 
numerous  sermons,  articles,  tracts. and  addresses. 

WAYNESBURG  COLLEGE,  at  Waynes- 
burg,  Pa.,  founded  in  1850,  is  under  ( 'umber- 
land  Presbyterian  control.  It  is  supported  partly 
by  tuition  fees  and  partly  by  the  income  of  its 
endowments,  amounting  to  $50,000.  The  cost 
of  tuition  is  .^20  a  year.  The  libraries  contain 
about  2.(100  volumes.  It  has  a  classical,  a  sci- 
entific, a  ladies',  a  normal,  and  a  commercial 
course.  In  1875 — 6,  tin-re  were  10  instructors 
and  297  students  (82  collegiate,  115  preparatory, 
and  100  unclassified).  The  presidents  have  been 
as  follows  :  the  Rev.  .Joshua  I.oughran,  A.  .M.,  4 
years;  the  Rev.  J.  P.  Weethee.  A.  M.,  3  years; 
John  C.  Flenneken,  1  year;  and  the  Rev.  A.  H. 
Miller.  D.D., the  present  incumbent,  17  years. 

WEAVERVILLE  COLLEGE,  at  Weav- 
erville.  it  m.  N.  of  Asheville.  NT.  ('.,  chartered  in 
1*7.'!.  is  a  non-sectarian  institution.  It  is  beauti- 
fully situated  in  one  of  the  most  picturesque  re- 
gions of  North  America.  It  has  a  primary,  a 
preparatory,  and  a  collegiate  department,  to  all 
of  which  both  sexes  are  admitted.  The  cost  of 
tuition  ranges  from  $6.50  to  $18  per  session  of 
five  months.  In  1875 — (i,  there  were  7  instruct- 
ors and  L23  students  (collegiate,  21  ;  scientific 
and  preparatory,  74  :  academic  and  primary,  28). 
The  Rev.  dames  S.  Kennedy,  1).  D.,  is  (1877)  the 
president. 

WEBSTER,  Noah,  an  American  lexicog- 
rapher, was  born  in  West  Hartford.  Ct„  Oct.  16., 
1758;  died  in  New  Haven.  May  28..  1843. 
After  graduating  at  Yale  College  in  1778,  he 
taught  school  tor  some  time  at  Hartford.  In 
L782,  he  opened  a  classical  school  at  Goshen, 
\.  Y.:  and.  in  1787.  he  became  for  one  year, 
principal  of  an  academy  in  Philadelphia.  He 
began  the  preparation  of  school  books  as  early 
as  \~s'A,  in  which  year  he  published  the  First 
Part  of  it  Grammatical  Institute  of  the  English 
Language.  This  first  pari  was  followed,  in  the 
course  Ot  the  next  two  years,  by  the  second  and 
third  parts:  and  it  was  the  basis  of  Webster's 
spelling  books,  which,  in  various  editions  and  re- 
visions, met  with  a  Buccess  unparalleled  in  the 

history  of  educational  literature,  as  70,000,0011 
copies,  it  is  said,  had  been  sold  of  them  up  to 
the  cud  of    1876.      After  spending   several   yean 

in  the  practice  of  law,  in  publishing  periodicals 
and  other  literary  works,  Webster  engaged,  in 
L807,  upon  the  great  work  of  his  life,  the  Anu-r- 
ican  Dictionary  of  lie  English  Language.  It 
was   not    completed  until  L828,  when  an  edition 


WKIIRLl 

of  2,500  copies  was  published  in  the  United 
States  (New  York,  2  vols..  4to.),  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  edition  of  3,(100  in  England.  In 
1840 — 41.  a  second  edition  of  3,000  copies  was 
printed;  and  a  revised  appendix  was  published 
soon  after  the  author's  death,  in  L843.  In  1847, 
Prof.  Chauncey  A.  Goodrich,  of  Yale  College, 
Webster's  son-in-law,  published  a  thoroughly 
revised  edition  of  the  Dictionary,  at  Springfield. 
After  the  death  of  Professor  Goodrich,  in  1860, 
the  direction  of  the  work  of  revision  was  com- 
mitted to  Professor  (subsequently  President) 
Noah  Porter,  of  Yale  ( 'ollege.  who  published  a 
new  and  thoroughly  revised  edition,  in  1864,  at 
Springfield.  He  had  been  assisted  in  the  re- 
vision by  a  large  number  of  distinguished  schol- 
ars, among  whom  were  Professors  James  I). 
Dana.  William  I).  Whitney,  Chester  S.  Lyman. 
Daniel  C.  Gilman,  Thomas  A.  Thatcher,  .fames 
Hadley,  all  of  Yale  College,  and  Dr.  C.  A.  F. 
Malm,  of  Berlin,  Prussia,  the  latter  of  whom  re- 
wrote the  entire  etymological  department.  In 
this  new  shape,  Webster's  Dictionary  is  generally 
recognized  as  one  of  the  most  notable  productions 
of  tlie  lexical  literature  of  the  world.  Besides 
the  works  already  mentioned.  Dr.  Webster 
wrote  a  History  of  the  United  States,  revised 
about  1838 ;  Letters  to  a  Young  Gentleman 
commencing  his  Eductdion  (New  Haven,  1823), 
and  a  number  of  other  works.  A  Memoir  of 
Xoah  Webster  is  given  in  the  editions  of  the 
dictionary  of  1847  and  1864. 

WEHRLI,  Johann  Jakob,  a  celebrated 
Swiss  teacher  of  poor-schools,  was  born  at  Eschi- 
koven,  November  6.,  1790.  and  died  at  Andwyl. 
.March  15.,  1855.  He  taught  a  small  school  at 
Leutenegg  during  two  winters,  working  in  part 
pay  for  his  board.  In  1809,  he  became  an  assist- 
ant to  Fellenberg.  in  his  school  at  Hofwyl,  where 
he  remained  twenty-three  years,  bestowing  the 
most  assiduous  care  upon  the  poor  children  and 
scholars.     (See  Hofwyl.) 

WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Middle- 
town,  Ct..  the  oldest  college  in  the  United 
States  under  the  patronage  and  control  of  tha 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  organized  in 
1830,  aud  chartered  in  1831.  Since  1872,  its 
courses  have  been  open  to  both  sexes.  It  has 
an  endowment  of  about  §400,000,  extensive 
astronomical,  physical,  and  chemical  apparatus, 
a  valuable  museum  of  natural  history,  and  a 
library  of  over  26,000  volumes.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  $75  a  year.  There  are  three  regular 
courses,  each  of  four  years  :  a  classical  course,  a 
I-atin-scientific  course,  and  a  scientific  course  ; 
and  in  each  there  is  a  considerable  range  of 
elective  studies.  There  are  also  special  and  "post- 
graduate courses.  In  1875—6.  there  were  14  in- 
structors, and  176  students  (9  females).  The  presi- 
dents have  been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Wilbur 
Fisk.  D.  D.,  1831—9;  the  Rev.  Stephen  Olin, 
D.  D.,  1839 — 11;  the  Rev.  Nathan  Bangs,  D.  I).. 
1841—2;  the  Rev.  Stephen  Olin.  P.P.,  1842— 51 ; 
Augustus  Wm.  Smith.  1852—7;  the  Rev.  Joseph 
Cummings,  I).  I).,  1857—75;  and  the  Rev.  Cyrus 
Foss,  I).  I).,  since  1875. 


WESTFIELD  COLLEGE 


853 


WESTERN  COLLEGE,  at  Western.  Linn 
Co.,  Iowa,  was  founded  in  L856  by  the  Church 
of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ,  which  still 
controls  it.  It  has  an  endowment  of  $16,000, 
but  has  been  chiefly  supported  by  contributions. 
The  college  and  society  libraries  contain  1500 
volumes.  The  tuition  and  incidental  fees  are 
$25.50  a  year.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  There  is 
I  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course,  and  a  prepara- 
tory and  a  commercial  department.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  11  instructors  and  219  students  (132 
males  and  87  females),  of  whom  37  were  of  col- 
legiate grade.  The  presidents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows :  the  Rev.  Solomon  Weaver,  1856 — 64;  the 
Rev.  Wm.  Davis,  1864—5:  M.  W.  Bartlett 
(principal).  1865—6;  H.  R.  Page,  1866—7;  E. 

C.  Ebersole,  A.M.  (principal),  1867 — 8;  and  the 
Rev.  Ezekiel  B.  Kephart,  A.M.,  since  1868. 

WESTERN  MARYLAND  COLLEGE, 
at  Westminster,  Md.,  was  founded  in  1867  and 
incorporated  in  1868.  It  is  under  the  special 
patronage  of  the  Maryland  Annual  Conference 
<>f  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  contributions  and  the  fees  of  students. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  from  $17.50  to  $30  a  year. 
The  institution  has  libraries  comprising  3,500 
volumes.  Both  sexes  are  educated,  but  in  separate 
departments,  though  mainly  by  the  same  pro- 
fessors. The  collegiate  course  for  males  extends 
over  4  years,  and  for  females,  3  years.  Facilities 
are  also  afforded  for  theological  instruction.  In 
1876 — 7,  there  were  13  instructors  and  113 
students  (66  male  and  47  female,  65  collegiate 
and  48   preparatory).     The  Rev.  J.  T.  "\\  ard, 

D.  D.,  has  been  the  president  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  institution. 

WESTERN  RESERVE  COLLEGE,  at 
Hudson,  Ohio,  was  chartered  in  1826,  and  opened 
the  same  year.  It  is  not  under  ecclesiastical 
control,  but  its  trustees  and  professors  are  all 
connected  with  the  Congregational  or  Presby- 
terian denomination.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  (from  $25  to  $30  a  year),  and  the  income  of 
an  endowment  of  $210,000.  It  has  an  astronom- 
ical observatory,  valuable  apparatus,  and  libraries 
containing  11,(100  volumes.  '1  here  is  a  prepar- 
atory and  a  collegiate  department.  Poth  sexes 
are  admitted.  In  1876 — 7,  there  were  11  in- 
structors and  126  students  (72  collegiate  and  54 
preparatory).  'I  he  Cleveland  Medical  College, 
established  in  Cleveland  in  1844,  is  a  depart- 
ment of  the  institution.  The  presidents  of  the 
college  have  been  as  follows :  the  Rev.  Charles 
!'..  Storrs,  1830—33;  the  Rev.  George  E.  Pierce, 
I).  D.,  1834—55;  the  Rev.  Henry  L.  Hitchcock, 
I).  I)..  1855—71  ;  and  the  Rev.  Carroll  Cutler. 
P.P.,  since  1871. 

WESTFIELD  COLLEGE,  at  Westfield, 
111.,  under  the  control  of  the  United  Brethren  in 
Christ,  was  chartered  in  1865,  growing  out  of 
the  Westfield  Seminary,  founded  in  lSul.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted  and  graduated  on  an  equal 
basis  of  scholarship.  It  has  an  endowment  of 
$85,000.  The  regular  charge  for  tuition  is  $24 
a  year.  There  is  a  preparatory,  a  normal,  a  sci- 
entific, and   a  classical   course.      Facilities  are 


854       WESTMINSTER  COLLEGE 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


also  afforded  for  instruction  in  art  and  music. 
In  1876 — 7,  there  were  !)  instructors  and  193 
students  (34  collegiate).  The  Rev.  Samuel  B. 
Allen,  I>.  I).,  has  been  the  president  since  1869. 

WESTMINSTER  COLLEGE,  at  Fulton, 
Mo.,  founded  in  lHf>3,  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Presbyterian  ( 'Imrch,  South.  It  is  support- 
ed by  tuition  fees  (from  $30  to  $50  a  year]  and 
the  income  of  an  endowment  of  SN(J,U00.  The 
libraries  contain  about  5,000  volumes.  There  is 
a  classical  and  a  scientific  course  (with  a  col- 
legiate and  a  preparatory  department),  special 
courses,  ami  an  English  course.  In  1876 — 7, 
there  were  6  professors  and  99  students  (clas- 
sical. 4.'i  ;  scientific,  15;  special,  1">;  English, 
26).  The  presidents  have  been  :  the  Rev.  S.  S. 
Laws,  LL.  1).;  the  Rev.  John  Montgomery,  D.  D.; 
the  Rev.  N.  I,.  Rice,  l».  !>.;  and  the  Rev.  M.  M. 
Fisher.  1).  I).,  the  present  (1877)  incumbent. 

WESTMINSTER  COLLEGE,  at  New 
Wilmington,  Fa.,  chartered  in  1852,  is  under 
United  Presbyterian  control.  It  has  productive 
funds  to  the  amount  of  $74,000,  raised  by  the 
sale  of  scholarships,  the  owners  or  hirers  of  which 
are  entitled  to  tuition.  The  libraries  contain 
3,600  volumes.  There  is  a  classical,  a  preparatory, 
and  a  scientific  department.     No  distinction  of 

color  or  sex  is  made  in  the  admission  of  students. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  s  instructors  and  L65 
students    (71    classical,  -IS    preparatory,  and    46 

scientific).  The  presidents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: the  Rev.  .lames  Patterson.  I),  i)..  L853 — 
66;  the  Rev.  R.  A.  Browne,  D.  D.,  1867—70; 
and  the  Rev.  E.  'I'.  Jeffers,  D.  1>..  since  L872. 

WEST  POINT,  the  seat  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  is  a  village  in  Orange 
<  'o..  N.V..OH  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hudson  river, at 
its  passage  through  the  Highlands,  52  no.  above 
New  York  City.  The  grounds  over  which  the 
Unite  1  Stal  is  has  juris  liction,  and  on  which  are 
the  principal  buildings,  occupy  the  plain  of  West 
Point.  Mil)  to  L80  ft.  above  the  river,  and  are 
tl  inked  on  the  west  by  abrupt  hills  and  mountain 

spurs  from  500  to  1,500  ft.  high.  The  point  pro- 
jects into  the  river  with  bold,  rocky  cliffs  on  the 
east  and  north-east,  and  a  more  gentle  slope  on 
the  north.  A  large  area  is  arranged  for  tactical 
instruction  and  parades.  The  academy  was 
established  at  West  Point  by  the  a-;  of  March 
Pi.,  L802.  Under  the  present  law,  each  congres- 
sional district,  each  territory,  and  the  District  of 
Columbia  is  entitled  to  have  one  cadet  at  the 
academy,  and  ten  ace  also  appointed  yearly  at 

large.  The  appointments  at  larg  !  are  conferred 
by  the  presi  lent  :  those  from  each  district  and 
territory,  by  the  secretary  of  war,  on  the  nomi- 
nation of  the  representative  or  delegate  in  t'im- 
gress.  Candidates  must  be  between  1  7  and '22 
years  of  age.  must  lie  well  versed  in  arithmetic, 
reading,  and  writing,  including  orthography,  and 
must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  Rn- 
glisli  grammar,  of  descriptive  geography,  partic- 
ularly of  their  own  country,  and  of  the  history  of 
the  united  States.  Ppon  entering,  they  agree  to 
s  •rvc  eight  years  in  the  U.  S.  army,  unless  sooner 
discharged.     Kach  cadet   receives  s.">!t>  a  year, 


against  which  are  charged  his  expenses,  including 
board,  clothing,  books,  and  stationery.  For  the 
purposes  of  military  police,  discipline,  and  in- 
fantry drill,  the  cadets  are  organized  into  a  bat- 
talion of  four  companies,  commanded  by  an 
army  officer,  styled  Commandant  of  Cadets,  the 
battalion  staff  and  the  subordinate  officers  being 
cadets.  Each  company  is  commanded  by  anarmy 
officer,  styled  Assistant  Instructor  of  Infantry' 
Tactics.  'I  he  course  is  for  four  years.  From  about 
dune  20.  to  Sept.  1.,  a  period  corresponding  to 
the  vacation  of  other  institutions. the  cadets  live 
in  tents  and  devote  themselves  to  military  du- 
ties, riding,  sword  exercise,  practical  military  en- 
gineering, etc.  On  graduation,  they  are  commis- 
sioned in  the  engineers,  ordnance,  artillery,  in- 
fantry, or  cavalry,  according  to  their  qualifica- 
tions. rlhe  academy  is  under  the  care  of  an  army 
officer,  styled  Superintendent,  who  has  a  military 
staff  of  five  officers.  'I  here  are  professors  of 
(hawing;  of  mathematics;  of  chemistry;  miner- 
alogy, and  geology;  of  the  Spanish  language; 
of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy;  of  the 
Freni  h  language  ;  of  military  and  civil  engineer- 
ing; of  law;  and  of  geography,  history,  and 
ethics  (the  chaplain).  'I  here  are  also  instructors 
of  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry  tactics  (the 
commandant  of  cadets):  of  practical  military 
engineering,  signaling,  and  telegraphy;  and  of 
ordnance  and  gunnt  r\  :  a  music  teacher,  and  a 
sword  master.  Most  of  these  have  several  as- 
sistants. In  1877,  there  were  51  officers  and  3C0 
cadets.    rl  he  number  of  graduates  from  1802  to 

1876  was  2,640,  being  less  than  half  of  tho.-e 
who  entered  the  academy  during  thai  period. 

WEST  VIRGINIA,  one  of  the  states  of 
the  American  Union,  organized,  in  L862,  from 
a  portion  of  Virginia,  and  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  a  separate  state  in  1863.  Its  area  is 
23,000  Bq.  m.;  and  its  population,  in  1870,  was 
442,014,  of  whom  17,980  were  colored  persons. 

Educational  History. — The  school  history  of 
the  state  is  of  course  identical  with  that  of  Vir- 
ginia ( 'i-  v.  .  up  to  the  time  of  their  se]  aiatiom 
One  of  the  conditions  under  which  the  state  was 

admitted  to  the  Union,  proi  ided  for  Ihe  <  reation 
of  a  school  fund,  for  the  organization  of  a  free- 

Bchool  system,  and  the  appointment  of  officers 
necessary  for  its  proper  supervision  and  main- 
tenance. In  1865,  this  System  was  established, 
and  remained  in  force  till  1872,  when  the  new 
c  onstitution,  then  adopted,  made  several  t  Langes. 
In  ls7.'5.  the  legislature  amended  the  scliool  law. 
giving  it  its  present  form.  -Since  L869.  th  • 
state    superintendents    have    been    as     follows  : 

II.  A.  c.  Hegler,  till  February,  1870  ;  A.  P. 
Williams,  till  1871  ;  U.S.  Lewis,  till  Is72;  W. 
K.  Pendleton,  till  1S7.'5:  P.  W.  Byrne.till  1877  : 
and  W.  K.  Pendleton,  again  elected  in  1*77. 

School  System.-  The  supervision  and  man- 
agement   of    the   state   are   entrusted    to   a    State 

superintendent,  who  is  elected  by  the  people 
every  four  years,  lie  is  required  to  cive  direc- 
tions to  the  county  superintendents,  and  to  per- 
form all  the  duties  usually  pertaining  tO  the  office. 

making  an   annual    report    to   the    legislature. 


WEST   VIRGINIA 


855 


County  superintendents  are  elected  for  two 
years.  The  organization  of  the  schools  is  com- 
mitted  to  these  officers,  with  power  to  exercise 
a  general  supervision  over  all  subordinate  offi- 
cers. District  boards  of  education,  consisting  of 
a  president  and  two  commissioners,  are  elected 
for  two  years.  They  have  general  control  of  the 
district  schools  in  all  that  relates  to  the  building 
and  repairing  of  school-houses,  the  employment 
of  teachers,  the  determination  of  their  number 
and  salaries,  and  the  limiting  of  the  school  ses- 
sion. District  trustees  are  elected  for  two  years. 
They  act  under  the  direction  of  the  district 
board.  They  employ  teachers,  and  report  an- 
nually to  the  board.  Boards  of  examiners,  each 
consisting  of  the  county  superintendent,  and  two 
teachers  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  district 
board,  are  convened  in  every  county  for  the 
]  airpose  of  examining  teachers  and  issuing  certif- 
i  sates,  valid  for  one  year  in  the  county  where 
issued.  These  are  authorized  to  grant  certificates 
of  five  grades.  A  stale  board  of  examiners, 
consisting  of  the  state  superintendent  and  two 
professional  teachers  appointed  by  the  governor, 
also  issues  professional  certificates,  which  entitle 
the  holder  to  teach  anywhere  in  the  state  dur- 
ing life,  such  certificates  being  revocable  by  the 
state  superintendent  for  good  cause.  The  school 
revenue  of  the  state  is  derive!  from  (1)  the  in- 
terest on  the  invested  school  fund  ;  (2)  a  poll  tax 
of  SI  on  all  male  citizens;  (3)  a  state  tax  of  10 
cuts  on  every  §100  of  real  and  personal 
property;  (4)  a  district  tax  for  a  school  fund; 
and  (5)  a  district  tax  for  a  building  fund.  The 
last  two  are  subject  to  a  majority  vote  of  the 
people  of  the  district.  The  county  sheriff  acts 
;h  treasurer  of  the  school  funds,  collecting  and 
disbursing  "all  school  money  for  the  several 
districts  and  independent  districts  therein.'' 
Mixed  schools  for  white  and  colored  children 
are  prohibited ;  the  establishment  of  separate 
schools  for  the  latter  being  provided  for,  when- 
ever the  number  in  a  district  exceeds  25.  The 
legal  school  age  is  from  6  to  21  years. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts,  in  1874,  was  321  ;  the  number 
of  sub-districts,  2,845;  the  number  of  independ- 
ent districts,  38. 

The  school  revenue,  in  1874 — 5,  was  : 

From  state  tax 5194,791.32 

"     local     "    541,090.98 

Interest  on  permanent  fund.  .  .     17,595.20 

Total $753, 477.50 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 

F<>r  teachers'  salaries $541,358. S3 

"    sites,  buildings,  and  furnit.  121,047.38 
';     other  expenses 52,754.38 

Total $715,160.59 

The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  are 
as  follows : 

N>».  of  children  of  school  age 179,897 

"     "        "         enrolled.... 115,300 

Average  daily  attendance 79,002 

Number  of  teachers,  males 2,fi77 

"        "  females 7S4 


Total 3,401 

Average  monthly  salary  of  male  teachers $35.03 

"    '    "female       "      $:J.0.77 


Normal  Instruction.  —  The  state  normal 
school,  known  as  Marshal]  College,  at  Hunt- 
ington, was  established  in  1867.  Five  branches 
were  subsequently  authorized,  and  most  of  them 
were  opened  as  follows  :  at  Fairmont  (1869);  at 
West  Liberty  (1870);  at  Glenville  (1873);  at 
Shephcrdstown  (1873);  and  at  Concord  (to  be 
opened  in  1875).  The  number  of  graduates 
from  the  parent  school  at  Huntington,  up  to 
1874,  was  34.  The  school  at  Fairmont  is  divided 
into  a  model  school,  and  an  academic  and  a 
normal  department,  and  will  accommodate  200 
students.  The  school  at  West  liberty  has  ac- 
commodations for  150  ;  that  at  Shepherdstown, 
for  200.  The  latter  and  the  Glenville  school  are 
under  the  management  of  a  board  of  regents. 
The  appropriation  from  the  Peabody  fund  for 
these  five  schools,  in  1875.  was  $2,500. —  Teach- 
ers' Institutes  have  been  organized,  principally 
by  the  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund;  and  their 
influence,  in  calling  the  attention  of  teachers  to 
improved  methods  of  teaching  and  school  gov- 
ernment, has  been  very  beneficial.  A  state 
teachers'  association  is  also  in  existence,  which 
holds  annual  meetings.  Normal  institutes,  of 
from  2  to  4  weeks'  duration,  were  held,  during 
1874,  in  15  counties. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  establishment  of 
high  schools  is  dependent  upon  a  three-fifths 
vote  of  the  citizens  of  each  district.  1  he  num- 
ber of  these  institutions  is  not  large.  The 
Harper's  Ferry  High  School  for  colored  pupil.; 
was,  in  1868,  chartered  as  Storer  College,  but 
the  course  of  instruction  hardly  goes  beyond 
that  of  the  ordinary  primary  school.  Many 
grammar  schools  exist,  and  the  studies  usually 
pursued  in  high  schools  are,  to  some  extent,  pur- 
sued in  them.  Besides  these,  there  are  several 
private  schools  and  academies  in  which  secondary 
instruction  is  given.  Seven  private  schools  of 
this  grade  reported  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, in  1875,  a  total  of  32  teachers  and  873 
pupils.  Two  of  the  colleges,  also,  have  prepar- 
atory departments. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — 
Several  of  these  are  in  existence,  principally  un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and 
the  German  Protestants.  Five  are  reported  in 
Wheeling  alone, — 3  Roman  Catholic,  and  2  Ger- 
man Protestant. 

Superior  Instruction. — Three  institutions  for 
education  of  this  kind  exist,  as  follows : 


NAME 

Location 

When 
irgan- 
ized 

Religious 
denomi- 
nation 

Bethany  College 

West  Virginia  College 
West  Virginia  Univ.. . 

Bethany 

Flemington 

Morgantown 

1840 
1868 
1867 

Christian 
Free  W.B. 

Non-sec. 

There  are  two  colleges  for  women, — the  Park- 
ersburg  Academy  of  the  Visitation,  and  the 
Wheeling  Female  College.  The  former  was 
established  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  in  1866. 
Connected  with  it  is  a  preparatory  school  in 
which  instruction  in  common-school  branches  is 
given  gratuitously.     The  academy  is  well  sup- 


856     WEST  VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY 


WHITTIKR  COLLEGE 


plied  with  apparatus  and  all  the  means  for  im- 
parting a  higher  education.  It  had,  in  1875, 
12  instructors,  in  all  the  departments,  and  80  stu- 
dents pursuing  the  college  course.  The  Wheel- 
ing Female  <  'ollege  provides  a  regular  college 
course  of  4  years,  besides  special  courses.  It  was 
established  in  1865,  is  non-sectarian,  and  has  a 
corps  of  13  instructors— 4  male  and  9  female — 
and  139  students  in  all  the  departments. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — The 
agricultural  department  of  the  West  Virginia 
University,  at  Morgantown.  is  the  state  institu- 
tion for  instruction  in  agriculture.  It  was  en- 
dowed by  Congress  with  land  scrip  to  the  value 
of  SI  (10,000,  to  which  the  citizens  of  Morgan- 
town  have  added  from  time  to  time.  It  also  re- 
ceives an  annual  appropriation  from  the  legis- 
lature. It  has  five  departments  :  preparatory, 
literary,  scientific,  agricultural,  and  military. 
Optional  courses  are  permitted.  Nine  regents 
constitute  the  board  of  management,  and  two 
ca  let-  from  each  regent  "s  district  are  entitled  to 
gratuitous  instruction.  St.  Vincent's  College,  at 
Wheeling,  was  established  by  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics, in  1865,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  instruc- 
tion in  theologv.  It  is  now  temporarily  suspended. 

WEST  VIRGINIA,  University  of,  at 
Morgantown,  W.  Ya..  was  founded  in  18(»7.  It 
has  an  endowment  of  $110,000,  including  the 
proceeds  of  the  lands  granted  by  Congress  for 
the  support  of  a  state  college  of  agriculture  and 
the  mechanic  arts.  It  is  supported  by  the  in- 
come of  the  endowment,  together  with  tuition 
fees  and  annual  state  appropriations.  Eour 
cadets  from  each  judicial  circuit  of  the  state  are 
educated  free  of  cost  for  tuition,  books,  station- 
ery, etc.  Military  drill  is  required  of  them.  For 
others.the  tuition  and  contingent  fees  vary  from 
S'-M  to  S.5!)  a  year.  The  institution  has  a  library 
of  4,000  volumes.  A  United  States  signal  sta- 
tion has  been  established  at  the  university.  The 
instruction  is  embraced  in  six  departments: 
classical,  scientific,  agricultural,  engineering,  and 
military;  and  a  preparatory  department.  The 
agricultural  course  is  for  two  years;  the  other 
courses  are  for  four  years.  In  the  military  de-  j 
partment,  besides  tactics,  etc..  the  studies  are 
those  of  the  classical,  scientific,  or  other  depart- 
ment. In  1ST") — 6,  there  were  11  instructors! 
and  96  students  (39  collegiate  and  57  prepara- 
tory). The  Rev.  .1.  W.  Scott,  1).  P..  LL.  D.,  is 
1 1  s77)  acting  president. 

WEST  VIRGINIA  COLLEGE,  at  Flem- 
ington.  Taylor  Co.,  W.  \'a..  founded  in  L868,  is 
under  the  control  of  Free  Will  Baptists.  It  is 
supported    by  tuition    i'n'^.  ranging   from  $24  t" 

$40  a  year.  It  has  a  preparatory,  a  commercial, 
an  academic,  a  normal,  a  college  preparatory, 
and  a  collegia!  ■  curse.  Both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted.    In   Is7i'>     7.  there  were  5  instructors 

and  7.">  students.  The  presidents  have  been  the 
Rev.  A.  1».  Williams.    \.  M..    [868      70,  and   the 

Rev.  W'm.  Colegrove,  A.  M.,  since  L870. 

WHATELY,  Richard,  archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin, born  in  London,  Feb.  1.,  17*7:  died  in 
Dublin  Oct.  8.,  1863.     lie  was  educated  al  Oriel 


College.  Oxford,  was  elected  fellow  in  1811,  and 
became  Bampton  lecturer  in  1822.  In  1825,  he 
was  appointed  principal  of  St.  Alban's  Hall,  Ox- 
ford ;  in  1 830,  professor  of  political  economy ; 
and,  in  1831.  archbishop  of  Dublin.  In  the  lat- 
ter position,  he  was  very  energetic  in  all  ques- 
tions Avhieh  affected  the  welfare  of  Ireland.  He 
was  one  of  the  members  of  the  board  of  national 
education,  a  position  which  he  held  till  L853,  re- 
signing it  then  because  of  a  departure  on  the  part 
of  the  board  from  the  plan  on  which  they  had, 
up  to  that  time,  acted.  His  activity  in  all  char- 
itable enterprises,  and  his  energy  as  an  author, 
were  very  marked.  His  educational  works  are  : 
Elements  of  Logic  (1826);  Elements  of  Rhetoric 
(1828);  Introductory  Lectures  to  Political  Econ- 
omy (1831)  ;  English  Synonyms  (1851)  ;  and 
Introductory  Lesson*  mi  Mind  (1859). 

WHEATON  COLLEGE,  at  Wheaton.  111., 
was  organized  in  1858,  and  chartered  in  1860. 
It  was  founded  by  Wesleyan  Methodists,  but  is 
now  under  the  control  of  Congregationalists. 
It  has  productive  funds  to  the  amount  of  $30,000; 
the  buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  are  valued 
at  >1  ill ).( KM);  and  the  libraries  contain  about  2.000 
volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  from  $24  to  §30 
a  year.  There  is  a  classical,  and  a  ladies1  col- 
legiate  course,  preparatory  courses,  and  an  En- 
glish course:  instruction  is  also  given  in  music, 
drawing,  and  painting,  and  commercial  branches. 
In  1875 — G,  there  were  17  instructors  and  21.'! 
students.  The  Rev.  Jonathan  Blanchard  is  1 1 877) 
the  president. 

WHEWELL,  William,  an  English  philos- 
opher and  educator,  born  in  Lancaster,  May  24., 
1791  :  died  in  Cambridge,  March  ">.,  1866.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  ( 'ollege  in  1816, of  which  he 
became  fellow,  and.  subsequently,  tutor.  In  1820, 
he  was  made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
from  L828  to  L832,  was  professor  of  mineralogy 
in  Cambridge.  In  L841,  he  was  appointed  Master 

ofTrinity:  and.  from  L838  t<>  1  855,  was]  irofeSSOr 
of  casuistry.  In  the  latter  year,  upon  his  ap- 
pointment as  vice-chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  he  resigned  his  professorship. 
I  lis  great  mental  activity  is  shown  by  the  con- 
stant accessions  to  his  stock  of  knowledge,  his 
varied  attainments,  and  the  amount  of  literary 
labor  which  he  performed,  in  the  shape  of  inde- 
pendent works,  besides  reviews,  criticisms,  and 
translations.  To  this  activity,  his  uninterrupted 
good  health  contributed  not  a  little.  His  edu- 
cational works  are:  Astronomy  and  General 
Physics  (1833);  TJioughts  on  the  Study  qf 
Mathematics  (1835);  On  tin-  Principles  of  En- 
glish University  Education  (1837);  History  qf 
the  Inductive  Sciences  (1837);  Philosophy  of  the 
Inductive  Sciences  (1840) ;  On  Liberal  Educa- 
tion (1845 — 52);  Lectures  on  the  History  if 
Moral  Philosophy  in  England  (1852) ;  Of  the 
Plurality  qf  Worlds  (1853);  The  Platonic  Dia- 
logues for  English  Readers  (1859  61);  and 
Lectures  on  Political  Economy  (1863). 

WHITTIER  COLLEGE  AND  NOR- 
MAL INSTITUTE,  at  Salem.  Henry  Co., 
Iowa,  founded  in   lHi7.  is  under  the  can-  of   the. 


WICHERN 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE     857 


Society  of  Friends.  It  is  open  to  both  sexes, 
and  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  varying  from 
$24  to  $30  a  year.  It  has  a  collegiate,  a  normal, 
and  a  business  department.  The  course  of  study 
in  the  first  and  second  years  of  the  collegiate  de- 
partment is  regarded  as  preparatory  to  the  sci- 
entific course.  The  third  year  completes  the 
scientific  course,  the  ancient  languages  being 
elective.  This  course  is  soon  to  be  increased, 
and  arrangements  are  in  progress  to  extend  both 
courses  so  as  to  constitute  a  complete  college 
curriculum.  The  classical  course  extends  through 
the  fourth  year.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  5  in- 
structors and  200  students  in  all  the  depart- 
ments. Wm.  Penn  Clark  is  (1877)  the  president. 

WICHERN,  Johann  Heinrich,  a  German 
philanthropist  ami  educator,  was  born  in  Ham- 
burg, in  1808.  lie  studied  theology,  engaged  ac- 
tively in  the  different  departments  of  benevolence 
connected  with  the  home  missionary  work  of 
the  Evangelical  Church,  and  especially  interested 
himself  in  the  care  of  poor  children,  and  in  the 
amelioration  of  the  inmates  of  hospitals  and 
prisons.  He  has  founded  a  number  of  institu- 
tions, the  most  important  of  which  is  that  called 
the  Rauhes  Haus  (das  Rauhe  Bans),  at  Horn, 
near  Hamburg,  a  house  of  refuge  for  homeless 
children,  which  is  established  upon  peculiar  and 
novel  principles,  and  has  already  become  the 
model  upon  which  many  other  institutions  of  the 
kind  have  been  organized.  (See  Reform  Schools.) 

WILBERFORCE  "UNIVERSITY,  near 
Xenia,  ().,  founded  in  1863,  is  under  the  control 
of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  ( 'hurch.  It 
has  a  small  endowment.  The  cost  of  tuition 
ranges  from  $4.75  to  $6.75  per  term  of  14  weeks. 
The  library  contains  4,000  volumes.  The  insti- 
tution is  especially  designed  for  the  education  of 
colored  youth  of  both  sexes.  It  embraces  a 
preparatory,  a  normal,  a  collegiate  (classical,  and 
scientific),  a  theological,  and  a  law  department. 
in  1875 — 6,  there  were  12  instructors  and  138 
students  (96  preparatory,  5  normal,  6  collegiate, 
and  36  theological).  The  Rt.  Rev.  Daniel  A. 
Payne,  D.  D.,  is  (1877)  the  president. 

WILEY  UNIVERSITY,  at  Marshall, 
Tex.,  was  established,  in  1873,  by  the  Freedmen's 
Aid  Society  of  the  .Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
for  the  especial  benefit  of  colored  youth  of  both 
sexes,  though  open  to  all  without  regard  to  race 
and  color.  It  is  supported  by  the  Society. 
Tuition  is  free.  There  are  the  following  courses  : 
primary,  2  years ;  intermediate,  2  years ;  aca- 
demic and  normal,  2  years  ;  preparatory,  2  years; 
collegiate,  4  years ;  theological,  3  years.  In 
1 875 — 6,  there  were  4  instructors  and  248  stu- 
dents. The  presidents  have  been  the  Rev. 
Francis  C.  Moore,  1873—5,  and  the  Rev.  Wm. 
H.  Davis,  since  1875. 

WILLARD,  Emma,  a  celebrated  American 
educator,  born  in  Berlin,  Ct.,  in  17N7':  died  in 
Troy.  N.Y.,  in  1870.  After  many  struggles  to 
obtain  a  liberal  education,  she  commenced  to 
teach  at  the  age  of  17  ;  and  her  fitness  for  that 
vocation  was  so  marked  that,  at  the  age  of  20, 
she  received  many  invitations  to  take  the  charge 


of  schools,  finally  occupying  the  principalship  of 
a  female  seminary  at  Middlebury,  Vt.  After 
her  marriage, she  withdrew  from  the  schoolroom 
for  a  time  ;  but,  in  1814,  she  resumed  her  voca- 
tion by  opening  a  boarding-school  at  Middle- 
bury.  Subsequently,  she  removed  her  school  to 
Waterford,  N.  V..  having  presented  to  Gov.  De 
Witt  Clinton  a  plan  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  in  that  state.  In  L 821,  her  school  was 
removed  to  Troy,  assuming  the  title  of  the  Troy 
Female  Seminary  ;  and  Mrs.  Willard  continued 
in  its  charge  till  1 H38.  Her  active  interest  in 
education  was,  however,  never  relaxed.  In  1840, 
she  took  the  supervision  of  the  schools  at  Ken- 
sington, Ct.;  and,  in  1854,  she  attended  the 
World's  Educational  Convention  in  London, and 
afterward  visited  the  schools  of  Germany.  Switz- 
erland, France,  and  other  countries.  Mrs.  Wil- 
lard s  improvements  in  text-books  were  numer- 
ous and  valuable.  In  geography,  she  separated 
what  is  to  be  learned  into  two  parts. — that  which 
can  be  learned  through  the  eye,  i.  e.,  from  the 
map,  and  that  which  is  to  be  learned  from  the 
text.  The  latter  she  treated  comparatively,  the 
length  of  rivers,  for  instance,  of  one  country  be- 
ing studied  in  connection  with  the  same  feature 
in  other  countries  ;  then  the  size  of  continents, 
islands,  height  of  mountains,  etc..  in  the  same  way. 
She  also  invented  a  peculiar  kind  of  time  map 
to  assist  in  the  study  of  history.  The  place  which 
Mrs.  Willard  will  occupy  in  the  annals  of  edu- 
cation in  America,  must  always  be  a  prominent 
one,  not  only  from  the  fact  that  almost  the  whole 
of  her  long  life  was  spent  in  its  service,  and  that 
the  improved  methods  she  originated  have  be- 
come recognized  necessities,  but  because  the  was 
the  first  to  lift  up  her  voice  against  the  exclusion 
of  her  sex  from  a  participation  in  the  advantages 
of  a  higher  education,  and  for  a  long  time,  1  y 
voice  and  pen,  was  their  earnest,  and  almost  ex- 
clusive advocate.  Very  largely  to  her,  and  to  her 
school,  standing  as  an  evidence  of  the  feasibility 
of  her  demands,  is  the  cause  of  female  education 
indebted,  for  the  victory  it  has  won  over  moss- 
grown  prejudice  and  error.  How  great  that 
prejudice  was,  let  the  record  of  her  first  triumphs 
attest,  when  wye  are  told  that  the  examination  of 
her  first  female  pupil  in  geometry  caused  "  a 
wonderful  excitement,"  many  declaring  that  no 
woman  ever  did,  or  could,  understand  geometry, 
Mrs.  Willard's  publications  are  quite  numerous,, 
including:  A  Plan  for  Improving  Female  Edu- 
cation (ISO);  The  Woodbndge  and  Willard 
(feograpliies  and  Atlases  (1822);  History  of  the 
United  States  (1828);  Universal  1 listory  in  Per- 
spective (1837)  ;  Temple  of  Time  (1844);  Last 
Leaves  of  American  History  (1849)  ;  Morals 
for  the  Young  (1857),  besides  numerous  ad- 
dresses, pamphlets,  letters,  and  poems. 

WILLIAM  AND  MARY,  College  of, 
at  Williamsburg,  Ya.,  next  to  Harvard,  the  old- 
est college  in  the  United  States,  was  formerly  un- 
der Protestant  Episcopal  control,  but  at  present 
is  not  connected  with  any  religions  denomination. 
In  1660 — 61.  the  colonial  assembly  passed  an  act 
for  the  establishment  and   endowment  of  a  col- 


858     WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE 


WISCONSIN 


lege;  and,  in  1(393,  a  royal  charter  was  granted. 
the  name  being  derived  from  the  reigning  king 
and  queen.  This  was  the  only  college  charter 
given  in  the  colonies  by  any  of  the  English 
monarchs.  The  first  commencement  exercises 
were  held  in  1700.  In  1776,  it  was  the  wealth- 
iest college  in  the  colonies  ;  but  the  Revolution 
deprived  it  of  its  chief  endowments.  In  1781, 
the  exercises  were  suspended,  and  the  buildings 
were  alternately  occupied,  before  and  during  the 
memorable  siege  of  Vorktown,  by  the  British 
and  the  French  and  American  troops.  While 
in  possession  of  the  latter,  the  college  building 
was  injured,  and  the  president's  house  was  de-  ! 
stroyed  by  fire.  The  latter  was  afterward  rebuilt 
at  the  expense  of  the  French  government.  The 
college  was,  probably,  not  closed  more  than  a 
year.  Early  in  May,  1861,  the  existence  of  war 
at  its  threshold  rendered  it  necessary  to  suspen  1 
the  college  exercises,  and  to  close  its  doors.  The 
college  was  reopened  at  the  close  of  the  war; 
but  the  building  was  not  restored,  nor  the  faculty 
fully  re-organized,  till  L869.  The  college  is  sit- 
uated just  outside  of  the  city  limits.  It  has 
an  endowment  of  about  860,000,  good  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of 
5,000  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  l$40  a 
year.  Fur  meritorious  young  men  in  limited 
circumstances,  fifteen  scholarships,  exempting 
those  admitted  on  them  from  the  payment  of 
tuition  fees,  have  been  founded.  In  addition  to 
the  above,  each  professor  has  the  power  to 
confer,  as  a  reward  of  merit,  a  scholarship  on 
two  students,  selected  annually.  The  instruction 
is  comprised  in  eight  departments:  Latin; 
Greek;  mathematics;  French  ;  German  ;  natural 
philosophy  and  mixed  mathematics;  chemistry, 
geology, mineralogy ;  and  physiology;  moral  and 
intellectual  philosophy  and  belles-lettres.  There 
is  also  a  preparatory  department.  In  1875 — (i, 
there  were  7  instructors  and  86  students  (71  col- 
legiate and  1  5  preparatory).  Thomas  Jefferson, 
James  Monroe,  John  Tyler,  Chief  Justice  Mar- 
shall, Peyton  Randolph,  the  president  of  the  first 
American  Congress,  John  Randolph  of  Roanoke, 
and  Wintield  Scott  were  graduates  of  this  col- 
lege. The  Visitors  and  Governors  are  the  gen- 
eral governing  body  of  the  college;  and  these 
choose  one  of  thsir  number  rector.  The  fac- 
ulty, which  is  the  corporation,  appoints  some 
.suitable  person  chancellor,  who  is  the  titular 
head  of  the  institution.  Th  •  internal  manage- 
ment is  in  the  hands  of  the  president  and  fac- 
ulty. Until  L776,  the  chancellors  of  the  college 
were  the  bishops  of  London,  excepting  in  L764, 
when  the  office  was  conferred  on  the  carl  of 
Itardwieke.  George  Washington  was  chancellor 
from  1788  to  179'.).  an  I  e\  president  John  Tyler 
from  1859  to  1862.  During  the  intervening 
periods,  the  office  was  no1  filled.  The  present 
chancellor  (1877),  Hugh  Blair  Grigsby,  LL.  I'., 
was  elected  in  1H71.  The  presidents  have  been 
as  follows:  the  Rev.  dames  Blair,  I>.  !>.,  L693— 
L743;  the  Rev.  William  Dawson,  L743— 52; 
the  Rev.  William  St  it  h.  L752— 5 ;  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Dawson,  1755—61;  the  Rev.  William 


Yates,  1761 — 4  ;  the  Rev.  James  llorrocks, 
1 7 64 — 71  :  the  Rev.  John  Camm,  1771 — 7;  the 
lit.  Rev.  dames  Madison.  1777 — 1812  ;  the  Rev. 
John  Bracken,  1812 — 13  :  Dr.  John  Augustine 
Smith,  1814—26;  the  Rev.  Wm.  H.  A\  ilmer, 
1).  1).,  1820—7;  the  Rev.  Adam  P.  Empie,  D.D., 
1827—36;  Thomas  R.  Dew,  1836 — 16;  Robert 
Saunders,  1847 — 8;  Benjamin  S.Ewell.  1848 — 
9;  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  Johns,  1849 — 54;  and 
Benjamin  S.  Ewell.  LED.,  since  1854. 

WILLIAM  JEWELL  COLLEGE,  at 
Liberty.  Mo.,  founded  in  1849,  is  under  Baptist 
control.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  (from  §30 
to  $40  a  year)  and  the  income  of  an  endowment 
of  $100,000.  It  has  a  library  of  3,500  volumes. 
The  college  has  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate 
department,  and  embraces  eight  schools  :  Latin, 
Greek,  mathematics  and  astronomy,  modern 
languages,  English  and  history,  natural  science, 
moral  philosophy,  and  theology.  In  1875 — 6. 
there  were  6  instructors  and  137  students,  of 
whom  46  Mere  connected  with  the  school  of 
theology.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows  : 
E.  S.  Dulin.D.  D.,  LL.D.;  the  Rev.  R.  S.  Thom- 
as, A.  M  .:  Wm.  Thompson,  LL.  D.;  Thomas 
Rambaut,  I).  D.,  LL.  D.;  and  W.  R.  Bothwell, 
1).  1).,  the  present  incumbent  (1877). 

WILLIAMS  COLLEGE,  at  Wffliamstown, 
Mass.,  owes  its  origin  to  the  will  (1755)  of  Col. 
Ephraim  Williams.  The  property  bequeathed 
was  allowed  to  accumulate  till  1785,  when  a 
free  school  was  incorporated,  which  was  opened 
in  1791.  A  college  charter  was  obtained  in 
1  79.'!.  ami  the  first  commencement  was  held  in 
I7!'5.  ddie  institution  is  under  Congregational 
control.  Its  productive  funds  exceed  $300,000, 
and  its  funds  for  the  aid  of  needy  students 
amount  to  $90,000.  It  has  a  large  cabinet 
of  natural  history,  chemical,  physical,  and 
astronomical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of 
17.000  volumes,  besides  the  society  libraries. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  $75  a  year.  It  adheres 
strictly  to  the  old  college  curriculum.  In  1875 
— 6,  there  were  13  instructors  and  17(1  students. 
The   presidents   have   been   as  follows  :  the  Rev. 

Ebenezer  Fitch,  1793 — 1815;  the  Rev.  Zephaniah 
Swift  Moore,  1815—21  ;  the  Rev.  Edward  Dorr 
Griffin,  L821— 36;  the  Rev.  Mark  Hopkins,  D. 
D.,  LL.  D.,  1836—72;  and  the  Hon.  Paul  Ansel 
Chadbourne,  D.  D..  1.1..  D.,  since  1872. 

WILMINGTON  COLLEGE,  at  Wil- 
mington, Ohio,  under  the  control  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  was  organized  in  1870.  and  chartered 
in  1875.  Doth  sexes  arc  admitted.  It  has  a 
small  endowment,  being  supported  chiefly  by 
tuition  fees  ($39  a  year),  'i  here  is  a  preparatory 
and  a  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  and 
a  scientific  course.  In  1875 — 6.  there  were  4 
instructors  and  90  students  (19  collegiate  and  71 
preparatory).  The  presidents  have  been  Lewis 
A.  Estes,  1870 — 74,  and  Benjamin  Trueblood, 
since  1  874. 

WISCONSIN,  one  of  the  western  states  of 
the  American  I'nion,  originally  a  part  of  the 
territory  of  the  same  name,  which  was  formed  in 

1836,  of  lands  previously  embraced  in  the  terri- 


WISCONSIN 


859 


tory  of  Michigan.  It  was  admitted  into  the 
i  i  lion  as  a  state  in  1848;  but,  the  following 
year,  its  limits  were  changed  by  transferring  a 
portion  of  it  to  the  territory  of  Minnesota.  The 
area  of  the  state  is  53,924  sq.  m. :  and  its  pop- 
ulation, in  1870,  was  1,0(54,985,  of  whom  2.1  l.'i 
were  colored  persons,  and  11,521,  Indians. 

Educational  History. —  The  earliest  schools 
held  in  the  state,  are  believed  to  have  been  con- 
ducted by  the  French  Jesuits  ;  but  the  school  at 
Green  Bay,  of  which  James  Porlier  was  teacher, 
in  1791,  is  the  first  of  which  there  is  any  definite 
information.  Post  schools,  also,  were  established. 
in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  near  the  forts 
of  the  United  States,  at  which  instruction  was 
given  to  the  children  of  officers,  soldiers,  and 
settlers.  Usually,  they  were  conducted  by  the 
post  chaplains;  but  one  of  the  earliest  mentioned 
— that  at  Prairie  du  ( 'hien — was  taught  by  a 
sergeant  of  the  garrison.  A  few  years  after, 
Indian  schools  were  opened  by  religious  denomi- 
nations; and,  in  1832,  a  clause  of  the  treaty  con- 
cluded between  the  Winnebago  Indians  and  the 
United  States,  stipulated  that  the  latter  should 
maintain  for  27  year's  a  school  near  Prairie  du 
Chien,  for  the  education  of  such  children  as  the 
tribe  might  send  to  it.  In  1830,  the  first  school- 
house  in  the  lead  district  was  built  at  Mineral 
Point.  This  was  followed  by  others  ;  but  they 
were  not  numerous,  the  attention  of  the  in- 
habitants being,  in  great  measure,  absorbed  by 
their  occupation  as  miners.  The  principal  im- 
pulse given  to  the  founding  of  schools,  came 
from  the  settlers  from  the  eastern  states,  who 
sought  the  territory  after  the  financial  distress 
of  1837.  The  first  organized  action  taken  by 
the  territory  in  regard  to  schools,  was  in  183(i, 
when  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  assembly, 
"  to  prohibit  persons  from  trespassing  on  the 
school  lands."  This  was  followed,  shortly  after, 
by  another,  to  "  regulate  the  sale  of  school 
lands,  and  to  provide  for  organizing,  regulating, 
and  perfecting  common  schools."  In  1839,  this 
law  was  revised,  so  that  every  town  of  not 
less  than  ten  families  was  constituted  a  school- 
district,  and  was  required  to  provide  a  teacher. 
County  commissioners  were  authorized  to  ap- 
point inspectors  in  towns  which  refused  or 
neglected  to  choose  them,  the  duties  of  these  in- 
spectors being  to  lease  the  school  lands,  take 
charge  of  the  school-houses,  and  make  reports 
to  the  county  commissioners  of  the  number  of 
pupils.  Trustees  might  be  elected  in  each  district, 
to  perform  the  duties  ordinarily  assigned  to  the 
inspectors.  A  tax  of  one-fourth  per  cent  also 
was  authorized  to  be  raised  for  the  building  of 
school-houses  and  the  maintenance  of  the  schools. 
In  1840  and  1841,  the  school  laws  were  amended. 
The  office  of  town  commissioner  was  restored, 
superseding  that  of  inspector ;  five  officers. — 
a  clerk,  a  collector,  and  three  trustees,  were 
chosen  in  each  district ;  and  taxes  were  assessed 
in  each  for  the  building  of  school  houses.  By 
this  time,  the  interest  of  the  people  in  the  sub- 
ject of  schools  had  become  very  general.  In 
1845,  a  free  school — the  first  in  the  state — was 


founded  at  Kenosha,  by  Col.  M.  I'" rank.  The 
idea— since  so  familiar  in  the  older  states — of 
taxing  all  assessed  property  for  the  support  of 
common  schools,  was  then  new.  and  met  with 
strenuous  opposition  on  the  part  of  property 
holders  who  had  no  children  to  educate.  After 
many  public  meetings  and  lectures,  devised  for 
the  purpose  of  enlightening  the  public  mind  on 
the  subject,  a  bill  embodying  this  idea  was  intro- 
duced by  Col.  Frank  into  the  territorial  legis- 
lature,and  passed  in  1845.  In  the  constitutional 
convention  held  in  1846,  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a  constitution  for  the  prospective  state, 
and  again  in  the  convention  of  1H4H,  the  subject 
of  education  created  much  discussion.  InlM9. 
three  commissioners  were  appointed  to  revise 
the  school  laws,  and  reduce  them  to  one  system 
uniform  in  its  action  throughout  the  state.  rl  he 
earliest  school  fund  was  derived  from  the  sale  of 
lands  granted  by  the  general  government  for 
school  purposes.  1  hese  were  the  sixteenth  sec- 
tion in  every  township,  any  grant  the  purposes 
of  which  had  not  been  specified  by  the  general 
government,  and  the  £00,(,00  acres  granted  by 
the  act  of  1841.  This  was  further  increased,  in 
185(5,  by  the  addition  of  three-fourths  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  swamp  lands  granted  to  the  state 
by  act  of  Congress  in  1850.  This,  however,  was 
subsequently  diverted  to  the  normal-school  and 
drainage  fund.  The  school  fund  was  also  in- 
creased in  other  ways,  till,  in  1875,  the  total  in- 
come from  it  amounted  to  $184,624.04.  The 
first  state  superintendent  was  Eleazer  Root  (1 849 
— 52)  ;  and  his  successors  were  Azel  P.  I  add 
(1852—4) ;  II.  A .  Wright  (1 854—5) ;  A.  C.  Barry 
(1855—8);  Lyman  C.  Draper  (1858— (50);  J.  L. 
Pickard  (1860—64);  J.  G.  McMynn  (1864-  8); 
A.  .1.  Craig  (18(58—70)  ;  Samuel  Fallows  (1870 
— 74)  ;  Edward  Searing,  since  1874. 

School  Si/stem. — The  general  supervision  of 
educational  interests  is  vested  by  the  constitu- 
tion in  a  state  superintendent,  who  is  elected 
biennially.  In  addition  to  the  duties  usually 
devolving  upon  state  superintendents,  he  is  in- 
trusted with  some  that  are  ordinarily  delegated 
to  state  boards  of  education.  He  is,  also,  a 
member,  ex  officio,  of  the  board  of  regents  of 
the  state  university  and  of  the  normal  school. 
County  superintendents  are  chosen  biennially. 
They  have  an  oversight  over  school  property,  in- 
spect the  schools,  conduct  teachers'  institutes, 
examine  teachers,  and  grant  certificates  of  three 
grades.  In  1875,  the  law  was  so  amended  as  to 
open  the  office  of  county  superintendent  to 
women,  and  several  have  since  been  elected.  An 
independent  system  of  supervision  and  manage- 
ment exists  in  the  cities,  by  which  city  superin- 
tendents are  appointed,  with  powers  and  duties 
similar,  in  most  respects,  to  those  of  county 
superintendents.  Boards  of  education  are  elect- 
ed in  the  cities,  which,  for  school  purposes, 
have  been  erected  into  independent  districts  by 
charters  from  the  legislature.  These  boards 
choose  a  president,  a  clerk,  and  a  superintend- 
ent, establish  schools,  and  adopt  rides  for  their 
management.  The  superintendent  examines  and 


8G0 


WISCONSIN 


licenses  teachers,  visits  the  schools,  and  makes 
an  annual  report.  The  schools  are  supported 
by  the  income  of  the  state  school  fund,  and 
by  a  tax  levied  in  each  county  to  the  amount 
of  one-half  of  that  received  from  the  state 
for  school  purposes.  Special  school  taxes,  also, 
may  be  authorized  by  the  county  boards  of  su- 
pervisors. No  sectarian  instruction  is  permitted 
in  the  schools.  Five  months  constitute  the  legal 
school  year;  and  20  days,  the  school  month.  The 
school  age  is  from  4  to  20  years. 

Educational  Condition. — The  number  of  school- 
districts,  not  including  cities  with  separate  sys- 
tems, is  5,423  :  the  number  of  public  schools. 
5,260;  the  number  of  graded  schools,  304.  The 
school  revenue  for  187:>  was  as  follows  : 
From  the  school  fund $17H, 072.00 

'•     county  taxes 1 ,637,679.00 

"    "supervisors' taxes    241,920.00 

"    all  other  sources 200,616.00 


Total $2,238,187.00 

1'he  expenditures  were  as  follows: 

For  teachers-  salaries $1,350,784.00 

"    building,  repairing,  ami 

furnishing  school-houses      371,390.00 
"    all  other  purposes '241,777.00 


Total $1,963,957.00 

The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  axe  as 

follows  : 

Number  ol  children  of  school  age 461,829 

"  "  "  attending  public  schools. .  .279,854 
"        "  teachers  employed  in  the  Bchools.  .     6,22  I 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers  in  counties: 

males $t."...">i) 

females  .  .   $27.1:; 
Average  monthly  salary  of  teai  hers  in  cities: 

males $109.40 

females. .  $39.4  I 

Normal   Instruction. — The  first  constitution 
of  the  state  provided  for  the  establishment  and 

maintenance  of  normal  schools;  and  the  state 
legislature,  in  1 848,  organized  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  with  a  department  for  instruction  in 
the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching.  In  \X'u, 
the  legislature  directed  that  2;")  per  cent  of  the 
income  of  the  swamp-lands  fund  should  be  ap- 
plied to  the  uses  of  normal  institutes  and  acad- 
emies. In  L865,  one-half  of  the  swamplands 
fund  was  set  apart  as  a  normal-school  fund,  the 
income  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  one- 
fourth,  was  to  lie  used  to  establish  and  support 
normal  schools.      In  L870,  the    fourth  which  had 

been  excepted,  was  restored.  In  L866.  a  board 
of  regents  of  normal  schools  was  incorporated; 
and  the  Platteville  Normal  School  was  opener] 
in  October  of  that  year.  The  Whitewater  Nor- 
mal School  was  opened  in  L868;  the  Oshkosb 
Normal  School,  in  1871;  and  the  River  Falls  Nor- 
mal Scl 1.  in  L875.     In  all  these  schools,  there 

are  two  courses  of  study., an  elementary  course  of 

'_'  years,  and  an  a  Ivanccd  course  of  I.    (  Vrt  ilieatcs 

are  given  on  the  completion  of  the  first;  diplomas. 
on  completion  of  the  second.  When  the  holder 
of  a  certificate  has  taught  successfully  one  year 
after  graduation,  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is  authorized  to  countersign  bis  cer- 
tificate, which  makes   it   equivalent   to  a  .">  years 


state  certificate.  A  similar  countersigning  of 
the  diploma  renders  it  equivalent  to  a  permanent 
state  certificate.  ( 'ounty  and  city  superintend- 
ents nominate  six  representatives  from  each  as- 
assembly  district  for  admission  to  the  normal 
schools,  tuition  in  which  is  free  to  all.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1875,  the  permanent  fund  for  the  sup- 
port of  these  schools,  had  reached  the  sum  of 
$976,364.34.  Normal  instruction  is  also  given  in 
Milton  College,  at  Milton,  and  in  the  Seminary 
of  the  Holy  Family,  at  St.  Francis  Station. 

Teachers'  Institutes. — An  annual  expenditure 
of  $5,000,  by  the  board  of  regents,  is  author- 
ized, for  the  support  of  teachers'  institutes,  of 
which  57  were  held  during  the  year  187;").  the 
number  of  teat  hers  attending  being  3,668.  1  he 
average  number  of  days  they  were  in  session, 
was  12.  '1  he  law  of  L871  provides  for  the  hold- 
ing of  normal  institutes,  of  not  less  than  4  con- 
secutive weeks  each,  and  appropriates  annually 
for  their  support  a  sum  not  exceeding  $2,000. 

Teachers'  Associations. —  'I  he  II  isconsin  State 
Teachers'  Association  holds  an  annual  and  a 
semi  annual  meeting.  'I  here  are  also  county  and 
district  associations,  which  hold  meetings  at 
stated  times. 

Secondary  Instruction.  —  The  need  of  high 
schools,  intermediate  between  the  primary  schools 
and  the  State  University,  had  lone-  been  felt:  and 
an  attempt  was  made,  in  1*7-4.  to  supply  the  de-» 
ficiency.  '1  he  graded  schools  of  the  state,  in- 
eluding  those  in  the  cities,  number  about  400. 
'I  he  law  of  1872  provides  that  "all  graduates  of 
any  graded  school  of  the  state,  who  shall  have 
passed  an  examination  at  tuch  graded  school 
satisfactory  to  the  faculty  of  the  university,  for 
admission  into  the  sub  -freshman  class  and  col- 
lege classes  of  the  university,  shall  he.  at  once 
and  at  all  times,  entitled  to  free  tuition  in  all 
the  colleges  of  the  university."  Under  this  law. 
•!.'{  graduates  entered  the  university  in  1S74; 
but  only  a  few  graded  schools  in  the  state  arc 
yet  qualified  to  act  as  preparatory  schools  for 
the  university.  Under  the  new  law,  admission 
to  tin'  high  schools  wherever  established  is 
granted  after  a  satisfactory  examination,  the 
minimum  standard  forwhich  has  been  prescribed 

by  the  state  Superintendent.  'I  luce  courses  .if 
instruction,  also,  have  been  laid  down  by  him: 
two  designed  for  the  high  schools  of  towns 
having  a  population  of  (i.uiiu  or  more,  and  com- 
prising 1  years:  the  third,  of  .'{  years,  and  in- 
tended for  districts  having  each  a  population  of 
less  than  6,000.— The  number  ol  pupils  attend- 
ing private  schools  and  academies,  in  1875,  was 
ll).7.'{.'{.  Many  such  institutions  are  known  to 
exist    in    the    state:    but    their    independence    of 

the  sel I  system  renders  it  difficult  to  procure 

statistics  iii  regard  to  them.  Seven  business  col- 
leges, located  in  the  principal  cities,  in  L875, 
reported  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  an 
attendance  of  more  than  1300  students,  under 

the  instruct  ion  of  26  teachers.  The  prepar- 
atory departments  of   l<>  colleges  reported  an 

-oc  attendance   of    1,359   students.      1,007 
males  and  352  females. 


WISCONSIN 


WISCONSIN    UNIVERSITY       8<>1 


Superior  Instruction. — The  following  are  the 
chief  colleges  and  universities  in  the  state: 


NAME 


Location 


When 

found- 
ed 


1S45 
1846 
1  s.V.i 
1847 
1867 
1864 


Religions 
denomi- 
nation 


1H5'2 
18.-,.-, 
187:5 
1848 


Meth.  Epis. 
MCeth.  Epis. 

7th  Day  Bap. 

Luth. 

H.  C. 

Prot.  Epis. 

Cong. 

R.  C. 

Non-sect. 


Beloit  College Beloit  1845  | Cong. 

Carroll  College Waukesha 

Oalesville  Uuiv Galesville 

Lawrence  Univ Appleton 

Milton  College Milton 

Northwestern  Univ.  Watertowu 

Pio  Nono  College. ..  St.  Francis 

Racine  Collegia Racine 

Ripou  College Ripon 

St.  John's  College..  Prairie duChieu 

Univ.  of  Wisconsin.  Madison 

The  second  and  third  of  these  are,  as  yet,  doing 
only  preparatory  or  academic  work.  The  Mil- 
waukee Female  College,  the  Wisconsin  Female 
•  'ol lege,  at  Fox  Lake,  and  the  St.  Clara  Acad- 
emy, at  Sinsinawa  Mound,  are  the  only  institu- 
tions for  the  superior  instruction  of  women,  in 
the  state.  The  first  was  organized  in  1852.  It 
has  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  course,  and, 
in  1875,  reported  17  instructors  and  106  stu- 
dents. It  is  non-sectarian.  The  second  was 
organized,  in  IS 56,  by  the  Congregationalists.  In 
1875,  the  number  of  its  instructors  was  6  ;  the 
number  of  students,  65.  The  third  is  under 
Roman  Catholic  control,  and,  in  1875,  had  15 
instructors  and  57  students. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — The 
.state  agricultural  college  exists  as  a  department 
of  the  state  university,  the  grant  by  Congress, 
in  1862,  having  been  applied,  in  1866,  in  this 
way.  Bonds  to  the  amount  of  $40,000  were 
issued  to  the  state  by  Dane  County,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  purchasing  an  experimental  farm.  This 
farm,  containing  200  acres,  adjoins  the  university 
grounds;  and  a  four  years'  course  of  study  is  pro- 
vided in  that  institution,  comprehending  all  the 
branches  that  relate  to  the  practice  of  agricult- 
ure. The  agricultural  college  fund  was,  in  1875, 
$236,133.90.  There  are  still  upward  of  52,000 
acres  of  agricultural  college  lands  unsold.  The 
Nashotah  Theological  Seminary  was  founded, 
near  the  Nashotah  Lakes,  by  the  Episcopalians, 
in  1842.  It  provides  the  course  of  instruction 
common  to  such  institutions.  The  Seminary  of 
St.  Francis  of  Sales,  at  St.  Francis,  was  founded 
by  the  Roman  Catholics,  in  1856,  for  special 
instruction  in  theology.  In  1875,  the  number  of 
its  instructors  of  all  kinds  was  12  ;  the  number 
of  its  students,  245.  A  school  of  science,  called 
the  College  of  Arts,  exists  as  a  department  of 
the  state  university,  which  also  provides  for  an 
advanced  course  in  law. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Institute  for  the 
Blind,  originally  a  private  school,  at  Janesville, 
was,  in  1850,  adopted  by  the  state,  and  is  sup- 
ported by  annual  appropriations.  It  is  managed 
by  5  trustees,  appointed  by  the  governor  for  3 
years.  It  is  intended  for  residents  of  the  state 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  21.  It  has  3  depart- 
ments :  one  furnishing  instruction  in  the  ordi- 
nary branches  of  an  English  education ;  the 
second,  in  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  and  the 
theory  of  musical  composition ;    the   third,   in 


various  mechanical  and  industrial  pursuits.  The 
number  of  instructors  and  employes  is  21  ;  the 
number  of  pupils,  82.  The  Institute  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb  was  opened  at  Dclavan  in  1852. 
In  1862.  it  was  incorporated  as  a  state  institu- 
tion. Like  the  institute  for  the  blind,  it  is  un- 
der the  management  of  5  trustees,  appointed  by 
the  governor  for  3  years.  Board  and  tuition  are 
free  to  all  deaf  and  dumb  children  over  10  years 
of  age,  who  reside  in  the  state.  Clothing  and  in- 
cidental expenses  ale  the  only  items  tor  which 
pupils  are  charged.    The  course  of  instruction 

occupies  5  years,  and  is  of  7  grades.  The  same 
studies  are  pursued  as  in  the  public  schools;  and 
the  same  text-books  are  used,  except  in  the  two 
lower  grades  of  the  study  of  language,  in  which 
special  books  are  provided.  The  sign  language  is 
the  medium  of  instruction  for  all,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  special  class  of  20  in  articulation. 
Two  trades  are  taught, —  cabinet-making  and 
shoe-making.  The  number  of  instructors,  in 
1875,  was  9  ;  the  number  of  pupils,  L81.  The  I  n- 
dustrial  School  for  Boys  was  opened  at  Wau- 
kesha in  1860.  "  It  is  designed  as  a  "  place  of 
confinement  and  instruction  for  all  male  children 
between  the  ages  of  10  and  16  years,  who  shall 
be  legally  committed  by  any  competent  court  as 
vagrants,  or  on  conviction  of  any  criminal 
offense,  or  for  incorrigible  or  vicious  conduct." 
The  school  is  divided  into  8  families,  each  with 
its  separate  building,  play-ground,  etc.  School  is 
held  11  months  of  the  year,  the  branches  of  a 
common-school  education  being  taught.  A  farm 
of  233  acres,  under  good  cultivation,  is  connected 
with  the  school.  An  annual  appropriation  by 
the  state  is  the  chief  support  of  the  institution; 
but  something  is  derived  from  the  sale  of  the 
products  of  its  workshops  and  farm,  and  from  the 
payments  made  by  counties  for  the  maintenance 
of  certain  classes  of  inmates.  The  number  receiv- 
ing shelter  and  instruction,  is  annually  about  290. 
WISCONSIN,  University  of,  at  Madison, 
was  founded  in  1848.  Its  productive  funds  be- 
ing the  proceeds  of  lands  granted  by  Congress 
to  the  state  for  the  support  of  a  university  and 
of  an  agricultural  and  mechanical  college,  amount 
to  about  $460,000.  The  institution  is  supported 
by  the  income  of  these  funds,  and  by  state  ap- 
propriations. Tuition  is  free  to  all  residents  of 
the  state.  The  buildings  and  grounds  of  the 
university  are  valued  at  $300,000.  The  legis- 
lature has  appropriated  a  tax  of  one-tenth  of  a 
mill  on  the  valuation  of  the  state  to  the  univer- 
sity. This  tax  now  yields  $42,000.  The  whole 
income  of  the  institution  is  about  $80,000.  The 
appliances  for  instruction  in  the  physical  sciences 
are  very  superior.  The  university  has  extensive 
and  valuable  geological  and  mineralogical  cab- 
inets and  collections  in  natural  history  ;  well- 
selected  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus; 
and  a  library  of  7,600  volumes.  It  comprises 
(1)  a  college  of  arts,  embracing  the  departments 
of  general  science,  agriculture,  civil  engineering, 
mining  and  metallurgy,  mechanical  engineering, 
and  military  science;  (II)  a  college  of  letters,  with 
a  department  of  ancient  classics  (embracing  the 


862 


WITTENBERG  COLLEGE 


WOMEN 


ancient  classics,  mathematics,  natural  science.  En- 
glish literature,  and  philosophy,  and  intended  to 
be  fully  equivalent  to  the  regular  course  in  the 
best  classical  colleges  in  the  country),  and  a  de- 
partment or  modern  classics,  in  which  German 
and  French  take  the  place  of  Greek  ;  (III)  a  de- 
partment of  law.  There  is  a  preparatory  and  a 
post-graduate  course.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  In 
L875 — 6,  there  were  27  instructors  (7  in  the  law 
department)  and  345  students  (collegiate,  200; 
preparatory.  71;  special  students.  4'.);  law,  25). 
John  H.  Lathrop,  LL.  I>.,  was  the  chancellor 
from  1848  to  1858,  and  Henry  Barnard,  LL.  D., 
from  1859  to  18(51.  Since  the  re-organization  of 
the  university,  in  1867,  the  chief  officers,  styled 
presidents,  have  been  as  follows  :  Paul  A.  ( !had- 
bourne,  M.  D.,  LL.  D..  1*07—70;  John  H. 
Twombly,  I).  D.,  1871 — 4;  and  John  Bascom, 
D.D.,  LL.  D.,  since  1874.  John  W.  Sterling, 
Ph.  D.,  was  dean  of  the  faculty  from  1860  to 
1865,  and  vice-chancellor  from  1865  to  1869; 
since  1870,  he  has  been  vice-president. 

WITTENBERG  COLLEGE,  at  Spring- 
field, Ohio,  founded  in  1S45,  is  under  the  control 
of  the  English  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  as 
represented  by  the  General  Synod.  It  is  support- 
ed by  tuition  fees  ($30  a  year)  and  the  income 
of  an  endowment  of  8125,000.  Its  libraries  con- 
tain 8,000  volumes.  There  is  a  theological,  and  a 
collegiate  (classical  and  civil  engineering)  course, 
and  a  preparatory  department.  In  1875 — 6,  there 
were  Id  instructors  and  161  students  (18  the- 
ological, 80  collegiate,  and  66  preparatory). 
1  indi  sexes  are  admitted.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows  :  the  Rev.  Ezra  Keller,  P.  D., 
4  years;  the  Rev.  Samuel  Sprecher,  1).  1).,  LL.  I)., 
25  years ;  and  the  Rev.  J.  B.  Ilelwig,  D.D.,  the 
present  incumbent,  3  years. 

WOFFORD  COLLEGE,  at  Spartanburg, 
S.  C,  chartered  in  L851  and  opened  in  1854,  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  will 
of  the  Rev.  Benjamin  Wofford,  who  bequeathed 
$100,000  to  found  it.  It  is  supported  by  the  in- 
come of  an  endowment  of  $50,000,  by  tuition 
fees  (from  £14  to  S6  I  a  year),  and  by  assess- 
ments on  the  Metho  lists  of  the  state.  Its  libraries 
contain  15,000  volumes.  In  L875  —6,  there  were 
7  instructors  and  125  students  (95  collegiate  and 
.*{(»  preparatory).  The  presidents  have  been  as 
follows:  the  Rev.  W.-M.  Wightman,  1  >.!>.,  1854 
—60:  the  Rev.  A.  M.  Shipp,  D.  I).,  1860— 75; 
and  James  II.  Carlisle,  A.  M.,  LL.  D..  since  1875. 

WOMEN,  The  Higher  Education  of  (in 
Great  Britain).  This  subject  has  already  been 
treated  in  the  articles  on  Co-Education  and 
/•'« male  Education,  in  which  the  progress  of  the 
recent  movement  in  favor  of  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  women  in  the  United  States,  is  treated 
with  considerable  fullness.  The  movement  in 
Greai  Britain  lias  some  peculiar  features  which 
ii  is  the  special  design  of  this  article  to  describe. 

England.  The  numerous  educational  ad- 
vantages offered  to  women  are  the  results  of  a 

remarkable  and  spontaneous  movement,  which 
has  had  a  rapid   growth.      It  commenced   about 


the  year  186 J,  when,  at  the  request  of  an  in- 
fluential committee,  the  Cambridge  University 
Senate  permitted  an  experimental  examination 
for  girls  in  connection  with  the  junior  and 
senior  local  examination  for  boys.  rl  he  results, 
if  contrasted  with  those  of  the  entrance  exam- 
ination for  Bristol  College,  in  1876,  will  show 
the  improvement  in  the  education  of  women, 
during  13  years.  In  1863.  half  the  junior; 
passed,  but  35  out  of  41  seniors  failed  in  pre- 
liminary arithmetic ;  at  the  Bristol  examination 
for  scholarships,  in  1876.  the  women  took  two 
out  of  three  open  scholarships,  in  addition  to 
the  four  specially  appropriated  to  them.  In  1864, 
a  government  Schools  Inquiry  Commission  was 
appointed,  "to  inquire  into  the  state  of  educa- 
tion of  boys  and  girls  of  the  upper  and  middle 
classes."  The  report  on  private,  endowed,  and 
proprietary  schools  was  published  in  1868,  in 
20  volumes,  of  which  only  one-twentieth  referred 
to  girls.  The  inspectors  appointed  by  the  com- 
mission had  visited  private  schools  for  girls,  by 
the  courtesy  of  the  owners.  They  reported  even 
the  best  as  too  small  in  numbers,  and  the  teach- 
ing as  wanting  in  thoroughness,  arithmetic  and 
oilier  mathematics,  and  Laiin.  being  mostly  neg- 
lected, and  French  and  German  taught  super- 
ficially.—  Endowed  schools  were  reported  as 
few;  principally  orphanages,  and  with  instruction 
scarcely  raised  above  the  elementary,  ''the  en- 
dowments bearing  an  infinitesimal  proportion  to 
similar  endowments  for  boys." — Under  the  head 
of  Projiriehirii  Schools  -were  included  Chelten- 
ham School,  Queen's  College,  Bedford  College, 
Miss  Buss's  North  London  ( 'ollegiate  School,  and 
two  schools  at  Liverpool.  In  these,  the  teaching 
was  commended.  Several  ladies— amongst  them 
Miss  Buss,  Miss  Davics,  and  Miss  Beale — were  ex- 
amined by  the  commissioners,  and  confirmed  the 
unfavorable  verdict  of  the  inspectors  on  the  gen- 
eral state  of  girls'  education.  They  advised  the 
establishment  of  public  schools  for  girls,  and  the 
opening  of  university  examinations  to  girls  and 
women.  On  the  publication  of  the  report, various 
efforts  were  commenced  to  secure  endowments  for 
girls' schools.  In  1871,  Miss  Buss  made  her  North 
London  School  a  public  school.  She  placed  it 
in  the  hands  of  trustees,  and  opened  a  second- 
grade  school  under  the  same  trust.  In  1875.  th<  Be 
schools  received  an  endowment  of  £16.000  for 
buildings,  from  the  Brewers'  Company,  and  be- 
came endowed  schools;  and,  in  1876, the  number 
of  pupils  was  800  :  400  in  each  school.  Several 
scholarships  are  held  in  the  schools.  In  the  above- 
mentioned  year  (1871),  the  Women's  Education 
Union  was  formed,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mrs. 
W.  Grey;  and  this  Union,  in  L872,  started  a 
company,  called  The  Girls'  Public  Day  School 
Company  Limited,  with  a  capital  of  £12,000 
(since  increased  to  £50,000),  in  £5  shares,  "to 
pro\  ide  schools  at  a  moderate  cost  for  girls  of  all 
grades  above  the  elementary." — In  framing  a 
school  scheme,  the  council  of  the  company  were 

aided    by   schemes   already   published,    although 

not  enforced  until  later  by  the  Endowed  Schools' 
•  lommission,  appointed  after  the  inquiry,  and  by 


WOMEN 


863 


the  scheme  for  Miss  Buss's  school.  The  Com- 
pany's first  schools  were  opened  in  1813,  at 
Chelsea  and  at  Notting  Hill;  and  since  then,  8 
additional  high  schools,  have  been  opened, — at 
Cloydon,  Norwich,  Hackney,  Bath,  Nottingham, 
Oxford,  St.  John's  Wood,  and  Gateshead;  and 
one  middle  school,  at  Clapham.  In  1876,  there 
were  upward  of  1,400  children  in  attendance. 
Every  school  is  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  head- 
mistress. There  are  examinations  by  independent 
examiners,  and  a  fair  proportion  of  girls  have 
passed  in  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  local  and 
higher  local  examinations ;  one,  from  Notting 
Hill,  has  obtained  a  scholarship  at  Newnham 
Hall. — The  school  buildings,  with  one  or  two 
exceptions,  are  arranged  to  hold  from  200  to  300 
girls  ;  the  numbers,  therefore,  will  probably  in- 
crease, and  it  is  expected  that  the  company  will 
be  successful,  financially  as  well  as  educationally. 
Companies  have  also  been  formed  at  Leeds, 
Manchester,  Plymouth,  Devonport,  and  U  rant- 
ham,  for  the  establishment  of  high  schools. 
Simultaneously  with  the  improved  provision  for 
the  education  of  girls,  colleges  have  been  opened 
for  women,  and  lectures  established  throughout 
the  country,  by  voluntary  effort.  In  1868,  con- 
tributions were  solicited  for  the  establishment 
of  a  college  for  women,  "designed  to  hold  to  girls' 
schools  and  home  teaching,  a  position  analogous 
to  that  occupied  by  the  universities  toward  pub- 
He  schools  for  boys."  A  temporary  building 
was  opened  at  Hitchin,  in  1869,  with  6  students. 
The  regulations  of  the  University  of  Cambridge 
were  enforced  upon  the  students,  and  professors 
came  from  Cambridge  to  give  class  teaching.  In 
1870,  five  students  were,  on  application,  exam- 
ined informally  for  the  previous  examination ; 
but,  since  then,  through  the  kind  permission  of 
the  senate,  and  the  courtesy  of  the  examiners, 
many  of  the  students  have  been  examined,  some 
in  the  classical,  mathematical,  and  moral  science 
triposes;  seven  have  taken  honors,  and  three  have 
passed  the  examination  for  the  ordinary  B.  A. 
degree. — In  1873,  the  college  was  removed  to 
Girton,  near  Cambridge,  to  premises  built  at  a 
cost  of  £16,000,  and  since  then  enlarged  at  a 
further  cost  of  £6,000.  In  1876,  there  were  33 
resident  students.  Scholarships  have  been  held 
amounting  to  £2,385,  and  £600  additional  will 
be  given  in  1877. — In  1871,  Miss  Clough  opened 
a  house  at  Cambridge  for  students  attending  the 
lectures  of  the  Association  for  the  Higher  Edu- 
cation of  Women,  or  certain  university  lectures 
open  to  women.  The  accommodation  soon  be- 
came insufficient ;  and,  in  1874,  Newnham  Hall, 
Cambridge,  was  built  by  a  company  to  receive 
Miss  Clough 's  students.  In  1876,  there  were  29 
"students  (some  holding  scholarships) ,  all  studying 
for  the  Cambridge  higher  local  examinations. — 
In  previous  years,  students  have  been  examined 
informally  in  the  papers  of  the  mathematical,  clas- 
sical, and  moral  science  triposes.— (For  Univer- 
sity College,  London,  see  University  College.) 
University  College,  Bristol,  was  opened  in  1876, 
with  300  students,  about  one-half  women,  and  was 
intended  to  supply,  to  persons  of  both  sexes,  ad- 


vanced instruction  in  science,  languages,  history, 
and  literature. —  In  the  College  of  Physical  Sci- 
ence, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  all  classes  are  open 
to  women. — The  London  School  of  Medicine  for 
Women  opened,  in  1874,  with  23  students.  The 
classes  on  medical  subjects  were  arranged  for  a 
3  years'  curriculum.  One  additional  year  of  practi- 
cal work  is  required.  Societies  have  been  formed 
throughout  the  country,  since  about  1864,  for 
the  establishment  of  lectures  and  classes  for 
women;  but  the  necessity  for  separate  organiza- 
tion will  probably  be  superseded  by  the  scheme 
for  university  extension  adopted  by  the  Cam- 
bridge senate,  in  1874,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mrs. 
James  Stuart. — By  means  of  this  scheme,  uni- 
versity graduates  are  sent  to  the  various  country 
towns,  to  give  lectures  and  form  classes,  open  to 
both  men  and  women,  and  to  hold  examinations 
and  grant  certificates.  The  scheme  commenced 
at  Nottingham,  with  2000  students,  and  has 
rapidly  extended.  Colleges  will  be  built,  in  con- 
nection with  it,  at  Nottingham  and  Sheffield. — 
In  London,  lectures  are  open  to  women  at  the 
Science  and  Art  Department,  South  Kensing- 
ton, the  Birkbeck  Institution,  etc.  Instruction  in 
music,  with  numerous  scholarships,  is  given  at 
the  National  Training  School,  South  Kensing- 
ton, opened  in  1876. — The  following  examina- 
tions have  been  arranged :  university  examina- 
tions open  to  girls  and  women,  in  1876 — for  girls 
under  18  ;  local  examinations  of  the  universities 
of  Cambridge;,  Oxford,  and  Durham — for  women 
over  18  ;  higher  local  examinations,  Cambridge; 
examinations  for  women,  at  the  University  of 
London,  and  at  Oxford  (commenced  in  1877)  ; 
and  government  examinations  in  science  and  art, 
Science  and  Art  Department.  The  University 
of  London,  in  1877,  decided  to  admit  women  to 
medical  degrees. 

Scotland. — The  education  of  women  has  long 
been  on  a  higher  level  in  Scotland  than  in  Eng- 
land ;  girls  have  received  some  higher  education 
with  boys,  in  the  common  schools  of  the  country; 
and  they  have  also  attended  high  schools  with 
boys,  in  towns,  and  special  girls'  classes  in  the 
large  cities.  Therefore,  the  same  urgent  need  for 
reform  has  not  existed,  as  in  England  ;  yet  two 
important  improvements  may  be  named.  By  act 
of  parliament,  in  1870,  the  rich  endowments  of 
the  Edinburgh  Merchants  Company,  of  the  an- 
nual value  of  £20,800,  were  appropriated  to  the 
education  of  boys  and  girls,  and  three  large 
girls'  schools  were  opened.  Also  a  complete  course 
of  study  for  women  has  been  established  by  the 
Ladies'  Educational  Association  in  Edinburgh, 
assisted  by  the  professors  of  the  university. — 
Examinations  for  girls  and  women  are  held  in 
connection  with  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

Ireland. — See  Ireland. 

For  further  information  on  this  subject,  see  Re- 
port of  Schools'  Inquiry  Commission ;  the  same 
abridged  by  D.  Beale  ;  Hodgson,  Education  of 
Girls;  Year-Book  of  Women's  Work;  Journals 
and  Pamphlets  published  by  the  Women's  Edu- 
cation Union  (London).  (See  also  Co-education 
op  the  Sexes,  and  Female  Education.) 


■   . 


804 


WOODBRIDGE 


WORD    METHOD 


WOODBRIDGE,  William  Charming-,  an 
American  teacher  and  educational  writer,  bora 
in  Medford,  .Mass..  Dec.  is..  1794;  died  in 
boston,  November.  1845.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
College  at  the  age  of  IT.  and  from  1  Si 2  to  1814 
"was  principal  of  the  Burlington  Academy  in 
New  Jersey,  and  subsequently  studied  theology 
at  the  theological  seminary  in  Princeton,  N.J. 
While  at  the  latter  place,  be  received  an  invita- 
tion to  assist  in  the  establishment  of  the  Ameri- 
can Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  at  Hart- 
ford, which  he  accepted.  His  labors  there  seri- 
ously affected  his  health,  and  made  a  voyage  to 
the  south  of  Europe  desirable.  This  was  under- 
taken in  L820.  He  returned  in  1821;  and.  in 
the  beginning  of  1822,  finished  his  Rudiments 
of  Geography.  This  was  followed,  in  1824.  by 
Universal  Geography.  (See  Geography.)  Short- 
ly after,  failing  health  again  led  to  his  relinquish- 
ment of  active  work,  and  to  a  second  voyage  to 
Europe.  There  he  visited  many  educational  in- 
stitutions, giving  particular  attention  to  that  of 
Fellenberg,  at  llofwyl,  where  he  spent  three 
months,  giving  the  first  description  of  it  to  the 
American  public.  (See  Hofwyl.)  In  1829,  he 
returned  to  Hartford  for  the  purpose  of  enlisting 
the  sympathies'of  influential  friends  in  a  plan 
for  the  general  improvement  of  education  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  establishment  of  a  school 
for  teachers  III  health,  however,  and  the  labor 
required  for  the  revision  of  his  geographical 
text-books, prevented  the  realization  of  his  hopes. 
In  L831,  he  purchased  the  American  Journal 
of  Educ(ttio)t,  changed  its  name  to  the  Annals 
of  Education,  and  became  its  editor.  He  con- 
ducted this  journal  over  six  years,  until  sickness 
compelled  him  to  resign  the  editorship,  when  lie 
embarked  again  for  Europe,  but  returned  in 
1844.  As  an  earnest  friend  of  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation. Mr.  Woodbridge  is  entitled  to  special 
mention.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognize 
the  necessity  of  normal  schools;  and  the  intro- 
duction of  vocal  music  as  a  part  of  elementary 
instruction,  is.  in  great  measure,  due  to  his 
zealous  advocacy.     (See  Mason.  Lowell.) 

WOODSTOCK  COLLEGE,  at  Woodstock, 
Baltimore  Co.,  Md..  was  chartered  in  1867.  It  is 
a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  devoted  exclusive- 
ly to  the  younger  members  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  Its  course  of  studies  embraces  three  years 
of  philosophy,  and  four  years  of  theology,  to- 
gether with  the  accompanying  branches  of  the 
natural  sciences.  Its  faculty  numbers  3  professors 
of  dogmatic  theology,  2  of  special  metaphysics, 
and  one  each  for  the  remaining  chairs  of  moral 
theology.  Sacred  Scriptures,  ecclesiastical  history, 
Hebrew,  general  metaphysics,  chemistry,  math- 
ematics, and  natural  philosophy.  During  the 
scholastic  year  1873 — 4,  the  number  of  students 
in  regular  attendance  was  L02,of  whom  12  were 

engaged  in  the  study  of  philosophy,  and  (ill  in 
the  course  of  theology.  The  Rev.  .James  IVrron, 
S.  J.,  is  ( 1 877)  the  president. 

WOOLSEY,  Theodore  Dwight,  an  Amer- 
ican scholar  and  educator,  born  in  New  York, 
Oct.31.,    L801.      He  graduated   at    Yale  College 


in  1820.  and  from  18211  to  1825,  was  a  tutor 
there.  From  1827  to  1830,  he  studied  in  Ger- 
many, and  on  his  return  was  appointed  professor 
of  Oreek  in  Yale  College,  and,  in  1846,  was 
chosen  president,  which  office  he  resigned  in 
ls71.  He  has  published  valuable  editions  of 
several  classical  authors,  among  which  may  be 
particularly  mentioned  Tw  Alxsstis  of  Euripides 
(1833);  The  Antigone  of  Sophocles  (1835);  The 
I  Mectra  of  Sophocles  (1837);  The  Prometheus 
of .. 7:sc// //Ins  vls.'JT  :  and  the  ' 'lorqius  of  Plato. 

WOOSTER,  University  of,"  at  Wooster, 
Ohio,  founded  in  1866,  and  opened  in  1870,  is 
under  Presbyterian  control.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees  (§30  to  $45  a  year)  and  the  income 
of  an  endowment  of  $250,000.  A  handsome 
building,  costing  over  $100,000,  has  been  erected. 
and  contains,  besides  ample  recitation  rooms,  a 
large  cabinet  and  museum,  a  valuable  telescope 
with  many  philosophical  and  chemical  instru- 
ments, a  chapel,  and  halls  for  literary  societies. 
It  has  a  library  of  about  4,000  volumes.  Doth 
sexes  are  admitted.  There  is  a  collegiate,  a  pre- 
paratory, and  a  medical  department,  the  last  at 
( 'leveland.  The  collegiate  department  has  three 
regular  courses:  classical,  philosophical,  and 
scientific.  In  187£  6,  there  were  28  instructors 
(13  in  the  niedii  al  department)  and  350  students 
(170  collegiate.  H  0  preparatory,  and  80  medical). 
'i  he  presidents  have  been  :  the  Rev.  Willis  Lord, 
D.  D..  LL.  D..  1870—73,  and  the  Rev.  A.  A.  E. 
Taylor.  D.  D.,  since  1873. 

WORCESTER,     Joseph     Emerson,     an 
American  lexicographer,  born  at  Bedford.  Aug. 
24.,  1784;  died  at  Cambridge.  Mass.,  Oct.  29., 
1865.      After  graduating  at    Yale   College,  in 
1811,  he  taught    Echool   for  several   years    at 
Salem,  and  while  there,  prepared   the  greater 
part  of  his  Geographical  Dictionary,  or   Uni- 
versal Gazetteer  (2  vols.,  Andover,  bs17).    This 
work    was    followed    by    a    Gazetteer    of    the 
United    States    (1818),    Epitome    of    History 
(1827),  and  several  other  works.      His  first  con- 
tributions to  the  lexical  literature  of  the  En- 
glish language  were  an  edition  of  Johnson's  En- 
glish  Dictionary,  as  improved  by    Todd  and 
abridged    by   Chalmers,    with    Walker's  Pro- 
nouncing   Dictionary  combined  (1827),  and  an 
abridgment  of  Webster's  American  Dictionary. 
Mis  Pronouncing  and  Explanatory  Dictionary 
appeared  in    L830;  the  Universal  and  Critical 
Dictionary,   in    L846 ;   the    Pronouncing  and 
Synonymous  Dictionary,  in  L855;  and  his  great 
Dictionary  <f  ike  English  Language  (-ito,  Ros- 
ton),   in    I860. 

WORD  METHOD,  a  term  applied  to  the 
analytic  method  of  teaching  children  to  read. 
The  process  consists  in  using  short  words  instead 
of  letters  in  the  lirst  lessons,  the  pupil  learning 
to  recognize  and  pronounce  these  words,  Bome- 

times  to  read  easy  sentences,  before  learning  the 
names  of  the  letters.  When  a  sufficient  number 
of  words  have  been  learned,  the  pupil  is  shown 
their  composite  character,  and  taught  the  names 
and  sounds  of  the  letters  which  form  them,  thus 
learning    the    alphabet.      In    this    process,    care 


WORDS 


865 


should  be  taken  to  select  appropriate  words,  and 
present  them  in  a  progressive  manner ;  as,  cat, 
rut,  hat,  mat, —  man,  fan,  an/, —  dog,  log,  etc. 
The  pupil,  in  this  way,  perceives  the  power  of 
each  letter,  and  soon  learns  to  spell  and  pro- 
nounce words,  after  which  the  synthetic  method 
may  be  employed. 

WORDS,  Analysis  of.  The  analysis  or 
resolving  of  words  into  their  elementary  parts,  is 
an  important  branch  of  the  study  of  languages, 
the  native  as  well  as  foreign.  In  ordinary  school 
parlance,  this  branch  is  usually  styled  etymology, 
since  the  analysis  comprehends  not  only  an  ex- 
planation of  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  parts 
of  a  word — both  root  and  affixes,  but  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  derivation  of  these.  For  elementary 
school  purposes,  however,  it 'should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  latter  is  of  secondary  importance. 
In  the  study  of  the  native  tongue,  it  will  be 
acknowledged,  the  importance  of  training  pupils 
to  analyze  compound  and  derivative  words  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  The  fact  that  the  En- 
glish language  derives  about  one-half  of  the 
words  in  ordinary  use  from  Latin,  renders  ex- 
ercises in  word  analysis,  of  far  greater  necessity 
for  the  study  of  English,  than  for  that  of  most 
other  languages.  That,  without  being  trained 
in  this  analysis,  pupils  will  scarcely  be  able  to 
grasp  the  true  meaning  of  English  words,  prob- 
ably no  experienced  teacher,  at  present,  will  be 
inclined  to  dispute.  To  very  many  of  the  pu- 
pils who  are  merely  drilled  in  spelling  and  read- 
ing, the  force  even  of  the  most  common  Anglo- 
Saxon  prefixes,  like  a,  be,  en,  etc.,  and  of  suffixes, 
like  duni,  hood,  ship,  etc.,  must  remain  unknown. 
How  many,  for  example,  will  be  able  to  infer 
the  meaning  of  for  or  fore  in  forswear  and 
forego?  The  knowledge  of  the  Latin  prefixes 
and  suffixes,  even  in  the  words  of  ordinary  life, 
will  be  acquired  with  still  greater  difficulty  by 
pupils  not  sufficiently  trained  in  word  analysis. 
On  the  other  hand,  only  a  slight  knowledge  of 
the  simplest  Latin  prefixes,  as,  ad,  con,  pre,  pro, 
sub,  etc., affords  a  key  to  the  distinctive  meaning 
of  a  large  number  of  words.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
znatter  of  gratification  to  find  that,  at  present, 
this  branch  of  study  is  scarcely  ever  entirely 
omitted  from  the  common-school  course  of  in- 
struction.— In  regard  to  the  method  of  teaching 
word  analysis,  it  may  justly  be  said  that  there 
are  few  subjects  taught  in  elementary  schools  to 
which  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  devel- 
oping method  can  so  easdy,  and  with  so  much 
-advantage,  be  applied  as  to  this.  At  whatever 
stage  of  the  pupil's  progress  the  instruction  may 
begin,  provided  a  knowledge  of  reading  and  writ- 
ing has  been  acquired,  the  number  of  words 
already  learned,  will  be  found  ample  for  the  first 
and  easiest  exercises.  Hardly  any  arbitrary 
memorizing  is  needed,  since,  if  the  teacher  fol- 
low a  natural  course,  he  will  only  have  to  de- 
velop the  knowledge  already  in  the  child's  mind. 
Thus,  children,  even  in  the  lowest  grades,  know- 
ing the  meaning  of  words  like  teacher  and 
preacher,  will  not  find  the  least  difficulty  in  un- 
derstanding that  er,  in  both  these  words,  means 

55 


oiie  who,  and  in  perceiving  that  these  words 
mean,  respectively,  one  who  teaches,  and  our 
who  preaches.  Nine-tenths  of  a  class  of  pupils, 
of  ordinary  intelligence,  will  now  readily  find, 
among  the  words  they  are  accustomed  to  use, 
several  others  in  which  the  suffix  er  has  the  same 
meaning.  They  will  not  only  fully  comprehend 
this  initiatory  lesson,  but  they  will  feel  a  manifest 
delight  that  one  simple  explanation  has  so  greatly 
added  to  their  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of 
words.  The  intelligent  teacher  will  not  fail  to 
perceive  that  the  more  closely  he  is  able  to  ac- 
commodate his  teaching  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
words  which  belong  to  the  pupils'  own  vocabu- 
lary, the  more  rapid  will  be  their  progress,  and 
the  more  intense  will  be  the  interest  which 
they  will  take  in  the  new  study.  It  is  obviously 
a  point  of  great  importance  that  the  first  ex- 
amples of  prefixes  or  suffixes  that  are  presented, 
should  fully  illustrate  their  general  meaning. 
Thus,  the  word  teacher  would  be  a  better  selec- 
tion for  this  purpose  than  (/rover;  sailor,  better 
than  tailor;  and  repay,  better  than  receive.  In 
the  further  progress  of  the  study,  it  is  important 
that  the  most  common  prefixes  and  suffixes 
should  be  learned  before  those  of  rarer  use.  It 
shows  a  great  lack  of  pedagogical  tact  in  a 
teacher  to  drill  his  pupils  on  preter,  suiter,  and 
retro,  before  they  know  the  meaning  of  sub,  con, 
and  in.  A  more  difficult  stage  of  this  branch 
of  study,  is  that  which  treats  of  the  Latin  roots, 
and  their  use  in  English  words.  Here,  also,  a 
strict  adherence  to  the  principle  that  we  should 
proceed  from  the  "  known  to  the  unknown" — 
from  an  analysis  of  what  is  already  in  the  pu- 
pil's mind  to  that  which  is  new,  will  guide  the 
teacher  with  unerring  certainty  on  the  right 
path.  For  example,  a  judicious  teacher  who 
desires  to  familiarize  his  pupils  with  the  deriv- 
atives from  the  Latin  root  due  or  duct  (from 
duco),  will  not,  at  first,  select  such  words  as  in- 
duct, inductive,  superinduce,  etc.,  or  even  words 
like  adduce,  conduce,  deduce,  before  his  pupils 
have  learned  to  analyze  words  of  a  more  ob- 
vious meaning ;  as  introduce,  produce,  reduce, 
aqueduct,  viaduct,  etc.  What  is  here  meant  is, 
that  the  first  lessons  in  this  kind  of  analysis 
should  concern  only  those  words  the  meaning  of 
which  may  readily  be  explained  by  showing  the 
meaning  of  their  parts.  In  every  subject  of  in- 
struction, the  order  of  presenting  the  various 
matters  which  are  to  be  learned  by  the  pupil,  is 
of  vital  importance  ;  but  in  none  is  it  more  es- 
sential than  in  the  etymological  analysis  of  words. 
The  numerous  class  of  words  which  cannot  be 
explained,  except  by  the  history  of  their  forma- 
tion (such  as  ambition,  candidate,  chancellor, pe- 
culiar ;  also  sycopha?it,  gazette,  quarantine,  etc.) 
should  be  reserved  for  a  higher  grade  of  this 
study. — The  analysis  of  words  derived  from  the 
Greek,  should  follow  that  of  words  derived  from 
Latin  roots ;  and  the  discussion  of  the  etymo- 
logical affinity  of  the  words  of  different  lan- 
guages should  be  reserved  for  that  stage  of  the 
course  of  studies  which  comprehends  compara- 
tive philology. — For  the  teaching  of  this  subject, 


866      WORKING  MEN'S  COLLEGE 


WYOMING 


important  hints  may  be  derived  from  the  fol- 
lowing works :  Trench,  A  Select  Glossary  of 
English  Words  etc.  (N.  Y.,  1859);  also.  On  the 
Study  of  Wards  f  X.  Y.,  1859);  Haldemax.  Af- 
fixes in  their  Origin  and  Application  (Phila., 
1865J;  De  Yere,  Studies  in  English  (N.  Y., 
1867).  (For  other  works  on  this  subject,  see 
English,  The  Study  of.) 

WORKING  MEN'S  COLLEGE  (London), 
founded  in  1854,  resembles,  in  intention  and  or- 
ganization, the  Birkbeck  Institution,  founded  in 
1823.  The  Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice  was  its  principal 
up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1872.  After  a 
short  interval,  Thomas  Hughes,  author  of  Tom 
Brown's  School  Days,  became,  and  still  is,  the 
principal.  It  provides  instruction,  at  the  small- 
est possible  cost  (the  teaching  being  almost 
wholly  unpaid),  in  the  subjects  with  which  it 
most  concerns  English  citizens  to  be  acquainted, 
and  thus  tries  to  place  a  liberal  education  with- 
in the  reach  of  working;  men.  The  college  is 
situated  in  Great  Ormond  Street,  London.  Six 
class  rooms  have  recently  been  built,  at  a  cost 
of  more  than  £2.400.  There  is  a  museum  and 
library;  and  a  coffee  and  conversation  room  is  also 
provided.  Classes  are  formed  in  art,  history,  lan- 
guage and  literature,  mathematics,  and  physical 
science.  These  compose  the  chief  work  of  the 
college ;  but  classes  in  singing  and  other  sub- 
ordinate  subjects  are  also  formed. 

The  college  year  commences  about  the  begin- 
ning of  October,  and  consists  of  four  terms  of 
eight  or  nine  week  each,  and  a  vacation  term  of 
eight  to  ten  weeks. — The  ordinary  classes  meet 
for  one  or  two  hours  a  week.  General  lectures 
are  delivered  on  the  ordinary  subjects  of  the  col- 
lege on  Saturday  evenings,  to  which  the  public 
are  admitted.  There  are  also  practice  classes  for 
supplementary  tuition,  conducted  for  the  most 
part  by  certificated  students. — Other  advantages 
connected  with  the  college,  are  a  Natural  1 1  is- 
tory  Society  and  Field  Club,  which  holds  weekly 
meetings,  and  arranges  geological  and  botanical 
excursions ;  an  adult  school,  under  the  special 
superintendence  of  the  secretary,  for  teaching 
the  subjects  required  for  entrance  to  the  college; 
and  a  night  school,  held  twice  a  week,  for  boys 
mider  17. — The  fees  are  as  low  as  possible,  and 
the  conditions  of  entry  are,  that  students  must  be 
above  17  years  of  age,  must  know  the  first  four 
rules  of  arithmetic,  and  must  be  able  to  read  and 
write. — Examinations  are  held  in  the  last  week 
of  December.  Certificates  of  honor,  and  schol- 
arships or  associateships  are  granted  to  success- 
ful candidates  who  have  attended  the  requisite 
number  of  terms.  The  council  of  the  college  is 
composed  of  founders,  teachers,  and  elected 
members,  among  whom  are  many  who  originally 
joined  it  as  students.  The  average  number  of 
students  is  360.      At   an  early  date,  the  college 

was  affiliated  to  the  London  University,  and 
some  of  the  students  have  taken  their  degrees. 
\s  the  scheme  of  the  Working  Men's  College 
did  not  admit  women,  another  institution  of  a 
similar  kind  was  founded  in  L864;  and  another 

Working  Mens  College  was  organized  in  L868. 


WRITING.    See  Penmanship. 

WURTEMBERG.    See  Germ  ax  v. 

WYOMING,  one  of  the  territories  of  the 
United  States,  formed,  in  18G8,  from  portions 
of  Utah.  Idaho,  and  Dakota.  Its  area  is  97,883 
sq.  m.;  and  its  population,  in  1870,  was  9,118; 
but  in  1875,  it  was  estimated  at  24,000. 

Educational  History. — In  1869,  an  act  was 
passed  by  the  territorial  legislature,  which  pro- 
vided for  the  organization  of  schools,  and  this 
was  amended  in  1*70.  At  that  time,  the  num- 
ber of  schools  of  all  kinds  was  9,  giving  employ- 
ment to  15  teachers,  and  instruction  to  364 
pupils.  In  1 873,  all  previous  school  laws  were 
repealed,  and  a  new  law  was  substituted,  under 
which  the  schools  are  at  present  organized.  The 
first  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was 
J.  H.  Ifayford,  who  became  such  in  lsG9.by 
virtue  of  his  position  as  territorial  auditor.  He 
was  succeeded,  under  the  last  law.  by  John 
Slaughter,  the  present  incumbent,  who,  as  ter- 
ritorial librarian,  is,  ex  officio,  superintendent  of 
public  instruction. 

School  System. — The  care  of  the  public  schools- 
of  the  territory  is  intrusted  to  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  whose  term  of  office  is  two 
years,  and  who.  in  addition  to  the  usual  duties 
pertaining  to  his  office,  apportions  the  school 
fund,  and  makes  a  report  direct  to  the  assembly, 
on  the  first  day  of  each  regular  session.  A 
county  superiittr/idcnt  is  elected  biennially  in 
each  county,  and  three  district  directors  are  an- 
nually elected  in  each  district.  The  duties  of 
these  are  almost  identical  with  those  of  similar 
officers  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  The 
public  schools  are  open  to  all  children  between 
the  ages  of  7  and  21.  When  there  are  15  or 
more  colored  children  in  any  district,  a  separate 
school  may  be  organized,  for  their  instruction, 
by  the  district  directors  and  the  county  superin- 
tendent. The  schools  are  supported  by  a  two-mill 
tax  levied  annually  in  each  county,  school-dis- 
tricts assessing  themselves  for  additional  amounts 
when  necessary.  In  the  employment  of  teach- 
ers, no  discrimination  can  be  legally  made  on  ac- 
count of  sex.  All  children  in  good  hetalth  are 
compelled  by  law  to  attend  school  at  least  three 
months  each  year.  The  schools  are  elementary  in 
character;  but  graded  schools  may  be  established 
in  any  district,  upon  the  decision,  to  that  effect, 
of  the  district  directors  and  the  county  superin- 
tendent. The  territorial  superintendent  and  the 
several  countv  superintendents  are  required  to 
hold  annually  a  teachers"  institute,  not  less  than 
four  nor  more  than  ten  days  in  length,  at  which 
a  uniform   series  of   textd>ooks,  for  three   years. 

throughoul    tin'   territory,  is  designated.    The 

length  of  the  school  year  is  10  months. 

Educational  Condition, — The  following  are 

die  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for  1*75: 

Number  of  Bchool-houaes IS 

"        "  pupils  enrolled 1,222 

"       "  teachers 23 

Total  expenditures ?ir;.-too 

Value  of  Bchool  property  |  not  including  land)  132,600 
No  provision  for  superior  or  special  instruction 
of  any  kind  has  yet  been  made. 


XENIA  COLLEGE 


YALE  COLLEGE 


867 


XENIA  COLLEGE,  at  Xenia.  Ohio,  char- 
tered  in   1850,   and   organized  1851,  is  under 

Methodist  Episcopal  control.  It  was  originally 
organized  for  females  only,  but  was  soon  thrown 
open  to  young  men  also.  It  comprises  a  collegiate 
course  (classical  and  scientific),  and  a  preparatory, 
a  primary,  and  a  normal  department.    Facilities 


are  also  afforded  for  instruction  in  music.  The 
regular  tuition  fees  vary  from  $26  to  $36  a  year. 
In  1875 — (J,  there  were  !•  professors  and  other 
instructors  and  230  students  (83  collegiate,  19 
preparatory,  30  primary,  and  98  normal).  Wil- 
liam Smith,  A.  M.,  is  (1877)  the  president  of 
the  college. 


YALE,  Elihu,  an  American  merchant,  the 
patron,  though  not  the  founder,  of  Yale  ( 'ollege, 
was  born  in  New  Haven,  April  5.,  1648;  and  died 
in  London,  Eng..  duly  22.,  1721.  In  1678,  he  went 
to  the  East  Indies,  and,  from  1687  to  1692,  was 
governor  of  Fort  St.  George,  Madras.  lie  was 
afterward  made  governor  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
His  gifts  to  the  institution  which  afterwards 
bore  his  name,  were  estimated  at  £500.  At 
first,  only  the  new  building,  which  had  been 
erected  in  New  Haven,  was  named  after  him  ; 
but,  by  the  charter  of  1745,  this  title  was  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  institution.  A  synopsis 
of  his  life  may  be  found  in  the  Yale  Literary 
Magazine,  April,  1858. 

YALE  COLLEGE,  in  New  Haven,  Ct.,  is 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  important  educa- 
tional institutions  in  the  United  States.  In 
1701,  the  general  assembly  granted  a  charter  for 
a  "  colleghite  school,''  and  the  trustees  selected 
Saybrook  as  its  site.  The  first  commencement 
was  held  in  1702.  The  instruction  seems  to 
have  been  given  partly  at  Saybrook,  and  partly 
at  Killingworth  and  Milford,  where  the  first 
twro  rectors  resided.  In  1716,  the  trustees  voted 
to  establish  the  college  permanently  at  New 
Haven,  and,  in  1718,  a  budding  was  completed 
there,  which,  in  honor  of  Elihu  Yale,  a  bene- 
factor, was  named  Yale  College,  a  designation  at 
first  confined  to  the  building,  but  authoritatively 
applied  to  the  institution  as  a  whole,  by  the  new 
charter  of  1745.  The  principal  buildings  oc- 
cupy a  square  of  about  eight  acres,  west  of 
the  public  green.  They  are  16  in  number.  The 
two  buildings  of  the  Divinity  School,  the  two 
buildings  of  the  Scientific  School,  and  the  Med- 
ical School  are  off  the  main  square.  The  Law 
School  is  in  the  county  court-house.  The  in- 
vested funds,  in  1875,  amounted  to  §1,550,000 ; 
the  income  was  $235,465,  including  $107,000 
from  students.  The  institution  possesses  valu- 
able museums,  cabinets,  and  apparatus.  The 
departments  of  instruction  in  Yale  College  are 
comprehended  under  four  divisions,  as  follows  : 
the  faculty  of  theology  (organized  in  1822)  ;  of  j 
law  (1824);  of  medicine  (1812);  and  of  philosophy  J 
and  the  arts.  Under  the  last-named  faculty  are 
included,  the  courses  for  graduate  instruction, 
the  under-graduate  academical  department,  the 
under-graduate  section  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School  (1847),  and  the  School  of  the  Fine  Arts  j 
(1866)— each  having  a  distinct  organization.  In 
the  academical  department,  the  course  is  for  four 
years,  and  leads  to  the  degree  of  A.  B.     The 


charge  for  tuition  and  incidentals  is  $140  a  year. 
The  sum  of  $1 1.000  and  upward,  derived  partly 
from  permanent  charitable  funds,  is  annually 
applied  by  the  Corporation  for  the  relief  of  stu- 
dents who  need  pecuniary  aid,  especially  of  those 
preparing  for  the  Christian  ministry.  About 
100  thus  have  their  tuition  either  wholly  or  in 
part  remitted.  There  are  two  fellowships,  the 
holders  of  which  are  required  to  pursue  non- 
professional post-graduate  studies  in  New  Haven. 
The  catalogue  of  1876 — 7  shows  some  changes  in 
the  course  of  studies  published  in  that  of  1875 — 6 
(from  which  the  statement  in  the  article  College 
was  taken),  especially  in  the  greater  range  of 
elective  studies.  There  are  professorships  of 
moral  philosophy  and  metaphysics ;  natural  phi- 
losophy and  astronomy;  geology  and  mineralogy; 
Latin  language  and  literature ;  mathematics ; 
Greek  language  and  literature ;  rhetoric  and 
English  literature  ;  history ;  molecular  physics 
and  chemistry ;  modern  languages ;  German 
language  and  literature  ;  political  and  social  sci- 
ence. The  Sheffield  Scientific  School  received 
its  name  in  1860,  when  it  was  re-organized  upon 
a  more  extensive  scale  through  the  munificence 
of  Joseph  E.  Sheffield,  of  New  Haven.  In  1863, 
it  received  the  congressional  land  grant,  and  be- 
came the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Me- 
chanic  Arts  of  Connecticut.  The  under-graduate 
courses  of  instruction,  occupying  three  years,  are 
arranged  to  suit  the  requirements  of  various 
classes  of  students.  The  first  year's  work  is  the 
same  for  all ;  during  the  last  two  years,  the  in- 
struction is  chiefly  arranged  in  special  courses. 
The  special  courses  most  distinctly  marked  out 
are  the  following  :  (1)  in  chemistry  ;  (2)  in  civd 
engineering  ;  (3)  in  dynamic  (or  mechanical)  en- 
gineering; (4)  in  agriculture;  (5)  in  natural  his- 
history ;  (6)  in  the  subjects  preparatory  to  med- 
ical studies;  (7)  in  studies  preparatory  to  mining 
and  metallurgy  ;  (8)  in  select  studies  preparatory 
to  other  higher  studies.  These  courses  lead  to 
the  degree  of  Ph.  B.  The  charge  for  tuition  is 
$150  a  year.  There  are  professorships  of  miner- 
alogy; civil  engineering;  astronomy  and  physics; 
dynamic  engineering;  theoretical  and  agricultural 
chemistry  ;  agriculture  ;  mathematics  ;  botany  ; 
English ;  palaeontology  ;  political  economy  and 
history  ;  analytical  chemistry  and  metallurgy ; 
zoology ;  chemistry  ;  and  comparative  anatomy. 
The  School  of  the  Fine  Arts  has  for  its  end  the 
cultivation  and  promotion,  through  practice  and 
criticism,  of  the  arts  of  design;  namely,  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  and  architecture,  both  in  their  ar- 
tistic and  esthetic  aims.  The  design  is,  (1)  to  pro- 


8G8 


ZOUUMiY 


vide  thorough  technical  instruction  in  the  arts  of 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture;  and  (2)  to 
furnish  an  acquaintance  with  all  branches  of 
learning  relating  to  the  history,  theory,  and 
practice  of  art.  The  course  of  technical  in- 
struction covers  three  years.  No  provision  has 
been  made  fur  instruction  in  the  departments  of 
sculpture  and  architecture  ;  but  it  is  hoped  that, 
before  long,  this  will  be  provided.  There  is  a 
professor  of  painting,  a  professor  of  drawing, 
and  an  instructor  in  geometry  and  perspective. 
The  chairs  of  sculpture,  architecture,  and  anat- 
omy are  unfilled.  The  school  is  open  to  both 
sexes.  The  charge  for  tuition  is  $36  for  three 
months.  In  the  departments  of  philosophy  and 
the  arts,  there  are  various  post-graduate  courses, 
which  may  be  pursued  by  candidates  for  the  de- 
grees of  A.  M.,  I'll.  1).,  and  civil  ami  dynamical 
engineer,  or  by  graduates  not  candidates  for  a 
further  degree.  In  the  theological  department, 
there  is  no  charge  for  tuition  or  for  room  rent. 
There  are  several  scholarships  for  the  aid  of 
needy  students.  In  the  law  department,  the 
undergraduate  course  is  two  years.  There  is  a 
post-graduate,  course  of  one  year  for  the  deg 
of  Master  of  Law,  and  of  two  years,  for  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Civil  I  .aw.  The  libraries  of 
the  institution  contain  117,000 volumes;  namely, 
college  library  (exclusive  of  pamphlets),  80,000  ; 
Linonian  and  Brothers  (society)  library,  20,000; 


libraries  of  the  professional  schools,  17,000.  The 
Peabody  Museum  of  Natural  History  was 
founded,  in  1866.  by  George  Peabody,  by  a  gift 
of  $150,000.  One  wing  of  the  building  has  been 
completed.  In  187G — 7,  there  were  87  instructors 
in  all  the  departments,  besides  special  lecturers. 
The  students  were  as  follows :  theological,  95 ; 
law,  (Id  ;  medical,  36  ;  department  of  philosophy 
and  the  arts,  slid  (graduate  students.  07  ;  special 
students.  2;  academic  under-graduates,  569;  sci- 
entific, 206;  tine  arts,  16);  total,  deducting  rep- 
etitions, 1,021.  The  number  of  degrees  conferred, 
prior  to  187~>.  was  10,605,  including  870  honor- 
ary degrees;  the  number  of  academic  alumni 
was  8,404.  The  government  of  the  college  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  president  and  is  fellows,  of 
whom  the  governor  and  lieutenant-governor  of 
Connecticut  are.  ex  officio,  two.  Six  are  elected 
by  the  alumni;  ami  the  remaining  ten.  who  are 
Congregational  clergymen,  are  chosen  by  the 
fellows  themselves.  The  rectors  and  presidents 
have  been  as  follows:  Abraham  Pierson,  1701 
7;  Samuel  Andrew  [pro  tern.),  1707 — 19; 
Timothy  Cutler,  1719 — 22:  Samuel  Andrew 
(pro  tern.),  1722 — 5;  Elisha  Williams,  1725 — 
:'.'.):  Thomas  Clap,  1739—66;  Naphtali  Dag- 
gett, 1766—77:  Ezra  Stiles,  1777— 95  ;  Timothy 
I  (wight,  1795—1817  ;  Jeremiah  Pay,  1817 — 16; 
Theodore  Dwight  Woolsey,  1846 — 71;  and 
Noah  Porter,  since  1871. 


ZOOLOGY  (Or.  £<:>ov,  an  animal,  and  Myoq, 
a  discourse)  treats  of  the  structure,  classification, 
habits,  etc.,  of  animals.  It  is  an  important 
branch  of  descriptive  natural  science,  or  natural 
history,  and  usually  forms  a  part  of  the  course 
of  study  in  various  grades  of  schools.  In  ele- 
mentary instruction,  it  constitutes,  with  its  sister 
science,  botany,  one  of  the  most  effective  and 
available  subjects  for  training  the  observing  fac- 
ulties ;  and,  hence,  is  often  comprised  in  the 
course  of  instruction  prescribed  for  common 
schools.  This  subject  has  peculiar  attractions 
for  children  ;  since,  as  is  well  known,  they  in- 
variably manifest  a  deep  interest  in  animal  life. 
The  principles  by  which  the  teacher  should  be 
guided  in  giving  instruction  in  this,  as  in  other 
branches  of  natural  science,  have  been  to  some 
extent  explained  in  previous  articles.  (See 
Astkon'omy.  and  IJotany.)  In  teaching  zoology, 
care  must  be  particularly  taken  to  exhibit  as 
much  as  possible"  the  natural  objects  themselves  : 
and,  in  elementary  teaching,  this  comes  first. 
That  is  to  say,  the  pupils  are  not  to  be  required 
to  commit  to  memory  dry  definitions  and  for- 
mulated statements;  but  their  minds  should  be 
brought  in  contact  with  the  living  realities. 
(For  a  full  synopsis  of  topics  and  methods  for 


elementary  instruction  in  this  subject,  see  How 
to  Teach,  N.  Y.,  1874.)  In  the  higher  grades 
of  instruction,  the  three  different  departments 
of  the  science  —  morphology,  physiology,  and 
distribution,  should  systematically  be  treated. 
In  every  grade  of  instruction,  however,  the 
teacher  or  professor  cannot  too  closely  follow 
the  principle  laid  down  by  Huxley  :  "The  great 
business  of  the  scientific  teacher  is  to  imprint 
the  fundamental,  irrefragable  facts  of  his  sci- 
ence, not  only  by  words  upon  the  mind,  but  by 
sensible  impressions  upon  the  eye,  and  ear.  and 
touch  of  the  student,  in  so  complete  a  manner,  that 
every  term  used,  or  law  enunciated,  may  after- 
wards call  up  vivid  images  of  the  pa  it  icular  struct- 
ural, or  Other,  facts  which  furnished  the  demon- 
stration of  the  law,  or  the  illustration  of  the  term." 
Moreover,  every  teacher  should  bear  in  mind  that 
a  good  share  of  his  own  knowledge  should  be  at 
first-hand  -  acquired  by  his  own  observation,  not 
simply  gleaned  from  books — or  he  will  not  suc- 
ceed in  awakening  an  interest  in  the  minds  of 
his  pupils.  The  proper  method  of  teaching  this 
subject  has  been  clearly  shown  by  one  of  its  great- 
est masters.  (See  Huxley,  On  the  Study  <>f  Z<>i>l- 
in/i/.  in  The  Culture  ilemnniled  hi/  Modem  Life, 
N.  V.,  1867.)    (See  SciEMCB,  TilK  TEACHING  OF.) 


THE    KM). 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX. 

[Titles  of  special  articles  in  full-faced  letters;  all  others,  in  Italics.] 


Abacus — 1 

Abbassides — 36,  414 

Abbenrode — 426 

Abbot,  Benjamin — 1 

Abbott,  Jacob — 1 

ABC— 1 

A-B-C  Book— 1 

A-B-C  Method  —  see  Alphabet 
Method.     See  also  721 

A-B-C  Shooters — 1.    See  also  67 

Abecedarian — 1 

Abelard,  Pierre — 1 

Abercrombie,  John — -1.  See  also 
307 

Aberdeen,  University  of—  774 

Aberdeen  Theological  Hall — 711 

Abingdon  College — 2 

Abse  nteeism  — 2 

Abstract  and  Concrete — 2 

Academie  francaise — 3"> 

Academies  of  Art — 308 

Academy — its  origin  and  ordinary 
meaning,  2  :  secondary  meaning, 
Accademia  delta  Crusca,  Acalemie 
francaise,  etc.,  3.     See  also  70S 

Academ ;/  of  Music — 3 

Acadia  College  —  656 

Accademia  delta  Crusca — 3 

Accomplishments  —  distinguished 
from  culture,  kinds  of,  3  ;  tend- 
ency in  regard  to  at  the  present 
time;  proper  object  of,  4.  See  also 
303 

Ackworth  School  —  327 

Acquaviva,  Claudio  de — 359,  492 

Acquisition — 1 

Acquisitive  Faculties — 469 

Acroam.itic  Method — 4 

Adam,  Alexander — i 

Adams,  Francis— 191,  305,  377,  422, 762 

Adams,  John — 1 

Adams,  John  Quincy — 809 

Adams  Female  Academy—  627 

Adelbert—  81 

Adelphi  Academy — 104 

Adelung — 225 

Adrian  College — 5 

Adults,  Schools  for — in  Germany, 
in  Austria,  in  the  United  States,  5 

Adventists — 5 

sEsop— 598 

^•Esthetic  Culture  —  see  Esthetic 
Culture 

Affectation — 6 

African  Free  School— 157,  638 

Agassiz,  Ij.  J.  K. — 6 

Age,  in  Education — 6 

Agonistics — 396 

Agram,  University  of — 438 

Agricola,  Johann — 118 

Agricola,  Kodolphus — biographical 
sketch,  educational  works  and 
views— 8 

Agricultural  Colleges  —  congres- 
sional land  grants  for,  8;  progress 
of,  state  appropriations  for,  9 ; 
laboratories,  workshops,  farms, 
etc.,  expediency  of  grants  for,  10; 
course  of  study  in.  European 
schools,  11;  statistical  table,  12, 
13.    See  also  271 

Abn,  J.  l-\— 14 

Ahn's  Method — 593 

Aimwell  School  Association— 690 

Ainsworth,  Kobert — 14 

A  ir  Space  in  School.  Rooms — 439,  838 

Aix-la-  Chapelle—36'i 


|  Alabama — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  state  superin- 
tendents, 14:  school  system,  edu- 
cational condition,  school  statis- 
tics, normal  instruction,  15  ; 
teachers'  institutes  ;  secondary, 
superior,  professional,  scientific, 
and  special  instruction,  16 

Alabama,  University  of — 16 

Albemarle  Female  Institute — 845 

Albert,  Prince— -266 

Albert  University— 668 

Albigenses — 83 

Albion  College— 17 

Alcibiades — 56 

Alcott,  A.  B 17 

Alcott,  W.  A 17 

Alcuin— 17,  122,  300,  315,  357 

Alexander  the  Great — 39 

Alexandra  College—US,  566 

Alexandria,  Museum  of— -3 

Alexandrian  School — 17 

Alfonso  of  Maples— 482 

Alfonso  A'.,  of  Spain — 790 

Alfred  the  Great  —  biographical 
sketch,  influence  on  education, 1? . 
See  also  245,  262,  676 

Alfred  University — 18 

Algebra — definition  of,  literal  nota- 
tion, 18  ;  positive  and  negative, 
19  ;  exponents,  methods  of  dem- 
onstration, 20  ;  range  of  topics 
embraced,  21;  class-room  work, 
22 

Algeria — education  in,  24 

Alkmaar — 8 

Allegheny  College — 24 

All  Hallows  College— 479 

Alma  Mater — 24 

Alphabet — Greek  and  Latin  alpha- 
bets, etc.,  origin  of  the  English 
alphabet,  imperfections  in  it, 
table  of  vowel  elements,  25.  Sea 
also  131,  390,  673,  674 

Alphabet  Method— 25,  721 

Altenstein—36i,  528 

Alumneum  —  26 

Alumnus— 26 

Ambulatory  Schools — 417 

American  Annals  of  Education  — 17, 
40D,  864 

American  Education  Society — 170,  171 

American  Institute  of  Instruction— 258, 
400,  430 

American  Journal  of  Education — 828 

American  Lyceum — 130 

American  Missionary  Association— 16 

Amherst  College — 26 

Ammonius — 18 

Analogy,  Sense  of— 313 

Analysis,  Grammatical — definition 
of,  26  ;  parsing,  value  of  analysis 
as  a  mode  of  teaching,  27 ;  diagram 
system,  28.     See  also  3  -tl 

Analysis,  Mathematical  —  see 
Mathematics 

Analytic  Method  of  Teaching— 28. 
See  also  221.  336 

Anaxagoras — 786 

Anaximander—311 

Anderson,  Hans — 307 

Anderson  School  (Penikese  1.1— 

Anderson's  University — 775 

Andover  Theological  College — 170 

Andrea",  J.  V.—  reforms  introduce  I 
by.  28 

Andrews,  E.  A.— 224 


Anglo-Saxon — origin  of,  modifica- 
tions of  by  other  languages,  pe- 
culiarities of,  its  value  in  com- 
mon schools,  29 ;  in  the  high 
school  or  academy,  in  normal 
schools,  in  colleges  and  univer- 
sities, 30;  text-books  for  the  study 
of,  31.      See  also  673 

Anselm.  of  Canterbury — 31 

Anselm,  of  Laon — 1 

Anthon,  Prof.— 392,  514 

Antiorh  College — 32 

Antiochus — 2 

Antipathy— 32 

Aphorisms,  Educational  — value  of 
education,  32;  scope  of  education, 
teacher  and  pupil.  3:!  ;  training 
and  habit,  development  of  the 
faculties,language,self-cducation, 
34  :  moral  education,  discipline 
and  government,  35 

Apollonius   poet, — 18 

Apparatus,  School — 35,  764 

Appleton,  Samuel — 549 

Apportionment — see  School  Fund 

Appr<  nlices — 811 

Approbation,  Love  of—  525 

Aptitudes,  Special— 332,  401 

A rabian  Sights — 307 

Arabian  Schools — 36 

Arabic  Numbers — 37 

Arabs — 792 

A  rcesilaus — 2 

Archaeology — 37 

Architecture — see  Fine  Arts 

Architecture,  School — see  School- 
House.    See  also  765 

Aretino,  Guido — 780 

Argentine  Republic — area,  popula- 
tion, religion,  etc.,  37;  history, 
political  and  educational,  schools 
and  universities,  38 

Ariosto — 483 

Aristophanes  of  Byzantium — 390 

Aristotle — his  early  life,38;appointed 
teacher  of  Alexander,  the  peri- 
patetic school,  method  of  teach- 
ing, theory  of  education,  ante- 
natal influences,  habit  as  an  edu- 
cator, when  instruction  begins, 
classes  of  subjects  to  be  taught, 
mechanical  work,  fine  arts,  vi- 
olent exercises  opposed  to 
growth,  39  :  antagonism  of  bod- 
ily and  mental  activity,  music, 
political  economv.  works  of  Aris- 
totle, 40.  See  also  32,  33,  34,  36, 
68,  330,  471 

Arithmetic— faulty  method  of  teach- 
ing, 40;  what  should  constitute 
the  course  in,  41;  principles  and 
maxims  to  be  kept  in  view.  4:'.; 
reasons  for  the  rule  in  short  di- 
vision, pure  and  applied  arith- 
metic, 44  ;  stages  ot  mental  de- 
velopment to  be  kept  in  view  in 
teaching  arithmetic,  45.  See  also 
556,  635 

Arizona  —  organization,  area,  and 
population,  educational  history. 
45 :  school  system,  educational 
condition,  46 
Arkansas — organization,  and  admis- 
sion as  a  state,  educational  his- 
tory, 46;  state  teachers'  associa- 
tion, 47;  state  superintendents, 
school    statistics,    present    law; 


JI 


ANALYTICAL  IXDEX 


Arkansas 

elementary,  normal,  superior, 
and  special  instruction;  educa- 
tional journal,  etc.,  48 

Arkansas  Industrial  University — 
48 

Army  Schools  —  see  Military 
Schools 

Arndt.  E.  M.— 19 

Arnobius — 142,  246 

Arnold,  Thomas — 49 

Arnold,  Thomas  K. — 50,  513 

Arnolil  Arboretum,  The — 405 

Arrangement  of  Desks — 764 

Art-Education — necessity  of,  con- 
dition of  among  the  ancients,  po- 
litical value  of,  50;  history  of  in 
the  U.  S.,  methods  of  art-instruc- 
tion, 51;  art-schools  in  the  P.  S., 
table  of  art  institutions  in  the 
U.  S. ;  instruction  in  drawing, 
52  ;  mode  of  establishing  art- 
schools,  importance  of  art-edu- 
cation, 63 

Articulation—  701,  849 

Artisans.  Education  of — see  Tech- 
nical Education 

Art  Schools— 52,  266 

Arts,  Liberal— 63 

Asbury,  Bishop — 797 

Aschain,  Koger — 54 

Ashmolean  Museum — 678 

Ashmun,  John  Hooper — 517 

Aspasia—  302 

Assembly  Catechism — 118 

Asser — 18 

Association  of  Ideas — 54,470 
Lstronomy — claims  of  in  education, 
."4 ;  practical  uses  of,  proper 
method  of  teaching,  elementary 
course  iii,  .")">:  diagrams  and  ap- 
paratus, religious  aspects,  56 

Athelstan — 18 

At heneum — 66,  745 

Athenian*— 300,  396 

Alliens  [Ancient)— Athenian  educa- 
tion distinguished  from  Spartan, 
grammatist  and  critic,  writing, 
use  ot  ink  and  stylus,  .r>('p;  music, 
gymnastics,  baths,  education  of 
girls  and  orphans,  57.  See  al 

Atherton,  G.  FT.— 10 

Athletics— 153,  234,397,  702 

Atkinson,  Prof. — 10 

Atlanta  University — 57 

Atlas— 57 

Attendance,  School  — annual  aver- 
age, how  found,  57  ;  table  of,  in 
the  V.  S.,  school  age  in  different 
states,  percentage  of  population 
enrolled,  school  attendance  in  Eu- 
ropean  countries,  58;  in  cities,  59 

Attention — great  value  of,  interest 
the  chief  agent,  not  to  be  ex- 
ercised  too  long,  memory  de- 
pendent upon,  59  :  attention  de- 
pendent upon  physical  condi- 
tion, proper  time  for  its  exercise, 
60.     Bee  also  483,  469 

Auburn  Theological  Seminary — 712 

Auguatana  College — 60 

Augustine,  Saint —  his  early  life, 
teaches  eloquence  and  rhetoric, 
is  converted  to  Christianity,  tho 
Confessions,  objects  to  the  use  ot 
the  pagan  classics  in  schools,  lays 

the  foundation  of  Episcopal  sem- 
inaries, 60;    and  of  Christian  cat- 
echetics,  Id.    See  also  1H5,  204 
AutfUd— 767 

Austin.  John — 515 

Austin  College — 61 

Australasian    Colonies  —  area  and 

population,  educational  systems, 

New  South  Wales.  Victoria,  61  ; 

South  Australia.  West  Australia. 
(Queensland,  Tasmania,  New  /.ca- 
lami, 62 
\ustrla  -area  and  population,  62; 
s.i i  history , present sohoo]  sys- 
tem, school  statistics.  64;  educa- 
tional periodicals,  65,  Bee  also  i  S 


A ustro-IIungarian   Monarchy — 62 
Authority — its  twofold  application 
its  dual   nature,  limits  of,  mode 
of  enforcing,    description  of,  65;  : 
its    use  in    intellectual    instruc- 
tion, expressive  use  of  hurtful  to 
mental  growth,  66.     See  also  374, 
375 
Avicenna — 557 

Bacchants— 67.  See  also  1,  247 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian — 605 

Bachelor— 67 

Backus,  Dr.— Hi 

Bacon,  Francis  —  early  education, 
appointed  lord  high  chancellor, 
Novum  Organum,  convicted  ot  cor- 
ruption, philosophical  views,  67; 
experiment,  Instauratio  Magna, 
Essays,  influence  on  education,  68. 
See  also  179,  307,  494 

Bacon,  Roger — 676 

Bacon,  Rev.  Thomas — 544 

Baden — see  Germany.  See  also  725 

Bagdad,  Schools  at — 36 

Bahrdt,  C.  F.— 68 

Bailey,  Nathan— 223 

Bain,  Prof— iii 

Baldwin,  Theresa — 171 

Baldwin  University — 69 

Ballarat  College — 712 

Baltimore — history  of  education  in, 
school  statistics,  school  system. 
examination  and  qualification  of 
teachers,  69 ;  industrial  educa- 
tion, training  of  teachers,  70 

Baltimore  City  College— 70 

Baltimore  Female  College — 70 

Hangar  Theological  College — 170 

Bangui  f  of  Fulila — 123 

Banks,  N.  P.-550 

Bapterosses  Desk  and  Seat — 763 

Baptists-sects  of,  early  history,  70; 
principal  colleges  in  England 
and  Wall's,  history  of  in  Anion,  a, 
colleges  and  theological  semi- 
naries in  America,  71;  epochs  in 
educational  work,  distinguished 
Baptist  educators,  72 

Barbauld,  A.  L.— 72 

Barbier,  Charles— 100 

Barcelona,  University  of— 792 

Bardas    386 

Barnard.  F.  A.  P.— 72 

I  tar  nard.  Henry — his  early  life,  edu- 
cational works — 73.  See  also  173. 
177.  736 

BarUett,  R.  .if.— 109 

Basedow,  .LB. — his  early  life.  73;e  In 
cational  views   and  publications. 
Elementarwerk,    the     philanthro- 
pic its  failure,  his  death,  his  in- 
fiuenei — 74.  See  also  243 

Basel,  University  of—  804 

Basil  of  ('a  wn'<i— 178 

Basques— 790,  792 

Bales,  Joshua— 640 

Bates  College— 74 

Bavaria-  see  Germany 

Baylor  University — 75 

Beach  Urovc  College — 75 

Beale— 290 

Beania — 367 

Beauty— 284,  285 

Betel— 360 

Bcblan.  B.  A.  A 75 

Bee,  Monash  ry  of — 81 

Becker— 362 

Beile— 76,  204 

Bedford  ('allege  (London)— 269 

/;.  aouins — 37 

Beecher.  Catharine  E.— 260,  303 

it,  trs,  Seth  J'.—lli 

Beethoven    606 

Belfast  Theological  Hall  -711 

Belgium— area    ami    population,  75; 

educational  history,  primary  and 
secondary    instruction.    78;    sala- 
ries of  teachers,  educational   sta- 
tistics. 77.    Bee  aKo  (66 
Bell,  Andrew  —  his   early  life,  John 

Frisken,  77;   monitorial  system, 


Bell,  Andrew 

controversy  with  Lancaster,  the 
National  Society,  the  British  and 
Foreign  School  Society,  his  be- 
quests. Madras  College,  78.  See 
also  263,  594.  774 

Bell,  Dr.  A.  N.— 838 

Bellarmin — 118 

Belles-Lettres  —  early  instruction 
in,  78;  order  in  which  the  es- 
thetic is  developed  in  the  mind, 
method  of  instruction  to  be  pur- 
sued, i>roper  text-books,  original 
composition  one  of  the  most  ef- 
fective means  for  fostering  a  taste 
for  the  beautiful,  the  esthetic  in 
foreign  literature,  text-books  to 
be  used,  79;  illustration  of  the 
esthetic  criticism  of  a  scene  from 
Ju'ius  Casar,  etymology  of  single 
words  sometimes  a  department 
of  belles-lettres,  80 

Belolt  College— 80 

Helper,  Lord— 833 

liembo,  Cardinal — 482 

Henecke — 352 

Benedict— 178,  246 

Benedictines,  Schools  of  the — their 
origin,  peculiar  features  of  in- 
struction in,  80,  list  of  the  most 
famous,  81.  See  also  178 

Beneke,  F.  E.— 81,  220,  248 

Benevolence — 81 

Bengel,  J.  A 81 

Bennett,  J.  .4.-109 

Benseler — 224 

Bentley,  Richard— 82,  514 

Berea  College — 82 

Berkeley  Divinity  School — 176,  177 

Hiiiin.  University  of—  368 

Bern,  University  of— 805 

Bernhardt,  A.  F — B2 

Berquin—SOl 

Bethany  College— 82 

Bethel  College— 82 

Bible — difference  in  the  views  of  Cath- 
olics and  Protestants  concerning 
the,  use  of  the  Bible  in  schools, 
the  Bible  question,  82.  See  also 
219.  362,  532,  826 

Bible  Expositions — 731 

Bible  History— 84 
rod's  Primer — 715 

Bifurcation,  system  of— 366 

Biology— 103 

Birch— 84 

Bishop  Seatt  Grammar  and  Divinity 
School — 671 

Bishop's  College,  University  of ■ — 718 

Blackboard  —  substitutes  for,  its 
uses,  84.  See  also  764 

Blackburn  I'niver.slty — 85 

Blackie— 197 

Blahoslav— 599 

Blair— 788,  734 

Blake,  Mrs.  Jcx—48 

I tlliid.  Education  of  the — statistics 
of  the  blind,  tirst  public  asylum 
for,  first  attempts  at  teaching,  85; 
institutions  for,  in  the  U.  8. 
methods  of  instruction. S6;  music, 
mechanical  training,  government 
and  discipline,  systems  of  print- 
ing ami  notation,  W 

Blochmann,  K.  J 88.  896 

Blookmamn'sche  TnsUtut    88,  198 

Block  Combinations    818 

Blue-Coat  School  —  see  Christ's 
Hospital 

Board  of  Education — see  School 
Board 

Boardlnji-School — its  str.tus  in  dif- 
ferent i  ouutries,  relation  to  pub- 
lic schools,  88 

BOckk.  Aumutr-Wd 

Bodleian  Library — 678 

Boehim,  Martin — S'J3 
Botthiut—481 
Bolivar— VH 

Bolivia — area  and  population,  88, 
condition  of  education  in,  89 

Bologna,  University  of— '206,  43* 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


ill 


Bonavetitura  College — 624 

Bonet,  J.  P.— 89..204 

Bonn,  University  of— 368 

Boiinycastle,  John — 89 

Book-Keeping — single  and  double 
entry,  89;  philosophy  of,  increase 
of  number  of  schools  for,  90 

Book-Manual — 91 

Booth— 223 

Bopp—352,  377 

Borgi,  Giovanni — 91 

Bossuet — 118 

Boston — population,  school  history, 
school  system,  92;  salaries,  pri- 
vate schools  and  other  institu- 
tions, 93.  See  also  124 

Boston  College — 94 

Boston  University — 94 

Botany  —  the  educational  value  of, 
method  of  studying,  95;  simplic- 
ity in  manner  of  teaching,  sys- 
tematic botany,  herbarium,  mi- 
croscope, identification  of  plants 
not  the  chief  object,  utility  of,  96. 
See  also  769 

Boutwell,  George  S. — 510 

Bowdoin,  James — 540 

Bowdoin  College — 97 

Boxing — 235 

Boyhood — 7 

Boys,  Kducation  of — objects  to  be 
kept  in  view,  97;  systems  of  the 
ancients,  Cyropcedia,  Spartan  sys- 
tem, custos  or  pcedagogus,  ludi 
magister.  Institutions  Oratorios,  98; 
training  and  instruction  in  mod- 
ern times,  necessity  of  discrim- 
inating between  the  sexes,  re- 
quirements of  modern  civiliza- 
tion, 99.   See  also  793 

Bracke.tt,  Anna  C. — 303 

Bradford  Academy — 301 

Brahmanism — 456 

Braidwood,  Thomas— 99,  206 

Braille,  Louis— 99 

Brain  —  100,  702 

Brazil — area  and  population,  100; 
educational  condition,  school 
statistics,  Collegio  de  Pedro  II., 
101 

Jireslau,  University  o/— 363 

Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools — 510, 
743 

Brethren  of  the  Common  Life — 510 

Brewers'  Company's  School — 269 

Brian  Boru — 477 

Bridgman,  Laura — 102.  See  also  435 

Bristol— 71 

British  Columbia — area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history  and 
condition,  102;  school  statistics 
and  finances,  103 

British  and  Foreign  School  Society — 78, 
263,  266,  594 

Brooklyn — first  free  public  schools 
established  there  and  in  New 
York,  school  history,  103;  school 
statistics  and  system,  examina- 
tion and  qualification  of  teach- 
ers, private  seminaries  and 
schools,  104.    See  also  636 

Brooks,  Rev.  Charles — 809 

Brougham— .263,  833 

Brown,  George    114 

Brown,  Goold— 10.3,  378,379,380 

Brown,  Nicholas — 72 

Brown  University — 105 

Bruder-  Hauser — 358 

Bruno,  Giordano — 433 

Brunswick-Celle,  Duke  of— 165 

Brussels,  University  of — 77 

Bucharest,  University  of — 745 

Buchtel  College — 105 

Buckle— 195 

Buda-1'esth,  University  of — 432 

Buddhism— ibii,  456 

Buffalo — population,  educational  his- 
tory, city  superintendents,  school 
system,  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  parochial  and 
private  schools,  106 

Bugenhagen,  Johann — 107 


Buisson,  M. — 763 

Bureau    of    Education,   National  — 

its  organization,  objects,  officers, 

and  functions,  107.    Sir  also  827 
Burgher  School — 108,  247 
Burlington  University— 109 
Barney— 606.  8  »7 
liurrowes,  Thomas— 686,  687 
B  u  rsch  ensch  aft — 367 
Bushy,  Kicliard— 109 
Business  Colleges — their  origin  and 

progress,  improvements  in,  109; 

differences  in,  110 
Buss,  Miss — 862 
Butler,  B.  .F.— 637 
Buttniann,  I'll.  K.— 110 
Byzantine  Literature — 385 

Cadet — see  Military  Schools,  and 

Naval  Schools 
Cadets'  College— 110 

Cagliari,  University  of — 486 

Cairo,  University  of—  256 

Calasanza,  or  Calasantius — 704 

Calculus — 553 

Calderwood — 561 

Caldwell,  Joseph — 651 

Calepino — 224 

California — organization,  education- 
al history,  110  ;  state  superin- 
tendents, school  system,  111 ; 
educational  condition  ;  normal 
and  secondary  instruction,  de- 
nominational schools,  superior 
instruction,  list  of  colleges  and 
universities,  special  instruction, 
teachers'  associations,  112  ;  edu- 
cational literature,  113 

California  College — 113 

California,  University  of— 113 

Caliphs— 36 

Calisthenics  —  definition  of,  113: 
value  of,  proper  time  for,  precau- 
tions to  be  taken,  114.  See  also  702 

Calistheniuiu — 114 

Calligraphy — see  Penmanship.  See 
also  56,  685 

Calvin— 183,  247 

Cambridge — 549 

Cambridge,  University  of — history, 
organization,  114;  professorships, 
terms,  members  of  colleges,  de- 
grees, examinations,  triposes, 
local  examinations,  names  of  col- 
leges, under-graduates,university 
buildings,  115;  societies,  116.  See 
also  269,  818 

Camden  School  for  Girls — 269 

Camerino,  University  of — 486 

Camp,  David  A'.— 174 

Campbell,  Alexander  and  Thomas — 229 

Campe,  J.  H. —  his  educational  the- 
ories and  works,  116 

Canaanites — 411 

Canada,  Dominion  of — 116 

Cane  Hill  College— 116 

Canisius — 118 

Canons  Regular,  118,  119 

Canterbury — 81 

Capital  University — 116 

Capitularies  of  Charlemagne — 164 

Capo  d'  Istria,  Count — 386 

Caracas,  University  of—  837 

Caracci — 308 

Cardan — 204 

Carleton  College — 116 

Carlo  Borromeo — 301 

Carlsruhe  Polylechnical  School—  369 

Carneades — 2 

Carpenter,  Miss — 457 

Carthage  College— 117 

Cartograj/h  ij— 337 

Cass  iodorus — 48 1 

Caste— 451.  456 

Catania,  University  of — 486 

Catawba  College — 730 

Catechetical  Method  —  its  limits, 
true  uses,  superseded  by  the 
topical  method,  117.  See  also  229 

Catechetical  School  —  see  Alexan- 
drian School 

Catechetics— 61,  463 


Catechism  —  definition  and  origin, 
117;  history,  118 

Catechists — 18 

Catechumen — 118 

Cathedral  and  Collegiate  Schools 
— their  history,  11«  j  scope  of, 
decline  of,  119.    See  also  178 

CathoUpistemiad — 219 

Catholic  Free  Schools— 647,  649 

Catholic  Universities — 742,  818 

Cutlin,  John— 622 

Cato— 98,  744 

Caucasia— 150 

<  'aw  ndish  /  'ollege — 115 

Cecilian  College— 119 

Celsus— 896 

Celles,  Conrad— 358 

'  'i  ii Sic  Languages — 464 

Census.  School — see  School  Census 

Census  Reports — 450 

Centenary  College— 119 

Central  America — area  and  popula- 
tion .educational  condition  of  Gua- 
temala, Honduras,  119  ;  San  Salva- 
dor, Nicaragua,  and  Costa  IUca,  20 

Central  College— 120 

Central  Tennessee  College — 120 

Central  University — 120 

Centre  College— 120 

Certificate — see  License,  and  In- 
centives,School.  See  also  732, 808 

Certificated  Teachers — 522 

Cervantes— 792 

Chapsal,  C.  P.— 121 

Character,  Discernment  of  —  neg- 
lect of,  harni  resulting  thereby, 
sacrifice  of  the  individual  to  the 
mass,  temperament,  how  to  dis- 
cern it,  121;  phrenology,  122 

Charlemagne  —  his  educational 
aims,  122;  education  of  the  clergy, 
course  of  study,  system  of  public 
instruction,  123.  See  also  118, 139, 
164,  246,  300,  357,  740 

Charles,  Duke  of  Brunswick — 116 

Charleston,  College  of — 123 

Chart— 123.     See  also  36 

Charterhouse  School — 267 

Cheever,  Ezekiel — his  life,  123;  his 
work  and  characteristics,  124.  See 
also  547 

Cheke,  Sir  John— 124 

Cheltenham  Ladies'  College — 269 

Chemistry — its  practical  value,  habit 
of  memorizing,  125;  three  meth- 
ods, lectures,  text-book  study,  ar- 
rangement of  material,  sensa- 
tional experiments,  126  ;  proper 
method  illustrated,  127 

Cherokee  Nation — 462 

Cheve  System — 783 

Chicago — population,  school  statis- 
tics and  system,  128;  examina- 
tion, licensing,  and  appointment 
of  teachers,  salaries  of  teachers, 
private  schools,  129 

Chicago,  University  of — 129 

Chicago  Congregational  Theological  Sem- 
inary— 170 

Chicago  Theological  Seminaries  —  72, 
170,  712 

Childhood — see  Age 

Chili  —  area  and  population,  educa- 
tional condition,  primary  instruc- 
tion, school  statistics,  130;  second- 
ary, superior,  and  special  instruc- 
tion, 131.  See  also  759 

Chilwell  (Engl.)  Baptist  College — 71 

China  Proper — area  and  population, 
early  history,  religion,  alphabet, 
131;  classics,  estimate  of  educa- 
tion, primary  schools,  132:  lect- 
ures, degrees,  examinations,  in- 
fluence of  Europeans  on  Chinese 
instruction, University  of  Peking, 
133.  See  also   244,  299,378,  379,  380 

Ch  irography — 684 

Christ  Cross  Kow— 134 

ChristianVI.,  of  Denmark— 213 

Christian  Brothers,College  of— 134 

Christian  Brothers'  College — 134 

Christian  College— 134 


IV 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX 


Christiania,  University  of— 802 

Christianity— 245,  246,  247,  300,  f.72 

Christian  Schools,  Brethren  of—  510 

Christian  University — 134 

Christians— 134 

Christina,  of  Sweden — 801 

Christ's  Hospital— 135 

Chrodegang,  Bishop — 118 

Chronology — see  History 

Church  Catechism  — 118 

Church  of  God— 135 

Chrysoloras,  Emmanuel  —139,  482 

Chrysostom — 178 

Cicero— '2,  312,  565,  744,  745 

Cincinnati— population,  educational 
history,  school  system  and  statis- 
tics, 136 

Cincinnati,  University  of— 137 

Cisleithania—  62 

Civil  Government  —  see  Science  of 
Government 

Civil  Rights  Bill— 157 

Claflin  University— 137 

Clarke,  Dr.  E.  H.—Ul,  302 

Clarice  Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes — 206, 
553 

Class  —  definition  of,  137;  size  and 
constitution  of,  basis  of  classifi- 
cation, teaching  by  classes  or  by 
subjects,  138;  loose  classification, 
139 

Classical  Studies  —  Latin,  Greek, 
139;  decline  in  study  of,  140;  ob- 
ject for  winch  taught,  method  of 

teaching, text.-l ks,  translations, 

141.   See  also  224,  225,373,  51] 

Classics,  Christian— history  of,  142; 
peculiar  value  of,  143 

Classification— see  (lass 

Class  Rooms — 139 

Claxton,  Timothy — 430 

Cleanliness — 441 

Cleator,  Joseph — 636 

Clement— 18,  246 

Clerc,  Laurent— 206,  329 

Clermont — 81 

Cleveland — population,  educational 
history,  143;  school  system  and 
statistics,  144 

Clinique— 144 

Clinton,  De  Witt  —  biographical 
sketch,  political  career,  his  aid  to 
the  cause  of  education,  144;  be- 
comes president  of  the  Society 
for  Establishing  a  Free  School  in 
the  City  of  New  York,  advocates 
the  Lancaster ian  system,  is  made 
president  of  the  Presbyterian 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  the 
Education  of  Youth,  the  Infant 
School  Society  of  New  York,  New 
York  Hospital,  New  York  His- 
torical Society,  estimate  of  his 
ability,  145.  See  also  521,  594, 
so;  l 

Clinton,  George— 144,  ('.37,  825 

Cloister  Schools— 382 

Clothing— Ml 

Clowes,  7'.— 830 

Coach— 14S 

( 'ebb,  Lyman     186 

Cobbett,  William— HI 

Codrington  <  'ollege—VJO 

Co-Education  of  the  Sexes  —  how 
regarded  In  the  r.  s..  146;  argu- 
ments for  and  against,  statistics, 
1 1  i;  progress  of  co-education  in 

the  0.  S..  117:  effeel  "I  the  ordi- 
nary college  course  on  the  health 
of  women,  progress  of  co-educa- 
tion in  Europe,  1 18 

CoimbraA  niversUy  <i/"-70-s,  709 

i  'nil, urn.  Dana  I'. — 737 

<  oiiiiirn.  Warren     i  19 

<  'ullni.  i;,  ml  in  r     540 

Colby  Unlversltj  -149 
.  CadivaUader—lVt 

i ;,/  ii,i  i, 

Colel.  Dr.  John     879,  521 
Collard,  Rojer   -192 

lions   College      I'd 
Collectivi  :  i  19 


College — history  of  in  France.  160; 
in  Great  Britain.  Ireland,  and  the 
U.S. ,151;  Harvard,  Yale,  152;  table 
of  colleges  in  the  U.S.,  conven- 
tion of  college  presidents  in  the 
U.  S.  in  1874,  153 

College  de  France — 151,  316 

College  of  Teachers — 665 

Colleges,  Denominational — 153 

College  Society  (Congregational) — 171 

Collegiate  Schools — see  Cathedral 
Schools 

Colombia,  United  States  of— area 
and  population,  educational  his- 
tory, school  system,  154 

Colony  School,  Aeiu  Haven — 175 

Color  —  value  of  instruction  in, 
method  of  teaching,  harmony  of 
colors,  155.     See  also  778 

Colorado  —  organization,  area  and 
population,  educational  history, 
school  system,  166;  educational 
condition,  secondary  and  other 
instruction,  157 

Colorado  College — 157 

t  'olor-Blindness—'MX,  293 

( 'olor  Charts— WS 

Colored  Schools — their  number,  ex- 
pediency of,  157;  state  laws  in  re- 
gard to,  advocates  of,  168 

Columbia  College — 158,  637 

Columbia,  District  of — seelMst  rid 
of  Columbia 

Columbian  University — 159 

Columbia  Theological  Seminary — 713 

Coinenius,  J.  A. — his  early  life,  159; 
Janua  linguarum  reserata,  Didac- 
tica  magna  sen  omnes  omnia  do- 
cendi  artificium,  Orbis  sensualium 
pictus,  and  other  works,  his  po  . 
tion  as  an  educational  reformer, 
ideal  order  of  instruction,  equal 
instruction  of  both  sexes,  educa- 
tion and  development  identical, 
physical  education,  school  room-, 
and  play-grounds,  words  to  be 
learned  in  connection  with 
things,  160  ;  language  to  be 
learned  by  practice,  anniversary 
of  Comenius'S  death,  statu 
erected,  161.  See  also,  33,  34,  2 is, 
599,  720 

Comer,  George  X. — 109 

Commence  me  nt — 161 

Commercial  Colleges  —  see  Busi- 
ness Colleges 

Commissioner  of  Education — see 
Bureau  of  education 

<  'ommodian — 142 

Common-School  Fund    638 

Common  Schools — 162 
I 'urn  in  una  I  Colli  t/es — 160 
Com  munid  Sch ools — 1 65 
Companionship — necessity  of,  162 

Comparative  Philology— VIS,  37s.  tr,i 
Competitive    Examinations  —  sco 
Examinations 

Composition— oral  composition,  ac- 
curacy  of  expression,  method  Of 

composing,  preliminary  train- 
ing, 163;  daily  practice  necessary . 
correction  of  compositions,  rhet- 
oric. 164 

Compulsory  Education— first  inti- 
mation of,  history  of,  164;  Bchi     1 
age  tirst  defined  by  law,  L66 
cut  aspect  of,  167.  See  also  164, 213 

Comstock,  .1.  L.— 167 

Comte— 553,  564 

Conception— the  concept,  predomi- 
nance of  conceptive  faculty  dur- 
ing Infancy,  basis  of  judgment, 

ends  to  be  kept    ill  view,  value  oi 

object  teaching,  illustrations, 
168;  conceptions  dependenl  upon 
feelings,  169,    See  also  163,  469 

Conceptive  Faculty — 167 

Concert    'reaching     a  kind  oi    rOti 
teaching,  memorizing,  exi  i 
rote   teaching  Injurious,  to 
voice  iii  responses   169 

Concord  College — 170 


Concordia  College — 170 

Concordia  Theological  Seminary — 534 
(.'mill  iliac — 204 
Con  dorcet— 316 
Confucius — 132 

Congregational ists — their   history, 
originators   of  common   schools, 
list  of  schools  and  colleges,  170; 
American      Education      Society, 
church    government,   educators, 
171 
Congregations    University  —115 
Connecticut — area  and   population, 
educational   history,    171;    taxes, 
172;  tuition  fees,  permanent  fund, 
173;  state  superintendents,   state 
teachers'  association,  school  sys- 
tem, educational  condition.  174; 
statistics    normal  and  secondary 
instruction,  175;  denominational 
schools,     superior,    professional, 
scientific,  and  special  instruction, 
176;   educational   literature,  177. 
See  also  166 
Conscience,  Culture  of— its  compar- 
ative strength  or  weakness,  moral 
precepts  not  necessarily  a  culti- 
vator of,  177.  See  also  597,  731 
Const  rvatory,  Musical—  606 
Constantinople,  University  of — 395 
(  (institution  of  U.  S.— 178 
Convent     Schools  —  their    history,. 

its;  influence  of  Reformation  on, 

basis  and  distinguishing  features 
of,  179.     See  also  24(1,  715 
Conversation — its  uses,  179 
Conversational    .Method — its  value 

in  early  education,  L80 

i  'onvocation,  University — 6 16 

Cooper  Institute — see  Cooper,  Pe- 
ter 

Cooper,  Peter — his  early  life,  in- 
tentions in  regard  to  the  educa- 
tion of  the  industrial  classes. 
Cooper  Union  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  and  Art,  course 
of  instruction  in.  180, 181 

Cooper  Union,  180,  181 

Coote,  Edward— 182 

Copenhagen,  University  of—  914 

Copy-Hooks — see  Penmanship 

Copying— 182 

( ■„,  bie— 81 

Corderius,  Mathurin— 183 

<  'ordova—  36,  790 

<  'omelia—98,  302 
Cornelissen,  Jan — 636 
( 'arm  It,  Ezra — 9 

Cornell  College— 183 
Cornel]  University— 183.  See  also  9 
Corporal     Punishment  — advocates 
Of,   abuse    of,    History  of  the   Hod. 

|s.v  the  Terrors  of  the  Hod,  hors- 
ing. L86;  disciplinary  value  of, 
ls7;  justifiable  as  a  last  resort, 
statistics,  188;  present  practice  of 
the  civilized  world,  legal  aspects, 
offenses  justifying  the  use  of,  189 
Bee  also  346,  819,  869,  630,  793 

Cum  a  di  (tin-lira — 101 

CorvalllS  College— 190 
Rico— 120 

Council  of  Trent— 742 

Counterpoint—  604 

Course  of  Instruction — a  prop,  r 
curriculum,  190;  division  into 
grades,  L91.    See  also  n.  1:12 

Cousin.  Victor— 192.  See  also  1.165, 
318 

Cut,  11I x  St.  Mary't  Institution— 645 

Cowper— 196,  260,  \Si 

Cracow,   University  of—  64 

Cramming — 192 

Creche— 193,  668 

crime  ami  Education—- their  rela, 
tion.  193;  prison  co  >■  sta- 

tistics, 194 :  prison  schools,  crime 
rni   1   bj    fixed,  natural  laws. 
195 

Crocheting— 466 

Crooks,  !»'.     234 

Croton,  School  of-3M 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX 


Crozer  Baptist  Theological  Seminary— 
72 

Cruelty  (to  Animals) — prevailing 
trait  in  children,  195:  training  oi 
the  aft'e<-tions  necessary,  19(5 

Crusades — 178 

Crusca.  Accademia  delta — 3 

Crysttiloli)yi/—?<-" 

Culleoka  Institute— 569 

Culture — general  and  special,  self- 
exertion,  196;  moral  culture   197 

Cumberland  Oniverslty — 197 

Curiosity — 197 

Curriculum  —  see  Course  of  In- 
struction 

Currie— i68,  169,  231,  336 

Curtis,  Joseph— 197. 

Curlius,  Alexander  Carolus — 63 *> 

Curtius.  George — 198.     See  also  390 

Curwen,  Rev.  J.-  781,  782,  783 

Cusanus,  Nicolaus — 421 

Cutler,  Manasseh — 661 

Cyclopaedia  of  Education — 253 

Cygnaus,  Uno — 303 

Cyprian — 142,  246 

Czernowitz,  University  of— 64 

Dacier,  Andre — 198 

Dacier,  Anne — 198 

Dactylology— 198 

Dakota — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  198:  school  sys- 
tem.educational  condition,  school 
statistics,  normal  instruction,  199 

Dalberg,  Johann  von — 358 

Dalgarno,  George — 200,  205 

Dalhousie  College  and  University — 653 

Dall,  Caroline  H— 304 

Damascus — 35 

Dame  Schools— 200 

Dana,  J.  D.— 202.     See  also  580 

Dancing  and  Dancing  Schools — 
history  of,  the  "jumping  proces- 
sion," religious  character  of,  so- 
cial aspects  of,  201 

Dane,  Nathan — 517 

Danish  Language — 351 

Dante — 4-<2 

Danville  Theological  Seminary — 712 

Darmstadt  Polytechnical  School— 369 

Dartmouth  College— 202 

Davidson  College — 203 

Davies,  Charles — 203 

Davis,  Rev.  Lewis — 824 

Day,  Jeremiah— 203,  171 

Day,  Thomas — 747 

Deaf-Mutes — 203;  number  of,  errone- 
ous ideas  in  regard  to,  mental  con- 
dition, Alphabetum  Natural,  204: 
history  of  the  instruction  of  deaf- 
mutes,  table  of  institutions  for  in 
the  U.  S.,  205;  the  American 
Asylum;  systems  of  instruction, 

206.  See  aiso  682,  683 
Dean  Academy — 829 

Debating — 206;    debating   societies, 

207.  'See  also  231,  273 

Debating  Societies— 201 

Decimal  Notation — 207 

Declamation — 207 

Deductive  Method — 465 

Deflnitions— 207;  How  to  Teach,  203 

Degerando — see  Gerando 

Degrees — original  signification,  his- 
tory, 208;  list  of,  in  the  U.  S., 
Doctor  of  Medicine,  value  of  de- 
grees, Mommsen,  209.  See  also 
133 

Delaware — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  school  system. 
210;  educational  condition,  school 
statistics,  normal  instruction, 
teachers'  institutes:  secondary, 
superior,  professional,  and  scien- 
tific instruction,  211 

Delaware  College — 212 

Delft  Polytechnical  School — G'.9 

Delphin  Classics— 212,  4^5 

De  m  osthenes — 182 

Dempster  John — 567 

Denison  University — 212 

Denman,  James — 758 


Denmark — area  and  population,  his- 
tory, 212;  history  of  public  in- 
struction, primary  instruction, 
213;  peasants'  high  schools,  214; 
secondary,  superior,  and  special 
instruction,  Iceland,  215.  See  also 
165 

Denominational  Schools  —  215  : 
arguments  for,  PUdagogisehi  a 
HandbucH,  216;  Dr.  Bigg,  oppo- 
sition to  denominational  schools 
in  the  U.S.,  advocacy  of  by  the  Ro- 
man Catholics.  \v.  H.  Seward,  217; 
Bishop  Hughes,  218 

Dental  College — 560 

Dentistry,  Schools  of — see  Med- 
ical Schools 

Departmental  System — 218 

Deposit  Funds— VIS,  63S 

Depravity — see  Moral  Education 

De.  Quincey,  Thomas— 350 

Derby,  Lord — 477 

Des  Cartes — 316 

Deseret,  University  of—  834,  835 

Desks  and  Seats — 763 

Des  Moines,  University  of— 218 

Detroit  —  population,  218;  educa- 
tional history,  city  superintend- 
ents, school  system,  school  statis- 
tics, 219 

Developing  Method — definition  of, 
Herbart,  Beneke,  improvements 
in,  self-consciousness,  220;  the 
teacher  is  the  school,  phonetic 
spelling,  Griiser,  Vogel,  reading 
in  concert,  value  of  number,  221; 
the  developing  method  as  an 
auxiliary,  222.    See  also  660 

Deventer,  School  at — 7.  421 

Devotional  Exercises— see  Relig- 
ious Education 

Dialectics — 231 

Dialogues — 207 

Diary,  School— 222 

Dickinson  College— 222 

Dictation— 223 

Dictionary — definition  and  history 
of,  223;  in  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, 224  and  225 

Didactics — 225;  general  and  special, 
226 

Didymus  the  Blind — 18 

Diesterweg.  F.  A.  W.— 226;  his  op- 
position to  the  union  of  church 
and  school,  227 — see  also  433 

Diez,  Friedrich — 743 

Diffidence  —  its  nature,  Cowper, 
Washington,  means  for  correct- 
ing. 228 

Diligence— 228 

Dilworth,  Thomas— 228 

Dinter,  G.  F.— 229 

Diodorus  Siculus — 254 

Dionysius — 18 

Dionysius  Thrax — 377 

Diploma— 229 

Disciples  of  Christ— 229 

Discipline— intellectual  and  moral, 
order,  230.     See  also  35,  440 

Disputations — 231 

D'lsraeli— 234 

District  Libraries— 511,  639 

District  of  Columbia  —  area  and 
population,  history,  231;  educa- 
tional history,  232:  school  sys- 
tem, educational  condition:  nor- 
mal, secondary,  superior,  profes- 
sional, scientific,  and  special  in- 
struction. 233 

District  .School  Journal — 240 

District  Schools  —  see  Public 
Schools.     See  also  162 

Diitriet  System— 172.  762,  827 

Dlttes,  Friedrich  —  234.  See  also 
:«:>.  401 

Diversions  —  during  childhood  and 
youth,  athletics,  234 

Divination — 744 

Divoll,  Ira— 689,  754.  755 

Doane  College — 235 

Doctor — see  Degrees 

Doederlein,  Uudwig— 235 


Dominicans — 178,  .157 

Donaldson,.!.  W.— 235.  SeeaLso5<4 

Donaius — 514 

I'm  inns — 300 

Dorpnt,  University  of — 750 

Drawing  —  definition  of,  usefulness, 
of,  235:  two  classes  of,  instru- 
mental drawing,  236  :  free-hand 
drawing,  advisability  of  teaching 

it  in  common  schools,  its  intro- 
duction into  English  schools, 
237;  conditions  necessary  for  its 
successful  teaching,  programmes 
for  instruction  in  different  grades 

of   schools.   238.     Bee  also   51,  52. 

53,  181 
Dresden  Polytechnical  School — 309 
Dressier — 81 

Drew  Theological  Seminary — 631 
Drill— 239 

Dringenberg,  Ludwig — 358 
Druids— 315 

Dmry  College— 239 

Dublin  University — see  Ireland 

Ducpetiaux — 194 

Duil lei/  Observatory — 822 

Buffey,  Mrs.  E.  A— 304 

Dull  Scholars— 239 

Dulwich  College — 269 

Dunce— 239 

Dunedin  University — 61 

Dupanloup— F.  A.  P 239 

Duplessis — 717 

Durham,  University  of — see  Eng- 

Durseh,  M.  G.— 240  [land 

Duruy,  Victor— 240,  165 

Dusseldorf,  School  of  Fine.  Arts — 308 

Dutch— 103,  491.  636,  646 

Dutch  Language — 351 

Duval,  William— 309 

Dwight,  Edmund— 549,  550 

Dwight,  Francis — 240 

Dwight,   Timothy  —  240.     See  also 

171,  187,  260 
Dymond,  J. — 177 

Ear,  Cultivation  of — music,  lan- 
guage, cure  of  deafness,  241 

Earlham  College — 242 

Eastern  Empire — 247 

East  Tennessee  University — 242 

East  Tennessee  AVesleyan  Uni- 
versity— 242 

Economy,  School  —  see  School 
Economy 

Ecuador — area  and  population,  242: 
school  history;  primary,  second- 
ary, superior,  and  special  instruc- 
tion, 243 

Edessa,  Theological  School  at — 246 

Edgeworth,  Maria—  243.  See  also 
196,  303,  399 

Edgeworth,  Richard  L—  243 

Edinburgh,  University  of  —  see 
Scotland 

Edinburgh  Academy — 774 

Edinburgh  High  School — 4,  773 

Edinburgh  Men-hunts'  Company — 863 

Education— definition  of,  243;  kinds 
of,  instruction,  history  of  educa- 
tion, 244;  idea  of  among  the  an- 
cients, among  the  Hebrews,  ad- 
vent of  Christianity,  245;  school 
of  Alexandria,  Christian  schools, 
convents,  246;  town  or  burgher 
Bchools,  peripatetic  schools,  Mo- 
hammedanism, the  Reformation. 
247  ;  Jesuit  schools,  the  Pietists. 
Comenius,  Locke,  Humanists  and 
Realists.  Rousseau,  Basedow,  Pes- 
taloz/.i.  Froebel,  Herbart,  Beneke, 
Spencer,  '.it*:  histories  of  educa- 
tion, theory  of  education,  249; 
physical,  intellectual,  and  emo- 
tional education,  251;  religious 
education,  educational  works,  253. 
See  also  56,  226,  'I'M.  283,  284,  298, 
3ii:;  321,  332,  372,  377,  383,  399, 
•117.  419,  497,  595,  695,  706,  717, 
744.    746,   777,  793,   794 

Education,  Female  —  see  Female 
Education 


VI 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


Education  and  Crime — see  Crime 
and  Education 

Educational  Note*  and  Queries — 665 

Educative  Instruction — 4.W,  468 

Egbert,  Benedictine  Monk — 81 

Egypt  —  urea,  population,  and  his- 
tory, educational  history,  ancient 
Egypt,  254;  modern  Egypt,  255; 
missionary  and  foreign  schools, 
266.    See  also  300 

Eickhorn,  Minister — 364 

Elaboratlve  Faculty— 267,  169,  472 
<•«  Studies — 152 

Elementary  Schools — 257 

Elementary  Science — see  Science, 
Teaching  of 

Elementary  Mounds — 700 

Eliot,  President— 10 

Elizabeth,   Queen — 479 

Ellis,  A.  J.— 674 

Ellis.  William— 257,  784,  786 

Elocution — 257,  721,  733 

Elphlnston,  James — 257 

Ely,  Isaac  M.— 197 

E  yot,  Sir  Thomas— 22i 

Emerson,  (i.  B.— 257.  See  also  149, 
187,301 

Emerson,  Italph  Waldo — 124 

Eminence  Col  lege — 258 

Emory  College — 258 

Emory  and  llenry  College — 259 

Emotions— 269.  Bee  also  261,  252 

Empirical  Methods — 259 

Emulation — definition  of,  expedien- 
cy  of  its    use.  260 

Encouragement — 261 

Encydopatdism — 278 

Endowed  Schools— 262,  269,  382,  828, 
B62 

Endowments,  Special — 102 

Enfield— 223 

Engineering  Schools — 771,  772 

England— area  and  population,  261; 
educational  history,  endowed 
schools  commission,  262;  condi- 
tion Of  schools  at  the  tunc  of  the 

Reformation,     Lancaster.     Bell, 
Brii i-!>  and  Foreign  Society,  and 

National  Society,  Brougham,  263; 

committee  of  inspection  appoint 
ed,  school  laws  of  1870,  L873,  and 
1876,  school  boards,  261;  national 
system,265;  educational  statistics, 
266;  London  school  board,  i 
ers'   associations,  secondary   e  lu- 
catiou,  267:  public   schools,   268; 
endowed  ami  proprietary  schools 
aud  colleges,  Ladies'  colleges,  su 
perior    instruction,   269;    profes- 
sional and  scientific  instruction, 
270;  theological  colleges,  inns  of 
court,    etc.,   271.      See    also   2*7, 
862 

England,  Church  of  — see  Epis- 
copal Church 

English,  The  Study  of — early  study 
in  infant  schools,  etc.,  to  speak 
well,  learning  to  read,  272;  gram- 
mar, advanced  study  in  high 
schools,  etc.,  skill  in  speaking, 
273;  skill  in  writing,  philological 
study  Of  English,  274;  compara- 
tive philology,  phonology,  gram- 
matical etymology,  275;  course  in 
Lafayette  College,  text-books.  276 

English  Literature— what  to  teach 
and  how  to  teach  it.  277;  enoydo- 
p.e  Usui  and  abridgment,  course 
anil  method  of  study,  278;  Amer- 
ican literature,  books  of  refer- 
ence, 279 

Enthusiasm    -280 

Epee,  0.   >L,  Al.l.c  de  1*— 280,  205 

Epicureans — 384 

Epiru 

Episcopal  Church— Churob  of  Eng- 

I  oid,     280  ;     Church    of     Ireland, 

Protestant    Episcopal  Church  In 

the  i '.  s..  2xi 
Episcopal  Nethodlxl  College— 282 
/;  of  History — 124 

Equal  ion    see  Algebra 


Erasmus,  Desiderius— life  and  in- 
fluence, 282;  educational  views, 
283.     See  also  33,  115,  304,  389 

Erasmus  Hall — 637 

Eratosthenes — 18,  333 

Erigena,  J.  S.— 283 

Erlangt  n.  University  of- — 368 

Ernest,  Duke  of  Got  ha — 361 

Ernest i,  J.  A. — 2s4 

Erskine  College — 281 

Esquiros,  il.  Atphonse — 747 

Esthetic  Culture — the  esthetic  ele- 
ment among  savages,  taste,  281; 
sense  of  the  beautiful  to  be  cul- 
tivated practically,  drawing  to  be 
taught  before  writing,  love  of 
the  beautiful,  music,  poetry, 
esthetics  of  the  school  room,  285. 
See  also  252 

Etacism — 390 

Ethics— 706 

Ethnographic  Method — 125 

Etienne  or  Estienne,  Henry  and 
Hubert — see  Stephens 

Etiquette — 543 

Eton  College — see  England.  See 
also  432 

Etymology— 28G.    See  also,  225,  275 

Euclid— 18,  342 

Eureka  College— 286 

Evangelical  Association — 286 

Evening  Schools —  objects  of  their 
establishment,  286;  their  status  in 
different  countries,  organization 
and  management,  detects  of  in 
New  York,  287.  See  also 5,  42:'..  I  16 

Everett,  Edward— 288  See  also  1, 
33,  34.  35,  243.  422 

Exa  m  inat  io  n  Qui  it  ions — 291 

Examinations  — 288;  of  schools,  of 
teachers,  college  and  university 
examinations,  289;  in  Germany, 
comparative  values  ot  written 
and  oral  examinations,  290.  See 
also  133,  800 

Example,  The  Influence  of — 291 

Exchanges,  Educational — see  Hol- 
brook,  .losiah 

Exercise— 398,  441,  597,  268 

I',  j-  It  Hi  it  inn  ers —292 

Exhibitions,  School— 292 

Explanation — 723 

Expulsion — 292 

Eye,  Cultivation  of  the— -eight  sus- 
ceptible of  Improvement,  aims  of 
education  in,  292;  when  to  begin 
the  cultivation  of  the  eye,  kinder- 
garten methods,  color-blindness, 
injury  to  the  eye  from  faulty 
school  methods,  293.    See  also  440 

Factory  Schools  —  English  legisla- 
tion in  regard  to,  legislation  on 
the  Continent,  294;  in  the  U.  S., 
296.     See  also  54s 

Faculties  (Jf<  ntal)— 31,  250,  469,  562 

Faculty— 295 

lagging— 295.     See  also  268 

1':  mingle — 564 

Falk,  .1.  D — 295 

Falk,  P.  L.  A.— 295,  724 

Family  Plan—  665,  672 

Farmers'  College— 297 

Farm  villi-  College — B4S 

Farnum  Preparatory  School — 631 

Fauvii-Goitraud.  E. — 564 

Fear — its  relation  to  education,  297; 

the  method  of  nature,  298 
Feelings — 259 

Felblgcr,  J.  I.  von— 298.  See  also  63 
Fellenberg,    Pi    B,  von— 299.    See 

also  33.  375  ,429 

Fellow— Ml 

Fillnn      1st 

Female   Education — history.  299; 

feiual lucation      in     ancient 

times.  Influence  of  Christianity 

ii  poii,  300;  the  Reformat  ion  .statis- 
tics in  Russia,  in  Austria,  in  other 
Catholic   countries,    30]  :    in    the 

i.s..  degrees  conferred,  theory 
of  female  education,  302,  Bee  also 


Female  FMucation 

132,    229,    256,  283,    298,   299,   185, 
857,  862 

Female  Teachers  —  number  of,  in 
the  TJ.  S.,  304  ;  why  women  are 
preferred  as  teachers,  305 

Fencing— 99,  235,  578 

Fenelon,  F.  dc  Salignac  de  la 
Mot  lie— 305 

Ferrara.  University  of — 486 

Ferule— 30...      See  also  ls5,  189 

Festivals.  School — see  School  Fes- 
tivals 

Flchte,  J.  G.— 306,  362, 165 

Ficinus,  Marsilius—i^l 

rlctlon,  Works  of — interest  of  chil- 
dren in,  3U6:  educational  uses  of, 
errors  to  be  avoided,  307 

Field  Lane  School — 726 

Fillmore,  Millard— 106 

1  ine  Arts— 308 

Finland — area  and  population, educa- 
tional history,  school  system,  308 

Firnuan.  Bishop  of  I'assau—Gi 

Fisher,  John  D. — 434 

l-isk  University— 309 
Fide,  Wilbur— 667 

Filzn  illiam  Museum — 116 

Flagellum—306 

Hattich,  J.  F.— 309 

Fletcher— 194 

Fleury— 81 

Floor  Mpnce,  in  School  Booms — 439 

Florida— area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  309;  state  super- 
intendents, school  system,  310; 
school  fund,  educational  condi- 
tion, seminaries,  superior  in- 
struction, educational  literature, 
311 

Florida  Education  Society — 430 

Flounders  <  'ollege — 327 

Flowt  r,  Enoch — 685 

ForceUini— 224 

Foreign  Education — 811;  disadvan- 
tages of,  foreign  travel,  312 

Forestry,  Schools  of— 11 

ForgetfuVness — 663 

Form — 312;  method  of  training  the 
observing  faculties,  313.  See  also 
343,  695 

Forster,   William  A".— 165,  261 

Fortescue — 515 

Fort  Wayne  College— 313 

Foundation'  rs — 157.  268 

Foundling  Asylums — 313 

Fourier.  Pierre — 314 

Fox,  George — 327.  628 

Fox,   William — 7'J7 

Fract  ions—see  Arithmetic 

France — ana,  population,  and  terri- 
tory. 314;  educational  history, 
315,  316;  primary  instruction,  317, 
318;  secondary  and  superior  in- 
struction. 319:  special  and  profes- 
sional instruction.  320.  See  also 
166,  189,  691 

Franciscan  College — 321 

Franciscans — 178.  315,  357 

Franc kc,  A.  II. — educational  and 
charitable  labors,  institutions 
founded  by  him,  educational 
views.  321.      See  also  465,  672,  807 

Franekt  r.  University  of— 618 

Franklin.  Iie>ijamin — 697 
Franklin  College  (Ind.)— 322 
Franklin  College  (Ohio)— 322 
Franklin   and  Marshall  College — 

322 
Frederick  College— 322 
Frederick  IV..  oj  Denmark— 213 
Frederick  VI..  of  Denmark— 213 
Frederick  tin  Great— 807 
/■",-.-■  Academy,  New  Fork — 647 
Fret  Church  of  Scotland— 111,  819 

Freedinen's  Aid  Society — 568 

Freedmen'i  Bureau— 828,  837 

Freed  men's  Schools— 898 

Free  Schools— see  Public  schools. 

s,  e  also  882 
Free  School  Society  of  Wets  York — 637, 

.  647 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


"VII 


Free  School  Systems — 827 
Freewill  Itaptists— :iJ3 
Freiburg,  University  of—  368 
French  Language— its  origin,  324; 

prevalence      :!'-•");      methods     of 

teaching   it,  32(1;  text-books,  327. 

See  also  592 
Fresh  Air  (in  the  school  room) — 838 
Freund—  224 

Friends,  .Society  of— 327,  685,  697 
Frieric  Language — 29,  275,  351 
Frisch — 225 
Froebel.  Friedrich— life  and  labors, 

the  kindergarten,  328.     See  also 

220,  248,  293,  330 
Fruitland  Normal  Institute — 590, 
Fulda,  School  of— HI,  719 
Fuller,  Margaret— SOI 
Funuan  University — 328 
Furniture,    School  —  see    School 

Furniture.    See  also  440 

Gaiety- 396 

Galesville  University— 329 

Gall,  F.  J.— 329 

Gall,  James — 87 

Gallaudet,  T.  H,— 329,  205,  20o 

Gallery  Lessons — 169 

Galloway,  Samuel — 662 

Games— 329.     See  also,  235,  398 

Garret  Biblical  Institute — 448 

Gauuie,  J.  J. — 330 

Gazetteer— 223 

Gedike.  Friedrich— 331 

Geelong  College — 712 

Geiger,  Abraham,  415 

General  Culture — 776 

Generalization— 468,  469,  470,  704,  768 

Genetic  Method— 331,  537 

Geneva,  University  of—  804 

Geneva  Catechism — 118 

Geneva  College — 331 

Genius — 331 

Genoa,  University  of—  400 

Geography— its  scope,  332;  element- 
ary instruction  in,  history  of, 
333:  first  text-books,  334;  mental 
faculties  exercised  by,  stages  of 
instruction,  335  ;  proper  age  to 
begin  the  study  of,  330;  methods 
of  teaching,  337.  See  also  277,  035 
857 

Geology — its  claim  to  recognition  in 
elementary  schools,  basis  of,  338; 
mental  powers  cultivated  by  the 
study  of,  improper  methods  of 
teaching,  341 

Geometrical  Invention — 345 

Geometry — 341;  how  to  be  approach- 
ed by  the  learner,  a  mechanical  as 
well  as  a  logical  science,  342;  ar- 
rangement of  subject  matter,  343; 
class-room  work,  344;  geometrical 
invention,  changes  in  demonstra- 
tion, 345 

Georama — 372 

Georgens—i65 

Georges — 224 

Georgetown  College  (D.  C.)— 345 

Georgetown  College  (Ky.) — 340 
Georgia — area,  population,  and  edu- 
cational   history,   state  superin- 
tendents,   340  ;     school     system, 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics, 347;    normal,   secondary, 
superior,  special,  and  professional 
instruction,  348 
Georgia,  University  of — 349 
G^rando,  J.  M.  de — 349.  See  also,  35 

Gerbert  {Sylvester  II.')— 37 

German-American  Schools — 349 
German  College— 350 
German  Language  —  comparative 
value  of,  350;  its  origin  and  his- 
tory, 351;  German  philology,  352; 
prevalence  of  German,  method 
of  studying  in  England  and  Annr- 
ica,  353;  pronunciation  of,  juve- 
nile literature,  study  of,  German 
in  the  U.  S.,  354;  views  of  school 
superintendents  in  regard  to,  355; 
arguments  against,  350.    See  also 


German   Language 

liii'..  I'J'.i.  186,  144,  530,  579,  614,  049. 
754,  758 
German  States — 165 
German  Wallace  College — 356 

Germany — historical  sketch  of,  edu- 
cational history,  350;  the  school 
subordinate  to  the  church,  the 
gymnasium.  369;  Ritu  rakademien, 
the  I'mdagogium,  301;  Gesner,  Er- 
nesti,  Heyne,  the  Humanists, Pes- 
talozzi,  Fichte,  302;  Sailer,  Die- 
sterweg,  Froebel,  primary  in- 
struction, 303;  school  statistics, 
304;  Prussian  school  administra- 
tion, secondary  instruction.  365; 
course  of  study  in  the  gymnasia, 
teachers'  seminaries,  300;  univer- 
sities, 307:  professional,  technical, 
and  scientific  instruction,  mili- 
tary academies,  educational  pub- 
lications, 309.     See  also  167,  189 

Gesner,  J.  M 370 

Gesticulation^— 201 

Gettysburg  Theological  Seminary — 534 

Ghent.  University  of — 77 

Gibbon — 385 

Giessen,  University  of—  368 

Gifts,  Kindergarten — 370 

Gilbert  de  la  Porree — 209 

Oilman,  Daniel  C. — 174 

Gilmanton  Academy — 627 

Girard,  Gregoire — 371 

Girard,  Stephen — 672 

Girard  College— 400,  672,  690 

Girlhood— 1 

Girls,  Education  of— see  Female 
Education 

Girton  College— 149,  269,  863 

Gladstone,  William  E. — 140 

Glasgow,  University  of — 774,  775 

Globe,  Artificial — its  construction, 
371;  history  and  advantages  of, 
372.    See  also  336,  337 

Glossary — 223 

Gnosis — 18 

Goddard  Seminary — 829 

Goethe,  J.  W.  von — his  theory  con- 
cerning education,  372.  See  also 
454,  462 

Gdttingen,  University  of—  368 

Gonigraph — 373 

Gonville  and  Caius  College— 115 

Gonzaga  College — 373 

Goodrich,  S.  (i.— 373 

Gothic  Language — 275,  351 

Gottsched— 352 

Gould,  James — 517 

Gouraud,  F.  Fauvel — 564 

Governess — 373 

Government,  School — 373;  its  nat- 
ure, rewards,  374;  efficacy  of,  siig- 
gestions  to  the  teacher,  occupa- 
tion one  of  the  most  effective 
agents  in  school  government,  375. 
See  also  35 

Grade — 375 

Graded  Course — 190 

Graded  Schools — 375 

Graded  System— '315 

Graduate — 377 

Graefe,  Heinrich— 377 

Graham,  Isabella — 377 

Grammar— 377.  See  also  140,  330, 
352,  391,  420,  512,  514,  560,  602 

Grammar,  English — its  function, 
distinction  between  the  science 
and  the  art  of  grammar,  378;  his- 
tory of,  379;  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, language  lessons,  science  of 
the  sentence,  scheme  for  teach- 
ing grammar,  3H0;  analysis  and 
parsing,  errors  in  teaching,  381. 
See  also,  27,  273,  277 

Grammarians,  Roman — 377 
Grammar  Schools  —  382.     See  also 
209,  715 

Grammatical  Exercises — 104 

Grammatist — 56 

Granada,  University  of— 192 
Grant,  President — 218 

Granville  Female  College — 302 


eraser,  J.  IJ.— 383.    See  also  221 
Gratz,  University  of— 64 

Gray  Nuns,  Order  of—  743 
Grazzini — 3 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  The 
United  Kingdom  of— 3«3 

Great  Elector — 363 

Greaves,  James  P. — 17 

Greece— area  and  population,  his- 
torical sketch,  ancient  (ireece, 
383:  educational  views  of  the  an- 
cient Greeks,  384;  the  Greek  Em- 
pire, mode  rn  Greece,  386;  pri- 
mary instruction,  380;  secondary 
instruction,  387;  superior  and 
special  instruction,  388 

Greek,  Christian — 142 

Greek  Church— 388,  818 

Greek  Language— origin  and  his- 
tory, 389 ;  the  Greek  alphabet, 
rivalry  with  Latin,  methods  of 
teaching,  390;  grammars  and  lex- 
icons, 391 ;  reaaers,  392.  See  also 
50,  301,  303,  420,  681 

Greeks— 241, 396 

Green,  S.  S.— 551,  737 

Greenevllle  and  Tusculum  Col- 
lege—392 

Greenland — 600 

Greenleaf  Simon — 517 

Gregorian  Tones — 604 

Gregory  IX.  Pope)— 67,  208 

Greifswald,  University  of—  368 

Grey's  "Memoria  Technica" — 564 

Grimm,  J.  L. — 392 

Grimm,  W.  K.—  393 

Grimbald — 18 

Griscom,  John — 393 

Griscom,  J.  H. — 393 

Groen  van  Prinsterer — 018 

Groningen,  University  of—  618 

Groot, Gerard — see  Hieronymians. 
See  also  358 

Grote,  George— 304,  833 

Grounds,  School  —  see  School 
Grounds 

Guatemala — see  Central  America 

Guggenbuhl,  Dr. — 444 

Guggenmoos — 444 

Guizot,  F.  P.  G 393.     See  also  165, 

317,  318 

Gusta  vus  Adolph  us — 801 

Gutsmuths,  .1.  C.  F 394,  396,  757 

Gnyot,  A.  H. — 394.    See  also  334 

Gymnasiarch — 57 

Gymnasium — history  of,  394;  mod- 
ern meaning  of  in  Germany  and 
on  the  Continent,  395.  See  also 
57,  358,  386 

Gymnastics  —  agonistics  and  ath- 
letics, games  and  exercises,  396; 
gymnastics  as  a  part  of  education, 
397.  See  also  39,  57,  153,  213,  300, 
384,  394,  528,  702 

Habit — 397;  its  power,  bad  habits, 
teacher's  duty  toward,  good  hab- 
its, proper  time  for  forming,  398. 
See  also  34,  259 

Hackett,  Horatio  B. — 72 

Hadley,  James — 399 

Hadrian — 81 

Haehn,  J,  F 399 

Hahnemann — 560 

Haldeman,  Prof— 101 

Hale,  Chief  Justice— 405 

Half-Time  Schools— 399 

Hall,  S.  R.— 400.    See  also  260 

Halle,  University  of—  308 

Halls   English  Universities) — 151 

Hamilton,  Alexander — 037 

Hamilton,  James — 400 

Hamilton,  Sir  William — 555 

Hamilton  Baptist  Theological  Seminary 
—71 

Hamilton  College — 400 

Hamiltonian  Method — see  Hamil- 
ton, James.    See  also  488 

Hampden  Sidney  College — 401 

Hampden  Sidney  Theological  Seminary 

713 
Handel— 606 


VIII 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


Hannibal  College— 401 

Hanover  College — 401 

Hanover  Polytechnxcal  School — 369 

Harderwick,  University  of—  618 

Harmony  In  Development  —  the 
most  important  aim  in  educa- 
tion, 401;  abnormal  development 
destroys  happiness  and  impairs 
intellectual  effort,  402 

Harnlsch,  C.  W.— 402 

Harris,  James — 379 

Harris,   William  T.—  376,  755 

Harrow  School— 1W,  269 

Hartford— 171,  172,  175 

Hartford  Theological  Seminary — 170 

Hartley— 177 

Hart  lib,  Samuel— 403 

Hartsvillc  University — 403 

Hartmick  Theological  Seminary — 534 

Harvard  College — 17(1 

Harvard,  John— 403,  549 

Harvard  I "nl versify — departments 
of,  history  of,  403 :  buildings 
and  property,  the  curriculum, 
404;  tuition  tecs,  degrees,  etc., 
405;  presidents,  407.  Sec  also  152, 
611 

Haiiy,  Valentine — 407.    See  also  85 

Haven,  K.  ().— 407,  568 

Havcrlord  College — 407 

Hawaiian  Islands — area  and  popu- 
lation, educational  history,  407; 
school  system  and  statistics,  103 

H  ay  1 1—408 

Blazing  -408 

Heads  of  Houses — 151 

Beart,  Education  of— see  .Moral 
Education 

Hebrew  Language— origin  and  ear- 
ly   history,    alphabet,    scientific 

study  of  Hebrew,  foil;    philology, 
method  to  be  pursued  in  till 
dy  Of,  U0 

Hebrews,  Education  among  the— 
education  among  the  ancient  He- 
brews, 411;  Simon  lien  Shetach, 
schools  held  in  high  estimation, 
412:  organization  and  mode  of  in- 
struction, subjects  of  study,  edu- 
cation of  girls  and  women,!  L8;  ed- 
ucation under  the  Mohammedan 
rule,  414  :  decline  of  education 
from  the  13th  to  flic  17th  centu- 
ry, educational  history  in  recent 
times,  415.     See  also  245,  345 

Hecker,  John — 121 

Becker,  .1.  .1.-416,  807 

Bedding  <  'oi lege— 417 

Sedge-School — 117 

11. 'gel,  <;.  w.  I'.— 417.    See  also  35 

Hegeman,  Adrian —  \:w> 

Begins,  Alexander— 417 

Heidelberg,  University  of— 368 

Heidelberg  Catechism  -lis,  727 

Heidelberg  College— 418 

Heinichen — 224 

Belnlcke,  Samuel— lis.  See  also 
2U5 

Hellenic  Schools— 387, 388 
Hemsterhuis-  889 
Henderson  College — 418 
//■  new— 598 
Henfn  >/.  Prof.— 96 
Henkle,  W.  D. — 666 
//  itn,  P,      93 
Henry  VIII.    677,  678,  715 
Benrj  Joseph     1 1  B.    Se    also  34 
//  'ir:/,  /',  im  i ,  the  Navigator  -378 
Hens  low,  ./.  S. — 95 
Heraelcu     is 

Berbart,  J.  F.— 418;  his  psychology 
and  educational  views,   U9.    Bee 

also  8,  220 
Herder.  .1.  (i.  ,  on       I  l'i 

Hermann,  Gottfried  -420.    Sec  also 

362,  3v.i 
HersfeU      i 

Hesperian  College     120 
Hessus,  Eobanus     120 
Hej  ne.  «ii.  <;.     120 
//  ./• 

-18 


Hleronymians — 421 

High  Schools— 421,  828 

Higher  Education  —  see  High 
Schools,  Secondary  Instruc- 
tion, and  Superior  Instruction 

Highland  University— 423 

Hildebrand — 225 

Hillsdale  College— 423 

Hindoostan — 455 

Hippocrates — 557 

Hiram  College — 423 

History — 423:  proper  mode  of  teach- 
ing, stages  of,  424;  different  meth- 
ods, 425;  dates,  lectures,  kind  of 
material  for  elementary  study, 
426;  the  philosophy  of  history, 
value  of  testimony,  criticism,  427 

Hiwassee  College — 128 

Hobart  College — 428 

Bofwyl,  Schools  of — description  of, 
428;  Wehrli,  429.    See  also  11,  299 

Hogarth— 195 

Holbrook,  Josiah — 129 

Holiday — see  School  Festivals 

Holland — see  Netherlands 

HoUis— 72 

Hollins  Institute— 345 

Holy  Angels'  College — 430 

Holy  Cross,  College  of  the — 430 

Holyoke,  Edward — 171 

Home  Education — 130;  unconscious 
tuition,  the  mother,  home  and 
school  education  contrasted,  431. 
See  also  234.  245,  291 

Home  Lessons — 11(2 

Homer — 56 

Horn  ceopath  ic  Colleges — 560 

Honduras — 119 

Hope — see  Incentives,  Prizes,  and 
Rewards 

Hope  College — 133 

//'</*  weU  Baptist  Academy — 71 

1  liipi.in*,  Edward — 175 

Hopkins,  Johns — 494 

Bopkins.  Mark — 1.13.  See  also  171, 
257 

Hopkins  Grammar  School — 175 

I It  I  race — 185 

Horn-Hook— 433 

Horsing — 186 

Hospice  des  (Jninze-  Vinr/ts — 85 
House    of    Refuge  —  see     Reform 

Schools.     See  also  197 
Howard   College — 434 
Howard  University — 434 
Howe.  S.  G.— 434.    See  also  102 
//■  viand,  John — 735 
Hra'aius — see  Kalanus 
Buarte,  Juan — 135 
Huddlestone,  William  —676 

Huet,  P.  I) 435 

Hughes,  Archbishop — 218,  795 

Humanists— 248,  362 

Humanities — 435 

Humboldt,  K,  W.  von— 436 

Humboldt  College— 435 

Hungarian  Language — 609 

Hungary— 435;  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  436;  school 
system,  primary  instruction,  sta- 
tistics. 437:  secondary,  superior, 
and  special  instruction,  438 

Hutton — 556 

Huxley— ill,  868 

Hydrographic  Schools — si 2 

Hygiene.     School  — site     of    SCti 
building.     138  :    c.  instruct!.  I 
class  rooms,  windows,  their  size, 
number,  etc.,  439;  mode  of  venti- 
lation, heating,  temperature,  fur- 
niture, discipline  and  school  man 
agement,  440;  personal  condition 
upils,   phj  steal  exercise,  141; 

t  hi    play-ground.  442 
Hymns— 131 

/,  land— 216 

ie  !, indie  Language    278,  :;:.] 

Idaho     ar.a    and    population,   cdu    a 

Uonal  history.  bcI 1  system, 442; 

school  statistics,  school  fund,   143 

/./  at     169 


Idiocy— 443,  445 

Idiots.  Education  of— first  attempts 
to  educate,  history  of.  443:  insti- 
tutions for,  at  the  present  time, 
444:  table  of  statistics,  intellect- 
ual aspect  of  idiocy,  adaptation 
of  kindergarten  methods,  num- 
ber of  idiots  in  the  civilized 
world,  445 

Illinois— area  and  population,  445; 
educational  history,  school  sys- 
tem, 446;  school  fund,  teachers' 
certificates, educational  condition, 
statistics,  447;  normal,  secondary, 
superior,  technical,  and  profes- 
sional instruction,  448;  special 
instruction,  educational  associa- 
tions. 44'.! 

Illinois  College — 44'.i 

Illinois  Wesleyan  University — 449 

Illiteracy — definition  of,  influence 
of  on  communities,  449;  sources 
of  information  in  regard  to,  pres- 
ent condition  of  different  coun- 
tries in  regard  to.  450;  percentage 
of,  in  different  countries,  cause  of, 
influence  oi  education  on,  461; 
tabular  view  of  in  different  coun- 
tries, 452.     See  also  323. 

///  T,  niper— 681 

Imaginal  Ion,  Culture  of— necessity 
for  its  cultivation,  its  early  devel- 
opment, methods  of  cultivation. 
45:S:  the  fixing  of  the  attention  a 
prerequisite,  studies  into  which 
it  particularly  enters,  works  of 
fiction,  454.  See  also  307,  335,  345, 
.-,.-,4 

Imbi  ciles.  Schools  for — 176 

Imitation — 454 

Impatii  nee — 681 

Incentives,    School — 455.    See  also 

231 

India — area  and  population,  early 
history,  455;  ancient  and  modern 
India,  456;  educational  conditi  n 
and  statistics,  457.    See  also  ■'•<<" 

Indiana— area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  457:  school  su- 
perintendents, school  sytiiu,  458; 
school  fund,  school  taxes,  edu- 
cational condition  and  statistics, 
normal  instruction,  459;  seconda- 
ry, superior,  professional,  scien- 
tific, and  special  instruction,  edu- 
cational libraries  and  journals,  460 

Indiana  Asbury  University — 460 

Indiana  I  Diversity — 461 

India  11s,  A  mciican — 461 

Indian  Schools — 643 

Indian  Territory— area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  oondin.  n.462 

Individuality— 462.    Bee  also  872 

I  ndO-GermanlC   Languages — 464 
Inductive  .Method — 465 

Industrial  Drawing— 238,  466 
Industrial    Schools — early    legisla- 
tion concerning  in  England,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  4r>5;  iu  the  D.  8., 
466.    See  also  5,  266 
Industry— 467.    See  also  332 
infant  Schools— see  Kindergarten 
Ingerslev — 224 

Innae:  ill  ///.— 17S 

Inns  of  Court— 271,  515,  616 
Inspection.    School— see    Supervi- 
sion 
Tnspl  eh, mill  Examinations — 289 
Institul  d     I'ean. 

Instil,  1  mology  (Boston) — 772 

Institutes,  Teachers'-  Bee  Teach- 
ers' Institutes 

I  usi  ruction   —  distinguished     from 

education,  earlj  phases,  467:  gen- 
eralization, classes  of  subjects  on 
which  instruction  should  be 
given.  468.  Bee  als  1  U9,  173,  4s7. 
720 

Intellect— 469 

Intellectual  Education— the  intel- 
lect onlj  B  part  of  the   nun. I 

s.     Ideas,    eonceition,    469; 


ANALYTICAL  INDKX 


IX 


Intellectual  Education 

association,  generalization,  470; 
resemblanoe,  classification,  471; 
intuitive  generalization,  Indivi- 
dualization, memory,  imagina- 
tion, 47-2.     Sec  ills..  251 

Inter  -Collegiate  Contests — 397 

Interest— 473.     See  also  250,  '289,  6G9 

Intermediate  schools — 473 

l  interrogation — 473 

Intuitive  Generalization — 470 

Intuitive  Method  —  see  Object 
Teaching, and  I'estaiozzi 

Invention,  Rhetorical — 733 

Ionians — 396 

lotacism — 390 

Iowa  — area  and  j>opulation,  educa- 
tional history,  473;  state  super- 
intendents, school  system,  school 
revenue,  474;  educational  condi- 
tion, statistics,  normal  and  sec- 
ondary instruction,  475;  superior, 
technical,  professional, and  special 
instruction,  educational  journals, 
476 

Iowa,  State  University  of — 476 

Iowa  College — 476 

Iowa  Wesleyan  University — 477 

Iranian  Languages — 464 

Ireland — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  477;  national 
system,  educational  condition 
(national  system),  478;  other  edu- 
cational agencies,  secondary  and 
superior  instruction,  special  and 
professional  instruction,  479 

Ireland,  Church  of — '280 

Irenoeus — 2  46 

Irnerius — 203,  515 

Italian  Language — its  relative  im 
portance,  special  motives  for  the 
study  of,  4S0;   philology,  481 

Italian  Method  of  Book-keeping — 90 

Italy — area  and  population,  historic- 
al sketch,  educational  history, 
481;  school  statistics,  present  sys- 
tem, 483;  primary  instruction, 
statistics,  484;  secondary  instruc- 
tion, 435;  technical  and  superior 
instruction,  486;  special  instruc- 
tion, 487 

Hard,  Dr.— 443 

Ivy  Hall— 631 

Jacobi,  Mary  P. — 304 

Jacobs,  C.  F.  W.— 487 

Jacobson,  Israel — 415 

Jacotot,  Joseph — 487;  his  method 
of  teaching,  maxims,  488 

James  I. — 676 

James  VI.— Hi 

Jansz,  Andries — 636 

Japan — area  and  population,  early 
history,  488;  educational  history, 
489;  present  school  system,  490. 
See  also  450 

Jassy,  University  of—US 

Jay,  Peter  ^.—197 

Jefferson  College — 490 

Jefferson,  Thomas— -232,  825,  842,  846 

Jeffrey,  Francis — 243 

Jena,   University  of—  368 

Jersey  City — population, educational 
history,  city  superintendents, 
school  system,  school  revenue, 
491;  school  statistics,  492 

Jesuits — their  educational  work,  492; 
school  system,  493;  their  influ- 
ence, schools  and  colleges  in  the 
U.  S„  494.  See  also  38,  179,  234, 
248,  330,  359,  741,  742 

Jewell,  Edward — 71,  72 

Jewell,  F.  5.-374 

Jewish  Schools — 245 

Jex-IUake,  Dr.— 110 

John  C.  Green  School  of  Science — 631, 
632,  772 

Johns  Hopkins  University — 494 

Johnson,  AdeliaA.  F. — 148 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel— 34,  54,  99,  185, 
186,  223,  298,  307,  398 

Johnson,  Rev.  Samuel — 637 


Jonas,  Justus — 118 
Jonson,  JSen — 379 
Joseph  of  Calasanza — 704 
i  Joseph  II..  of  Austria — 68,  741 
Journal  of  Education — 177 
Judgment,  Training  of — 495.    See 

also  385,  427 
Julius.  Dr.— 809 
Justinian,  Code  of—  204 
Juvenal — 185 

Kalamazoo  College— 495 

Kansas — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational  history,  school  system, 
495;  educational  condition,  school 
statistics,  normal,  secondary,  and 
superior  instruction,  496;  profes- 
sional, scientific,  and  special  in- 
struction. 497 

Kansas,  University  of— 497 

Kant  Immamiel — his  philosophical 
system,  his  view  of  education, 
497;  his  influence,  498.  See  also 
32,  33,  34,  35,  465,  564 

Kapp— 417 

Kasan,  University  of— 750 

Ko.vi — 435 

Kempis,  Thomas  a — 358,  417,  421 

Kentucky — area  and  population, 
educational  history,  498;  school 
system,  educational  condition ; 
normal,  secondary,  and  superior 
instruction,  499;  professional, 
scientific,  and  special  instruction: 
society  for  the  advancement  of 
education;  state  teachers'  associ- 
ation, 500 

Kentucky  Military   Institute — 501 

Kentucky  University — 500 

Kentucky  Wesleyan   College — 501 

Kenyon  College— 501 

Kern,  Dr. — 444 

Kharkof,  University  of— 750 

Kidd,  John — 136 

Kidder,  Dr.— 118 

Kiddle,  Henry — 648 

Kief,  University  of— 150 

Kiel,  University  of — 368 

Kildare  Society— 477 

Kimball  Union  Academy — 627 

Kimchi,  David — 414 

Kindergarten  —  Froebel's  theory, 
501  ;  amusement  the  principal 
medium  for  the  education  of 
the  child,  family  education  alone 
insufficient,  social  education  to 
begin  early,  the  first  teacher 
should  be  a  woman,  rapid  adop- 
tion of  kindergarten  methods, 
gifts,  exercises,  concrete  facts  the 
first  to  be  taught,  502;  incorpo- 
ration of  the  kindergarten  with 
the  public  school,  reception  in 
the  U.  S.,  503;  condition  of  in 
Germany,  skillful  preparation  of 
the  teacher  necessary,  504.  See 
also  241,  293,  445,  828 

Kindermann,  Ferdinand — 504 

Kinesipathy—396,  524 

King  College — 505 

King  Edward's  School — 382 

King*s  College — 505 

Kingston,  University  of—  668 

Kirkland,  John  T. — 171 

Klausenburg,  University  of — 438 

Knights'  Academies — 361 

Knowledge — 453,  767 

Knox  College — 505 

Kobo  (of  Japan) — 489 

Kunigsberg,  University  of— 368 

Krosigk,  Ernestine  von — 364 

Kunze,  Johann  Christoph — 534 

Labor  Schools — 465 

Labrador — 600 

Lachmann — 352 

Lactanlius — 142 

Ladies'  Colleges— 267,  269 

Ladies'  Course — 302 

Lafavctte  College — 506.  See  also  31, 

276 
La  Grange  College — 50G 


Lahainaluna  School — 845 

Lancashire  Independent  College — 171 

Lancaster,  Joseph  —  506;  opens  a 
school  in  Southwark,  Dr.  Bell, 
success  of  Lancaster,  modes  oi 
punishment,  decline  in  the  pop- 
ularity (if  his  method,  507.  See 
also  145,  268,  594 

Land  Grants,  Congressional — see 
United  States.    See  also  10,  826 

Lane  Theological  Seminary — 664 

Lane  I'nivcrsity— 508 

Lanfranc — 31 

Lange,  Rudolph — 358 

Langhorne — 186 

Language  — its  varieties,  compara- 
tive study  of  languages,  508;  the 
child's  mastery  of  language,  in- 
struction in,  509  ;  classical  and 
modern  languages,  510.  See  also 
34,  241,  271,  293,  362,  471 

Laplace — 575 

La  Salle,  J.  15.— 510 

La  Salle  College— 510.  See  also  743, 
S07 

Lascaris — 391 

Eatin,  Christian — 142,  143 

Latin  Language  —  its  derivation, 
510;  lingua  urbana.  lingua  rustica, 
Latin  in  the  middle  ae,es,  the  al- 
phabet, 511;  study  of  Latin  at  the 
present  time,  512;  exercises  in 
composition  and  versification, 
513  ;  history  of  Latin  grammar, 
514.     See  also  142,  143,  357,  493 

Latin  Schools— 515.  See  also  357, 358, 
366,  511 

Lausanne,  University  of— 805 

Laval,  University  of — 'i  18 

Law  Schools  —  their  early  history, 
515  ;  recent  history  in  England 
and  the  U.  S.,  516;  statistics,  or- 
ganization, course  of  study,  ad- 
mission, length  of  course,  gradu- 
ation, 518;  table  of  law  schools  in 
the  U.  S.,  519 

Lawrence,  Abbott — 519 

Lawrence,  Amos — 519 

Lawrence  Scientific  School — 405,  772 

Lawrence  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin—519 

Layritz,  P.  £.—599 

Lebanon  Valley  College — 519 

Lebrija,  Antonio  de — 793 

Lectures  —  lecture  defined,  differ- 
ence between  a  lecture  and  a  les- 
son, in  what  grades  of  schools 
used  as  a  means  of  instruction, 
520.     See  also  126,  426 

Lecture  Schools — 382,  715 

Lecture  System — 520 

Legal  Education  Society — 516 

Lehigh  University — 520 

Leigh,  Dr.  Edwin— 674,  701 

Leipsic,  University  of— 368 

Leland  University — 520 

Lemberg,  University  of — 64 

Lennoxville,  University  of— 718 

Lenz— 757 

Leo,  Prof— 227 

Leonardo  da  Vinci— 308 

Lerinum  Theological  School — 178 

Leslie,  Sir  John  —  biographical 
sketch,  his  chief  publications,  520 

Lessing — 362 

Lessons — 432,  441 

Letter-Blocks— 25 

Leuthal,  Robert— 734 

Leverett — 221 

Lewis,  IMo— 521 

Lewis,  Samuel — 662 

Lewisburg,  LTuiversity  at — 521 

Lewis  College — 521 

Lexicon — 223 

Leyden,  University  of — 618 

L'Homond,  Ch.  F.—  526.  See  also  143, 
513 

Liber,  Antonius — 8 

Liberal  Education— 521 

Liberia  —  area  and  population,  its 
settlement,  the  native  tribes,  the 
Mandingos,     their     schools,    tin 


A  XALYTICAL   INDEX 


Liberia 

Veys,  mission  school,  system  of 
public  schools,  statistics,  Mesu- 
rado,  521 

libraries — the  value  of,  legislation 
in  regard  to  school  libraries,  521  ; 
school-district  libraries  in  New 
York  and  other  states,  public  li- 
braries in  Massachusetts,  how 
generally  regarded,  utility  of 
school  libraries,  522 

License,  Teacher's  —  defined,  how 
usually  conferred,  the  object  of, 
law  in  relation  to,  state  certifi- 
e.it  s.  standard  for,  incompetent 
examiners,  proper  conditions  far 
awarding  teachers'  certificates, 
522;  how  conferred  in  New  York, 
provisions  of  the  English  Ele- 
mentary Education  Act,  of  the 
Scotch  Education  Act,  require- 
ments in  Austria,  in  Franc  > 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  other  Eu- 
ropean countries,  523.  See  also 289 

Lieber,  Francis  —  biographical 
sketch,  his  principal  publica- 
tions, importance  of  his  labors, 
528 

Liebreich  —  293,  44,0 

Liege,  University  of— -77 

Light,  in  School  Rooms — 140 

Lily.  William— his  early  life,  edu- 
cational works,  his  Latin  gram- 
mar—  Breeissima  Institutio  seu 
Ratio  Orammatices  Cognoscsndje, 
524.  See  also  379 

Lincoln  College — .Y_!l 
Lincoln  /  nil  it  lit'' — 590 
Lincoln  Institution — (590 

Lincoln  University  (111.)— 524 
Lincoln  University  (Pa.)— 524 
Llndsley,  Philip— 624 
Ling,  P.  B.— 524 

Lingg,  llurkard — 67 

Linguistics — see  Language 

Lisbon,  University  of — 708 

Litc'i /i''< I  l.nm  School — 176 

Literal  Method— 399 

Literature,  Educational— 8X8 

Literature  Mot'tematical — 556 

Lithology — 581 

Lithuania  Languages — 464 

Littre— 225,  327 

Liverpool — 165 

Locke,  John — biographical  sketch. 
524;  educational  views.  526.  See 
also  6,  83,  34,  35,  66,  185,  195,  196, 
197.  284,  24s,  291,  330,  424,  434, 513 

Logic — 733 

Lombard  University — 526 

London.  University  of— 526,  832 

London  School  Hoard — 267 

London  Theological  Hall — 711 

Longfellow,  /I.  H\—  97 
ile  Vega — 792 

Lord,  A.  V.— 665 

Lord,  Nathan — 171 

Lorlnser,  K.  I. — 528 

Lorsch—81 

Lotteries— 4538 

Louis  XI V.— 212,  308 

Louisiana  —  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  528;  school 
system,  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  normal  and  sec- 
ondary Instruction,  529;  superior, 
scientific,  professional,  and  spe- 
cial Instruction,  530 

Louisiana  Slate  I' nl  versify— 530 
Louisville     population,   580;   educa- 
tional    history,    school    system, 
e  In.  atioual  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics. 581 
Louvain,  University  qf—16,  77 

Love  -632.      S  te  BISO  J"il 

Lowell,  John — 93 

/  John  Jr. — ."i49 

Lowth,  Hi  hop    878,  379 

i.o\ oia  ( iollege 

Loyola,  Ignatius — 492 

Lucn  Hut 

l.uni.  University  of—  802 


Luther.  Martin  — 532.  See  also  34, 
117,  118,  164,  247,  300,  301,  605,  780 

Lutherhof—i2& 

Lutheran  Church  —  its  history, 
number  of  adherents,  the  General 
Synod,  the  General  Council,  the 
Syuodical  Conieivuce,  the  South- 
ern Synod.  533;  educational  in- 
stitutions in  the  U.  S.,  534 

Luyck,  JBgidius — 636 

Luzzato,  S.  D. — 115 

Lyceum — 534.     See  also  150 

Lyceum,  American — 430 

Lycurgus — 535,  T'.KS 

Lyon,  Mary — 535 

McCarty,  H.  D.— 167 
McCorkle  College— 535 

McCosh,  James — 535.     See  also  10 

McDonough  Institute — 547 

McEMgott—201 

Macerata,  University  of — 486 

McGee  college — 713 

Mri ; hi  University— 712,  718 

McGufTey,  W.   H.  —635 

Mnrkny,  Dr.  A. — 565 

Mi-Kern.  Joseph — 646,  648 

M'Kendree  College — 536 

McMlnnvllle  College— 636 

McNealy  Normal  School— 663 

Madison  University — 536 

Madras  College — 78,  774 

Madras  System  —  see  Monitorial 
Svstem 

Madvig,  J.  X.— 536 

Magre  College — 179.  711 

Hager  Karl— 536;  the  genetic  meth- 
od, his  views  of,  537.  See  also 
221,  222.  593 

M  agister — 80 

Maglathlin,  II.  ft.— 830 

Maimonides,  Moses — 414 

Ma  im  on  ides  College — 4 16 

Maine — area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  537;  taxes,  income 
of  permanent  funds,  supervision 
of  schools,  school  system.  588; 
educational  condition,  539;  school 
statistics,  normal  and  secondary 
instruction,  denominational  and 
parochial  schools:  superior,  pro- 
fessional, and  scientific  instruc- 
tion. 540;  special  instruction, 
educational  literature,  541 

Maitland,  Sir  Peregrine — 667 

Male  Teachers — 305 

Malpagh  ino,  0  io  va  n  n  i — 482 

Manchester — 165 

Mandingos,  Education  among  the — 521 

Manhattan  College — 541 

Manitoba — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational condition.  541 

.Mann.  Horace — early  life  and  educa- 
tion of,  541;  secretary  of  I  he  board 
of  education,  542:  his  work,  543. 
See  also  33,  85,  147.  187,  188,  297, 
548,  660,  679.  682,  son.  826 

Manners — 543 

Manning,  James,  D.  D. — 105 

Mantel,  H.  L. — 47o.  471 

Mansfield,  E.   D.— 179 

Manual  Labor  Schools — see  Indus- 

t  rial  Schools 
.l/n» u in ission  Society — 647 

Map-Drawing— see  Geogra  phy 

Maps,  Study  of—  336.  337 
Marburg,  University  of — 868 
Maria  Theresa— -68,  672 
Mariana— 792 

.Marietta  College — 544 
Marion  Female  Institute — 846 
Martha  Washington  College — 846 
Maryland — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational   history,   school    s\steiii, 

5ti:  educational  condition, school 

statistics,  normal    and   secondary 

instruction.  646;  denominational 

and  parochial  Schools;   superior. 

profi  asional,  Boientiflc.and  special 

Instruction  ;      teachers'     associa- 
tions. 546 

tfaryville  College    "it 


Mason.  J.  M.,  D.  D.— 714,  819 

Mason,  Lowell — 547 

Massachusetts  —  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history,  547:  in- 
dividual gilts,  tuition  fees,  taxes, 
income  ot  permanent  funds.  549; 
special  appropriations,  supervi- 
sors of  the  common  schools,  tru- 
ant laws,  school  system,  550:  edu- 
cational condition,  school  statis- 
tics, normal  Instruction,  551 ; 
evening  schools,  secondary  in- 
struction, denominational  and 
parochial  schools;  superior,  pro- 
fessional, and  scientific  instruc- 
tion. 552:  special  instruction,  553. 
See  also  166 

Master  of  Arts — see  Degrees 

Mastery  Method — see  Latin  Lan- 
guage 

Mail  mat  Education — 431 

Mathematics  —  what  it  compre- 
hends, definition  of,  use  of  in 
mental  training,  553:  to  what  ex- 
tint  it  should  he  pursued  in  pri- 
mary schools.  666;  principles  gov- 
erning methods  ot  instruction  in. 
mathematical  literature,  556.  See 
also  706 

Math,  r.  t  otlim— 124,  186 

Matiu  r,  1  inn  use — 171 

Matriculate — 557 

Matzner— 31,  277,  326 

Maud,  Daniel— 547,  549 

Maudsley— $02 

Mam  y,  Jonathan,  D.  D. — 105 

Mayer,  Dr.  Lewis — 7:;u 

MaynooQi  College — 47'.) 

Mi chanical  ?'•  aching — 745 

Mechanics'  Institutes — 811 

Medical  schools — earliest  accounts 
of,  557:  organization  of  in  differ- 
ent countries,  history  of  in  the 
TJ.  S..  568;  list  of  medical  schools, 
dental  colleges,  etc.,  560.  See  also 
209 

Medici,  The— 482 

Mehemet  AH— -255,  266 

Meierotto,  .1.  U.  L.— 560 

Meiklejohn— 710 

Mi  Ibourne,  University  of — 61 

Melancht  lion.  Philip — 561.  See  also 
164,  186,  389,  396,  605 

Memorizing— 561.  See  also  208,  326, 
312.  344 

Memory  —  its  nature,  conditions  of 
its  exercise,  method  of  strength- 
ening. 562  :  repetition,  strength 
of  memory  dependent  somewhat 
on  bodily  health,  relative  value 
of  things  to  be  remembered,  56:.; 
Kant's  distinctions,  mnemonics, 
Memoria  Technica,  system  of  Fau- 
vi  1  Gouraud,  564;  Alex.  Mackay's 
Facts  and  Dates,  565.  See  also  554, 
723 

Mend*  Issohn,  Moses — 415 

Mention  it  cs — 565 

.i/c  rcator — 57 

Mercersburg  College — 565 

Mercers  Company's  School — 269 

Mercer  Unlversltj     666 

i/       •int  Taylors'  school — 267 

Merit  i.  Amiela — 743 

Messina,  Un\  oersity  of — 486 

.Methodists— their  origin  and  distri- 
bution, colleges  and  schools.  666, 
567  :  foreign  missions,  board  of 
education.  Sutnla)  -schools,  atti- 
tude   ot     the    Methodists   toward 

the  public  schools.  668;  ooU 
and  universities,  669.  Bee  also  323 

Methods— 269 

Mexico  ana  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  secondary  in- 
struction. University  of  Mexico, 
670 

Miami  University— 671 

Michigan— area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  school  system, 
571;  educational  condition  and 
statistics,  normal  and  secondary 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


XI 


Michigan 

instruction,  572;  denominational 
ami  parochial  schools;  superior, 
professional, scientific,  and  special 
instruction,  573;  educational  lit- 
erature, 574 

Michigan,  I'liiversity  of — 574 

Mlddlebury  College— 575 

Wdille  Schools — 1 73 

Military  Drill— 397,  702 

Military  Schools — organization  of  in 
different  countries,  in  the  U.  S., 
575;  military  tactics  taught  in 
colleges,  576;  contrast  of  the 
French  and  Prussian  systems  of 
military  education,  577 

MiU,  John  Stuart— UO,  514,  613 

Miller,  Samuel—  846 

Miller  Manual  Labor  School — 846 

Milne  Orphan  Asylum — 634 

Milton,  John — life  and  career,  Tract- 
ate on  Education,  577 ;  educati  >n- 
al  views,  578.  See  also  33,  99,  140, 
242,  403 

Milton  College— 578 

Milwaukee-  population,  578;  educa- 
tional history,  city  superintend- 
ents, school  system  and  statistics, 
579 

Miner,  A.  A. —330 

Mineralogy — definition  and  general 
view  of;  minerals,  rocks,  fossils, 
crystalline  forms,  530;  impor- 
tance from  an  educational  stand- 
point, at  what  stage  to  be  pur- 
sued, lithology,  581 

Mines,  School  of  —  see  Scientific 
Schools 

Ministry  of  Public  Instruction — 
581 

Minnesota  —  581 ;  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history,  school 
system,  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  582;  normal  and 
secondary  instruction,  denomina- 
tional and  parochial  schools,  su- 
perior instruction,  583  ;  profes- 
sional, scientific,  and  special  in- 
struction, educational  literature, 
584 

Minnesota,  University  of — 584 

Mischievousness — 534 

Mississippi  —  584;  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history,  school 
system,  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  normal  instruc- 
tion, 585 ;  secondary,  superior, 
professional,  scientific,  and  spe- 
cial instruction,  586 

Mississippi,  University  of — 586 

Mississippi  College — 586 

Missouri — 586;  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  587  ;  perma- 
nent school  fund,  school  super- 
vision, state  superintendents, 
school  system,  589;  educational 
condition,  school  statistics,  nor- 
mal instruction,  teachers'  insti- 
tutes, secondary  instruction,  590; 
superior,  professional,  scientific, 
and  special  instruction,  educa- 
tional journals,  591 

Missouri,  University  of  the  State 
of— 591 

Mnemonics — see  Memory 

Model  Schools  —  see  Normal 
Schools.     See  also  478,  651, 809 

Modena,  University  of- — 486 

Modern  Languages  —  591;  French, 
English,  and  German,  the  oriental 
languages,  proper  time  in  the 
school  course  to  introduce  tier 
study  of  modern  languages,  their 
value  as  compared  with  the  clas- 
sical, 592;  comparative  linguistics, 
methods  of  teaching,  593.  See 
also  224.  225 

Modulator — 783 

Mohammedanism— -24,  36,  247,  256,  413, 

790 
Monastic  Orders— 246,  301,  314 

Monitorial   System  —  its   history, 


Monitorial  System 

Bell,  Lancaster.  594;  its  peculiar 
features,  595.     See  also  371,  386 

Monitors — 478,  717 

Monmouth  College — 595 

Montaigne.  Michel — his  educational 
views,  595.     See  also  33,  35,  185 

Montana — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  school  system, 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics, normal  instruction,  teach- 
ers' institutes;  secondary,  supe- 
rior, professional,  scientific,  and 
special  instruction,  596 

Monte  Casiyw — 81 

Montgomery  Bell  Academy — 814 

Montpellier,  University  of—  315 

Montreal,  University  at — 718 

Montucla— 556 

Moon,  Washington — 603 

Moore's  Hill  College— 596 

M oort— 80 

Moral  Education — 597.  See  also  35, 
177,  230,  291 

Moralizing — 598 

Moral  Suasion — see  Corporal  Pun- 
ishment 

Moravian  Brethren — their  origin, 
ancient  church,  598 ;  Renewed 
Brethren's  Church,  primary 
schools,  boarding-schools,  599; 
classical  schools  and  colleges, 
theological  seminaries,  special 
schools,  schools  in  the  mission- 
ary provinces,  principles  of  edu- 
cation, 600;  statistical  summary, 
601 

Morbid  Growth— 702 

More,  Hannah— 303 

Morgan,  Augustus  de — 833 

Morley—lil 

Morocco — 601 

Morse,  Jedidiah — 57/334 

Morse,  Sidney  E.—57,  334 

Moscow,  University  of — 750 

Mosque  Schools — 37 

Mother — see  Home  Education 

Mother-Tongue — 601.     See  also  591 

Mount  Holyoke  Seminary — 535 

Mount  Saint  Mary's  College — 602 

Mount  Saint  Mary's  Seminary  of 
the  AVest— 602 

Mount  Union  College— 602 

Muhlenberg  College— 602 

Mt.  St.  Mary's  Academy — 627 

Motives,  Secundary — 597 

Movement  Cure — 524 

Miihler,  Von — 364 

MQXler,  K.  O— 362,  378 

Mutter,  Polyearp— 599 

Munich,  University  of — 368 

Murray,  Lindley — 602.    See  also  379 

Murray,  Rev.  John — 829 

Music — history  and  general  view  of, 
603,  604;  harmony,  604;  musical 
education,  60G ;  conservatories, 
606,  607,  608,  609,  610;  musical  in- 
struction in  schools  and  colleges, 
610,  611.     See  also  40,  241.  285 

Musical  Conservatories — 606,  607,  608 

Music  Schools — 606 

Mutual  System  — see  Monitorial 
System 

Myopia— 293 

Naples,  University  of- — 486 

Napoleon  I. — 317 

Napoleon,  Louis — 165 

Nashville,  University  of— 612 

Nassau  Hall — 632 

National  Education— 612.    See  also 

264,  692 
National  Academy  of  Sciences — 3 
National  History — 670,  770 
National  Language — 613 
Notional  Society  (English)— 266 
Noli  on  at  University — 832 
Natural  Science — see  Science,  The 

Teaching  of 
Nature,  Method  of— 298 
Nautical  School,  Neiv  York — 645,  649 
Nautical  Schools — 615 


Naval  Schools— 615 

Navigation  schools — 812 

Nazareth.  Halt— KM) 

Nebraska — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  school  system, 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics. 616  :  normal  instruction, 
teachers'  institutes,  educational 
journal;  secondary,  superior,  sci- 
entific, professional,  and  special 
instruction,  617 

Nebraska,  I'liiversity  of — 617 

Nebraska  College — 618 

Needle-Work — see  Female  Educa- 
tion, and  Industrial  Schools. 
Sec  also  466 

Negative.  Marks,  for  Examinations — 291 

Neoplalonism — 17,  255,  385 

Netherlands— area  and  population, 
educational  history.  618;  primary 
and  secondary  instruction,  619  ; 
superior  and  special  instruction; 
Luxemburg,  620.    See  also  165 

Nevada — area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  620;  school  system, 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics; normal,  secondary,  supe- 
rior, professional,  scientific,  and 
special  instruction,  621 

Nevin.  Rev.  J.  It'.— 730 

.Y.  aim,  T.  J. — 758 

New  Amsterdam — 636 

Newark  —  population,  621 ;  educa- 
tional history,  school  system,  sta- 
tistics, 622 

Newark  Theological  Seminary — 712 

Newberry  College — 623 

New  Britain — 175 

New  Brunswick  —  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  condition,  623 

Newbury  Theological  Seminary — 714 

New  Castle  College— 624 

New  England — 170,  825 

New  England  Journal  of  Education — 
177,541 

Newfoundland  —  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  condition,  624 

New  Hampshire— area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history,  625; 
school  system  and  revenue,  626; 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics; normal,  secondary,  denom- 
inational, and  superior  instruc- 
tion, 627;  teachers'  association,  628 

New  Haven— 123,  171,  Vr2.  175 

New  Jersey  —  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  628 ;  school 
system,  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  630;  normal,  sec- 
ondary, private,  denominational, 
superior,  professional,  scientific, 
and  special  instruction,  631 

New  Jersey,  College  of— 632 

New  Jerusalem,  Societies  of  the — 
632 

New  Mexico  —  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  632;  school 
system,  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  private  and  pa- 
rochial schools,  633 

Newnham  Hall—lid,  863 

New  Orleans  —  settlement  of,  633; 
educational  history,  school  sys- 
tem and  statistics,  634 

New  South  Wales — 61 

Newspapers  —  as  means  of  instruc- 
tion, 6  !.">.    See  also  332 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac — 142 

Newton  Baptist  Theological  Seminary — 
71 

New  York  (State)— area  and  popu- 
lation, educational  history,  6.;6; 
state  superintendents,  639  ;  edu- 
cational system,  640;  regents  of 
the  university,  financial,  641  ; 
common-school  fund,  school  sta- 
tistics, 642  ;  normal  instruction, 
643;  denominational  schools;  sec- 
ondary, superior,  scientific,  and 
professional  instruction,  644;  spe- 
cial instruction,  educational  asso- 
ciations, 645;  school  journals,  646 


SII 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX 


New  York  (City) — educational  his- 
tory, 646;  county  and  city  su- 
perintendents, school  system.  04s ; 
school  statistics,  private  and  de- 
nominational schools,  049 

New  York,  College  of  the  City  of 
—049 

New  York,  University  of  the  City 
of— 660 

New  Zealand — see  Australasian 
Colonics 

Nicaragua — 120,  531 

Nieolai — 74 

Niemeyer,  A.  H 050.    See  also  34, 

767 

Nisibis  Theological  School — 240 

Xitschmann — ■'.'■.> 

Y     '.  F.  J.—V21 

Normal  Art  School — 552 

Normal  College  —  see  New  Y'ork 
(City) .     See  also  422,  049 

Normal  School— 650.     See  also  221, 

MIS 

Normal  Schools  in  U.  .9.-810 

Normal  University — 814 

Normans — 678 

North,  Roger— QM 

North  Carolina  —  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history,  sell  io] 
income.  651;  taxes, school  system, 
educational  condition,  school 
tistics.  652 :  normal,  secondary, 
superior,  scientific,  professional, 
and  special  instruction,  653 

North  Carolina,  University  of— 
653 

Northern  Illinois  College— 653 

Northrop,  B.  ff.— 166,  174,  312,  551 

Northwestern  Christian  Univer- 
sity—654 

Nort  h western  College — 654 

Northwestern  University  (HI.)  — 
654 

Northwestern  University  (Wis.)— 
654 

Norway — see  Sweden 

Norwegian  Luther  College—:;.")! 

Norwich  University — 654 

Notre  Dame  des  Angus — 024 

Notre  Dame  Du  Lac,  University 
of — 665 

Nott,  Ellphalet — 655 

Nova  Scotia  —  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  655;  school 
system.  656 

Novels — see  Fiction 

Number — 050,  695 

Numeral  Frame — 657 

Oakland  College— 586 
Oberlin,  J.  P.— 658 
Oberlln  College 

Oln  rlin  Tlu  illogical  Seminary — 170 

Object  Teaching — history  of,  Pesta- 
lozzi,  658;  views  of  educators 
concerning,  659;  present  status, 
660.  Se,-  also  168,  221,  272,  313, 
696,  785 

Oblate  Fathers  of  Mary  Immaculate — 
668 

Observing  Faculties  —  see  Intel- 
lect u.il  Education,  and  Object 
Teaching.     See  also  770 

Occam — 070 

Odeschalchi     166 

Odessa,  University  of- — 750 

O' Fallon  Polytechnic  Institute — 755,  861 

ohio-ana  ami  population,  educa- 
tional history,  001;  state  super 
Intendments,  Bchool  system,  edu- 
cational condition,  662;  school 
revenue  and  statistics,  normal  in- 
struction, teachers'  institutes, 
secondary  instruction,  003;  supe- 
rior, professional,  and  scientific 
instruction,  664;  special  Instruc- 
tion,educational  literature, teach- 
ers' associations,  666 

Ohio  Central  Collegi — 005 

ohlo  University    666 

Ohio  Wesl.yan   I'  u  Iverslty— 666 

Olivet  College— 666 


Ollav  Fola — 477 

Ollendorff  System— 513,  593 

Olmsted,  Denison — 666 

Ommiyades — 36 

One  Study  University— 666 

Ontario — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  present  school 
system, 007 

Opitz— 352 

Optional  Studies — 153 

Oral  Examination — 290 

Oral  Instruction — definition  of, 668; 
proper  use  of,  669 

Order — 670 

Order  of  Studies  —  see  Course  of 
Instruction.     Bee  also  769 

Oregon — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  school  system, 
670;  educational  condition,  school 
statistics;  normal,  secondary,  de- 
nominational, superior,  profes- 
sional, and  scientific  instruction, 
671;  special  instruction,  072 

Origen—la,  240 

Orphan  Asylums— 072 

Orthography  —  definition  of,  072; 
effect  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Norman 
on  the  English  alphabet,  syn- 
onymous with  spelling,  r>7;i ;  dif- 
ferent systems  of  phonetic  spell- 
ing proposed,  improvements  sug- 
gested by  the  international  Con- 
vention of  1870,  074 

Oryctology—338 

Oskaloosa  College— 075 

Ostrogoths — isi 

Otho  University — 388 

on, ,wo.  College  <»/— oiv; 

Otterbein,  P.  FT.— 828 

( itterbein  University — 075 

Overcrowding — 838 

Owens,  John — 075 

Owens  College — 675 

Oxe.nsli'  rn  — 160 

Oxford,   University  of— history  of, 
organization,  676  ;   political  rep- 
resentatives   of,  government    of, 
677;  list  of  subordinate  coll 
678.     See  also  165,  209,  818 

Pacific,  University  of  the— 678 
Pacific  Methodist  Collegi — 678 

I'aeific  Theological  Seminary — 170 
I'ar'iflc  University— 679 

Packer,  William  S.— 104 

I'acicer  Collegiate  Institute — 1(14 

Paderborn,  Cathedral  School  of— 119 

Padua,   University  of- — 486 

Pcedagogium — 301 

/'ad, :,),,, in mi  nf  Halle — 321 

Page,    I).    P 679.     See   also  35,  66, 

187,  188,  192.374,375,  433,  723,  721 
Palaentology — see  Geology 
Palatinate  College — 679 
Palatinate  School — 122 
1'alatium  Scholar — 283 

Palermo,  University  of — 486 

Palsgrave — 320 

Pantcenus — 18 

Paradis,  Th  e  resa  von — 87 

Paraguay         area    and    population, 

educational    history.   079;    educa- 
tional condition,  080 

Parental  Education — see  Home 
Education 

Paris,  University  of— CI,  208,  315 

Parish,  Anne — 090 
/  'a  rith  Schools — 772 
I'arma,  University  of— 486 
Parochial   School— 680 
Parsees — 460,  455 
Parsing— "XI,  381 

Parsons   College — 680 

Passion — 259 

Passiveness  (in  pupils) — 723 

Passow,  F.  L.  K.  F.— 680.    See  also 

891 
Pastor's  College— 11 
Patience— 681 
Pauperism  —460,  713 
Pauper  System    686 
Pav\a,  Univi  rsity  of—  486 


i  Payne,  Joseph— 681.  See  also  710,767 

Peabody,  George — 681 

Peabody  Fund  (Educational) — 681 

Peabody  Institute — 546 

Pedagogics— 244  682,  759 

Pedagogue — 1 182 

Pedagogy— 692.     See  also  220 

Pedro  Ponce  de  Leon — 204 

Peet,  II.  P.  —  his  early  life,  made 
president  of  the  N.  Y.  institu- 
tion for  the  Deaf-and-Dumb,  hifl 
theory  regarding  deaf-mutes,  682; 
his  method,  syntax  of  the  natural 
language  of  signs,  683.  See  also 
795 

Peet,  Isaac  L.— 683 

Pelrce,  Cyrus— 683 

Pekin,  University  at — 133 

/■■/in ,i,  J.  ('.—  757 

l'i  ink,  se  School — 6 

Penmanship— 684.  See  also  221,  285, 
488 

Penn,  FPtUtam— 686,  097 

Pi  nnalism—  295,  367 

Peim  College — 685 

Pennington  &  minary — 631 

Pennsylvania — area  and  population, 
educational  history,  the  colonial 
period,  685;  under  the  constitu- 
tion ot  1790,686;  under  the  con- 
stdtutions  of  1838  and  1873,  table 
of  progress,  state  superintend- 
ents, school  system,  687:  educa- 
tional condition,  school  statistics, 
Oss;  normal  instruction,  teach- 
ers' institutes  ;  secondary,  su- 
perior, professional,  scientific, 
and  special  instruction,  689 

Pennsylvania, The  Western  U/ni- 
rersity  of— 691 

Pennsylvania,  University  of — 690 

Pennsylvania  College — 690 

Pennsylvania  Military  Academy 
— 090 

Pensions,  Teachers' — 691.  See  also 
266,  365,  sii4 

Perception — see  Intellectual  Edu- 
cation.    See  also  453,  469,  058 

Perikltone— 300 

Perkins,  G.  E.— 830 

Perkins  I  nst  Hut  ion  for  the  Blind — 553 
Persia — area  aud  population,  ancient 
Persia,  691;  educational  history, 
modern  Persia,  educational  his- 
tory. 092.     See  also  300 
Personal  Influence,  of  Teacher — 291 
Peru— area  aud  population,  092;  edu- 
cational historj .  693 
Perugia,  University  of — 486 
Pesialo/./.i,  J.   H. —early    life,    edu- 
cation,   early    impressions    con- 
cerning, opens  the  first  industrial 
school,  09;t;  Evenings  of  a  Recluse, 

l.i,  n hard  ami  <,'■  rtrud.  his  method, 
his  success,  694;  his  theory  of  in- 
struction, 696.  See  also  34,  35, 
248,299,  307,  302.058 

PtstalOfei-  Vi  retn — 691 

Peter,  Lombard— -209 

Peter  Martyr— 18 

J ',ii  r  the  Great — 717 
1  'eii  rs.  Absalom — 646 
Peters,  C.  ff.  P.-  101 
Petersburg,  University  at — 750 
FWrarcA.482 

/'lister— see  HolfllS 

Pharmaceutical  Schools  — early 
historj  of,  696;  influence  of  chem- 
istry on.  recent  progress  of,  con- 
dition of  in  Europe,  090;  in  the 
V.  s..  697 

Philadelphia  —population,  educv 
tional  history.  697;  school  sys- 
tem, statistics.  698 

Philadelphia  llii/h  School— 422 

Phllanthropln— 699.    See  also  68, 

74.  299.  362,  757 
Philanllirojiinists-  757 
/  'h  Han  th  rapists— -36 1 
Philbrick,  J.  !>.— 174.  423,  800 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover — 4,  170 
Phillips  Aeadnny,  Exeter— 1,   170,  627 


ANALYTICAL     INDEX 


XIII 


PhHo—412 

J'hilological  Study— 214 
Philology— see  Language 
Philosophy  of  History— 421 

I 'hint lis— 300 

Phippt,  A.  B.— 551 

Phonetic  Method— -721 

Phonetic  Print— Ml 

Phonetics— definition  of, phonology. 
699;  phonetic  print,  700:  phonetic 
writing  and  teaching,  701.  See 
also  275,  tj73 

Phonetic  Teaching — 701 

Phonic  Method— 702.  See  also  673, 
721 

Phonics  —  see  Orthography,  and 
Phonetics 

Phonography — 699,  701 

Phonology— 215,  699 

Phonotypy — 699 

I'hotius—3SS,  389 

Phrenology— see  Character,  Dis- 
cernment of.     See  also  329,  759 

Phrenomnemotechny  — 564 

Physical  Education  —  physical 
training,  prevention  of  disease, 
702.     See  also  234,  251,  441,  521 

Physical  Exercise — 441 

Physical  Training — 702 

Physics—  see  Science,  The  Teach- 
ing of.     See  also  769 

Physiology — -its  place  and  value  as 
a  part  of  education,  703 

Piarists— 701.    See  also  741 

Pickering — 224 

Pictou  Academy — 656 

Pictures— 704.    See  also  453,  454,  659 

Pierce,  J.  D. — 571 

Pierius — 18 

Pietists— SI,  248 

Pietro  di  Castro— 204 

Pinkerlon  Academy — 627 

Pio  Nono  College— 701 

Pisa,  University  of — 486 

Pitman,  Isaac — 674,  701 

Pittsburgh  — population,  etc.,  edu- 
cational history,  school  system, 
statistics.secondary  and  parochial 
schools,  705 

Place — 695 

Platen,  Thomas— 67 

Platform— 764 

Plato — biographical  sketch,  the  Acad- 
emy, his  system  of  philosophy, 
educational  views,  706.  See  also 
32,  33,  34,  330 

Platonic  Philosophy — 246 

Play— 329 

Play-Ground— 442 

Plegmund — 18 

Pliny— 1*  H 

Plotinus— IS 

Plutarch— 186,  368,744 

Pico  of  Mirandola — 482 

Poetry— its  use  in  the  school,  705 

Polite  Literature — 435 

Politeness — see  Manners 

Political  Economy  —  see  Social 
Economy.     See  also  783 

Polytechnic  Institute,  Brooklyn — 104 

Polytechnic  School  (Paris)— 575,  771 

Polytechnic  Schools  —  see  Scien- 
tific Schools.   See  also  771 

Pomponatius— 482 

Pontypool  College — 71 

Popular  Education  —  see  Educa- 
tion, and  National  Education 

Porlier,  James — 859 

Porter,  President— 251 ,  669 

Port  Royal^-'SIG 

Port  Royal  Writers— 326 

Portugal — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  primary  and 
secondary  instruction,  708;  su- 
perior and  special  instruction,709. 
See  also  166 

Post-graduate  Course— 152 

Potter,  Alonzo— 709.  See  also  33, 
34,  302 

Potter,  E.  R.—1S1 

Pounds,  John — 725 

Poydras  Female  Orphan  Asylum — 634 


Poynet,  John — 1 L8 
Practical  Training — 635 
Pracl  lce,School80f — see  Teachers' 
Seminaries 

Prague,  University  of— Hi 

I 'raise— 111 

Praxis— 7o;i.    See  also  344,381 

Prayi  r — 731 

Preceptors,  College  of  (London) — 
709 

Pri  cocity — 177 

Premiums— 1S2 

Preparatory  Schools— 710.  Seealso 
s07 

Presbyterians  —  definition  of,  con- 
dition of  in  the  British  Emp 
710,711;  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  America, 
Presbyterian  Church  South, 
712;  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church,  713;  United  Presbyterian 
Church  of  North  America,  714 

Presents  to  Teachers — 359 

Priestly— 379 

Primary  Instruction — see  Educa- 
tion 

Primer— 715.     See  also  532 

Prince  Edward  Island — area  and 
population,  educational  condi- 
tion, 715 

Prince  of  Wales  College — 715 

Princes,  Education  of—  49,  74 

Princes'  Schools — 360 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary — 712 

Printing,  Art  of—  247 

Prison  Congresses — 194 

Privat-Docenlen — 363 

Private  Adventure  Schools — 200,  262 

Private  Schools— 827 

Prizes — sea  Emulation.  See  also  732 

Proclus— 18 

Profession,    Educational — 260 

Professional  Schools  in  U.  S.' — 828 

Programme — see  School  Manage- 
ment 

Progressive  Maps — 426 

Progymnasium — 366 

Promotion —  see  School  Manage- 
ment.  See  also  376,  766 

Pronunciation — 849 

Propaganda,  College  of  the — 742 

Proprietary  Schools—  262,  269,  862 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church— see  Epis- 
copal Church 

Protestantism  — see  Reformation 

Proverbs,  Book  of— 185 

Prudential  Committees— 551,  625,  760 

Prwn— 81 

Prussia— see  Germany.  See  also  165, 
189,  691,  807 

Psammetichus— 254 

Psychology,  New—  220,253,  468 

Ptolemies,   The— 255 

Ptolemy  (geographer)— 18,  333,  334,  371 

Ptolemy,  Philadelphia — 412 

Ptolemy,  Soter — 3 

Public  School  Society— 145,  157,  181, 
198,  637,  647,  809 

Public  Schools  —  definition,  an- 
cient history  of,  715 ;  whether 
instruction  should  be  entirely  or 
partly  gratuitous,  relation  of  the 
state  to  free  schools,  716.  See  also 
422 

Public  Schools,  English— see  Eng- 
land. See  also  267,  268,  269,  432, 
526 

Punishment— see  Corporal  Pun- 
ishment, and  Fear.  See  also  177, 
230 

Pupil-Teacher  — definition  of,  En- 
glish law  concerning,  716.  See 
also  265,  807 

Purdue  University— 460,  772 

Purmont,  Philemon— $2,  547 

Putnam,  Rufus — 661 

Pythagoras— 717.  See  also  34,  300,603 

Pythagorean  Method — 18 

Quadrivium— see  Arts 

I  Quakers — 686 

I  Qualified  Teachers— 522,  641 


Quebec—  population,  educational  his- 
tory, 71 1 ;    school    l»w,  primary 
and  secondarj  schools,  universi- 
7  is 

Quebec,  University  of — 71k 

Queen  Elizabeth'*  School — 269 

Queen's  College — 479 

Qui i  ntland—61 .  62 

Quet  n's  i  niversity — 170 

Questioning— see  Interrogation 

Quetelet—VX. 

Quick,  R.  //.— 7M 

Quinet,  Edgar- 

<  J 1 1  i  i  i  i  ilia  it  —  life    and    educational 

views,  Institutions  Oratorio;,  719. 

See  also  33,  98, 121,  431,  432 

Rahanus,  Maurus — 719 

Rabbinical  Institutes — 414 

Race  Illiteracy — 451 

Racine  College— 719 

Radewin,  F. — 368 

Ragged  School  Union — 726 

Ragged  Schools  —  sec  Reform 
Schools.     See  also  91,  266,  725 

Ralkes,  Robert— 719.  Seealso  263,796 

Randall,  B.—i'ii 

Randall,  S.  .5.-104,  639,  646,  648 

Randall's  Island  School — 726 

Randolph  Macon  College— 720 

Rappapoi  t,  S.  L. — 115 

Riijipites — 201 

Rate  Bills— 172,  549,  638,  827 

Ratich,  Wolfgang  —  biographical 
sketch,  rules  for  instruction,  720 

Rationalism — 68,  229 

Ratio  Studiorum — 492 

Rauhes  Haus— 125,  824,  857 

Raumer,  K.  G.  von — 720.  See  also 
8,  231,  302,  312,  482 

Rawdon  College — 71 

Reading — the  alphabet  method,  the 
word  method,  the  phonic  and  the 
phonetic  method,  twofold  object 
of  reading,  proper  and  improper 
reading-books,  721.  See  also  132, 
221,  272,  284,  354,  488,  635 

Reading-  Books— 721  * 

Reading  Frame — 25 

Real  Gymnasium — 722 

Realists— 248,  722 

Real  Schools  —  definition  of,  Prus- 
sian law  concerning,  studies  pur- 
sued in.  progress  in  their  estab- 
lishment in  Europe,  722 

Reasoning  Faculties — 555 

Recesses  —  see  Hygiene,  School, 
and  School  Management.  See 
also  440 

Recitation  —  proper  method  of  con- 
ducting, memorizing,  explana- 
tions, simultaneous  recitation, 
preparation  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  necessary,  order  in  which 
the  parts  of  a  subject  should  be 
presented,  723;  tests  of  the  efficacy 
of  a  recitation,  length  of  recita- 
tions, 724.     See  also  344,  473 

Reed,  Sir  C— 267 

Reeves,  Timothy — 516 

Reformation,  The— 101,  139,  262,  263, 
300.  301,  358,  605,  676 

Reformatories— 266,  724 

Reformed  Churches  —  their  origin. 
Reformed  Churches  of  Europe,  in 
Holland,  727  ;  in  Switzerland, 
Austria,  Hungary,  France,  Russia, 
and  the  New  World,  the  Reformed 
Church  in  America  (Reformed 
Dutch  Church),  728;  the  Reformed 
Church  in  the  United  States  (Ger- 
man Reformed  Church),  729;  col- 
leges and  seminaries  in  the  U.  S., 
730 

Reform  Schools— definition  of,  ori- 
gin of  in  Europe,  the  modern  re- 
form school,  Falk,  724;  number  of 
reform  schools  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  the  Rauhes  Haus, 
Wichern,  influence  of  the  Rauhes 
Haus  in  other  countries,  reform 
schools      in     England,      raggel 


XIV 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX 


Reform  Schools 

schools,  725  ;  reform  schools  in 
France  and  in  the  U.  8.,  list  of  re- 
form schools  in  the  latter  coun- 
try, 726.    See  also  824 

Regents  of  the  University  —  see 
New  York,  641 

Regent's  Park  College— 11 

Regiomontanus — 483 

Registration — 766 

Regulations,  School — 441 

Reichel,  Bishop  J.  F.—599 

Reid—Ul 

Religious  Education  —  its  object, 
the  religious  sentiment,  the  two- 
fold office  of  religious  education, 
faulty  methods  of  instruction, 
731.     See  also  178,  253,  372 

Religious  Orders — 301 

Religious  Sentiment — 731 

Religious  Services  in  Schools — 826 

Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute — 771 

Repetition— 378,  561,  563 

Representative  Faculties — 469 

Repton  School— 269 

Resemblance — 47 1 

Restraint — 441 

Results'  Fees— 478 

Keuchlln,John— 731.  See  also  389,409 

Reviewing  Schools — 5 

Rewards — as  means  of  discipline,  732, 
See  also  177,  455 

Reynolds,  Sir  J\— 332 

Rhetoric — restriction  in  the  original 
meaning  of  the  word,  its  later 
meaning,  732;  two  views  in  which 
rhetoric  may  be  regarded,  inven- 
tion, style,  sentential  analysis, 
733 ;  necessity  of  practice,  734. 
See  also  164 

Rhizarian  School — 388 

Rhode  Island — area  and  population, 
educational  history,  734;  school 
system,  737;  educational  condi- 
tion, school  statistics,  normal  and 
secondary  instruction,  738;  supe- 
rior and  special  instruction, 
teachers'  associations,  education- 
al journals,  739 

Rhode  Island  College — 105 

Rhyme— 707 

Rice,  £.—743 

Richardson,  Charles— 739 

Richelieu— 8,  324 

Richmond  College — 739 

Richmond  Institute — 846 

EUchter,  .1.  P.  P 739.    See  also  34, 

36,  66,  146,  747 

Kldgeville  College— 740 

Bigg,  Dr.— 217.  613 

Ripon  College — 740 

Ritner,  Governor — 686 

Hitter,  Karl—Xii,  894,  7.r>7 

Roanoke  College— 740 

Robertson,  Croom — 710 

Robinson  Female  Seminary — 627 

Robson— 439,  442,  763 

Rochester,  University  of— 740 

Rochester  Baptist  Theological  Seminary 
—71 

Rock  Hill  College— 740 

Rod — see  Corporal  Punishment 

linrlnntsi-n,  A. — 637 

Roll  Book— 166 

Roll  of  Honor — 455 

Rolfus  —216,  253 

Rollin— 316 

Romaic — 390 

Soman  Catholic  Church — number 
of  its  adherents,  its  control  of 
■  education  in  tho  middle  ages,  740; 
the  Jesuits,  conflict  between 
church  and  state,  the  papal  syl- 
labus of  1*67,  741;  educational 
principles  of  the  Catholics,  col- 
leges, relation  of  the  Church  to 
the  university  at  the  present 
time,  742;  establishment  of  teach- 
ers' seminaries,  educational  sool- 
tics  and  orders,  748,  Bee  also  B8, 
133.  167,  179,  206,  247.  477,  624,  818 

fl"man  Education—  245,  3UU 


Romance  Languages— 743 

Romanic  Languages — 743 

Romans — 300 

Romansch — 743 

Rome — foundation  of,  ancient  school 
system,  744 

Rome,  University  of — 486 

Rosenkranz— 187,  307,  397,  417 

Rostock,  University  of— 368 

Rote-Learning — 561  , 

Rote-Teaching— 745 

Rotherham  Independent  College — 171 

Roumania  —  area  and  population, 
educational  condition,  745 

Rousseau,  J.  J.  —  biographical 
sketch,  745  ;  synopsis  of  Emile, 
746.     See  also  33,  35,  66,  248 

Rudinger — 599 

Ruffner,  W.  II.— 158,  844 

Rumelin — 167 

Rush,  D-r.— 849 

Russia — area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  747  ;  primary  in- 
struction, school  statistics,  748  ; 
secondary  and  superior  instruc- 
tion, 749;  recent  school  legisla- 
tion, statistics,  special  instruc- 
tion, Caucasia,  750.  See  also  165, 
189,  300,  301 

Rutgers  College — 751 

Rutherford  College— 751 

Ryerson,  A.  E — 751.     See  also  667 

Ryken — 743 

Sacred  Heart,  Ladies  of  the — 743 
Sailer,  J.  M.—363 

St.  Andrews,  University  of— 111,  774 
St.  Augustine,  Missionary  College 

of— 751 
St.  Benedict's  College— 751 
St.  Charles  College  (La.)— 751 
St.  Charles's  College  (Md.)— 751 
St.  Clara  Academy — 861 
St.  Cyr,  Militai-y  School— 575 
St.  Dunstan's  College — 715 
St.  Francis  Academy — 546 
St.  Francis  College  (Antigonish) — 656 
St.  Francis  Xavier,  College  of— 752 
St.  Gall^-Sl 
St.  Gregory— 359,  603 
St.  Helen's  Hall— 611 
St.  Ignatius  College  (Cal.)— 752 
st.  Ignatius  College  (111.)— 752 
St.  Jerome — 421 
St.  John  of  Beverly— 204 
St.  John's  College  (Brooklyn,  N.Y.) 

—752 
St.  John's  College  (Fordham,  N.Y.) 

—752 
St.  John's  College  (Md.)— 752 
St.  John's  College  (Minn.)— 753 
St.  John's  College  of  Arkansas— 

753 
St,  Joseph's  Academy — 645 
St.  Joseph's  College  (111.)— 753 
St.  Joseph's  College  (N.  Y.)— 753 
St.  Lawrence  University — 753 
St.  Iiouls  —  population,  educational 

history,  753;   school  system,  755; 

school  statistics,  756 
St.  Louis  University— 766 
St.  Diary's  College  (Cal.)— 756 
St.  Mary's  College  (Halifax)— 656 
St.  Mary's  College  (Ky.)— 756 
St.  Mary's  Hall— 631 
St.  Meinrad's  College— 756 
St.  Paul—1M> 
St  Paul's  ScJiool—261,  524 
St.  Paul's  School  (N.  H.)— 627 
St.  Saviour's  School— 269 
St.  Stephen's  College— 756 
St.  Vincent  de  raul — 143 
St.  Vincent's  College  (Mo.)— 756 
St.  Vincent's  College  (Pa.)— 757 
St.  Xavier  College— 757 
Salado  College— 757 
Salamanca  (Arabian  School)— 36 
Salamanca,  University  of— 790,  792 
Salaries— 305,  366,  691,  772 
Salvd— 225 
Salvandy — 317 
Salzniaun,  C.  G — 757.    See  also  400 


Sanborne,  J.  B.— 194 

Sanders — 225 

Sandhurst  Military  College — 575 

Sandwich  Islands  —  see  Hawaiian 
Islands 

San  Francisco  —  population,  educa- 
tional history,  757 ;  school  system, 
school  statistics,  758 

San  Francisco  Theological  Seminary — 
712 

San  Salvador— 120 

Sanskrit— 9,17, 464 

Santa  Barbara  College — 759 

Santa  Clara  College — 759 

Santiago — 130 

Santiago,  University  of— 131,  792 

Santo  Domingo — 759 

Sassari,   University  of — 486 

Sarmlento,  D.  F.— 759.     See  also  38 

Saxony — see  Germany,  See  also  164 

Scalia,  £.—194 

Scandinavian  Kingdom — 165 

Scheller— 224 

Schem.  A.  J.— 224 

Schepler,  Louisa — 658 

Schlatter,  Rev.  Michaels- 729,  823 

Schmid,  216,  253 

Schmidt,  Karl— 759.    See  also  8,  717 

Schnepfenthal — 757 

Schola  Palatina— 315,  357 

Scholastic  Fraternity — 421 

Scholasticism  —  760.  See  also  246, 
284,  358 

Scholasticus— SO,  357 

School— 760.     See  also  432 

School  Age — table  of  school  ages  in 
the  U.  S.,  760.    See  also  165 

School  Board— 760 

School  Brothers  —  see  Roman 
Catholic  Church.    See  also  743 

School  Building — 439 

School  Census — tables  of  in  the  U.  S. 
and  Europe,  761 

School  District— 762 

School  Economy— 762 

School  Exchanges — 430 

School  Festivals — 762 

School  Fund — 763.     See  also  549 

School  Furniture — desks  and  seats, 
763;  the  platform,  the  blackboard, 
miscellaneous  furniture  and  ap- 
paratus, 704 

School  Grounds  —  see  Hygiene, 
School 

School-House — construction  and  in- 
ternal arrangement  of,  765.  See 
also  247,  285 

School  Law— 189 

School  Life,  A  verage  Length  of — 305 

School  Management — 766.  See  also 
287.  292,  376,  440,  493 

School  Premises — 265 

School  Records— 766 

School  Register— 766 

School  Site— 438 

School  Tax—5i9 

School  Windows — 439 

Schrevelius — 224 

Schwarz,  F.  H.  Ch.— 767.  See  also  8, 
34,  99,  162,  302,  303 

Science,  The  Teaching  of  —  its 
place  in  elementary  instruction, 
767;  generalization. proper  method 
of  teaching  it,  768;  the  order  in 
winch  science  should  be  taught, 
science  as  a  branch  of  higher  edu- 
cation, 769 

Science  of  Government — 770 

Scientific  Schools — in  Austria-Hun- 
gary and  the  German  Empire,  770; 
in  France.  Italy,  Russia,  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  Great  Britain,  and 
the  r.  s.,  771 

Scolding— 177 

Scotland  —  area,  population,  etc., 
educational  history,  772;  element- 
ary instruction,  773;  secondary 
instruction,  774 ;  superior  and 
special  instruction,  775.  See  also 
so:  i 

Scott,  Sir  ir.— 774 

Scottish  Universities— 111,  819 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX 


XV 


■Scutica — 303 

Searing,  E. — 166 

Sears,  Barnas — 550 

Seceder  Church — 714 

Secondary  Instruction — 775.  See 
also  442 

Secondary  Schools  in  U.  S. — 828 

Seguin,  Dr.— 443,  445 

Seidenstucker — 14 

Selectmen— 173 

Self-Control— 597 

Self-Education— 775.    See  also  34 

Self- Knowledge— 717 

Semi-Mutes — 683 

Seminaria  Puerorum — 743 

Seminary — 776 

Semitic  Languages — 409,  509 

Semler— 361 

Seneca,  L.  A. — 777 

Senior— 80 

Senior  Optimes — 115 

Senior  Wrangler — 115 

Sense  Perception — 469 

Senses,  The  Education  of  the — 
mental  impressions  received 
through  the  senses  of  varying 
strength,  necessity  of  cultivating 
the  senses,  777;  object  teaching, 
the  phonic  method,  color,  778. 
See  also  220,  659 

Sensibility — 469 

Sentential  Analysis — see  Analy- 
sis, Grammatical.    See  also  733 

Sentiments — 259 

Septuagint — 412 

Serapion — 18 

Servia — area  and  population,  school 
legislation,  primary  schools,  sec- 
ondary instruction,  778;  superior 
instruction,  special  and  profes- 
sional schools,  779.    See  also  691 

Sessions,  School — 440 

Seton,  S.  W.— 779.     See  also  594 

Seton  Hall  College— 779 

Seventh  Day  Adventists—5 

Seventh  Day  Baptists — 18 

Seville  (Arabian  School) — 36 

Seville,  University  of — 792 

Seward,  W.  H.— 217,  647 

Sewing — 466 

Sex  Illiteracy — 451 

Sex  in  Education — see  Co-Educa- 
tion.   See  also  302 

Sforza,  Francesco — 482 

Shacklewell  School — 628 

Shakers— 201 

Shaw    University  (Miss.) — 779 

Shaw  University  (N.  C.)— 779 

Shearer's  "Combination  Speller" — 701 

Sheffield  Scientific  School— lid,  772 

Shenstone— 186,  200,  434 

Short-sightedness— 293 

Shrewsbury  School— 267,  268,  269 

Shurtleff  College— 779 

Shute,  John— 6S6 

Shultleworth,  Sir  J.  Kay—I&i 

Sicard,  K.  A.  C 780.     See  also  205 

Signs,  The  Language  of — see  Deaf- 
Mutes,  and  Feet,  H.  P.  See  also 
683. 

Simpson  Centenary  College — 780 

Simultaneous  Instruction  —  sec 
Concert  Teaching.  See  also  169 

Siena,  University  of — 486 

Simon,  Jules — 165,  317 

Simon  ben  Shetach — 412 

Simultaneous  Reading — 722 

Simultaneous  Recitation — 723 

Singing-Schools — early  history  of, 
780;  origin  of  the  staff  and  musi- 
cal syllables.modern  Italian  meth- 
od of  notation,  substitution  of 
numerals  for  musical  syllables, 
method  used  in  Germany,  in  the 
U.S., 781;  description  ofCurwen's 
method,  782;  the  Modulator,  783 

■Sizars — 115 

Skinner,  O.  A. — 830 

Slade  Schools— 833 

Slaves,  Education  of — 40 

Slavic  Languages— 464 

Smart— 223 


Smith,  Adam — 784 

Smith  Walter— 550 

Smlthson  College— 783 

Social  Economy — its  importance  as 
a  branch  of  common  school  edu- 
cation not  recognized,  variety  of 
names  a  disadvantage,  783;  Adam 
Smith,  Inquiry  into  the  Wealth  of 
Nations,  the  dismal  science,  784; 
example  of  an  elementary  lesson 
in  social  economy,  proper  method 
to  be  pursued  in  teaching,  785 

Social  Education — 179 

Sociology — 468 

Socrates  —  his  life  and  habits,  the 
Socratic  Method,  786;  his  trial,  sen- 
tence, and  death,  mental  charac- 
teristics, influence  of  his  method 
on  the  progress  of  human  inquiry, 
his  success  as  a  teacher,  787 

Socratic  Method — 473 

Soldiers'  Orphan  Homes — 176 

"Song  Scales" — 715 

Solon— 787.     See  also  164 

Sophists— 786 

Sorbonne,  The — 150 

Sound — 695 

South,  University  of  the— 787 

South  Carolina — area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history,  787; 
school  system,  educational  con- 
dition, school  statistics,  normal 
instruction,  788;  secondary,  de- 
nominational, parochial,  supe- 
rior, professional,  scientific,  and 
special  instruction,  789 

South  Carolina.  University  of— 789 

Southern  Bap.  Theol.  Sem.—li 

Southern  Female  College — 845 

Southern  States — 825 

Southern  University— 789 

South  Kensington  Museum — 811 

Southwestern  Baptist  University 
—789 

Southwestern  Presbyterian  Uni- 
versity—790 

Southwestern  University — 790 

Space  for  Class  Rooms — 265 

Spain — area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  790;  primary  and 
secondary  instruction,  791  ;  su- 
perior and  special  instruction, 
792.    See  also  36,  166 

Spanish  Language  —  comparative 
value  of,  origin  and  peculiarities, 
792 

Sparks,  Jared — 171 

Sparta — educational  system  of  Ly- 
curgus,  793.   See  also  164,  300 

Spartan  System— 98,  245,  300 

Speaking — 273 

Special  Schools  in  U.  S. — 828 

Spelling — 273 

Spelling  Books — 673 

Spelling  Match — 673 

Spelling  Reform — 674 

Spencer,  Herbert— 793.  See  also 
66,  177,  194,  248,  249,  612 

Spiegelberg — 358 

Spiritual  Instinct — 731 

Spurzheim — 329 

Squarcione — 308 

Stael,  Mme  de — 195 

Standards — 265 

Stanfordville,  Ch.  Bib.  mst.— 135 

State  Agents— 550 

Stale  Certificates— 521 

State  Education— 612 

State  and  School— 794 

Steinthal— 378 

Stephani,  Heinrich— 794 

Stephens,  Henry— 794.  See  also  391 

Stephens,  Robert— 794 

Stevens,  E.  A  .—631 

Stevens,  Thaddeus—GSG 

Stevens  Institute  of  Technology— 631,  772 

Stewart  College — see  Southwest- 
ern Presbyterian  University 

Stiehl,  Fr.—36i 

Stoics— 384,  385,  391 

Stone.W.  E.— 795.     See  also  648 

Story,  Joseph — 517 


Stowe,  C.  E.— 795.    See  also  34 
Slrabo— 333,  334 
Strabus,  Walafried — 357 
Straight  University— 795 

Strasbourg,  Gymnasium  at — 795 

Strasbourg,  School  at — 359 

Strasbourg,  University  of— 368 

Studienanstalt — 515 

Studies,  Classification  of — 468 

Sturm,  Johann — 795.     See  also  359 

Stuttgart  Polytechnic  School — 369 

Style— 733 

Suffrage,  Right  of— 451 

Sumner,  George — 444 

Sunday-School  Books — 307 

Sunday-Schools — their  relation  to 
the  common  schools,  origin  and 
early  history,  Robert  Raikes,  John 
Wesley,  796;  rapid  spread  of  Sun- 
day -  schools,  leading  agencies, 
William  Fox,  Bishop  Asbury,  797; 
prominent  Sunday-school  socie- 
ties, their  dates  of  organization, 
Sunday-school  literature,  tracts, 
libraries,  etc.,  singing  in  the  Stm- 
day-school,  798;  infant-class  in- 
struction, Sunday-school  conven- 
tions; county,  state,  international, 
and  world's  conventions ;  past 
progress  and  present  condition  of 
Sunday -schools,799 ;  statistics,800. 
See  also  5,  198,  263,  287,  307,  719 

Superannuated  Teachers — 691 

Superior  Instruction — 800 

Supernatural  Narratives — 306 

Supervision,,  School — its,  necessity 
inspection  and  examination,  800. 
See  also  264 

Surgery — 557 

Surplus  Revenue  Fund — 763 

Sutherland,  Duke  of— 113 

Swamp  Lands — 826 

Swan-pan — 1 

Swarthmore  College — 801 

Sweden  and  Norway  —  area  and 
population  (Sweden)  educational 
history,  primary  instruction,  801; 
secondary,  superior,  and  special 
instruction,  (Norway)  educational 
history,  primary  instruction,  802; 
normal,  secondary,  superior,  and 
special  instruction,  803 

Swedish  Language — 351 

Switzerland — area  and  population, 
educational  history,  803;  primary 
schools,  tabular  statement  of 
schools,  804;  secondary,  superior, 
special,  and  professional  instruc- 
tion, 805.     See  also  165,  189,  725 

Sydney,  University  of—  61 

Syllabus,  Papal— HI,  742 

Sylvester  II.— 36,  482,  790 

Sympathy— 805.     See  also  307 

Synchronistic  Method — 425 

Syracuse  University— 805 

Tabor  College— 806 

Tabular  Method— 399 

Tachygraphy — 56 

Tacitus — 262 

Talladega  College— 806.  See  also  16 

Talleyrand— 316,  716 

Talmud— 413 

Talmudic  Science — 3 

Tangible  Letters — 87 

Tangible  Point  Printing — 87 

Tanneguy-Lefevre — 198 

Tappia,  Giovanni  di — 606, 

Tara— 477 

Tasmania — see  Australasian  Colo- 
nies 

Tasso — 483 

Taste— 285,  286 

Taws— 306 

Taylor,  Isaac— 806.  See  also  34, 138, 
168,  234,  432,  471 

Taylor,  J.  O. — 645 

Teacher  —  806.  See  also  57,  132, 
221,  222,  226,  228,  231,  239,  261, 285, 
286,  287,  289,  290,  291,  293,  297,  298, 
299,  305,  331,  333,  375,  398,  401,  453, 
523,  532,  723 


XVI 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


Teachers.  Examination  of— 289 

Teachers'  Institute— 806 

Teachers'  Seminaries  —  names  of 
indifferent  counties,  their  origin, 
A.  H.  i'raucke,  gradual  J^aread  of 
teachers'  seminaries  in  different 
countries,  Prussian  law  concern- 
ing, 807;  statistics  for  1876,  nor- 
mal schools  in  the  U.  S..  808; 
Charles  Brooks,  Horace  Maun, 
De  Witt  Clinton,  Cyrus  Peirce, 
S.  R.  Hall,  increase  of  nor- 
mal schools  in  the  U.  S.,  table 
showing  the  number  of  BUCh 
schools,  aud  teachers  and  students 
in  the  U.  S.  in  1m7('>,  influence  of 
normal  schools,  809;  list  of  nor- 
mal schools  in  the  U.  S.,  810.  See 
also  229,  366,  709 

Technical  Educat  Ion — its  object,  in- 
creasing importance  of,  branches 
usually  taught,  laws  concerning 
in  Massachusets  and  New  York, 
list  of  European  schools,  811 

TilSmaque—SOG,  883 

Temper— 812 

Temperament — 121,  122 

Tennessee  —  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  812;  school 
system,  813;  educational  condi- 
tion, school  statistics,  normal  and 
secondary  instruction,  814  ;  su- 
perior, professional,  scientific,  and 
special  instruction,  815 

Ttrlullian—m,  142,  316 

Texas — area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  815;  school  sys- 
tem, educational  condition,  school 
statistics,  normal  and  secondary 
instruction,  810;  superior,  scien- 
tific, professional,  and  special  in- 
struction, 817 

Text-Hooks— 817.  See  also  273,  342, 
343,  399,  427 

Thaulow— 417 

Thayer,  Nathaniel— 6 19 

Thayer  School  of  Civil  Engineering— 
627 

Theano— 300 

Theodore  of  Tarsus — 81 

Theodoi  ic  the  Great — 481 

Theodulf  of  Orleans — 123 
nostes — 18 

Theological  Schools — early  history 
of,    HIT;     Roman  Catholic   schools 

in  Europ  i  and  the  0.  S.,  Bchoola 
of  the  Greek  Church,  Protestant 
schools,  want  of  uniformity  in 
theological  instruction  in  Eng- 
land, 818;  method  pursued  in 
Scotland,  ris  i  and  progress  of 
theological  Bchoola  in  the  r.  s., 
819.    Bee  also  282, 667 

Theology— 246 

Thermography— 819,  820 

Thermometry,  Educational  —  its 
Q  in  the  school,  instruments 
employed,  819;  the  hand  a  nat- 
ural I h.  rnioiiK  tcr, thermography, 
820 

Thesaurus — 223 

Thatrup    213 

Thlel  College  of  the  Kvangcllcal 
Lutheran  church — 820 

Thrax,  Dionytiiu — 377 

Thring    561 

Tlnin,  i  'niuil  Leo — 64 

Tilda  n  Seminary — 627 

/  *  midity — 261 

Todd    223 

TodhunUr    289,  290 

Tolcio,  i  niversity  of    186 

Toledo  i  Arabian  School)— 366 

Tombes — 71 

Tonic  Sol-Fa  System— 182,  783 

Topical    Method        BO  Catechetical 

Method.     See  also  117,  426 
Toronto,  Vhivertity  of— t'.r.s 
Tougaloo  University— 820 
Toulouse,   University  of—  315 
Tours,  School  at— HI 
Town  System— 172 


Toivnship  System— 762,  827 

Training— 820.     See  also  34,  695 

Training  College* — 266,  807 

Training  Schools  — see  Teachers' 
Seminaries 

Trial  of  Witt— 436 

Trinity  College  (Ct.)— 820.  See  also 
177 

Trinity  College  (Dublin) — 179 

Trinity  College  (N.  C.)—  821 

Trinity  College  (Ont.)— 668 

Trinity  Hall— mi 

Trinity  University— 821 

Tripos — 115 

Trittow,  Philanthropin  at — 116 

Trivium — see  Arts 

Trotzendorf,  V.  v.—  821 

Troy  Female  Seminary — 857 

Truant  Laws — 821.     Sej  also  550 

Tubingen,  University  of—  368 

Tufts  College— 821 

Tuition  Fees— 649,  716 

Turin,  University  of — 486 

Turkey — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  821  ;  primary, 
secondary,  superior,  and  special 
schools,  822.  See  also  165 

Ulfilas— 351 
Ultramontanism — 155 
Unconscious  Tuition —  291,  431 
Undenominational  Schools — 216,  217 
Union  Christian  College— 822 
Union  Free  School  Districts— -638,  762 
Union  University— 822 
Unitarians— 823 

United  Brethren  In  Christ — how 
founded,  schools  and  colleges, 
n2:S:  theological  schools,  Biblical 
institute,  board  of  education. 
Sabbath  schools,  824 
United  Evangelical  Church — his- 
tory, administration,  theological 
education,  preachers'  seminaries, 
reformatory  schools, Raulws  Hans. 
Protestant  deaconesses,  *24;  the 
Church  in  the  United  States,  825 
United  States  —  area,  population, 
etc.,  educational  history,  825  ; 
congressional  land  grants,  826  ; 
Bureau  of  Education,  free-school 
systems,  school  revenues,  educa- 
tional gifts,  school  population, 
school  statistics,  normal  schools, 
827;  grades  of  instruction,  profes- 
sional and  special  schools,  educa- 
tional periodicals,  literature,  828; 
works  on  American  education,829. 
See  also  151,  305,  333 
r.  ,s\  Deposit  Fund  638,  763 
l*  niversulists  —  foundation,  organi- 
zation, statistics,  schools,  acad- 
emies. 829;  colleges,  theological 
schools,  Sunday-schools,  expend- 
itures, distinguished  (Jniversal- 
ist  teachers,  ,s:!o 
University — origin  of,  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  establishment  of 
universities     in    Germany,    and 

Italy,    their     increase     alter     the 

Reformation,  Latin  the  medium 
of  instruction,  881  ;  recent  estab- 
lishment of  free  i  latholic  unh  er- 
sities.  differences  sf  universities 
as  to  organization  and  function 
in  civilized  countries,  832.  See 
also  151,  217 
University  College  (London)— ob- 
ject for  which  founded,  its  (acui- 
ties, 832 :  revenue,  the  Blade 
schools,  admission  of  women,  do- 
nations and   bequests,   buildings, 

833 
University  College  (San  Francisco, 

call  -833 
/ '» iversity  Exam  /nations — 290 
Upper  Iowa  University — 833 
Upsal,  University  of—  802 
Urbana  University— 884 

UrbinO,   University  of—  486 
I'rslnus  College — 834 

Ursulines— 179,  743 


Uruguay — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational condition,  834 

I'tah  —  area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  834  :  school  sys- 
tem, educational  condition,  school 
statistics,  normal  iustruction.835; 
secondary  and  superior  instruc- 
tion, 836 

Utrecht,  University  of—  618 

Vacarius— 515 

Vacations—  441 

Vaccination — 441 

Valckenaer.  University  of — 389 

Valla,  Laurentius—4tS3 

Valencia.  University  of— 102 

Valle,  Lorenzo  delta — *4h2 

Van  Bokkelin,  Rev.  8.— 303,  304,  544 

Vanderbilt.  Cornelius— 569 

Vanderbllt  University— 836 

Van  der  Smissen — 565 

Van  Helmont — 214 

Varro,  M.  Terentius — 745 

Van  der  Ende — 6 1 8 

Vanin,  I'ere— 280 

Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen — 430 

Vassar,  Matthew— 836 

Vassar  College— 836.     See  also  312 

Vaux,  Roberts— 698 

Vi  gins.  Maf,  ur— 482 

Venezuela  —  area  and  population, 
primary  instruction,  secondary 
and  superior  instruction,  837 

Ventilation  —  conditions  favorable 
to,  837;  different  methods  of, 
difficulties  in  effecting,  838 

Vermont — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  839;  school  sy- 
stem, 840;  educational  condition, 
normal  instruction,  secondary 
and  denominational  instruction, 
superior  instruction,  professio- 
nal and  scientific  instruction,  841 

Vermont,  University  of — 842 

Verses,   Writing  of—  707 

Vesalius,  Andreas — 557 

Vestius,    William — 630 

Pipy*— 621 

Vices  to  be  corrected — 597 

Victo)  ia,  61 

Victoria,  in  iversity  of—  668 

V iri a,  oi  College — 761 

Vienna,  Univt  rsity  of—  64 

Vincent,  Rev.  J.  //.— 568 

Virgatum  Geht  n—  :  59 

Virginia  —  area  and  population,. 
educational  history,  ^4.'  ;  school 
Bystem,  educational  condition, 
normal  instruction,  844;  second- 
ary instruction,  private  and 
corporate  schools,  superior  in- 
struction, professional  and  sci- 
entific instruction,  schools  of  sci- 
ence 846  ;  schools  of  theology. 
special  instruction,  educational 
literature,  846 

Virginia,  University  of— 846 

Viri  Roma — 526 

Virtue— 706 

Virtues  to  be  cultivated — 597 

Visigoths— 192 

Vogil— 221 

Voice,  Culture  of— 847 

Von  Raumer — 231 

Voss,  J.  H.— 362 

Wabash   College— 860 

w  aco  Unlverslty- 
fVadswoi  th.  James-  268 
Wagner  Free  Institute — 699 
Wait,   William  li.—M,  100 
Wake    lores!   College— 850 

Wales— 166,  266 
Walker,  William— 879 

WaUiS,  Dr.  John— 205,  379 

Warsaw,   University  of— 150 

Wartburg  Theological  Seminaiy—HH, 
634 

Wash  burton-— see  District  of  Co- 
lumbia 

Washington,  George,  on  State  Educa- 
tion—10 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


XVII 


Washington   College  (Cal.)— 850 

Washington  College  (Md.)—  850 

Washington  and  Jefferson  Col- 
lege—850 

Washington  and  Lee  University 
—850 

Washington  Territory — area  and 
population,  educational  history, 
school  system,  educational  con- 
dition, school  statistics,  teachers' 
institutes  and  associations,  851 

Washington  University — 851 

Waterville  College— 540 

Watson,  Richard — 118 

Wayland,  Francis  —  biographical 
sketch,  851  ;  re-organization  of 
Brown  University,  852 

Waynesburg  College — 852 

Wearmouth  Convent  School — 75 

Weavervllle  College— 852 

Webster,  Daniel— 203,  430,  809 

Webster,  Horace — 647 

Webster,  Noah— 852.     See  also  223 

Wegweiser,  Diesterweg's — 556 

Wehrli,  J.  J. — biographical  sketch, 
enters  Hofwyl,  852;  opens  the 
normal  school  at  Kreuzlingen, 
establishes  a  new  seminary  at 
Guggenbuhl,  853.   See  also  11,  429 

Weigand — 225 

Weissenborn — 757 

Wel/esley  College— 111 

Wellington  College— -269 

Wends— 613 

Wesley,  John— 566,  796 

Wesleyan  Female  Institute — 845 

Wesleyan  University — 853 

Wessel,  Johann — 358 

Wtsselhoeft,  .Dr.— 560 

Western  College— 853 

Western  Maryland  College — 853 

Western  Reserve  College — 853 

Westfleld  College— 853 

Westminster  College  (Mo.)  —854 

Westminster    College   (Pa.)— 854 

Westminster  Public  School — 267 

Weston,  James  P. — 830 

West  Point — location  of  academy, 
when  established,  appointments 
to,  etc.,  854 

West  Virginia — area  and  population, 
state  superintendents,  school  sys- 
tem, 854;  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  normal,  second- 
ary, denominational,  and  superi- 
or instruction,  855;  professional 
and  scientific  instruction,  856 

West  Virginia,  University  of— 856 

West  Virginia  College— 856 


Whately,  Kichard— 856.  See  also  471 
Whcaton  College— 856 
wit,  atstone,  <  'harles — 505 
Wheelock,  Eleazar— 171,  461 
Whewell,    William— 856.     See  also 

264,  289 
Wliipping  Hoys — 186 
Whipple— 279 

Whipple  Home  for  Deaf- Mutes— 176, 206 
Whitbread— 263 
White,  E.  £'.—376,665 
White,  Joseph — 550 
Whitney — 378 

Whit  tier  College  and  Normal  In- 
stitute— 856 

Wiehern,  J.  H 857.    See  also  725 

Wickersham,  James  P.— 139,  285,  381, 

424,  687 
Wiese,  Dr.— 764 

Wilberforce  University — 857 
Wilbur,  H.  B  — 444,  645 
Wiley  University— 857 
Will— 253,  469 

Willard,  Emma  —  biographical 
sketch,  her  plan  for  the  higher 
education  of  women,  the  Troy 
•  Female  Seminary,  improvements 
in  text-books,  857.  See  also  114, 
187,  303,  334 
William   and    Mary,   College  of — 

history  and  organization,  858 
William  Jewell  College— 858 
William  of  Wyfcsham — 678 
Williamsburg — 103 
Williams  College— 858 
Wilmington  College— 858 
Wilson,  James — 478 
Wimpfeling,  Ludwig — 388 
Winchester  Public  School — 267 
Winckelmann— 37,  362 
Wines,  Dr. — 194 

Wisconsin  —  area   and    population, 
859;   educational  history,  school 
system,   859;    educational  condi- 
tion, school  statistics,  normal  in- 
struction,     teachers'     institutes 
and    associations,    secondary  in- 
struction, 860;    superior,  profes- 
sional, scientific  and  special  in- 
struction, 861 
Wisconsin,  University  of— 861 
Wittenberg  College— 862 
Wofford,  Rev.  Benjamin — 569 
Wofford  College— 862 
Wolf,  Friedrich  .4.-362 
Wolf,  George— 686 
Wo'lsey— 524 

Women  (as  Teachers  etc.) — 305,  549 
Women,  Examination  for — 290 


Women,  The  Higher  Education  of 

— in  England,  862;  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  863.  See  also  147, 
209,  212,  290,  301,  303,  674,  774,  836 

Woodbridge,  W.  C— 863.  See  also 
17,  334,  547 

Wood  Engraving,  181 

Woodstock  College— 864 

Woolsey,  T.  ]> — 864.     See  also  171 

Wooster,  University  of— 864 

Worcester,  Joseph  Emerson— 864. 
See  also  223 

Word  Method— 864.  See  also  673,  721 

Words,  Analysis  of— etymology,  its 
importance  in  elementary  in- 
struction, Latin  prefixes  and  suf- 
fixes in  the  English  language, 
method  of  teaching,  application 
of  the  developing  method  to  this 
subject,  865 

Work-House  Schools — 478 

Working  Men's  College — 866 

Wrangler— 115,  231 

Wrestling— 578 

Writing  —  see  Penmanship.  See 
also  182,  273,  274 

Wr  iting-  Schools— 247 

Wiirtemberg — see  Germany.  See 
also  164,  165,  287,  725 

Wurtzburg,  University  of — 368 

Wyoming  —  area,  population,  etc., 
educational  history,  school  sys- 
tem and  statistics,  866 

Xenia  College— 867 

Xenia  Theological  Seminary — 714 
Jenophon— 98,  307,  692,  786,  787 

Yachting,  Academy  of— 3 
Yale,  Elihu— 867.   See  also  176 
Yale  College— 867.     See  also  151 
Yarrow — Convent    School — see    Wear- 
mouth 
Yorkshire  College  of  Science — 270 
Youth— 8 
Yverdun — 694 

Zarncke — 352 

Zembsch,  C.  T.— 599 

Zeno— 384 

Zimmermann — 508 

Zinzendorf—  599 

Zoology— its  place  and  value  in  edu- 
cation, what  principles  are  to  be 
observed  in  teaching  it,  868.  See 
also  770 

Ztvingli — 247 

Zurich,  University  of— 148,  805 

ZUrich  Catechism — 118 


APPENDIX 


TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION  OF  THE 

CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION. 


LATE  EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS. 


ALABAMA.  Population  (Census  of  1880), 
1,262,794.  Number  of  children  of  school  age 
(7—21),  —white,  224,464;  colored,  176,538; 
total,  387,769.  Number  enrolled  in  public 
schools,  —  white,  107,949 ;  colored,  69,479. 
Average  daily  attendance,  ■ —  white,  67,381  ; 
colored,  47,146.  Number  of  schools,  — white, 
3,058;  colored,  1,566.  Number  of  teachers, — 
white,  3,056;  colored,  1,508:  males,  2,938; 
females,  1,626.  Annual  educational  income, 
8392, 904.  State  Superintendent,  H.  Clay  Arm- 
strong, Montgomery. 

ARIZONA.  Population  (1880),  40,441. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 21), 
5,291.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  3,143. 
Average  daily  attendance,  1,992.  Number  of 
schools,  51.  Number  of  teachers,  —  male  27; 
female,  24.  Average  monthly  salary,  —  of 
males,  884;  of  females,  868.  Educational  in- 
come, 832,421.  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
Moses  H.  Sherman. 

ARKANSAS.  Population  (1880),  802,564. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 21),  — 
white,  212,940  ;  colored,  69,113  ;  total,  282,053. 
Number  attending  public  schools,  117,696.  Num- 
ber of  schools,  1,172.  Number  of  teachers, — 
males,  1,977;  females,  441.  Raised  for  school 
purposes  (year  ending  June  30,  1882),  8717,- 
371.  Expenditure,  8388,412.22.  State  Super- 
intendent, W.  E.  Thompson,  Little  Rock. 

CALIFORNIA.  Population  (1880),  864,- 
686.  Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5 — 17), 
—  white,  214,368;  colored,  1,120;  Indian,  842. 
Enrolled  in  public  schools,  168,024.  Average 
daily  attendance,  107,177.  Number  of  schools, 
3,036.  Number  of  teachers, —  males,  1,156; 
females,  2,621.  Average  monthly  salary,  —  of 
males,  879.67;  of  females,  864.48.  Educational 
income,  83,791,384.  Value  of  school  property, 
87,237,669.  State  Superintendent,  Wm.  T. 
Welcker,  Sacramento. 

COLORADO.  Population  (1880),  194,649. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 21), 
49,208.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  31,738. 
Average  daily  attendance,  18,488.  Number  of 
school  districts.  511.  Number  of  teachers,  900. 
Annual  income,  8768,032.  Value  of  school 
property,  81,235,491.  State  Superintendent 
L.  S.  Cornell,  Denver. 
Al 


CONNECTICUT.  Population  (1880),  622,- 
700.  Number  of  children  of  school  age  (4—16), 
146,188.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  121,185, 
Average  attendance,  —  winter,  77,041 ;  summer, 
69,636.  Number  of  children  attending  private 
schools,  12,899  (approximate).  Number  of 
schools,  1,624.    Number  of  teachers,  —  in  winter 

—  males,  617 ;  females,  2,213;  in  summer,  — 
males,  316;  females,  2,503.  Average  monthly 
salary,  —  of  males,  863.44;  of  females,  835.94- 
Total  school  revenue,  81,563,750.30.  School  ex- 
penditure,^, 553, 065. 16.  Secretary  ofSlateBoard 
of  Education,  Charles  D.  Hine,  Hartford. 

DAKOTA.  Population  (1880),  134,560. 
Territorial  school  census  (1882),  229,432.  Ninn- 
ber  of  children  of  school  age  (5 — 21),  58,715. 
Enrolled  in  public  schools,  31,800.  Number  of 
school  districts,  1,593.  Number  of  teachers, 
1,649.  Average  monthly  salary,  —  males,  833; 
females,  826.  Educational  income  (entirely  by 
taxation),  8379,400.  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  Wm.  H.  H.  Beadle,  Yankton. 

DELAWARE.  Population  (1880),  146,654. 
Numbe)'  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 21), — 
white,  33,133  ;  colored,  4,152.  Enrolled  in 
public  schools,  —  white,  26,578  ;  colored,  2,254. 
Number  of  schools,  583.     Number  of  teachers, 

—  males,  237  ;  females,  346.  Average  monthly 
salary,  —  of  males,  831.49  ;  of  females,  827.56. 
Educational  income,  8150,901.  School  fund, 
8495,749.  State  Superintendent  of  Free  Schools, 
James  H.  Groves,  Smyrna. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA.  Popula- 
tion (1880),  177,638.  Number  of  children  of 
school  age  (6 — 17),  — white,  29,612;  colored, 
13,946.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  —  white, 
18,678;  colored,  9,642.  Average  daily  atten- 
dance, 22,830.  Number  of  teachers,  —  male, 
37;  female,  448.  Average  annual  salary,  — 
of  males,  81050;  of  females,  8650.  Education- 
al income,  8546,811.  School  Superintendent, 
J.  Ormond  Wilson,  Washington. 

FLORIDA.  Population  (1880),  267,351. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (4 — 21), 
72,985.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  39,315. 
Average  attendance,'!*  ,046.  Number  of  schools, 
992.  Number  of  teachers,  1,095.  Expenditure 
for  school  purposes,  8114,895.41.  Slate  Super 
J  intendent.  E.  K.  Foster,  Tallahassee. 


LATE  EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS 


GEORGIA.  Population  (1880),  1,539,048. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 18), — 
white,  236,319;  colored,  L97,125.  Enrolled  in 
public  schools,  —  white,  153,156;  colored, 
91,041;  total,  244,197.  Average  attendance, 
149,908.  Number  of  teachers,  6,535  (about 
1,600  colored).  Number  of  schools,  —  white, 
4,053;  colored,  1,704.  Educational  income, 
$498,533  ($1 .15  per  capita  on  school  popula- 
tion, $2.04  on  enrollment,  and  $3.32  on  average 
attendance).  State  School  Commissioner,  Gus- 
tavus  J.  Orr,  Atlanta. 

IDAHO.  Papulation  (1880),  32,611.  Number 
of  children  of  school  age  (5 — 21),  9.650.  Num- 
ber of  schools,  200.  Educational  income,  360,000. 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  James  L.  Onder- 
donk,  Boise  City. 

ILLINOIS.  Population  (1880),  3,078,769. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 21),  — 
males,  526,461;  females,  511,106.  Enrolled  in 
public  schools,  —  males  364,043;  females,  349,- 
498.  Average  daily  attendance,  452,485.  Num- 
ber of  children  attending  private  schools,  67,380. 
Number  of  schools,  —  graded,  1,120;  not  grad- 
ed, 10,828.  Number  of  teachers,  —  males,  8, 076 ; 
females,  14,225.  Average  monthly  sidary,  —  of 
males,  $46.86  ;  of  females,  $37.76.  Educational 
income,  $10,537,296.  School  expend  dure  (1882), 
$8,043,430.  State  Superintendent,  HexryRaab, 
Springfield. 

INDIANA.  Population  (1880),  1,978,362. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 21), 
710,458.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  —  white, 
males,  255,762;  females,  234,402:  colored,  males, 
4,224;  females,  4,404.  Total  number  of  children 
enrolled,  490,164.  Average  daily  attendance, 
305,513.  Num  >,<■)■  of  schools,  9,647.  Number  of 
teachers,  —  males,  8,573;  females,  6,810  (colored, 
1 15).  Total  school  funds,  89,207,411.51.  Annual 
educational  income,  $3,000,000.  State  Super- 
intendent, John  M.  Bi.oss,  Indianapolis. 

IOWA.  Population  (1880),  1,624,620.  Num- 
ber of  children  of  school  age  (5 — 21),  —  males. 
303,239  ;  females,  291,491.  Enrolled  in  public 
schools,  431,513.  Average  attendance,  254,088. 
Number  of  schools,  —  graded,  503;  ungraded, 
10,741.  Number  of  teachers,  —  males,  6,5-16; 
females,  1 5.230.  Average  monthly  salary,  — of 
males,  $32.50;  of  females,  327.25.'  School  fund, 
$3,547,123.  Educational  income.  $4,879,909. 
Value  of  school  properly,  $9,738,623.  State 
Superintend,  ut.  John  W.  Akers,  l>es  Moines. 

KANSAS.  Population  (1880),  995.966. 
Number  of  children  if  *<•/,,„, l  age  (5 — 21), — 
males,  184,774;  females,  173,146.  Enrolled  in 
public  schools,— males,  L39.484;  females,  L30.461. 
Average  dad//  attendance,  1.62,0]  7.    Number  of 

schools,  6.003.      Number   of  tcacl/crs.  --  males. 

3,342;  females,  1,808.  Average  monthly  salary, 
—  of  males.  $31.42;  of  females,  si- 1.95.  School 
fund,  $2,550,000,  besides  2,600,000  acres  of 
lands.  Educational  income,  $2,301,001.09. 
Value  qf  school   property,  $4,633,044     State 

Superintendent,  II.   ( '.  SpREB.  Toiieka. 
A2 


KENTUCKY.  Population  (1880),  1,648,708. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age,  —  whites 
(6—20),  478,554;  colored  (6—16),  70,234.  En- 
rolled in  public  schools.  —  whites,  208,500 ; 
colored,  19,107.  Attending ]>ric ate  schools, 35, 000. 
Average  daily  attendance,  —  whites,  139,179; 
colored,  1 3,393.  Number  of  teachers,  —  white, 
6,335  (1,989  females);  colored,  435.  Average 
monthly  salary,  —  of  males,  $40 ;  of  females, 
$35.  'School  fund,  $1,600,000.  Educational 
income,  si, 827, 575.  Value  of  school  property, 
$2,300,000.  Slate  Superintendent,  Joseph  1). 
Pickett,  Frankfort. 

LOUISIANA.  Population  (1880),  940,103. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 18),  — 
white,  139,657  ;  colored,  150,379.  Enrolled  in 
public  schools,  —  whites,  31,642  ;  colored,  22.670. 
Number  if  schools,  874.  Number  of  teachers, 
—  white,  .959;  colored,  327.  Average  monthly 
salary,  —  in  New  Orleans,  $52.50  ;  in  country 
parishes, 325.62.  Educational  income,  $444,979. 
State  Superintendent,  Edwin  H.  Fay,  Baton 
Rouge. 

MAINE.  Popidation  (1880),  648,945. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (4 — 21), 
212,521.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  147,697. 
Average  daily  attendance,  99.814.  Number 
of  schools,  4,955.  Number  of  free  high  schools, 
101.  Number  of  teachers,  —  in  summer,  male, 
226;  female,  4,698:  in  winter,  male,  2,113; 
female,  2.587.  Average  monthly  salary,  —  of 
males,  $29.59;  of  females,  $14.60.  Annual 
educational  expenditure,  $933,829.  Value  of 
school  property,  $3,070,326.  State  Superinten- 
dent, N.  A.  Luce,  Augusta. 

MARYLAND.  Population  (1880),  934,632 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 21), 
602,952.  Enrolled  in  'public  schools,  159,945. 
Average  daily  attendance,  79,739.  Number  of 
schools,  2,058.  Number  qf  teachers,  3,197. 
Average  monthly  salary,  $43.49.  School  fund, 
$906,229.  Educational  expenditure,  $1,604,580. 
Secretary  of  Slate  Board  of  Education,  M.  A. 
Newell,  Baltimore. 

MASSACHUSETTS.  Population  (1880), 
1,783,012.  Number  if  children  of  school  age 
(5 — 15),  321,377.  Enrolled  in  public  scla 
330,421.  Average  daily  attendance,  235,739. 
Number  of  children  attending  private  and 
parochial  schools  and  academies,  29.865.  Num- 
ber  qf  schools,  6,090.  Number  of  high  schools, 
221.  Number  of  teachers,  —  male,  1,079; 
female,  7.858.  Average  monthly  salary,  —  of 
males,  81 02.90;  of  females,  $34.32.  School  fund, 
$2,711,263.  Annual  educational  expenditure, 
$5.881 .1 23.  Secretary  qf  Stale  Hoard  of  Edu- 
cation. John  W.  DICKINSON,  Boston. 

MICHIGAN.  Population  (1880),  1,636,331. 
Number  of  children  qf  school  age  (5 — 20), 
538,802.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  385,504. 
Attending  private  schools.  20,577.  Number 
qf  public  schools,  —  graded,  439;  ungraded. 
6,191.  Number  qf  teachers,  —  male,  .'i.887  ; 
female.     10,580.      Average   monthly    Salary,    — 


LATE  EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS 


of  males,  841.56;  of  females,  $27.44.  Per- 
manent School  fund,  83.619,959.96.  Annual 
income,  from  all  sources,  84,747,421.65.  Value 
of  school  property,  89,848,493.  (Report  for 
the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1882).  State  Super- 
intendent, Yarnum  B.  Cochran,  Marquette ; 
Deputy  Superintendent,  W.  L.  Smith,  Lansing. 
MINNESOTA.  Population  (1880),  875,000 
(estimated).  Number  of  children  of  school  age 
(5 — 21),  315,948.  Enrolled  in  public  schools, 
196,643.  Number  of  schools,  — .graded,  136; 
ungraded,  4,501.  Number  of  teachers, —  males, 
winter,  1,625;  summer,  662;  females,  winter, 
2,711;  summer,  3,338.  Average  monthly  salary, 

—  of  males,  836. 50 ;  of  females,  828.50.  School 
fund,  85,295,101.47.  Annual  income,  8267,082.- 
32.  Total  Revenue,  82,120,364.  Value  of  school 
property,  83,947,057.  State  Superintendent, 
D.  L.  Kiehle,  St.  Paul. 

MISSISSIPPI.  Population  (1880),  1,131,- 
592.   Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5 — 21), 

—  whites,  156,434  ;  colored,  205,936.  Enrolled 
in  public  schools,  —  whites,  111,655;  colored, 
125.633.  Number  of  teachers,  —  whites,  3,414 ; 
colored,  2,644:  male,  3,577;  female,  1,790. 
Average  monthly  salary, —  of  males,  830.07;  of 
females,  830.07.  School  fund,  8815,229.  Edu- 
cational income,  8716,342.  State  Superintendent, 
J.  A.  Smith,  Jackson. 

MISSOURI.  Population  (1880),  2,168,804. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 20),  — 
whites,  704,550 ;  colored,  37.891 .  En  rolled  in  pub- 
lic schools,  — whites,  467,811;  colored,  25,069. 
Number  of  schools, — for  whites,  8,321;  for  col- 
ored, 501.  Number  of  teachers,  10,743.  School 
fund,  89,554,349.  Educational  income,  8641,- 
483.  Value  of  school  property,  87,521,695.  State 
Superintendent,  R.  D.  Shannon,  Jefferson  City. 

MONTANA.  Population  (1880),  39,157. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (4- — 21),  — 
males,  5,832;  females,  5,437.  Enrolled  in  public 
schools,  6,000.  Average  daily  attendance,  3,700. 
Number  of  schools,  189.     Number  of  teachers, 

—  male,  64;  female,  127.  Average  monthly 
salary,  —  of  males,  875.74;  of  females,  864.20. 
Educational  income,  890,204.  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  R.  H.  Howey,  Helena. 

NEBRASKA.  Population  (1880),  452,433. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5 — 21),  — 
male,  86,395 ;  female,  79,116.  Enrolled  in 
public  schools,  116,546.  Number  of  schools,  — 
graded,  74;  ungraded,  3,241.  Number  of  teach- 
ers, —  male,  1,706;  female.  3,120.  Average 
monthly  salary,  —  of  males,  836.20;  of  females, 
829.40.  School  fund,  82,402,455.  Value  of 
school  property,  82,234,465.  Educational  in- 
come, 81,540,952.  State  Superintendent,  W .  \Y . 
W.  Jones,  Lincoln. 

NEVADA.  Population  (1880),  62,265. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 18),  — 
male,  5,223;  female,  5,369.  Number  of  teach- 
ers, —  male,  92,  female,  105.  Number  of  schools, 
195.  School  fund,  8415,000.  Educational 
income,  8161,405.  State  Superintendent,  D.  R. 
Sessions,  Carson  City. 
A3 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  Population  (1880), 
346,984.  Number  of  children  of  school  age 
(5—21),  72,002.  Enrolled  in  public  schools, te,- 
347.  Average  daily  attendance,  43,996.  Num- 
ber of  schools,  2,644.  Number  of  teachers, — 
male,  477:  female,  3,117.  Average,  salary 
(including  board), —  of  males,  836.45;  of  fe- 
males. 822.36.  Educational  ii<-ome,  8584,527.74. 
Value  of  school  property,  82,303,248.03.  State 
Superintendent,  J.  W.  Patterson,  Concord. 

NEW  JERSEY.  Population  (1880), 
1,130,983.  Number  of  children  of  school  age 
(5 — 18),  343,897.  Enrolled  in  public  schools, 
209,526.  Average  attendance,  113,532.  Number 
of  children  attending  private  schools,  44,560. 
Number  of  school  districts,  1,366;  of  school 
buildings,!^!;  of  separate  school  departments, 
3,511.  Number  of  teachers,  —  male,  991; 
female,  2,594.  Average  monthly  salary,  — 
of  males,  856.96;  of  females,  833.41.  Total 
appropriation  for  school  purposes,  82,142,384.- 
74.  Slate  Superintendent,  Ellis  A.  Apgar, 
Trenton. 

NEW  MEXICO.  Population  (1880),  118,- 
430.  Number  of  children  of  school  age,  25,000. 
Enrolled  in  public  schools,  5,151.  Number  of 
teachers,  147.  Monthly  salary,  from  816.30  to 
840.     Educational  income,  825, 47 3. 

NEW  YORK.  Population  (1880), 5,082,871- 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5 — 21), 
1,681,161.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  1,041,068. 
Average  daily  attendance,  569,472.  Number 
of  school  districts,  11,257.  Whole  number  of 
pupils  taught,  —  in  common  schools,  1,041,068; 
in  normal  schools,  6,152;  in  academies,  34,171 ; 
in  colleges,  6,496;  in  private  schools,  115,646; 
in  law  schools,  609;  in  medical  schools,  3,011; 
total,  1,207,153.  Number  of  children  in  Indian 
schools,  1,174.  Number  of  teachers,  —  male, 
7,123;  female,  24,110.  Average  monthly  salary, 
843.28.  Capital  of  Common  •  School  Fund, 
83,802,902.  Annual  income,  812,544,210. 
State  Superintendent,  Neil  Gilmour,  Albany. 

NORTH  CAROLINA.  Population  (1880), 
1,399,750.  Number  of  children  of  school  age 
(6—21),  —  whites,  291,770;  colored,  167,554. 
Attending  public  schools,  —  white,  136,481; 
colored,  '  89,125.  Average  daily  attendance, 
147,802.  Number  of  schools,  —  for  whites,  3,523; 
for  colored,  1 ,789.  Number  of  teachers,  —  male, 
2,006;  female,  1,721:  white,  2,727;  colored, 
1,403.  Average  monthly  salary,  821.91.  Edu- 
cational income,  8523,555.  State  Superintendent, 
J.  C.  Scarborough,  Raleigh. 

OHIO.  Population  (1880),  3,198,239.  Num- 
ber cf  children  of  school  age  (6 — 21), — males. 
552,587,  females,  528,734;  total,  1,081,321  (of 
whom  25,074  are  colored).  Enrolled  in  public 
schools,  —  males,  390,303;  females,  360,798. 
Average  daily  attendance,  —  males,  246,425; 
females,  236,807.  Number  of  schools,  12,264. 
Number  of  teachers,  —  male,  11,086;  female, 
13,049.  Educational  income,  812,236,358.  State 
Commissioner  of  Common  Schools,  D.  F.  De 
Wolf,  Columbus. 


LATE  EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS 


OREGON.  Population  (1880),  174,767. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (4 — 20), 
56,464.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  32,718. 
Average  daily  attendance,  20,840.  Number  of 
teachers,  —  male,  539;  female,  460.  Average 
monthly  salary,  —  of  males,  $43.90;  of  females, 
$33.80.  School  fund,  $562,830,  besides  1,000,000 
acres  of  land.  Educational  income,  $351,673. 
State  Superintendent,  L.  J.  Powell,  Salem. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  Population  (1880), 
4,282,786.  Number  of  children  of  school  age 
(6— 21) ,  1,200,000.     Enrolled  in  public  schools, 

—  males,  482,286;  females,  463,059.  Average 
daily  attendance,  611,317.     Number  of  schools, 

—  graded,  7,812;  ungraded,  11,371.  Number 
of  teachers,  —  male,  9,051;  female,  12,778. 
Average  montlily  salary,  —  of  males,  $35.12;  of 
females,  $28.89.  Educational  mco?ne,$8,263,244.- 
00.  State  Superintendent,  E.  E.  Higbee,  Harris- 
burg. 

RHODE  ISLAND.  Population  (1880), 
276,528.  Number  of  children  of  school  age 
(5—15),  —  males,  28,273;  females,  27,559. 
Enrolled  in  public  schools,  41,658.  Average 
daily  attendance,  27,467.  Number  of  children 
attending  private  or  select  schools,  6,964. 
Number  of  schools,  —  graded,  539;  ungraded, 
294.  Number  of  teachers,  —  male,  182;  female. 
933.  Average  monthly  salary,  —  of  males, 
$77.44;  of  females,  $43.53.  Educational  in- 
come, $608,125.  Value  of  school  property, 
$2,064,693.  State  Commissioner  of  Public 
Schools,  Thomas  B.  Stockwell,  Providence. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA.  Population  (1880), 
995,577.  Number  of  children  of  school  age 
(6—16),  —  whites,  101,189;  colored,  180,475. 
Enrolled  in  public  schools,  —  whites,  65,399; 
colored,  80,575.  Number  of  school  districts, 
484.  Number  of  public  schools,  3,183.  Number 
of  teachers, — white,  2,126;  colored  ,1 ,287:  males, 
1,940;  females,  1,473;  total,  3,413.  Average 
monthly  salary, —  of  males,  $26.00;  of  females, 
$23.97*.  Educational  income,  $452,965.  State 
Superintendent,  A.    Coward,  Columbia. 

TENNESSEE.  Population  (1880),  1,542,- 
463.   Number  of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 21), 

—  whites,  403,353;  colored,  141,509*.  Enrolled 
in  public  schools,  —  whites,  229,290;  colored, 
60,851.  Average  daily  /((tendance,  —  whites, 
150,854;  colored,  40,607.      Number  of  schools, 

—  for  whites,  4,334;  for  colored,  1,188.  Number 
of  teachers,  —  white,  male,  3,506;  female, 
1,201:  colored,  male,  913;  female,  334.  Average 
monthly  salary,  $26.66.  Educational  income, 
$930,734.  State  Superintendent,  W.  S.  Doak, 
l>.  D.,  NashviUe. 

TEXAS.  Population  (1880),  1,592,574. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (8 — 14), 
300,000.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  250,000. 
Number  of  schools,  —  for  whites,  5,500;  for 
colored,  1,500.  Number  of  teachers,  —  white, 
male,  2,895;  female,  760:  colored,  male,  562; 
female,  113.  Average  monthly  salary,  —  of 
A4 


males,  $42;  of  females,  $33.  School  fund, 
$3,385,571.  Educational  income,  $972,904. 
Secretary  State  Board  of  Education,  0.  N. 
Hollingsworth,  Austin. 

UTAH.  Population  (1880),  143,906.  Number 
of  children  of  school  age  (6 — 18),  —  males, 
22.087;  females,  21,216.  Enrolled  in  public 
schools,  —  males,  14,566;  females,  12,650. 
Average  daily  attendance,  17,594.  Number 
of  schools,  388.  Number  cf  teachers,  ■ —  male,. 
261;    female,  234.     Average   monthly   salary,. 

—  of  males,  $46.43;  of  females,  $26.93.  Edu- 
cational income,  $136,689.  Superintendent  of 
District  Schools,  L.  John  Nuttall,  Salt  Lake 
City. 

VERMONT.  Population  (1880),  532,286.. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5 — 20) v 
92,535.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  73,068- 
Average  daily  attendance,  47,772.  Number- 
of  children  attending  private  schools,  7,468. 
Number  of  schools,  2,527.     Number  of  teachers, 

—  male,  653;  female,  3,723.  Average  monthly 
salary  (with  board),  —  of  males,  $30.52;  of 
females,  $18.24.  School  fund,  $669,087.  Edu- 
cational income,  $491,021.  State  Superintendent, 
Justus  Dartt,  Ascutneyville. 

VIRGINIA.  Population  (1880),  1,512,806. 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5- — 21),  — 
whites,  314,827;  colored,  240,980.  Enrolled  in. 
public  schools,  —  whites,  172,634;  colored,. 
85,328.  Average  daily  attendance,  —  whites,. 
97,997;  colored,  46,907.  Number  of  children 
attending  private  schools,  25,720.  Number  of 
schools,  —  for  whites,  3,939;  for  colored,  1,443. 
Number  of  teachers,  —  white,  4,538;  colored, 
1 ,059.  A  rerage  monthly  salary,  —  of  males, 
$29.47 ;  of  females,  $25. 61 .  Educational  income, 
$1,290,288.  Stale  Superintendent,  R.  P*.  Farr, 
Richmond. 

WASHINGTON.  Population  (1880), 
75,120.  Number  of  children  of  school  age- 
(5 — 21),  29,871.  Enrolled  in  public  schools, 
17,003.  Average  daily  attendance,  11,135, 
Number  of  schools,  602.    Number  of  teachers, 

—  male,  287;  female,  371.  Average  monthly 
salary,  —  of  males,  $44.17;  of  females,  $35.62. 
Educational  income,  $120,000.  Superintendent. 
of  Schools,  C.  W.  "Wheeler,  Waitsburg. 

"WEST  VIRGINIA.     Population    (1880),. 
618,443.     Number  of  children  of  school  au<> 
(6—21),  216,605.     Enrolled  in  public  schools, 
155,544.      Average   daily   attendance,    96,652. 
Number  of  schools,  4,028.    Number  of  teachers, 

—  male,  3,045;  female,  1 ,315.  Average  monthly- 
salary,  —  of  males,  $28.03;  of  females,  $30.04. 
Educational  income,  $988,620.  School  fund, 
$509,305.  Value  of  school  property,  $1 ,823,987. 
State  Superintendent,  B.  L.  Butcher,  Wheeling. 

WISCONSIN.  Population  (1880),  1,315,- 
480.   Number  of  children  of  school  age  (4 — 20)  > 

—  males,  251,828;  females,  243,885 ; 'total,  495,- 
713.  Enrolled  in  public  schools,  303,807.  Num- 
ber of  schools,  —  graded,  486;  ungraded,  5,300 


LATE  EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS 


Number  of  teachers,  —  male,  2,463;  female, 
7,632.  Average  monthly  salary,  —  of  males,$7l.- 
50;  of  females,  $31.  School  funds,  $4,486,215. 
Educational  income,  $3,241,342.  Value  of 
school  property,  $5, 614,939.  State  Superinten- 
dent, Robert  Graham,  Madison. 
A5 


WYOMING.  Population  (1880),  20,788. 
School  Age,  6—21.  Enrolled  in  public  schoolsr 
—  males,  1,332;  females,  1,245.  Number  of 
schools,  65.  Number  of  teachers,  68.  Educational 
income,  $41,882.  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  John  Slaughter,  Cheyenne. 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 


Religious 

President 

Name. 

Location. 

Org. 

Denomination. 

or  other  Chief  Officer. 

PI 

St. 

1859 

Meth.  E.South 

iRev.  L.  M.  Smith,  D.D 

Howard  College 

1842 

James  T.  Murfee,  LL.D 

5 

103 

1830 

Rom.  Cath. 

Rev.  D.  Beaudequin,  S.J 

1831 

Non-sect 

Harwell  B.  Lewis,  LL.D 

13 

150 

1872 

Presbyt 

Rev.  Isaac  J.  Long,  D.D 

Rev.  F  R.  Earle  A  M 

Cane  Hill  College 

18J8 

3 

15 

♦Arkansas    Industrial    Uni- 

Fayetteville,  Ark.  . . . 

1871 
1871 

Gen.  D.  H.  Hill 

6 

Rev.RichardS.James,D.D.,LL.D. 

26 

*St.  John's  College  of  Ar- 

1859 

Missionary    College    of   St. 

1867 

Prot.  Episc. . . 
Non-sect 

Rt   Rev  J  H  DWinffield   DD 

1868 

LL.D 

6 
52 

IS 

TJniversity  of  California 

W.  T.  Reid 

721 

Pierce  Christian  College.... 

College  City,  Cal.  . . . 

Ull 

James  C.  Keith,  A.B 

8 

85 

1«6J 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 

Rev.  M.  V.  Richardson,  CM.  . . . 

6 

University  of  Southern  Cali- 

San  Francisco,  Cal... 

18S0 
1855 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Rom.  Cath.  . . 

10 

50 

San  Francisco,  Cal.. . 

186  J 
1851 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 

12 
27 
14 

78 
201 
110 

Rev.  John  Pinasco,  S.  J 

Rev.  C.  C.  Stratton,  A.M.,  D.D... 

University  of  the  Pacific. . . . 

Santa  Clara,  Cal 

1852 

Meth.  Episc.  . 

Pacific  Methodist  College.. . 

1861 

Meth. E.South 

O.  H.  Roberts,  A.M 

9 

114 

•College  of  our  Lp.dy  of  Gua- 

Rom.  Cath... . 

Vacaville,  Cal.  .  .[Cal. 
Washington  Corners, 

1860 

Non-sect 

Rev.  Uriah  Gregory,  D.D.    • . , . . 
S  S.Harmon,  AM 

1871 
I860 

6 

A  M   Elston   A  M 

50 

*University  of  Colorado 

1877 

Joseph  A.  Sewell,  M  D.,  LL.D... 

Colorado  Springs, Col. 

1.S74 

Congregation- 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Rev.  E.  P.  Tenney... 

8 

12 

1880 

Rev.  David  H.  Moore,  A.M.,  D.D. 

37 

1823 

Prot.  Episc.  .. 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Rev.Th.R.  Pynchon,  D.D..LL.D. 
Rev.  John  Wesley  Beach,  D.D... 

9 

70 

Middletown,  Conn... 

1830 

Yale  College 

New  Haven,  Conn.  . . 

1701 

Rev   Noah  Porter  D  D    LL  D 

104 

614 
46 

1881 

1 

Yankton,  Dakota .... 

1881 
1870 

Congregation. 

2 

William  H.  Purnell.  A.M.,  LL.D. 

Georgetown,  D.  C .. 

1789 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 

Rev.  James  A.  Doonan,  S.J 

44 

140 

Washington,  D.  C... 

1821 

James  C.  Welling,  LL.D 

•Gonzaga  College 

Washington,  D.  C 

1848 

Rom.  Cath.  .. 

Rev.  Robert  Fulton,  S.J 

Washington,  D.  C 

i  867 

Rev  Wm  W  Patton  D  D    LL  D 

y 

18 

1801 

Non-sect 

Rev.  P.  H.  Mell.  D.D..  LL.D 

1869 

Edmund  A.  Ware,  A.M 

1867 

Lucius  C.  Adamson,  A.B 

? 

65 

L873 

1838 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 

5 
9 

36 

Rev  A  J  Battle  D  D 

102 

1874 

Rt.  Rev.  William  H.  Gross,  D.D. 

Oxford,  Ga.  . 

1837 

Meth  E  South 

J  "5 

252 

Bloomington,  111.  . . . 

1855 

Disciples 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

1 366 

11 

100 

Illinois  Wesleyan  University 

1856 

Rev.  W.  H.  H.  Adams.  D.D 

16 

602 

Bourbonnais    Grove, 

1805 

Rom.  Cath 

Rev.  Peter  Beaudoin,  P.S.V 

Carlinville,  111...  [HI. 

1860 

Presbvteriau  . 

Rev.  E.  L.  Hurd,  D.D 

10 

96 

Northern     Illinois     Normal 

1873 

Evang.  Luth. 
Rom    Cath.  . 

Rev.  A.  Kunkelman,  D  D.  . , 

1870 

Rev.  Thomas  O'Neil,  S  J. . 

8 

40 

60 

1857 

Rev.  Galusha  Anderson,  8.T.D. 

70 

School  &  Dixon  Business 

Dixon,  111 

1880 
1875 
1855 
1855 

Non-sect 

Christian . 
Meth.  Episc. . . 

J  C.Flint 

15 
69 

•Rock  ltiver  University  .... 

Eureka,  111 

Evanston,  111 

H.  W.  Everest,  A.M 

Rev.  Jos.  Cummings,D.D.,LL.D. 

Northwestern  University... 

668 

1874 

7 

30 

1837 
1866 

Universali.it . . 

Newton  Bateman,  A.M.,  LL.D... 
Rev.  Neheniiah  White,  Ph.D 

15 

141 

1863 

Presbyterian  . 

Non-sect 

Presbvteriau  . 

Rev.  Edgar  W.  Clarke,  A.M 

E.  A.  Tanner 

3 

1829 
1857 

28 

Rev.  Daniel  S.  (iregory,  D.D.  ... 

70 

McKendree  College 

Mendota,  111 

1835 

1868 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Oumb.  Presb.. 
Evang.  Luth  . 

Rev.  Daniel  W.  Phillips,  A.M.... 
Rev.A  J.McGlumphy,D.D.,LL.D. 
Bev.  S.  I'ntschel,  D.D 

10 
12 

100 

430 

•Evang. -Luther.  Collegium. 

Monmouth  College 

Monmouth.  Ill 

Mount  Morris,  111.... 

1856 
1H40 
1861 

Unit.  Presbyt. 
German  Bapt. 

Rev.  J.  B.  McMichael,  D.D 

D.  L.  Miller 

14 

8 

101 

°63 

•.Northwestern  College  ...    . 

Rev.  A.  A   Smith.  A.M 

Chaddock  ('..liege 

1856 

Methodist. . . . 

John  T.  Long,  LL.D 

80 

251 

Augustana  College 

Keck  Island.  Ill 

I860 

Swedish  Luth. 

Rev.  T.  N.  Hassclquist,  D.D 

14 

77 

St.  Josephs  l>iocesan  College 

Teutopolls,  Hi 

1861 

Rom   Cath.... 

Very  Rev.  P.  Michael  Richards, 

81 

100 

Shurtleff  College 

IS07 

Rev.  A. A.  Keinlnck,  D.D.  (O.S  F. 

8 

56 

Illinois  Industrial  University 

Frbana,  111 

1863 

Selim  11.  IVabody.  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

24 

2  SO 

Westfleld  College 

Westfleld,  111 

l  365 

Unit. Brethren 

Rev.  8amuel  B.  Allen,  D.D 1 

7 

15 

1800 

Independent . 

10 

25 

Orpr  =  Year  of  Organization.      PI  =  Number  of  Professors  and  other  Instructors.       St.  =  Number   of  Students  of 
Collegiate  G 

From  Colleges  marked  •  no  recent  information  has  been  received  [Jan.  1883.) 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN  THE    UNITED  STATES.  —  Continued. 


Name. 


*Bed."ord  College... 

Indiana  University 

*  Wabash  College 

Concordia  College 

Fort  Wayne  College 

Franklin  College 

Indiana  Asbury  University. 

Hanover  College  

Hartsville  University 

Butler  University 

Union  Christian  College 

Moore's  Hill  College 

University  of  Notre  Dame. . 

Earlham  College 

Ridgeville  College 

St.  Meinrad's  College 

Amity  College 

Griswold  College 

Norwegian  Luther.  College.. 

Drake  University 

♦University  of  Des  Moines. . 

St.  Joseph's  College 

♦Parsons  College 

Upper  Iowa  University 

•Iowa  College 

♦Humboldt  College 

Simpson  Centenary  College. 

State  University  of  Iowa 

♦German  College 

Iowa  Wesleyan  University.. 

Cornell  College 

♦Oskaloosa  College 

Peun  College 

Central  University  of  Iowa. 

Whittier  College 

♦Tabor  College 

♦Western  College 

St.  Benedict's  College 

♦Baker  University 

Highland  University 

University  of  Kansas 

♦Lane  University 

Ottawa  University 

St.  Mary's  College... 

♦Washburn  College 

♦St.  Joseph's  College 

♦Berea  College 

♦Cecilian  College 

Centre  College 

♦Eminence  College 

♦Kentucky  Militarylnstitute 

♦Georgetown  College 

Kentucky  University 

Kentucky  Wesleyan  College. 

♦Murray  Male  and  Female 
Institute 

♦Concord  College 

Kentucky  Classical  Business 
College 

♦Central  University 

Bethel  College ...   

♦St.  Mary's  College 

Louisiana  State  University 
&  Agricultural  &  Mecha- 
nics College 

♦Jefferson  College 

♦St.  Charles  College 

♦Centenary  College  of  Loui- 
siana   

♦College  of  the  Im.  Concep- 
tion  

♦Leland  University 

New  Orleans  University 

Straight  University 

University  of  Louisiana 

Jefferson  College  (St.  Mary's 

Bowdoin  College 

Bates  College 

Colby  University 

♦St.  John's  College 

♦Baltimore  City  College. . . . 

Johns  Hopkins  University. . 

Loyola  College 

Washington  College 

Rock  Hill  College 

St.  Charles'  College 

Mt.  St.  Mary's  College 


Location. 


Bedford,  Ind 

Bloomingtou.  Ind.  .. 
Crawl'ordsville,  Ind.  . 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

Krankliu,  Ind 

Greencastlc,  Ind 

Hanover,  Ind 

Hartsville,  Ind 

Irviugton,  Ind 

Meroin,  Ind 

Moore's  Hill,  Ind 

Notre  Dame,  Ind 

Richmond,  Ind 

Ridgeville,  Ind 

St.  Meinrad,  Ind 

College  Springs,  la.. . 

Davenport,  la 

Decorah,  la 

Des  Moines,  la 

Des  Moines,  Iowa  . . . 

Dubuque,  la 

Fairfield,  Iowa 

Fayette,  la 

Grinnell,  Iowa 

Humboldt,  la 

Indianola,  la 

Iowa  City,  la 

Mt.  Pleasant,  Iowa. . 

Mt.  Pleasant,  la 

Mt.  Vernon,  la 

Oskaloosa,  Iowa 

Oskaloosa,  la 

Pella,  la 

Salem,  la 

Tabor,  Iowa 

Toledo,  Iowa 

Atchison,  Kans 

Baldwin  City,  Kans.. 

Highland,  Kans 

Lawrence,  Kans 

Lecompton,  Kans 

Ottawa,  Kans 

St.  Mary's,  Kans 

Topeka,  Kans 

Bards  town,  Ky 

Berea,  Ky 

Cecilian,  Ky 

Danville,  Ky 

Eminence,  Ky 

Farmdale,  Ky 

Georgetown,  Ky 

Lexington,  Ky 

Millersburg,  Ky 

Murray,  Ky 

New  Liberty,  Ky . . . . 

[Ky. 

North    Middletown, 

Richmond,  Ky 

Russellville,  Ky 

St.  Mary's,  Ky 

Baton  Rouge,  La.  . . . 

Convent,  La 

Grand  Coteau,  La. . . . 

Jackson,  La 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  Orleans,  La 

St.  James,  La 

Brunswick,  Me 

Lewiston,  Me 

Waterville,  Me 

Annapolis,  Md 

Baltimore,  Md 

Baltimore,  Md 

Baltimore,  Md 

Chestertown,  Md.  . . . 
Ellicott  City,  Md.  . . . 

Ellicott  City,  Md 

Emmittsburgh,  Md.. 


Org. 


1871 
1828 
1830 

1839 
184G 
1841 
1837 

lts.ct 

1851 
1852 
1859 
1851 
1842 
L869 
1867 
1857 
1876 
1859 
1861 
1861 
1866 
1878 
1875 
1857 
1818 
1869 
1867 
1847 
1873 
1855 
1857 
186Q 
1872 
1853 
1867 
1866 
1857 
1859 
1857 
1858 
1865 
1862 
1866 
1869 
1865 
1819 
1858 
1860 
1821 
1857 
1845 
1830 
1858 
1866 

1871 
1867 

1877 
1874 
1856 
1821 


1860 
1864 
1837 

1825 


1871 
1873 
1869 

1847 

1802 
1863 
1820 
1789 
1839 
1876 
1852 
1782 
1857 
1848 
1808 


Religious 
Denomination 


Pi  e  -i'  hi 
or  other  Chief  Officer. 


Christian 

Non-sect 

Presbyterian. 
Evang.  Luth.. 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Baptist 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Presbyterian. 
Unit  Breth... 

Christian 

Christian 

Meth.  Episc.  . 

Rom.  Cath 

Friends 

FreeWillBapt. 

Rom.  Cath 

Non-sect 

Prot.  Episc-.. . 
Evang.  Luth. 

Christian 

Baptist 

Rom.  Cath.. . . 
Presbyterian  . 
Meth.  Episc... 
Congregat.   .. 

Non-sect 

Meth.  Episc.  . 

Non  sect 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Meth.  Episc.  . 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Christian 

Friends 

Baptist 

Friends 

Congregation. 
Unit.  Breth... 

Rom.  Cath 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Presbyterian  . 

Non-sect 

Unit.  Breth. . . 

Baptist  

Rom.  Cath. .. . 
Congregation . 
Rom.  Cath.  . . 
Congregation. 
Rom.  Cath.  .. 
Presbyterian . 

Christian 

Non-sect 

Baptist 

Christian 

Meth.  Episc. . 

Non-sect 

Baptist 

Christian 

South  Presb 

Baptist 

Rom.  Catb.  . . 

Non-sect 

Rom.  Cath.... 
Rom.  Cath  — 

Meth.  Episc.S. 


Baptist 

Meth.  Episc. 
Congregat... . 
Non-sect.  ... 
Rom.  Cath.  . 
Congregat. . . 
Free  Baptist 

Baptist 

Non-sect.  ... 
Non-sect.  . . . 
Non-sect.  . .. 
Rom.  Cath.  . 
Non -sect.  ... 
Rom.  Cath.  . 
Rom.  Cath.  . 
Rom.  Cath.  . 


J.  A.  lieattic,  B.S.,  C.E 

Rev.  Lemuel  Moss 

Rev.  Joseph  F.  Tuttle,  D.D 

H.  A.  Bischoff 

Rev.  W.  F.  Yorum,  A.M 

Rev.  W.  T.  Stott,  D.D 

Rev.  Alex.  Martin,  D.D.,  LL.D.. 

Rev.  D.  W.  Fisher,  D.D 

Rev.  C.  H.  Kiracof,  A.  M 

11.    W.   Everest 

Rev.  Elisha  Mudge 

L.  G.  Adkiuson,  A.M 

Rev.  T.  E.  Walsh,  C.S.C 

Joseph  Moore,  A.M 

Rev.  Samuel  D.  Bates 

Rt.  Rev.  F.  Mundwiler,  O.S.B  ... 

Rev.  S.  C.  Marshall,  A.M 

Rev.  J.  W.  Sprague 

Rev.  Latir.  Larsen 

Geo.  T.  Carpenter 

Rev.  David  Forrester  Call,  A.M.. 

Very  Rev.  R.  Ryan,  V  G 

Rev.  T.  D.  Ewiug,  D.D 

Rev.  J.  W.  Bissell,  D.D 

Rev.  George  F.  Magoun,  D.D. . . 

Rev.  Edw.  L.  Parks,  A.M.,  B.D.. 

Josiah  L.  Pickard,  LL.D 

Rev.  William  Balcke,  A.M 

Rev.  W.  J.  Spaulding,  Ph.D 

Rev.  Wm.  F.  King,  D.D 

G.  H.  Laughlin,  A.M 

Eenjamin  Trueblood,  A.M 

Ceo.  W.  Gardner,  D.D 

Cuss.  Walters 

Fev.  William  M.  Brooks,  A.M. . . 
Lev.  Ezekiel  B.  Kephart,  A.M. . . 
Rt.  Rev.  Inn.  Wolf,  D.D.,  O.S.B. 

Rev.  W.  H.  Sweet.  A.M 

H.  D.  McCarty,  LL.D 

Rev.  James  Marvin,  D.D 

Rev.  L.  S.  Tohill,  A.M 

T.  M.  Stewart,  A.M 

Rev.  C.  Coppens,  S.J 

Rev.  Peter  Mc Vicar,  M.A.,  D.D.. 

Rev.  W.  P.  Mackin 

Rev.  E.  H.  Fairchild 

H.  A.  Cecil 

Ormond  Beatty,  LL.D 

W.  S.  Giltner 

Col.  R.  D.  Allen,  M.A.,  M.D.,  C.E. 
Rev.  Richard  M.  Dudley,  D.D.. . 
Chas.  Louis  Loos 

D.  W.  Batson,  A.M 

H.  E.  Holton 

James  Rice 

E.  V.  Zollars 

Leslie  Waggoner,  LL.D 

Rev.  David  Fenniessy,  C.R 

Wm.  Preston  Johnston 

Very  Rev.  John  J.  Grimos,  S.M. 
Rev.  John  Montillot,  S.J 

Rev.  C.  G.  Andrews,  A.M..D.D.  . 

Very  Rev.  Th.  W.  Butler,  S.J  . . 

Seth  J.  Axtell,  Jr 

James  A.  Dean,  D.D 

Rev.  W.  S.  Alexander,  D.D 

Hon.  Rondell  Hunt.  LL  D 

Very  Rev.  J.  B.  Bigot,  S.M 

Joshua  L.  Chamberlain,  LL.D.. . 

Rev.  Oren  B.  Cheney,  D.D 

Rev.  George  D.  B.  Pepper,  D.D 
James  M.  Garuett,  M.A.,  LL.D.. 

William  Elliot,  Jr 

Daniel  C   Gilman.  A.M.,  LL.D... 

Rev.  Edward  A.  McGurk,  S.J 

Wm.  J.  Rivers,  A.M 

Itev.  Brother  Azarias 

Rev.  Peter  Paul  Denis,  S.S  ,A.M 
Very  Rev.  William  Byrne,  D.D.. 


PI 


16 

8 
I J 

r 

]C 

9 

21 

10 

7 

4*. 

8 

6 

14 

7 
6 
7 

3;.» 

6 

8 


S 
37 

6 

20 

7 

10 
4 


17 

f. 
M 

4 
13 


11 
4 


10 
5 

10 


6 
13 
24 
15 
21 

9 
10 


38 
10 

16 
11 
18 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN  THE    UNITED  STATES.  —  Continued. 


Name. 


Frederick  College 

*  Western  Maryland  College. 

Amherst  College 

Boston  College 

Boston  University 

Harvard  College 

Tufts  College 

*  Williams  College 

College  of  the  Holy  Cross. . . 

•Adrian  College 

•Albion  College 

University  of  Michigan 

♦Battle  Creek  College 

•♦Grand  Traverse  College  . . . 

*  Detroit  College 

♦Hillsdale  College 

♦Hope  College  

Kalamazoo  College 

Olivet  College 

St.  John's  College 

Augsburg  Seminary  Gr.  De- 
partment  

♦Hamline  University 

•Macalester  College 

University  of  Minnesota 

Carle  ton  ( 'ollege 

Mississippi  College 

Bust  (formerly  Shaw)  Uni- 
versity   

♦University  of  Mississippi. . 

♦Alcorn  University 

Tougaloo    University    only 

Normal  Dep.  in  operation 
♦Southwest  Baptist  College 

^Christian  University 

St.  Vincent's  College 

♦University  of  the  State  of 

Missouri 

Central  College 

I  Westminster  College 

♦Lewis  College 

Pritchett  Institute 

♦Lincoln  College 

♦Mount  Pleasant  College. . . 

La  Grange  College 

■♦William  Jewell  College. . . . 

♦st.  Joseph  College 

•College    of    the     Christian 

Brothers 

St.  Louis  University 

•Washington  University 

Drury  College 

Si  nwartsville  College 

Central  Wesleyan  College... 

♦Uoane  College 

University  of  Nebraska 

•Nebraska  College 

•Creighton  College 

•Nebraska    Wesleyan    Uni- 
versity  

'•State  University  of  Nevada 

•Dartmouth  College 

•St.  Peter's  College 

♦St.  Benedict's  College 

Rutgers  College 

<  '"liege  of  New  Jersey 

♦Seton  Hall  College 

♦Alfred  University 

•St.  Bonaventure's  College. 

St.  Stephen's  College 

Wells  College 

♦Brooklyn  Coll.  k  Poly.Inst. 

♦8t.  Francis  College 

St.  John's  College 

•Canisius  College 

♦Martin  I.uther  College.... 

St.  Joseph '8  College 

St.  Lawrence  University  ... 

Hamilton  College 

Kliuira  Female  College 

♦St.  John's  College 

II  hart  College 

Madison  University 

Cornell  University 

Ingham  University 

Manhattan  College 

•College  of  St.  Francis  Xavicr 


Location. 


Frederick,  Md 

Westminster,  Md.... 

Amherst,  Mass 

Boston,  Mass 

Boston,  Mass 

Cambridge,  Mass.  ... 
College  Hill,  Mass.  . . 
Williamstown,  Mass, 

Worcester,  Mass 

Adrian,  Mich 

Albion,  Mich 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich..., 
Battle  Creek,  Mich... 
Benzonia,  Mich.  .... 

Detroit,  Mich , 

Hillsdale,  Mich 

Holland,  Mich , 

Kalamazoo,  Mich.  . . 

Olivet,  Mich 

Collegeville,  Minn.., 

Minneapolis,  Minn.. 
Minneapolis,  Minn.. 
Minneapolis,  Minn. . 
Minneapolis,  Minn.. 
Northneld,  Minn... 
Clinton,  Miss 

Holly  Springs,  Miss 

Oxford,  Miss 

Rodney,  Miss 

Tougaloo,  Miss 

Bolivar,  Mo 

Canton,  Mo 

Cape  Girardeau,  Mo 

Columbia,  Mo 

Fayette,  Mo , 

Fulton,  Mo 

Glasgow,  Mo 

Glasgow,  Mo 

Greenwood,  Mo.  ... 

Huutsville,  Mo 

La  Grange,  Mo 

Liberty,  Mo 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Louis.  Mo 

Springfield,  Mo 

Stewartsville,  Mo... 

Warrenton,  Mo 

Crete,  Neb 

Lincoln,  Neb 

Nebraska  City,  Neb, 
Omaha.  Neb 

Osceola,  Neb 

Elko,  Nev 

Hanover,  N.  H 

Jersey  City,  N.  J.... 

Newark,  N.  J 

New  Brunswick,  N.J 

Princeton,  N.  J 

South  Orange,  N.  J. 

Alfred,  N.  Y 

Allegany,  NY , 

Annandale,  N.'  Y.  . . . 

Aurora,  N.  Y 

Brooklyn,  NY 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Buffalo,  NY 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Canton,  N.  Y 

Clinton,  N.  Y 

Elmira.  N.  Y 

Fordham.  N.  Y 

Geneva,  N.  Y , 

Hamilton,  N.  Y 

Ithaka,  N.  Y 

Le  Hoy.  NY 

ManhattanvHle,  N.  V 
New  York,  N.  Y 


Org. 


1829 
1867 
1821 
1864 
1869 
1638 
1852 
1793 
1843 
1859 
1861 
1841 
1874 
1863 

1855 
1863 
1855 
1859 
1857 

1874 

1874 
1868 

1866 
1850 

1869 
1848 
1871 

1871 

1858 
1843 

1840 
1857 
1849 
1866 
1866 
1870 

1859 
1849 
1867 

1849 
1829 
1859 
1873 
1863 
1864 
1878 
1871 

1878 

1879 
1874 

1770 

1868 
1770 
1747 
1856 
1857 
1859 
1860 
1868 
1855 
1HU 
1869 
1870 

1861 
1H56 
1812 

1866 

1841 
18'J5 

1846 

1868 

IS  24 

1868 
I8i. 


Religious 
Denomination 


Non-sect 

Meth  .Protest. 

Congreg 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 
Meth.  Episc. 

Non-sect 

Universalist. . 
Congregation. 
Rom.  Cath.  . . 
Meth.  Prot.  . . 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Non-sect 

7th  Day  Adv.. 

Cong 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 
FreeWillBapt. 
Reformed  .... 

Baptist 

Cong.&  Presb. 
Rom.  Cath.  . . 

Evang.  Luth.. 

Presbyt 

Non-sect 

Congregat. ... 
Baptist 

Meth.  Episc.  . 

Non-sect 

Non-sect 

Congregat. ... 

Baptist 

Christian 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 

Non-sect 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
S.  Presbyt. . .. 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Noii- sect 

United  Presb. 

Baptist 

Baptist 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 

Rom.  Cath.  .. 
Rom.  Cath.  .. 

Non-sect 

Congregat.  ... 

Non-sect 

Meth.  Episc. . 

Cong 

Non-sect 

Rom.  Cath.  .. 

Meth.  Episc.  . 

Nun  sect 

Non-sect 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 
Reform. Dutch 

Presbyt 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 
7th  Day  Bapt. 
Rom.  Cath.  . . 
Episcopal  .... 

Presbyt 

Non-sect 

Rom.  Cath.  .. 
Rom.  Cath.  .. 
Rom.  Cath.  .. 
Evang.  Luth.. 
Rom.  Cath.  .. 
Universalist. . 

Presbyt 

Presbyt 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 
Episcopal  .... 

Haptist 

Non-sect 

Presbyt 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 
Rom.  Cath.  . . 


President 
or  other  Chief  Officer. 


PI 


Thomas  A.  Gatch,  A.M 

Rev.  James  Thomas  Ward,  D.D. 
Rev.  Julius  H.  Seelye,D.D..LL.D. 

Rev.  Jeremiah  O'Conner,  S.J 

Rev.Wm.  F.  Warren.S.T.D.,D.D.. 

Chas.  W.  Eliot,  LL.D [LL  D. 

Rev.  Elmer  Hewitt  Capen,  D.D. . 

Franklin  Carter 

Rev.  Edward  D.  Boone,  S.J 

Rev.  G.  B.  McElroy,  D.D..  Ph.D. 
Rev.  L.  R.  Fiske,  D.D,  LL.D.... 

James  B.  Angell,  LL.D 

James  White 

L.  D.  Maltby,  A.M 

Rev.  James  J.  Walshe,  S.J 

Rev.  De  Witt  C.  Durgin.  D.D.  .. 
Rev.  G.  Henry  Mandeville,  D.D. 

Rev.  Kendall  Brooks,  D.D 

Rev.  Horatio  Q.  Butterntfld,  D.D. 

Rt.  Rev.  Abbot  Alex.  Edelbrock, 

[O.S.B. 

Prof.  Georg  Sverdrup 

Rev.  D.  C.  John,  D.D 

Rev.  Edward  D.  Neill 

William  Walter  Folwell,  LL.D.  . 

James  W.  Strong,  D.D 

Rev.  W.  S.  Webb,  D.D 

Rev.  W.  W.  Hooper,  A.M 

Alexander  P.  Stewart 

Rev.  Hiram  R.  Revels 

Rev.  G.  Stanley  Pope 

Rev.  J.  R.  Maupin,  A.M 

J.  C.  Reynolds 

Rev.  J.  W.  Hickey,  CM 

S.  S.  Laws,  A.M.,  M.D..  LL.D.  .. 
Rev.  Eug.  R.  Hendrix,  A.M..D.D 


Rev.  Jos.  H.  Pritchett,  A.M.  . . 

W.  Q.Bell.  A.B 

Rev.  J.  B.  Weber,  A.M 

J.  F.  Cook,  M.A..LLD 

Rev.  W.  R.  Roth  well,  D.D 

Rev.  Brother  Arthemian 

Rev.  Brother  James 

Rev.  R.  J.  Meyer,  S.J 

Rev.  William  G.  Elliot,  D.D.  . 
Rev.  Nathan  J.  Morrison,  D.D 

Rev.  W.O.  H.  Perry,  A.M 

Rev.  H.  A.  Koch,  D.D , 

Rev.  D.  B.  Perry,  A.M 

H.  E.  Hitchcock 


Rev.  R.  A.  Sehaffel,  S.J. 


W.  C.  Dovey  

Rev.  Sam.  C.  Bartlett,D.D.,LL.D 

Rev.  John  McQnaid,  S.J 

Rev.  Frederick  Hoesel,  O.S.B.  . . 
Merrill  Edw.  Gates,  Ph.D.,  LL.D 
Rev.  James  McCosh.  D.D..  LL.D 
Rev.  James  H.  Corrigan,  A.M.  .. 

Rev.  J.  Allen,  D.D.,  Ph.D 

Vv.Rev.Fr.Leoda  Saracena.O.S.F 
Bev.Rob.B.Fairbairn,D.D.,LL.D. 
Rov.  Edward  S.  Frisbee.  D.D.  .. 

D.  H.  Cochran,  Ph.D.,  LL.D 

Bro.  Jerome  Magner.  O.S.F 

Rev.  J.  A.  Uartnett.  CM 

Rev.  Martin  Port.  S.J 

Rev.  Brother  Frank,  F.S.C 

Rev.  A.  G.  Gaines,  D.D.  . .   

Rev.  Henry  Darliu,  D.D.,  LL.D.. 
Rev.  Augustus  W.  Cowles,  D.D.. 

Rev.  F.  Wm.  Gockeln,  S.J 

Rev.  Robert  G.  Hinsdale.  S.T.D. 
Rov.  Ebenezer  Dodge, DD..LL.D. 

Andrew  D.  White,  LL.D 

Dr.  E.  B.  Walsworth 

Rev.  Brother  Anthony,  F.S.C.... 
Rev.  Sam.  U.  Frisbee",  S.J 


3 

40 

13 

90 

25 

352 

16 

100 

90 

66 

929 

13 

75 

11 


CO 


St. 


10 


92 


513 


51 
106 
125 

40 


120 

62 

150 

50 


13 

90 

8 

90 

8 

CO 

6 

100 

150 

50 
CO 
50 


16  52 


140 
565 


65 

50 


120 


14 

140 

13 

64 

16 

187 

ia 

0b 

u 

68 

ii 

ii  a 

50 

375 

10 

50 

39 

280 

10 1 120 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN  THE    UNITED  STATES.  —  Continued. 


NaMK. 

Location. 

Org. 

Religious 
Denomination 

President 
or  other  Chief  Officer. 

ri 

30 

13 
31 

16 

15 
39 
11 

4 

7 

8 

8 

10 

6 

12 

12 

9 

10 

22 

23 

9 

10 

4 
8 

9 

32 

8 

10 
6 

6 

10 

12 
4 
6 

16 
6 
7 

6 
4 
3 

7 

18 

8 

6 

12 
22 

10 
6 

8 
9 

8 

7 

St. 

"Coll.  of  the  City  of  NewYork 

NewYork,  N.  Y 

NewYork,  N.  Y 

NewYork,  N.  Y 

NewYork,  N.  Y 

Pougkeepsie,  N.  Y. 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

Schenectady,  N.  Y... 
[N.  Y. 
Suspension   Bridge, 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

Chapel  HUl,  N.  C 

Davidson  Coll.,  N.  C. 
Happv  Home,  N.  C.  . 
Mt.  Pleasant,  N.  C... 

Raleigh,  N.  C 

Trinity  College,  N.  0. 
Wake  Forest,  N.  C.  . . 
Weaverville,  N.  C.  .. . 

1847 
1754 
1838 
1831 
1861 
1850 
1795 

1856 

1K70 
1789 
1867 
1837 
1847 
1859 
1866 
1852 
1834 
1874 
1872 
1879 
1804 
1856 
1864 
1874 
1872 
1832 
1870 

1826 
1852 
1850 
1873 
1843 
1824 
1831 
1868 
1826 
1854 
1835 
1843 
1825 
1837 
1833 
1876 
1873 
1866 
1870 
1845 
1851 
1850 
1847 
1849 
1854 
1859 
1870 
1866 
1852 
1850 
1868 
1876 
1854 
1876 
1859 
1865 
1865 
1854 
1819 
1867 
1866 
1846 
1783 
1862 
1832 
1870 
1832 
1870 
1832 
1868 
1853 
1846 
1856 
1850 
1817 
1868 
1872 
1852 

Non-sect 

Non-sect 

Rom.  Cath.  .. 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Evang,  Luth. . 
Meth.  Episc.  S. 

UniversaUst  . 
Ger.  Bapt.  . . . 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Rom.  Cath.  . . 
Rom.  Cath.  . . 

Non-sect 

Lutheran  .... 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Protest. Episc. 

Christian  .... 

Non-sect 

Unit.  Presbyt. 
Congregat.  . . . 
F.  W.  Baptist. 
Assoc.  Presby. 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Eng.  Luth. ... 
Refor.  Church 
Swedenborg. . 
Unit.  Breth.  . 
Ref.  Presbyt.. 
Afr.  Meth.  Ep. 
Methodist  . . . 

Christian  .... 
Meth.  Episc.  . 
Meth.  Ep.  S.  . 

Christian  .... 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Christian 

Unit.  Breth... 
Meth.  Episc.  . 

Non-sect 

Lutheran 

Unit.  Breth... 
Rom.  Cath.. .. 
Meth.  Episc.  . 
Non-sect 

Lutheran..... 
Evang.  Luth.. 

Reformed .... 

Rom.  Cath 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Refor.  Church 

Non-sect 

Unit.  Presbyt. 

Alexander  S.  Webb.  LL.D 

F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  S.T.D.,  LL.D  , 

S.  D.  Burchard (L.H.D. 

John  Hall,  D.D 

Rev.  Samuel  L.  Caldwell,  D.D... 

Martin  B.  Anderson,  LL.D 

Rev.Eliph.  N.  Potter,  D.D. , LL.D. 

Very  Rev.  P.  V.  Kavanagh,  CM. 

C.  N.  Sims,  D.D 

Kemp  P.  Battle.  LL.D 

Rev.  Stephen  Mattoon,  D  V 

Rev.  A.  D.  Hepburn.  D.D 

Rev.  Robert  L.  Abernethy,  A.M.. 

Rev.  G.  D.  Bernheim,  D.D 

Rev.  H.  M.  Tupper,  AM 

Rev.  B.  Craveu,  D.D.,  LL.D 
Rev.  W  B.  Royall 

277 

92 
145 

212 

206 
390 
189 

"Rutgers  Female  College  . . . 
Univers.  of  the  City  of  N.  Y. 

"University  of  Rochester. . . 

Union  College 

College  and  Seminary  of  Our 

Lady  of  Angels 

"Syracuse  University 

University  of  North  Carolina 

20 

117 

O.  Cone,  D.D 

Elder  S  Z.  Sharp,  AM.  ... 

C5 

Athens,  0 

William  H.  Scott 

V> 

Rev.  William  Nast,  D.D 

80 

German  Wallace  Colleg  i . . . . 
•Hebrew  Union  College  .... 

Cincinnati,  0 

Cleveland,  O 

College  Hill,  0 

Delaware,  O 

52 

Rev.  P.  J.  Hurth,  C.S.C 

John  I.  Coghlan,  S  J 

110 

*>?0 

"University  of  Cincinnati. . . 
Adalbert  College  of  Western 

Carroll  Cutler 

80 

P.  V.  N.  Myers,  A.M 

Rev.  Prof.  M.  Loy,  A.M 

40 

•Ohio  Wesleyan  University . . 

Rev.  Chas.  H.Payne,  D.D. , LL.D. 

Rev.  Win.  B.  Bodine,  D.D 

Rev.  A.  Owen,  D.D 

B.  S.  Dean 

335 

287 
60 

Granville,  0 

39 

"Western  Reserve  College  . . 

Marietta  College 

*Mt   Union  College 

Hudson,  0 

Iberia,  O 

New  Concord,  0 

Oberlin,  0 

Rev.  Carroll  Cutler,  D.D 

John  P.  Robb,  A.M 

Rev.  lsr.W.Andrews,D.D.,LL.D. 
O.  N.  Hartshorn,  LL.D 

12 
69 

Rev.  George  C.  Vincent,  D.D.  . . . 

63 

Oberlin  College 

Rev.  James  H.  FairchilJ,  D.D.. . 

A.  A.  Moulton,  A.M 

Rev.  William  Ballantine,  A.M... 

370 

Rio  Grande  College  

"McCorkle  College 

Sago,  O 

18 

Scio,  O 

50 

Tiffin,  0 

Eugene  H.  Foster,  A.B.,  A.M 

Rev.  J.  B.  Helwig,  D.D 

Rev.  Geo.  W.  Williard,  D.D,.  ... 

Rev.  Frank  Sewall,  A.M 

Rev.  H.  S.  Thompson,  D.D 

Rev.  Benjamin  F.  Lee,  D.D 

J.  C.  Ward 

25 

84 

Wooster,  0 

95 

10 

J.  B.  Unthank 

00 

Rev.  A.  A.  E.  Taylor,  D.D 

O.  J.  Wait 

?no 

Yellow  Springs,  0.  . . 

8 

W.  H.  DeMotte,  LL.D 

Eugene  City,  Oreg.  . . 
Forest  Grove.  Oreg.  . 
La  Grande,  Oreg    ,    , 
McMinnville,  Oreg.  . 
Monmouth,  Oreg.  .. . 
Philomath,  Oreg.    . . . 
Salem,  Oreg 

B.  L.  Arnold,  Ph.D 

J.  W.  Johnson  

Rev.  John  R.  Herrick,  S.T.D. . . . 
George  M.  Irwin,  A.M 

10 

Blue  Mountain  University  . 

D.  T.  Stanley   

35 

"Willamette  University  .... 
Western  Un.  of  Pennsylvania 

"Lebanon  Valley  College  . . . 

Dickinson  College 

Rev.  Wayne  S.  Walker,  A.M 

Chas.  Edw.  Lambert,  A.M.,  B.D. 

Henry  M.  McCracken,  D.D 

Rev.  B.  Sadtler,  D.D 

Rev.  D.  D.  DeLong,  A.M 

Rev.  Hilary  Pfraengle,  O.S.B. . . . 
Rev.  James  A.  McCauley,  D.D... 
Col.  Theo.  Hyatt,  M.A 

75 
80 

Beatty,  Pa 

inn 

Pennsylvania  Military  Acad. 

100 

Rev.  W.  C.  Cattell,  D.D.,  LL.D.  . 

Rev.  H.  W.  Roth,  A.M 

Rev.  H.  K.  Craig,  D.D 

Rev.  Thomas  G.  Apple,  D.D 

Rev.  David  J.  Hill,  A.M 

Rev.  I.  N.  Rendall,  D.D 

Rev.  Brother  Angelus,  O.S.F.  .. 
Rev.  Lucius  H.  Bugbee,  D.D.  .. 
Rev.  Geo.  B.  Russell,  D.D 

?% 

Thiel  College 

Haverford  Coll.,  Pa.. 
Lincoln  Univ.,  Pa.  . . 

105 
55 

"Franklin&Marshall  College 
University  at  Lewisburg  . . . 

70 
7"> 

New  Wilmington,  Pa. 

Palatinate  College 

110 

80 

COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN  THE    UNITED  STATES.  —  Concluded. 


Name. 


Location. 


Org. 


Religious 
Denomination. 


President 
or  other  Chief  Officer. 


La  Salle  College 

•St   Joseph's  College 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Cath.lic     College      of     the 

Holy  Ghost 

Lehigh  University 

♦Swarthrao're  College 

•Augustinian      College      oi 

Villanova 

Washington  &  Jefferson  Coll. 

♦  Waynesburg  College 

Brown  University 

College  of  Charleston 

South  Carolina  College 

Erskine  College 

*Furman  University 

Newberry  College 

Claftlin  University 

Wofford  College 

Adger  College 

East     Tennessee    Wesleyan 

University 

♦Beech  Grove  College 

*  King  College 

♦Southwestern  Presbyt.  Un. 

Hiwassee  College 

Southwestern  Baptist  Univ. 
♦University  of  Tennessee. . . 

Cumberland  University 

Manchester  College 

Mary  ville  College 

Bethel  College 

Christian  Brothers'  College. 

Mosheim  College 

Carson  College 

Central  Tennessee  College  . . 

Fisk  University 

Vauderbilt  University 

•University  of  the  South  . . . 

Burritt  College 

•Greenville   and  Tusculum 

College 

♦Winchester  Normal 

♦Woodbury  College 

♦Texas  Military  Institute  . . 

Texas  State  University 

♦St.  Joseph's  College 

University  of  St.  Mary 

♦Southwestern  University  . 
♦Henderson  Male  &  Female 

College 

Baylor  University 

♦Mansfield   Male  &  Female 

College 

♦Salado  College 

Austin  College 

Trinity  University 

♦Waco  University 

Marvin  College 

University  of  Deseret 

University  of  Vermont 

Middlctmrg.College 

♦Norwich  University 

Randolph  Macon  College  . . . 

Emory  &  Henry  College 

Hampden  Sidney  College . . . 
Washington^  Lee  University 

Richmond  College 

Ri  .auoko  College 

♦University  of  Virginia 

♦College  of  William  &  Mary. 
Washington  University 

•  Holy  Angels'  College 

thany  College 

♦West  Virginia  College 

West  Virginia  University  ... 
♦shepherd  College  

*  Lawrence  University 

Beloit  College 

♦Galcsvillo  University 

University  of  Wisconsin .... 

.Milton  College 

♦Marquette  College 

♦Racine  College 

Ripon  College 

Pio  Nono  College 

Northwestern  University  . . 


Philadelphia,  Pa 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

South  Bethlehem, Pa 
Swarthmore,  Pa 

Villanova,  Pa 

Washington,  Pa 

Waynesburg,  Pa 

Providence,  R.  I 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Columbia,  S.  C 

Due  West,  S.  C 

Greenville,  S.  C 

Newberry,  S.  C 

Orangeburg,  S.  C.  ... 
Spartanburg,  S.  C.  . . 
Walhalla,  S.  C 


Athens,  Tenn. 

Beech  Grove,  Tenn.  . 

Bristol,  Tenn 

Clarksvillr,  Tenn..  .. 
Hiwassee  Coll.,Tenn. 

Jackson,  Tenn 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

Lebanon,  Tenn 

Manchester,  Tenn.  . . 

Mary  ville,  Tenn 

McKenzie,  Tenn 

Memphis,  Tenn 

Mosheim,  Tenn 

Mossy  Creek,  Tenn.  . 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Sewanee,  Tenn 

Spencer,  Tenn 


Tusculum,  Tenn. 
Winchester,  Tenn. 
Woodbury,  Tenn. 

Austin,  Tex 

Austin,  Tex 

Brownsville,  Tex. 
Galveston,  Tex,  . . 
Georgetown,  Tex. 


Henderson,  Tex.  ... 
Independence,  Tex. 


Mansfield,  Tex 

Salado,  Tex 

Sherman,  Tex 

Tehuacana,  Tex 

Waco,  Texas 

Waxahachie,  Tex.  . . . 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

Burlington,  Vt 

Middlebnrg,  Vt 

Northfield,  Vt 

Ashland,  Va 

Emory,  Va 

Hampden  Sidney,  Va. 

Lexington,  Va 

Richmond,  Va 

Salem,  Va 

Univ.  of  Virg.,  Va.  . . 
Williamsburg,  Va.  .. 
Seattle,  Wash.  Terr. 
Vancouver  City,  "  " 

Bethany,  W.  Va 

Flemlngton,  W.  Va.  . 
Murgantown,   W.  Va. 
Shepherdstown,    W. 
Appleton.  Wis.  . .  [Va. 

Beloit,  Wis 

Galesvillo,  Wis 

Madison,  Wis 

Milton,  Wis 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Racine,  Wis 

Ripon,  Wis 

St.  Francis  Sta,  Wis.. 
Watertown,  Wis 


1867    Rom.  Cath. 
1851    Rom.  Cath.. 
1749  I  Non-sect. 


1878  Rom.  Cath.... 
1866  Prot.  Episc.  . . 
1869    Friends 


1842 

1802 

1850 

1765 

1792  1 

1804 

1839 

1851 

1858 

1869 

1854 

1882 

1867 
1868 
1868 
1874 
1849 
1874 
1808 
1842 
1866 
1819 
1855 
1871 
1869 
1853 
1866 
1867 
1875 
1860 
1848 

1794 

1860 
1868 

1865 
1854 


Rom.  Cath... . 

Presbyt 

Cumb.Presby. 

Baptist 

Non-sect 

Non-sect 

Ass.  Ref.  Pres. 

Baptist 

Evang.  Luth.. 
Meth.  Epis 
Meth.Ep.  Sth. 
S.  C.  Presbyt. 

Meth.  Episc.  . 

Non-sect 

Presbyt 

Presbyt 

M.th.Ep.  Sth. 

Baptist 

Non-sect 

Ctimb.  Presb. 

Non-sect 

Presbyt 

Curab.  Presb. 
Rom.  Cath.  . . 

Lutheran 

Baptist 

Meth.  Episc. . 
Congregat. . . . 
Meth.  Ep.  Sth. 
Prot.  Episc.  . . 
Christian 

Non-sect 

Non-sect 

Non-sect 


Rom.  Cath.  .. 
Rom.  Cath.... 
1840    Meth.  Episc.  S. 


1873 
1845 

1869 

1860 

1849 

1863 

1861 

1870 

1S50 

1791 

1800 

1*34 

1832 

1839 

1783  I 

1777  ! 

1844 

1853 

1825  J 

1690 

1862  i 

1866 

1841 

1868 

1867 

1871 

1853 

1847 

1859 

1848 

If  67 

1852 
1863 
1870 
1865 


Non-sect. 
Baptist  .. 


Non-sect 

Non  sect 

l'r.sb  Old  Sell. 
Cumb.  Presb. 

Baptist 

Non-sect 

Non-sect 

Non-sect 

Congregat.  . . . 
Prot.  Episc.  .. 

Method 

Method 

Presbyt 

Non-sect 

Baptist 

Lutheran  .... 

Nou-soct 

Non-sect 

Non-sect.  .... 

Rom.  Cath 

Christian 

Fr.  Will  Bapt. 

Non-sect 

Non-sect 

Meth.  Episc.  . 
Congr  Jit  Presb. 

Presbyt 

Non-sect 

7th  day  Bapt. 

Prot.  Episc. . 
Congr.fc  Presb. 
Rom.  Cath..  . . 
Evang.  Luth.. 


Rev.  Brother  Romuald 

Rev.  B.  Villiger,  S.J 

Wm.  Pepper,  A.M.,  M.D.,  LL.D., 

P.  W.  Power 

Robert  A.  Lamberton.  LL.D.  .. . 
Edward  H.  Magill,  AM 

Rev.  Joseph  A.  Coleman,  O.S.A.. 

Rev.  J.  D.  Moffat,  D.D 

A  B.  Miller.  LL.D 

Rev.  E.  G.  Robinson,  D.D. , LL.D 

H.  E.  Shepherd  

J.  M.  McBryde 

Rev.  William  M.  Grier,  D.D 

Rev.  Charles  Manl v,  D.D 

Rev.  G.  W.  Holland,  AM 

Rev.  Ed.  Cooke,M.A.,D.D.,S.T.D 
James  H.  Carlisle,  A.M.,  LL.D.  . 
Francis  P.  Mullally,  D.D 

Jno.  F.  Spence,  D.D.,  S.T.D 

M.  Parker 

Rev.  J.  D.  Tadlock,  D.D 

Rev.  J.  N.  Waddel,  D.D.,  LL.D.  . 
Rev.  J.  H.  Brunner,  A.M.,  D.D. 
Geo.  W.  Jarnian.  M.A.,  LL.D.... 
Rev.  Thomas  W.  Humes,  S.T.D 

Nathan  Green,  LL.D 

Clark  &  Estill 

Rev.  P.  M.  .Bartlett,  D.D 

W.  B.  Sherrill 

Brother  Maurelian 

J.  C.  Barb 

B.  G.  Manard,  D  D 

Rev.  J.  Braden,  D.D 

Rev.  E.  M.  Cravath,  M.A 

Landon  C.  Garland,  LL.D 

Rev.  Telfair  Hodgson,  D.D 

A.  S.  Seitz,  Acting  Prest 

Rev.  W.  S.  Doak,  D.D 

James  W.  Terrell 

Col  John  G.  James 

O.  N.  Hollingsworth 

Rev.  A.  M.  Truchard 

Rev.  F.  Asbury  Mood,  A.M.,  D.D. 


Rev.Wm. Carey  Crane.D.D.LL.D. 

Rev.  John  Collier 

George  D.  Alexander 

E.  P.  Palmer,  D.D 

S.  T.  Anderson 

Rev.  R.  C.  Burleson ,  D.D 

Gen.  L.  M  Lewis,  D.D 

John  R.  Park,  M.D 

Rev.  Matthew  H.  Buckham,  D.D. 
Ri  v.  Cyrus  Hamlin,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Rev.  William  W.  Bennett,  D.D.. 

Rev.  David  Sullins,  D.D 

Rev.  J.  M.  P.  Atkinson,  D.D.  ... 

Gen.  G.  W.  C.  Lee 

B.  Puryear.  M.A.,  LL.D 

Julius  D.  Dreher,  A.M 

James  F.  Harrison,  M.D 

L.  J.  Powell 

Rev.  Louis  de  G.  Schram 

W.  K.  Pendleton,  LL.D 

Rev.  D.  Powell 

Wm.  L.  Wilson 

Joseph  McMurran,  A.M 

Rev.  E.  D.  Huntley,  D.D.,  LL  D 
Aaron  L.  Chapin,  DD.,  LL.D.  ... 

J.  W.  McLaury,  A.M 

Rev.  John  Bascom.  DD..  LL.D.  . 
Rov.  William  C.  Whitford,  A.M.. 

Rev.  Joseph  F.  Rigga,  S.J 

Rev.  Stevens  Parker,  S.T.D. 

Rev.  Edw.  H.  Merrell,  A.M  , D.D 
Rev.  Win    Neu 

Rev.  Augustus  F.  Ernst 


PI    St. 

14  217 
86 1 903 


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4 

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12 

22 

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16 

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If, 

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130 
180 


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